American Founders’ Month

Background Information, Classroom Activities, and Internet Resources for the

Secondary Classroom

Source: https://inauguration2013.files.wordpress.com/2016/02/we-the-people-president-of-the-united-states-joshua-jp-logan.jpg

Miami-Dade County Public SchoolsDepartment of Social Sciences

September 2017

THE SCHOOL BOARD OF MIAMI-DADE COUNTY, FLORIDA

Dr. Lawrence S. Feldman, Chair

Dr. Marta Pérez, Vice Chair

Dr. Dorothy Bendross-Mindingall

Ms. Susie V. Castillo

Dr. Steve Gallon III

Ms. Perla Tabares Hantman

Dr. Martin Karp

Ms. Lubby Navarro

Ms. Mari Tere Rojas

Mr. Bryce FebresStudent Advisor

Mr. Alberto M. CarvalhoSuperintendent of Schools

Mrs. Maria L. Izquierdo, Chief Academic OfficerOffice of Academics and Transformation

Ms. Lissette M. Alves, Assistant SuperintendentDivision of Academics

Mr. Robert C. Brazofsky, Executive DirectorDepartment of Social Sciences

An Instructional Note to Teachers about American Founders’ Month

The Florida Legislature has designated each September to be commemorated as “American Founders’ Month.” This commemoration provides schools with additional opportunities to study the leading figures who helped establish our nation and government; our founding documents such as the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights; and, the fundamental principles on which our nation was established.

Florida State Statute 683.1455 F.S. establishing American Founders’ Month reads as follows:

1) The month of September of each year is designated as "American Founders' Month."

2) The Governor may annually issue a proclamation designating the month of September as "American Founders' Month" and urging all civic, fraternal, and religious organizations and public and private educational institutions to recognize and observe this occasion through appropriate programs, meetings, services, or celebrations in which state, county, and local governmental officials are invited to participate.

To assist teachers, staff in the Department of Social Sciences has developed this instructional resource guide to support American Founders’ Month. The guide includes:

BACKGROUND INFORMATION – In this section of the guide, background information is provided on the individuals who helped establish our nation and government; our founding documents such as the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights; and, the fundamental principles on which our nation was established.

ACTIVITIES FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS – Suggested learning activities for secondary students and the support materials needed to complete the activities are provided in this section of the guide.

INTERNET RESOURCES - Related background information, lesson plans, and interactive activities may be found on the web sites listed in this section of the guide.

SECONDARY CHARACTER EDUCATION RESOURCES – Additional lesson ideas are included to support the core value of “respect,” which has been designated by the District for the month of September.

Background Information

Founding Principles of the American Nation and Government

Fundamental American Values and Principles What is a Constitution?

Key Individuals – The Founders of Our American Nation

Biographies of the Committee of Five Who Drafted the Declaration of Independence

The American Founding Fathers The Founding Fathers and the U.S. Constitution Fascinating Facts about the Founding Fathers Founding Mothers

Founding Documents

The Declaration of Independence:

Facts about the Declaration of Independence Historical Background Information on the Declaration of Independence The Sections of the Declaration of Independence Image of the Declaration of Independence Full-Text of the Declaration of Independence

The U. S. Constitution:

Fascinating Facts about the U.S. Constitution Historical Background Information on the United States Constitution The Sections of the U.S. Constitution Image of the U.S. Constitution Preamble to the U.S. Constitution Full Text of the Constitution of the United States of America

The Bill of Rights:

An Overview of the Bill of Rights Summary of the Bill of Rights Image of the Bill of Rights Full Text of the Bill of Rights

Founding Principles of the American Nation and Government

Fundamental American Values and Principles

To be an American is to share certain fundamental ideas, values, and principles with other Americans. What are the ideas that we all share? 

The fundamental values and principles that characterize the United States as a free nation, and Americans as a free people, have their roots in the nation’s earliest history. These principles and fundamental values are found in the Declaration of Independence, the Preamble to the Constitution, the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and other significant documents, speeches, and writings. Although the application of these values and principles has often been controversial, the principles themselves have been cherished by Americans since first presented to the world so long ago.

Below is a one list of Fundamental American Principles and Constitutional Principles gathered from several sources. Think about the following as you consider the values and principles included on the list:

Do you believe any value or principle is missing from the list? Explain. How successful has our nation been in realizing these values and principles? Do we still believe in all of them?

Fundamental American Values and Principles

Common Good: This principle requires that individual citizens have the commitment to promote the welfare (benefit, well-being) of the community.

Equality - “All Men Are Created Equal”: This principle declares that there is no natural class of rulers among people, and that all are born with the same “unalienable rights” or rights that are guaranteed and can never be taken away. In the Declaration of Independence, these rights were listed as “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” (NOTE: In the final draft of the Declaration of Independence edited by Congress, the word “inalienable” was inadvertently changed to “unalienable” by a copyist.)

Individual Liberty (or Freedom): This principle asserts that each person is born with freedom from arbitrary or unjustified restraint (limits or restriction) on personal freedom, political freedom, and economic freedom.

Justice: This principle asserts that justice is the legal or philosophical principle by which fairness is administered.

Private Property : This principle asserts that individuals have the right to obtain and control possessions, as well as the fruits of their own labor.

Constitutional Principles:

Consent of the Governed: Perhaps the most fundamental constitutional principle is that government power flows from the consent (permission) of the governed.

Federalism: Federalism is a system of dual sovereignty (power or authority). The people delegate (give or allocate) certain powers to the national government, while the states and the people retain those powers not delegated.

Individual Rights: Fundamental to American constitutional democracy is the belief that individuals have certain basic rights that are not created by government. Government should not only protect these rights, but should not place unfair or unreasonable restraints on their exercise. Many of these rights are enumerated in the Bill of Rights, such as freedom of religion.

Limited Government: This philosophy asserts that the national government has only those powers given to it in the Constitution. If a power is not listed, the national government is assumed not to have it.

Representative Government : A republican system is a form of government where the people select representatives to represent their interest as they make and carry out laws.

Rule of Law : This principle stands on the belief that all people and institutions (organizations, associations) are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced.

Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances: Separation of powers and a system of checks and balances in government is built into the Constitution. It prevents an accumulation of power in one branch, and ensures each branch can stop the others from growing too powerful.

Sources: Adapted from the Bill of Rights Institute, https://www.billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/founding-principles/; Center for Civic Education, http://www.civiced.org/resources/curriculum/911-and-the-constitution/terms-to-know; and, http://www.aforcemorepowerful.org/resources/lesson-plans.php

What is a Constitution?

The following information from the Center for Civic Education (www.civiced.org) is provided primarily as background information for teachers.

What Is a Constitution?

A constitution is a set of fundamental customs, traditions, rules, and laws that set forth the basic way a government is organized and operated. Most constitutions are in writing, some are partly written and partly unwritten, and some are not written at all.

If you study a country’s constitution, you will be able to answer the following questions regarding the relationship between the government and its citizens.

Government

What are the purposes of the government? How is the government organized? How is the government supposed to go about doing its business?

Citizens

Who is a citizen? Do citizens have any power or control over the government? If so, how do

citizens exercise their powers? What rights and responsibilities do citizens have?

By this definition of a constitution, nearly every nation has a constitution. Good governments and bad governments have constitutions. Some of the worst governments have constitutions that include lists of the basic rights of their citizens. A list of rights does not mean that the citizens actually enjoy those rights.

What Is a Constitutional Government?

Having a constitution does not mean that a nation has a constitutional government. If, for example, a constitution provides for the unlimited exercise of political power by one, a few, or many, it would not be the basis for a constitutional government. If a constitution says that power is to be limited, but it does not include ways to enforce those limitations, it also is not the basis for a constitutional government. The principles of constitutional and limited governments are intertwined. Limited governments are characterized by restraints on power, such as laws that both the rulers and the governed must obey, and free and periodic elections. The opposite is unlimited

government, in which those who govern are free to use their power as they choose, unrestrained by laws or elections. Aristotle described unlimited government as tyranny. Today the terms autocracy, dictatorship, or totalitarianism frequently are used to describe such governments.

What Are the Characteristics of the Higher Law?

In a constitutional government, the constitution, or higher law, has the following characteristics:

It sets forth the basic rights of citizens. It establishes the responsibility of the government to protect those rights. It establishes limitations on how those in government may use their powers with

regard to citizens’ rights and responsibilities, the distribution of resources, and the control of conflict.

It can be changed only with the widespread consent of the citizens and according to established and well-known procedures.

What Are Rights?

Rights are moral or legal claims justified in ways that are generally accepted within a society or the international community.

Where Do Rights Come From and How Do They Relate to One Another?

Rights set individuals or groups apart from each other and entitle them to be treated in a particular way. Most Americans think about their place in society and the world in terms of their rights. However, rights are complicated.

Who May Hold Rights?

Rights may be held by individuals, classes or categories of individuals, or institutions.

Individuals - The idea that individuals can hold rights reflects the belief that humans should be considered autonomous and self-governing. This includes the belief that each individual should possess certain fundamental rights, such as those to freedom of thought and conscience, privacy, and movement. The emphasis on the rights of individuals is reflected in natural rights philosophy and exemplified in the Declaration of Independence by the statement that “all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain

unalienable Rights,that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of happiness.”

Classes or categories of individuals - These commonly are created by constitutions and statutes and provide a basis for treating categories of people differently. For example, the United States Constitution protects the right of persons eighteen years of age or older to vote. By the laws of several states, only people who have joined a political party can participate in that party’s primary, or nominating, elections.

Institutions - Institutions such as schools; government institutions at the local, state, and national levels; unions; universities; business partnerships; and corporations also hold certain rights.

What Are the Common Categories of Rights?

Personal rights - These relate to individual autonomy, including freedom of thought and conscience, privacy, and movement. The idea that human beings are autonomous, self-governing individuals with fundamental rights is central to the natural rights philosophy of John Locke. The rights of life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness are said to come from God or nature. The purpose of government is to protect those rights.

Political rights - These rights address political participation and also are granted by the constitution or statutes. Examples are the right to vote and to engage in political activities, such as supporting particular candidates for office or running for office.

Economic rights - These include choosing the work one wants to do, acquiring and disposing of property, entering into contracts, creating and protecting intellectual property such as copyrights or patents, and joining labor unions or professional associations. Most economic rights trace to constitutions or statutes. Many people consider economic rights associated with property ownership to be personal rights as well.

Source: Center for Civic Education, www.civiced.org

Key Individuals – The Founders of Our American Nation

The Birth of Old Glory. Artist Percy Morgan, circa 1917. Betsy Ross and two girls showing the U.S. Flag to George Washington and three other men. Library of Congress 

Biographies of the Committee of Five Who Drafted theDeclaration of Independence

The Continental Congress appointed a Committee of Five on June 11, 1776, to draft the Declaration of Independence. A brief biography of each member of the Committee of Five follows.

John Adams (1735-1826), representing the colony of Massachusetts

John Adams began his education in a common school in Braintree. He secured a scholarship to Harvard and graduated at the age of 20.

He apprenticed to a Mr. Putnam of Worcester, who provided access to the library of the Attorney General of Massachusetts, and was admitted to the Bar in 1761. He participated in an outcry against Writs of Assistance. Adams became a prominent public figure in his activities against the Stamp Act, in response to which he wrote and published a popular article, "Essay on the Canon and Feudal Law." He was married on Oct. 25, 1764 and moved to Boston, assuming a prominent position in the patriot movement. He was elected to the Massachusetts Assembly in 1770, and was chosen one of five to represent the colony at the First Continental Congress in 1774.

Again in the Continental Congress, in 1775, he nominated Washington to be commander-in-chief on the colonial armies. Adams was a very active member of Congress, he was engaged by as many as ninety committees and chaired twenty-five during the second Continental Congress. In May of 1776, he offered a resolution that amounted to a declaration of independence from Great Britain. He was shortly thereafter a fierce advocate for the Declaration drafted by Thomas Jefferson. Congress

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then appointed him ambassador to France, to replace Silas Dean at the French court. He returned from those duties in 1779 and participated in the framing of a state constitution for Massachusetts, where he was further appointed Minister plenipotentiary to negotiate a peace, and form a commercial treaty, with Great Britain. In 1781 he participated with Franklin, Jay and Laurens, in development of the Treaty of Paris and was a signer of that treaty, which ended the Revolutionary War, in 1783. He was elected Vice President of the United States under George Washington in 1789, and was elected President in 1796. Adams was a Federalist and this made him an arch-rival of Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party. The discord between Adams and Jefferson surfaced many times during Adams' (and, later, Jefferson's) presidency. This was not a mere party contest. The struggle was over the nature of the office and on the limits of Federal power over the state governments and individual citizens. Adams retired from office at the end of his term in 1801. He was elected President of a convention to reform the constitution of Massachusetts in 1824, but declined the honor due to failing health.

He died on July 4, 1826 (incidentally, within hours of the death of Thomas Jefferson.) His final toast to the Fourth of July was "Independence Forever!" Late in the afternoon of the Fourth of July, just hours after Jefferson died at Monticello, Adams, unaware of that fact, is reported to have said, "Thomas Jefferson survives."

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Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), representing the colony of Pennsylvania

Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 17, 1706, may by his life alone be the most profound statement of what an American strives to be. With no formal education beyond the age of 10 years, Franklin was celebrated throughout Europe, welcomed in any Royal Court, sought out by every prestigious society. Indeed, when the reputations of George Washington and Thomas Jefferson had yet to be sorted out, Franklin was worshipped wherever his name was known.

He attended grammar school at age eight, but was put to work at ten. He apprenticed as a printer to his brother James, who printed the New England Courant, at age twelve, and published his first article there, anonymously, in 1721. Young Benjamin was an avid reader, inquisitive and skeptical. Through his satirical articles, he poked fun at the people of Boston and soon wore out his welcome, both with his brother and with the city. He ran away to New York and then on to Philadelphia at the age of 16, looking for work as a printer. He managed a commission to Europe for the purpose of buying supplies to establish a new printing house in Philadelphia, but found himself abandoned when he stepped off ship. Through hard work and frugality he bought his fare back to Philadelphia in 1732 and set up shop as a printer. He was appointed clerk of the

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Pennsylvania Assembly in 1736, and as Postmaster the following year. In 1741 he began publishing Poor Richard's Almanac, a very popular and influential magazine. He was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly in 1751 and served as an agent for Pennsylvania (and ultimately for three other colonies) to England, France, and several other European powers. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, where he played a crucial role in the rebellion against Great Britain, including service to Jefferson in editing the Declaration of Independence. Franklin, who was by this time independently wealthy and retired from publishing, continued to serve an important role in government both local and national. He was the United States first Postmaster General, Minister to the French Court, Treaty agent and signer to the peace with Great Britain, Celebrated Member of the Constitutional convention (See Work, above). Benjamin Franklin: Businessman, Writer, Publisher, Scientist, Diplomat, Legislator, and Social activist, was one of the earliest and strongest advocates for the abolition of Slavery, and for the protection of the rights of American aboriginal peoples. He died on the 17th of April in 1790. On that day, he was still one of the most celebrated characters in America. So should he always be.

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Thomas Jefferson, (1743-1826), representing the colony of Virginia

More than a mere renaissance man, Jefferson may actually have been a new kind of man. He was fluent in five languages and able to read two others. He wrote, over the course of his life, over sixteen thousand letters. He was acquainted with nearly every influential person in America, and a great many in Europe as well. He was a lawyer, agronomist, musician, scientist, philosopher, author, architect, inventor, and statesman. Though he never set foot outside of the American continent before adulthood, he acquired an education that rivaled the finest to be attained in Europe. He was clearly the foremost American son of the Enlightenment.

Jefferson was born at Shadwell in Albemarle County, Virginia on April 13, 1743. He was tutored by the Reverend James Maury, a learned man, in the finest classical tradition. He began the study of Latin, Greek, and French at the age of 9. He attended William and Mary College in Williamsburg at sixteen years old, then continued his education in the Law under George Wythe, the first professor of law in America (who later would sign Jefferson's Declaration in 1776). Thomas Jefferson attended the House of Burgesses as a student in 1765 when he witnessed Patrick Henry's defiant stand against the Stamp Act. He gained the Virginia bar and began practice in 1769, and was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1769. It was there that his involvement in revolutionary politics began. He was never a very vocal member, but his writing, his quiet work in committee, and his ability to distill large volumes of information to essence, made him an invaluable member in any deliberative body.

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In 1775 when a Virginia convention selected delegates to the Continental Congress, Jefferson was selected as an alternate. It was expected that Payton Randolph, (then Speaker of the Virginia House and president of the Continental Congress too,) would be recalled by the Royal Governor. This did happen and Jefferson went in his place. Thomas Jefferson had a theory about self-governance and the rights of people who established habitat in new lands. Before attending the Congress in Philadelphia he codified these thoughts in an article called A Summary View of the Rights of British America. This paper he sent on ahead of him. He fell ill on the road and was delayed for several days. By the time he arrived, his paper had been published as a pamphlet and sent throughout the colonies and on to England where Edmund Burke, sympathetic to the colonial condition, had it reprinted and circulated widely. In 1776 Jefferson, then a member of the committee to draft a declaration of independence, was chosen by the committee to write the draft. This he did, with some minor corrections from John Adams and an embellishment from Franklin, the document was offered to the Congress on the first day of July. The Congress modified it somewhat, abbreviating certain wording and removing points that were outside of general agreement. The Declaration was adopted on the Fourth of July.

Jefferson returned to his home not long afterward. His wife and two of his children were very ill, he was tired of being remote from his home, and he was anxious about the development of a new government for his native state.

In June of 1779 he succeeded Patrick Henry as Governor of Virginia. The nation was still at war, and the southern colonies were under heavy attack. Jefferson's Governorship was clouded with hesitation. He himself concluded that the state would be better served by a military man. He declined re-election after his first term and was succeeded by General Nelson of Yorktown.

In 1781 he retired to Monticello, the estate he inherited, to write, work on improved agriculture, and to attend his wife. It was during this time that he wrote Notes on the State of Virginia, a work that he never completed. Martha Jefferson died in September of 1782. This event threw Jefferson into a depression that, according to his eldest daughter he might never have recovered from. Except that Washington called on him in November of 1782 to again serve his country as Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate peace with Gr. Britain. He accepted the post, however, it was aborted when the peace was secured before he could sail from Philadelphia. In 1784 Jefferson went to France as an associate Diplomat with Franklin and Adams. It was in that year that wrote an

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article establishing the standard weights, measures, and currency units for the United States. He succeeded Franklin as Minister to France the following year. When he returned home in 1789, he joined the Continental Congress for a while, and was then appointed Secretary of State under George Washington. This placed him in a very difficult position. The character of the executive was being established during the first few terms. Jefferson and many others were critical of the form it was taking under the first Federalist administration. Jefferson was sharply at odds with fellow cabinet members John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, both of whom he found to be too authoritarian and too quick to assume overwhelming power for the part of the executive. He resigned from the cabinet in 1793 and formed the Democrat-republican party. Heated competition continued. Jefferson ran for president in 1796, lost to John Adams, and, most uncomfortably, this made him vice president under a man whom he could no longer abide. After a single meeting, on the street, the two never communicated directly during the whole administration.

Jefferson again ran for the presidency in 1801 and this time he won. He served for two terms and he did ultimately play a deciding role in forming the character of the American Presidency. The 12th amendment to the Constitution changed the manner in which the vice president was selected, so as to prevent arch enemies from occupying the first and second positions of the executive. Jefferson also found the State of the Union address to be too magisterial when delivered in person. He performed one and afterwards delivered them, as required by the constitution, only in writing. He also undertook the Louisiana Purchase, extending the boundaries of the country and establishing the doctrine of manifest destiny.

Thomas Jefferson retired from office in 1808. He continued the private portion of his life's work, and sometime later re-engaged his dearest and longest friend James Madison, in the work of establishing the University of Virginia. In 1815 one of his projects, a Library of Congress, finally bore fruit, when he sold his own personal library to the congress as a basis for the collection. Shortly before his death in 1826, Jefferson told Madison that he wished to be remembered for two things only; as the Author of the Declaration of Independence, and as the founder of the University of Virginia. Jefferson died on the 4th of July, as the nation celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his splendid Declaration.

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Robert Livingston (1746-1813), representing the colony of New York

Robert Livingston was born in the city of New York in 1746. He was educated at King's (now Columbia) College, where he was graduated in 1764. He studied law under William Smith, chief justice of New York, and became an eminent Lawyer. Livingston became politically active in the era of the Stamp Act Revolt, and was probably (along with his brother, William), involved with the Sons of Liberty in New York.

In 1776, as a member of the Provincial congress of New York, he was selected to attend the Continental Congress. He was one of the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence but was recalled by his state before he could sign it.

Livingston was appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Secretary of State) soon after the Articles of Confederation were adopted. He served that post until 1783, when he was appointed Chancellor of the State of New York. He was an advocate for the Federal Constitution, and served as a delegate to the New York convention held at Poughkeepsie in 1788, to ratify it. On the 30th of April, 1789, Livingston administered the presidential oath of office to George Washington.

In 1801, President Jefferson appointed Robert Livingston resident minister at the court of Napoleon. It was he who negotiated the Louisiana Purchase from the French. He was also a patron of Robert Fulton, who refined the steam engine. Chancellor Livingston died on the 26th of February, 1813, at the age of sixty six.

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Roger Sherman (1721-1793), representing the colony of Connecticut

Roger Sherman was born at Newton, near Boston, on April 19, 1721. When he was two his father took the family to what was then a frontier town, Stoughton. His education was very limited. He had access to his father’s library, a good one by the standards of the day, and when Roger was about thirteen years old the town built a "grammar school" which he attended for a time. Stoughton was also fortunate to have a parish Minister by the name of Rev. Samuel Danbar, who was trained at Harvard. Danbar helped young Roger acquire some facility with mathematics, sciences, literature, and philosophy.

His first experience with an official office came in 1743 when he was appointed surveyor of New Haven County. A few years later he was commissioned by neighbor to consult a lawyer at the county seat regarding a petition before the court. The lawyer asked if he could examine Sherman's notes and reading them, urged Sherman to set up for the practice of law. At age twenty one he engaged in both civic and religious affairs in New Milford Connecticut, where he and his brother also opened the towns first store. He served as the town clerk there and was also chosen to lobby on behalf of the town at the provincial assembly. Since New Milford did not have a newspaper and reading material was hard to come by, Sherman wrote and published a very popular Almanac each year from 1750 to 1761.

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Sherman was accepted to the Bar of Litchfield in 1754, and to represent New Milford in the General Assembly the following year. He was appointed justice of the peace, and four years later justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut. By the age of 40, he had become a very successful landowner and businessman while integrating himself into the social and political fabric of New England. He was appointed commissary to the Connecticut Troops at the start of the Revolutionary war; this was experience that he put to great use when he was elected to the Continental Congress in 1774. Sherman was a very active and much respected Delegate to the congress. He served and numerous committees, including the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence. He served all through the war for Independence. As active as he was in Congress, he simultaneously fulfilled his other offices. In 1776 these efforts began to take their toll on his health. Thus, he appealed to then governor Trumbull to relieve him of some of his state duties while he remained on in Congress through 1781. He left the office in 1781, then returned in 1783 and 84, where he served on the committee forming the Articles of Confederation. His interests in the strength of the federation carried him to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 where he was one of the most vocal and persistent members. Madison's notes on the convention credit him with one hundred and thirty-eight speeches to the convention. His tiny state of Connecticut was in a precarious position, and Sherman, then sixty-one apparently spared no effort in defending the rights of the smaller states.

Many of the most notable figures of the revolution, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, admitted a deep admiration for Roger Sherman and his work. From their notes Sherman appears as a picture of New England pragmatism: stern, taciturn, spare with his words and very direct in his speech, but never hesitating to stand-and stand again-for his principles. In July of 1793, Roger Sherman died of typhoid at the age of 72. At the time he served as US Senator from Connecticut under the new constitution that he had helped to build; in the new nation, that he had spent most of his life defending and defining.

Adapted from: ushistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/index.html

(NOTE: A brief biography of each signer of the Declaration of Independence may be found at the same site.)

The American Founding Fathers

Definition - The Founding Fathers of the United States of America were prominent statesmen, patriots, and political leaders who made major contributions to the establishment of a new American nation by:

supporting or participating in the American Revolution;

signing the Declaration of Independence; and/or framing and establishing the U.S. Constitution.

Many Founding Fathers contributed to the creation of the new nation by taking leadership roles in all three actions!

Founding Fathers and the U.S. Constitution - Many of the Founding Fathers attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was hammered out and ratified. In all, 55 delegates attended the sessions from May 14 to September 17, 1787. Although the Convention had been officially called to revise the existing Articles of Confederation, many delegates had much bigger plans. Men like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton wanted to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787 with 39 signatures before being distributed to the states for ratification.

Other Founding Fathers were not at the Constitutional Convention, but made significant contributions in other ways. Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the Declaration of Independence, was serving as ambassador to France at the time of the Convention. He kept abreast of the proceedings in Philadelphia by carrying on correspondence with James Madison. John Adams, as ambassador to Great Britain, wrote "Defense of the Constitution of the Government of the United States of America." Thomas Paine wrote the influential pamphlet "Common Sense," which immeasurably influenced the philosophy reflected in the Declaration of Independence. One of the U.S. Founding Fathers, Patrick Henry, was initially opposed to the very idea of the Constitution! He wanted to keep the Articles of Confederation, the predecessor to the Constitution. However, when an agreement was made to add a "bill of rights" to the Constitution, Henry fought hard for its ratification.

Sources: ConstitutionFacts.com, http://www.constitutionfacts.com/us-constitution-amendments/the-constitutional-convention/; and, Land of the Brave, https://www.landofthebrave.info/founding-fathers.htm

The Founding Fathers and the U.S. Constitution

The following Founding Fathers, among others, played a major role in the development of the U.S. Constitution.

George Washington (1732-1799)

Highest Political Office: President (1789-1797)

Other Accomplishments: Led the colonial forces in the Revolutionary War.

The staid portraits of George Washington accurately reflect the personality of the father of the nation. He was a man of few words, whose political ascension was attributable to his strength of character, rather than his intellect.

A huge man for his day, Washington stood 6' 3 1/2" tall with enormous hands. Washington had pockmarked skin as a result of a teenage case of smallpox, and a shy disposition that was the result of a domineering mother. Twice he proposed to women, and twice he was rejected. He finally married Martha Custis, the richest widow in Virginia.

He had lost almost all his teeth by the time he was president, leaving him with badly sunken cheeks that were stuffed with cotton for portraits. Contrary to popular belief, George Washington never had wooden teeth! His teeth were made mostly of lead fitted with human, cattle, and hippopotamus teeth. Some were carved from elephant and walrus tusks.

In his will, he freed all 300 of his slaves permanently.

The popular tale of Washington and the cherry tree, historians say, was almost certainly untrue.

His Politics: Washington was a Federalist, so he favored a strong central government. He also had a strong affinity for aristocrats. During the Constitutional Convention, he spent much of his time at the mansion of Robert Morris, the richest man in America. His closest political ally was Alexander Hamilton, whose policies inevitably leaned toward the upper classes.

Washington was the only president to win unanimous approval (all of the votes cast) by the Electoral College. He did it twice.

In office, Washington served the nation best by keeping the government stable. He advocated a strong national defense, and kept the country out of the escalating tension between England and France.

His health failing, Washington begged out of the presidency after one term. Men from both sides of the political fence urged him to remain in office, however, so he stayed on. His second inaugural address may reveal his enthusiasm for the second term. At 135 words, it is the shortest inaugural address in history.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Alexander Hamilton

What He Said: “Government is not reason, it is not eloquence - it is a force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master; never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action.”

James Madison (1751-1836)

Highest Political Office: President (1809-1817)

Other Accomplishments: Helped draft Virginia’s state constitution when he was 25. That document later became the model for the U.S. Constitution. He served as Jefferson’s Secretary of State.

Madison was a soft-spoken and tiny man - about 5'4" and less than 100 pounds. Even his nickname was diminutive: “Jemmy.” He was too small to serve in the Revolutionary War, and turned to politics instead.

Madison, “the Father of the Constitution” - the most important legal document in modern history - never received a law degree.

Even in his 40s, Madison was a lonely and single man. That changed when Aaron Burr introduced him to Dolley Todd. The couple married when Madison was 43, and never had children.

Dolley Madison earned a place in history when she stole away from the White House with crucial government documents as the British stormed the capital during the War of 1812.

Madison was the last Founding Father to die at the age of eighty-five in June, 1836.

His Politics: His presidency was marred by the War of 1812- the only war in which U.S. soil was overrun by enemy forces. The war was precipitated by the widespread sentiment that the U.S. was destined to conquer Canada, then a British territory.

Aside from the war that nearly cost him his reelection, Madison’s two terms were also memorable for the fact that both of his vice presidents died while in office.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Jefferson and Madison were close friends throughout their lives: Madison was Jefferson’s protégé. After their presidencies, each spent many days at the other’s estate. Jefferson named one of the bedrooms at Monticello “Mr. Madison’s room.”

What He Said: On the War of 1812: “I flung forward the flag of the country, sure that the people would press onward and defend it.” Under the new Constitution, the nation’s powers will be “derived from the superior power of the people.”

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

Highest Political Office: President (1801-1809)

Other Accomplishments: Drafted the Declaration of Independence. He served as Minister to France (a pivotal diplomatic position) as the Constitution was being drafted.

Jefferson was nicknamed “Long Tom” because he stood 6' 2 1/2" tall, with long, slender limbs. He had carrot-red hair that paled with age. A fiddle player, Jefferson wooed his wife with violin serenades. Jefferson eschewed the uniforms of nobility, choosing instead to dress himself in sometimes dirty and tattered clothing.

Although his wife died at the age of 33, Jefferson never remarried. He did, however, allegedly father five children by Sally Hemings, one of his slaves.

Jefferson suffered from migraine headaches throughout his life, and bathed his feet in cold water daily to avoid colds.

Jefferson was the quintessential Renaissance man and has been described as a(n): lawyer, linguist, diplomat, astronomer, naturalist, political philosopher, educator, statesman, president, “farmer,” musician, scientist, inventor, agriculturalist, horseman, geographer, theologian and paleontologist. Jefferson was fluent in Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, German, and was a supporter of equal rights and education for women,

the right of all to have a free public education, a free library system and the creation of decimal system of weights and measures. He is also considered one of the preeminent architects in the history of the country.

His Politics: Jefferson was a Republican, which at that time was the party of the common man. He envisioned a nation built on agriculture, not industry. The formal name for the “Republican” Party of Jefferson was the Democratic-Republican Party from which our present day Democratic party evolved. (The Republican party of today was created in 1854 by the joining of anti-slavery Democrats, the Free Soil Party and factions of the Whig Party.) The formal name of the opposing party (led by Alexander Hamilton) was the Federalist Party.

Jefferson was renowned for being a terrible public speaker due to a speech impediment, although he is certainly regarded as one of the most facile writers ever to hold the office of the presidency. He alone wrote the first draft of the Declaration of Independence.

He doubled the land size of the United States when he made the Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon. Napoleon needed cash to conquer Europe; Jefferson wanted the land to safeguard against a future French invasion and to encourage his vision of American being a land of small independent (yeoman) farmers. The selling price: $15 million.

After his two terms as president, Jefferson retired to his Virginia estate, Monticello. He spent much of his time pursuing his dream of establishing a university. That dream was realized when he founded the University of Virginia.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Although his closest friend among the founding fathers was James Madison, Jefferson’s most memorable friendship was with John Adams. The friendship developed when they both worked on the committee that was responsible for the Declaration of Independence. Their friendship turned to a bitter rivalry, however, when they joined opposing political parties. They reconciled after both finished their presidencies, and they kept up a steady correspondence. They both died on July 4, 1826 - the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. On the day he died, Adams opened his eyes and whispered his last words: “Thomas Jefferson lives,” he said. Jefferson had died earlier that day.

What He Said: “A little rebellion now and then is a good thing.” “Science is my passion, politics my duty.”

John Adams (1735-1826)

Highest Political Office: President (1797-1801)

Other Accomplishments: First vice-president. He helped draft the Declaration of Independence and negotiate the peace agreement with Great Britain to end the Revolutionary War. He served as Minister to Great Britain.

Nicknamed “Atlas of American Independence,” John Adams was a short (5'7"), plump man with an ego as big as his waistline. He felt it was beneath him to shake hands with anyone; he bowed instead. Adams was not alone in this practice, however. George Washington also preferred to bow rather than shake hands.

Born and raised in what is now Quincy, Massachusetts, Adams was a lawyer by trade. He was the longest living American president. He died at the age of 90, in Quincy. Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. The nation moved its capital from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., during his administration.

His Politics: Adams was a Federalist, and, as such, he held a more elitist view of government than his Democratic-Republican rivals.

The first truly defense-minded president, Adams built the U.S. Navy to the point where it could compete with that of any nation.

Probably his most enduring political legacy was that he appointed John Marshall as Supreme Court Chief Justice. His most ignominious political legacy was his signing of the “Alien and Sedition Acts,” which made it a crime to criticize the government (violators could be imprisoned).

Adams was most proud of the fact that he avoided war with France at the turn of the century, in the face of strong public opinion in favor of war. This, along with his perceived overspending on defense, led to his defeat in his re-election campaign.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Thomas Jefferson was, by turns, both his closest associate and most loathed political enemy. They ended their lives as friends, dying on the same day, 50 years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

What He Said: “Let the human mind loose. It must be loosed. It will be loose. Superstition and despotism cannot confine it.”

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)

Highest Political Office: Minister to France

Other Accomplishments: Franklin was one of the three Americans to sign the peace treaty with England that ended the Revolutionary War. He also helped write the Declaration of Independence, and was the oldest delegate at the Constitutional Convention.

Of the Founding Fathers, Franklin was easily the most unusual character. He made enough money from his publishing business - primarily on receipts from Poor Richard’s Almanac - to retire at age 42. He then devoted his life to writing, science, and politics.

Among his many inventions, Franklin created bifocal glasses. He did so because he didn’t like to carry two pairs of glasses with him.

Franklin had one illegitimate son, William, who became the Governor of New Jersey. William supported the British in the Revolution. That move resulted in the permanent estrangement of father and son.

His Politics: Franklin’s political activism had peaked long before the American party system fully evolved, but he was philosophically closer to the tenets of the Democratic-Republican party.

He was suspicious of strong central governments and governors, be they kings or presidents. Indeed, Franklin advocated a three-person presidential committee rather than having a single president. Of the proposal to have a one-man president, he said, “The government is likely to be well-administered for a course of years, and can only end in despotism.” Nonetheless, in Franklin’s will, he bequeathed his walking stick to President Washington.

Franklin had a restless and ravenous mind. He eschewed normal work patterns, preferring instead to set his own pace, and ignoring appointments if he was interested enough in a conversation. He also possessed the largest private library in America. Not all of his ideas won wide acceptance. A case in point: Franklin’s choice for the national bird was the turkey.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Thomas Jefferson. When Franklin died, Jefferson implored President Washington to hold a day of mourning. Washington balked, not wishing to set a precedent.

What He Said: “Our Constitution is in actual operation. Everything appears to promise that it will last. But in this world nothing is certain but death and taxes.” At the conclusion of the Constitutional Convention Franklin observed the symbol of the sun at the top of George Washington’s chair and mused: “I have the happiness to know it is a rising sun and not a setting sun.”

Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804)

Highest Political Office: Secretary of the Treasury

Other Accomplishments: Along with Madison and John Jay, he authored the Federalist Papers, rallying support for the new Constitution. He led the effort to convene the Constitutional Convention when the nation was verging on anarchy.

Hamilton called for a meeting of all 13 states at Annapolis, Maryland in September, 1786 to discuss the economic situation in the country at that time. However, only five states sent representatives. There were not enough states for a quorum and the conference had no real authority. Undaunted, Hamilton then requested permission from the Congress of the Confederation (under the Articles of Confederation) to invite representatives from the thirteen states to assemble in Philadelphia with the express purpose of “revising” the Articles of Confederation. Behind closed doors and with no real authority, the delegates decided to write an entirely new constitution.

Hamilton was consumed by his passion for a nation built around a strong and fiscally stable central government. He was born out of wedlock in the West Indies, and moved to the colonies at the age of 17. His father, a Scottish trader, went bankrupt when

Hamilton was 15, and the boy went to work in a counting house to help support the family.

Fresh out of Columbia University, he organized artillery regiments in New York for the Revolutionary War, and from 1779 to 1781 he was Washington’s chief aide. When Washington assumed the presidency, he named Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury.

Ironically, before Washington was elected president, Hamilton was one of a group of politicians who felt that the U.S. needed a king. The group wrote to Prussia’s Prince Henry and asked if he wanted the job. Before he replied, the group changed its mind.

His Politics: Hamilton was the one who most advocated an elitist political vision. He believed that the intellectual aristocracy should rule the nation.

Hamilton’s political legacy is embodied in the Federal Bank. He led the effort to establish the first such bank, which he saw as critical for sustaining the government’s fragile finances. His opponents saw the bank as an evil tool for expanding the power of the federal government, at the expense of the states. Hamilton is regarded as the “Father of the National Debt” because he felt that a national debt was really a “blessing.” The more money the government owed to the people of the country, the more the people had a stake in the success of the country!

When Jefferson ran for president in 1800, he and Aaron Burr (both Democratic-Republicans) tied. The election went to the Federalist-controlled House. Hamilton, founder of the Federalist Party, convinced his colleagues to elect Jefferson over Burr. Burr then campaigned for governor of New York. Again, Hamilton swayed voters against Burr. Finally, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. Fatally wounded by his rival, Hamilton died one day later.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: George Washington

What He Said: “The sacred rights of mankind are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty records. They are written, as with a sunbeam, in the whole volume of human nature, by the hand of the Divinity itself, and can never be erased or obscured by mortal power.”

 

 

George Mason (1725-1792)

Highest Political Office: Member, Virginia Constitutional Convention (1776); Delegate, Constitutional Convention (1787)

Other Accomplishments: Helped create the Virginia Bill of Rights and Virginia Constitution.

Although George Mason refused to sign the Constitution, his ideas still had a major effect on the fabric of American political thought. He was one of the richest planters in Virginia and was involved early in his life with western land speculation. Mason served for a brief time in the Virginia House of Burgesses along with his close friend, George Washington. He was more concerned with the types of public duties that did not bring the kind of recognition that his contemporaries were interested in. However, he was one of the most fundamental thinkers of the American Revolution and formed a close

philosophical alliance with Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, James Madison, and George Washington.

His Politics: Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence was influenced greatly by Mason’s work on the Virginia bill of rights, and Mason’s ideas also had an impact on the development of the Bill of Rights to the United States Constitution. He eventually opposed the Constitution because of the compromise concerning slavery (known as the 3/5 Compromise) and the failure of the delegates to include a Bill of Rights. These objections to the Constitution became the focal point for the anti-federalists during the ratification process. He was chosen the first Senator from Virginia but refused the seat in 1789. Mason has been called the American example of the Enlightenment.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: George Washington, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson

What He Said: "It is easy to foresee that there will be much difficulty in organizing a government upon this great scale, and at the same time reserving to the state legislatures a sufficient portion of power for promoting and securing the prosperity and happiness of their respective citizens. Yet, with a proper degree of coolness, liberality, and candour (very rare commodities by the bye) I doubt not but that it may be effected."

Gouverneur Morris (1725-1816)

Highest Political Office: U.S. Minister to England (1790-1791); U.S. Minister to France (1792-1794); United States Senator (1800-1803) 

Other Accomplishments: Signer of the Articles of Confederation; Member, Continental Congress (1777-1778); Assistant Minister of Finance (1781-1785); Member of the Constitutional Convention (1787); Chairman of the Erie Canal Commission (1810-1813).

During his lifetime, Gouverneur Morris was a successful politician, diplomat and writer.   He was a strong supporter of the federal constitution although he was not a strong supporter of the “power” of the people (he initially opposed the American Revolution because he felt it was controlled by the “mob”). He had a wooden leg due to a carriage accident.

His Politics: He was in favor of senators being chosen for life, significant property qualifications to vote, direct election of the president by the elite qualified voters, and representation in Congress based on taxation.  “The mob begin to think and reason.  Poor reptiles!  They bask in the sun, and ere noon they will bite, depend on it.  The gentry begin to fear this.”  It has been recorded that Gouverneur Morris spoke more than anyone at the Constitutional Convention (173 times).  He was made the chairman of the Committee of Style and was responsible for the “wording” of the Constitution. He took twenty-three proposed resolutions and condensed them into the seven major articles contained in the Constitution.  Morris declined Alexander Hamilton’s request to help write the Federalist Papers, and during the “fight” for ratification he played no significant part.  After Alexander Hamilton was killed by Aaron Burr in 1804, Morris prepared the eulogy.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Alexander Hamilton, George Washington

What He Said: “I cannot conceive of a government in which there can exist two supremes.”

“I came here (to the Constitutional Convention) as a representative of America.  I flatter myself that I came here in some degree as a representative of the whole human race.”

Roger Sherman (1721-1793)

Highest Political Office: United States House of Representatives (1788-1791); United States Senator (1791-1793).

Other Accomplishments: Member, Continental Congress (1774-1781, 1783 and 1784);  Helped draft the Declaration of Independence;  Helped draft the Articles of Confederation;  Was responsible for the Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) at the Constitutional Convention.

Sherman was a self-made man, married twice and fathered fifteen children.  Before the Revolutionary War he held positions in the Connecticut government in all three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial).  He was a political conservative, but strongly favored the American Revolution once it began.  Sherman was in support of the

colonial boycotts of the 1760’s and was in charge of the New Haven committees of correspondence (organizations that promoted inter-colonial communication).  He was not known as a gifted speaker, but he toiled hard in various committees in order to make sound and lasting policy.  However, at the Constitutional Convention he did speak 138 times on various issues, and only James Madison, James Wilson, and Gouverneur Morris spoke more often.   Roger Sherman was the second oldest delegate there (right behind 81 year old Benjamin Franklin). Thomas Jefferson once remarked, “There is Mr. Sherman of Connecticut, who never said a foolish thing in his life.” 

His Politics: He was in favor of the President being appointed by the Legislature for a three year term of office.  However, his most important accomplishment was the compromise on representation in Congress he suggested that broke the “deadlock” between large and small states.  This compromise was called the “Great Compromise”, and it showed the delegates that they could and should compromise in order to accomplish the writing of a new constitution.  Thus, the Constitution has been characterized historically as a “bundle of compromises”.  He was, however, opposed to a separate “bill of rights” to be added to the Constitution. By the time Sherman served in the United States Congress he was an advocate of the Federalist philosophy.  He ended up supporting Alexander Hamilton's financial program of assumption of state debts, the establishment of a national bank, and enactment of a tariff to help the young nation to stabilize its economy.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: William Johnson

What He Said: “The question is, not what rights naturally belong to man, but how they may be most equally and effectually guarded in society.”

“When you are in a minority, talk; when you are in a majority, vote.”

James Wilson (1742-1798)

Highest Political Office: Associate Justice, United States Supreme Court

Other Accomplishments: Member, Continental Congress (1775-1777; 1782; 1783; 1785-1787); Signer of the Declaration of Independence; First Professor of Law at Philadelphia College (1790).

James Wilson was an early supporter of the American Revolution and gained much notoriety with the publication of his “Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament”. However, he became very conservative in his later years and was the target of public indignation.  He was born in Scotland, came to New York during the time of the Stamp Act (1765), and eventually studied law under John Dickinson in Pennsylvania.  He eventually became the first professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. 

It was said of James Wilson that “when Wilson speaks, he wastes no time and considers no man’s feelings.”

His Politics: He emerged as a political leader after the American Revolutionary War. As a member of the Congress of the Confederation (1783; 1785-1786) under the Articles of Confederation, he was strongly in favor of an amendment to permit the government the power to tax.  

He was a strong supporter of a republican form of government in which the people choose the representatives in government, and was in favor of the “power” of the people during a time period when many of the political visionaries did not believe in democracy.  The democracy that we know today did not really take shape until the 1820’s with the advent of Andrew Jackson.  Wilson felt that people and their individual rights took priority over those of property rights, and was opposed to slavery.  He also believed in the concept of “federalism” in which there was a division of power between the states and national government.  However, the final authority ultimately went to the central government.  At the Constitutional Convention he was a leader of the many floor debates and a member of the committee chosen to draft the Constitution.  He then led the fight for ratification in Pennsylvania, which became the second state to approve the new Constitution.   

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: John Rutledge

What He Said: “The government ought to possess not only first the force but secondly the mind or sense of the people at large.  The legislature ought to be the most exact transcript of the whole society.”

“Why should a national government be unpopular?  Will a citizen of Delaware be degraded by becoming a citizen of the United States?”

“Federal liberty is to states what civil liberty is to individuals ... I do not see the danger of the states being devoured by the national government.”  On the contrary, I wish to keep them from devouring the national government.” 

Edmund Randolph (1753-1813)

Highest Political Office: U.S. Attorney General and U.S. Secretary of State

Other Accomplishments: Helped draft the constitution for the state of Virginia; Member, Continental Congress (1779-1782); Governor or Virginia (1786-1788); Member, Virginia Ratification Convention; chief counsel for Aaron Burr during his treason trial (1807).

Edmund Randolph graduated from the College of William and Mary and practiced law until the American Revolutionary War disrupted his personal and professional life.  At the outbreak of the war in 1775, his father, mother, and sisters moved back to England.  Randolph supported the rebellion and served for a short time as an aid to General George Washington, but soon returned to Virginia to become the youngest member of the convention to write Virginia’s state constitution.  He then became the mayor of Williamsburg and later the “state’s” attorney general. 

His Politics: Randolph’s political experience also involved becoming a member of the Continental Congress, Governor of Virginia, and a delegate to the Annapolis Convention of 1786.

He was chosen to be a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention in 1787, and is best known for presenting a proposal supporting the large states known as the Virginia Plan.  The plan called for a bicameral legislative body and each state represented by population with the first house (representatives) elected by the people and the second house (senators) elected by the first house.  The Virginia Plan eventually became part of the Great Compromise or Connecticut Compromise submitted by Roger Sherman.  He also wanted a committee of three to act as president.  Randolph also served on the Committee on Detail that prepared a first draft of the new constitution.  However, because of philosophical differences over the final Constitution, he refused to sign it.   He did eventually support its ratification when the agreement was made to include amendments to protect the rights of individuals and the states (Bill of Rights). Randolph referred to the Constitution as “the anchor of our political salvation”.

Closest Associate Among the Founding Fathers: Thomas Jefferson

What He Said: “There are great reasons when persons with limited powers are justified in exceeding them, and a person would be contemptible not to risk it.”

 

Source for all Founding Fathers biographies: ConstitutionFacts.com, http://www.constitutionfacts.com/us-founding-fathers/about-the-founding-fathers/

Fascinating Facts about the Founding Fathers

George Washington was born on February 11, 1731 under the Julian calendar. In the early 1750s, Great Britain converted to the Gregorian calendar. An act of Parliament added eleven days to complete the adjustment and Washington's birthday became February 22, 1732!

Of the Founding Fathers who became president, only George Washington did not go to college. John Adams graduated from Harvard, James Madison graduated from Princeton, and Thomas Jefferson attended the College of William and Mary.

John Adams was the first President to live in the White House when he came to Washington, D.C. in November of 1800. However, he was only there for four months after losing the election of 1800 to Thomas Jefferson.

George Washington gave the shortest inauguration speech in American history on March 4, 1793. It was only 133 words long. William Henry Harrison gave the longest at 8,443 words on March 4, 1841 on a cold and blustery day in Washington, D.C.. He died one month later of a severe cold.

Thomas Jefferson has been described as a(n): agriculturalist, anthropologist, architect, astronomer, bibliophile, botanist, classicist, diplomat, educator, ethnologist, farmer, geographer, gourmet, horseman, horticulturist, inventor, lawyer, lexicographer, linguist, mathematician, meteorologist, musician, naturalist, numismatist, paleontologist, philosopher, political philosopher, scientist, statesman, violinist, writer. He was also fluent in Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German!

Upon graduating from Harvard, John Adams became a grammar school teacher. “My little school, like the great world, is made up of Kings, politicians, divines, fops, buffoons, fiddlers, fools, coxcombs, sycophants, chimney sweeps, and every other character I see in the world. I would rather sit in school and consider which of my pupils will turn out be a hero, and which a rake, which a philosopher and which a parasite, than to have an income of a thousand pounds a year.”

The Marquis de Lafayette thought so much of George Washington that he named his son George Washington Lafayette.

In part because of his lavish spending, Thomas Jefferson died nearly broke. Before his death, Jefferson was able to alleviate part of his financial problems by accepting $25,000 for his books from Congress. Those books were used to begin the Library of Congress. Friends even tried to organize a lottery to sell part of his land to help, but it was not enough.

When Jefferson died, he left “my gold mounted walking staff of animal horn as a token of cordial and affectionate friendship” to James Madison. Jefferson’s epitaph read: “Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, of the statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and the father of the University of Virginia.” It didn’t include “President of the United States”!

John Adams was the only president to be the father of a future president (John Quincy Adams) until George W. Bush became president in 2000, making George Bush Sr. the second president to have a son also be a president.

John Adams died on July 4, 1826 at the age of 90 years, 247 days. His wife Abigail had died in 1818 after 54 years of marriage.

In terms of entertainment George Washington enjoyed raffles and lotteries, card playing, fox hunting, duck hunting, fishing, cockfighting, horse racing, boat racing, and dancing.

Although it is common knowledge that George Washington called for the emancipation of his slaves in his last will and testament, he stipulated that it would only take place upon the death of his wife, Martha. However, in Martha’s will she did not free the slaves.

The original intent was for George Washington to be buried beneath the Rotunda floor under the dome of the Capitol. He died before the Rotunda was finished, and in 1828 the crypt was covered up.

President George Washington would bow to guests at presidential receptions to avoid physical contact and the tradition lasted through the presidency of John Adams. Washington would rest one hand on a sword and the other holding a hat to avoid the remote possibility of anyone forcing a handshake! Thomas Jefferson ended the tradition of “bowing” by shaking hands when greeting people.

Thomas Jefferson at eighty-three years of age felt that he would not live through the summer of 1826, but he hoped to live through July 4th (the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence). Both he and John Adams died on July 4, 1826 after long and distinguished careers. They had earlier been friends, then political enemies, and by the end of their lives had maintained a steady correspondence. Adams’ last words were “Thomas Jefferson still survives” not knowing that Jefferson had died earlier that day in Virginia. Jefferson‘s last words were: “Is it the Fourth? I resign my spirit to God, my daughter, and my country.”

President James Monroe also died on July 4, 1831 — five years after Thomas Jefferson and John Adams.

When George Washington died on December 14, 1799, his last words were: “I die hard, but I am not afraid to go ... Let me go quietly. I cannot last long ... It is well.”

Alexander Hamilton was killed by Aaron Burr in a duel in Weehawken, New Jersey on July 1804. Hamilton’s son, Philip, had died in a duel three years earlier (1801) at the same location.

Benjamin Franklin died on April 17, 1790. His daughter asked him to change positions on his bed to improve his breathing and his last words were: “A dying man can do nothing easy.”

James Madison of Virginia was responsible for proposing the resolution to create the various Cabinet positions within the Executive Branch of our government and twelve amendments to the Constitution of which ten became the Bill of Rights.

James Madison proposed that congressional pay would be determined by the average price of wheat during the previous six years of a congressional session.

Source: ConstitutionFacts.com, https://www.constitutionfacts.com/us-founding-fathers/fascinating-facts/

Founding Mothers: Women's Roles in American Independence by Jone Johnson Lewis

You’ve probably heard of the Founding Fathers. Warren G. Harding, then an Ohio Senator, coined the term in a 1916 speech. He also used it in his 1921 presidential inaugural address. Before that, the people now referred to as Founding Fathers were generally just called "the founders." These were the people who attended the Continental Congress meetings and signed the Declaration of Independence. The term also refers to the Framers of the Constitution, those who participated in forming and then passing the United States Constitution, and perhaps also those who took an active part in the debates around the Bill of Rights.

But since Warren G. Harding’s invention of the term, the Founding Fathers have generally been assumed to be those who helped form the nation. And in that context, it’s appropriate to also talk about the Founding Mothers: women, often the wives, daughters, and mothers of the men referred to as Founding Fathers, who also played important parts in supporting the separation from England and the American Revolutionary War.

Abigail Adams and Martha Washington, for instance, kept the family farms running for many years while their husbands were off on their political or military quests. And they were supportive in more active ways. Abigail Adams kept up a lively conversation with her husband, John Adams, even urging him to “Remember the Ladies” when asserting human rights of the individual in the new nation. Martha Washington accompanied her husband to winter army encampments, serving as his nurse when he was ill, but also setting an example of frugality for other rebel families.

And other women took more active roles in the founding.  Here are some of the women we could consider Founding Mothers of the United States:

MARTHA WASHINGTON

 Martha Washington about 1790. Stock Montage/Getty Images

If George Washington was the Father of His Country, Martha was the Mother. She ran the family business – the plantation – when he was gone, first during the French and Indian Wars, and then during the Revolution. And she helped set a standard of elegance but simplicity, presiding over receptions in the presidential residences first in New York, then in Philadelphia. But because she opposed him running for the presidency, she did not attend his inauguration.

For additional information on Martha Washington and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/martha-washington-biography-3528101

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ABIGAIL ADAMS

Abigail Adams by Gilbert Stuart - Hand Tinted Engraving. Photo by Stock Montage/Getty Images

In her famous letters to her husband during his time at the Continental Congress, she tried to influence John Adams to include women’s rights in the new documents of independence. While John served as a diplomat during the Revolutionary War, she took care of the farm at home, and for three years she joined him overseas. She mostly stayed home and managed the family’s finances during his vice presidency and presidency. 

For additional information on Abigail Adams and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/abigail-adams-biography-3525085

BETSY ROSS

 Betsy Ross. © Jupiterimages, used with permission

 We don’t know for sure that she made the first American flag, but she represented the story of many American women during the Revolution anyway. Her first husband was killed on militia duty in 1776 and her second husband was a sailor who was captured by the British in 1781 and died in prison. So, like many women in wartime, she took care of her child and herself by earning a living – in her case, as a seamstress and flag maker.

For additional information on Betsy Ross and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/betsy-ross-biography-3530269

MERCY OTIS WARREN

 Mercy Otis Warren. Kean Collection / Getty Images

Married and mother of five sons, Mercy Otis Warren’s brother was very involved in the resistance to British rule, writing the famous line against the Stamp Act, “Taxation without representation is tyranny.”  She was probably part of discussions that helped initiate the Committees of Correspondence, and she wrote plays that are considered part of the propaganda campaign to coalesce opposition to the British.

In the early 19th century, she published the first history of the American Revolution.  Many of the anecdotes are about people she knew personally.

For additional information on Mercy Otis Warren and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/mercy-otis-warren-biography-3530669

MOLLY PITCHER

 Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth (artists' conception). Hulton Archive / Getty Images

Some women literally fought in the Revolution, even though almost all the soldiers were men. Mary Hays McCauly is known for taking her husband's place loading a cannon at the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778.  Her story inspired others. 

For additional information on Molly Pitcher and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/molly-pitcher-biography-3530670

SYBIL LUDINGTON

 Was There a Female Paul Revere, Too?. Ed Vebell / Archive Photos / Getty Images

If the stories of her ride are true, she was the female Paul Revere, riding to warn of an imminent attack on Danbury, Connecticut, by British soldiers. 

For additional information on Sybil Ludington and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/sybil-ludington-biography-3530671

PHILLIS WHEATLEY

 Phillis Wheatley. The British Library / Robana via Getty Images

Born in Africa and kidnapped into slavery, Phillis was bought by a family who saw to it that she was taught to read, and then to more advanced education. She wrote a poem in 1776 on the occasion of George Washington’s appointment as commander of the Continental Army.  She wrote other poems on the subject of Washington, but with the war, interest in her published poetry waned. With the war’s disruption of normal life, she experienced hardships, as did so many other American women and especially African American women of the time.

For additional information on Phillis Wheatley and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/phillis-wheatley-biography-3528281

HANNAH ADAMS

 Hannah Adams, with a book. Bettmann / Getty Images

During the American Revolution, she supported the American side and even wrote a pamphlet about the role of women in wartime.  Adams was the first American woman to make her living by writing; she never married and her books, on religion and on the history of New England, supported her. 

For additional information on Hannah Adams and her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/hannah-adams-biography-3528782

JUDITH SARGENT MURRAY

 Lap desk as was in use at the time of the American war for independence. MPI/Getty Images

In addition to her long-forgotten essay "On the Equality of the Sexes," written in 1779 and published in 1780, Judith Sargent Murray—then still Judith Sargent Stevens—wrote about the politics of the new nation of America. They were collected and published as a book in 1798, the first book in America self-published by a woman.

For additional information on Judith Sargent Murray her role as a Founding Mother, visit https://www.thoughtco.com/judith-sargent-murray-3529443

Source: Thought Co., https://www.thoughtco.com/who-were-the-founding-mothers-3530673

Founding Documents

The Declaration of Independence The U.S. Constitution The Bill of Rights

Facts about the Declaration of Independence

Q. Is anything written on the back of the Declaration of Independence?

A. Yes, there is writing on the back of the original, signed Declaration of Independence, but it is not invisible and it does not include a map, as in the Disney feature film, National Treasure. The writing on the back reads "Original Declaration of Independence, dated 4th July 1776," and it appears on the bottom of the document, upside down.

Q. Is the original Declaration of Independence written on paper?

A. No, the original was written on parchment, which is a specially treated animal skin. The printed version is on paper and was read aloud from town squares throughout the colonies, so that those who could not read would receive the news about the colonies declaration of independence from England.

Q. Do other copies of the Declaration of Independence exist?

A. Yes, there are 26 copies of the Declaration of Independence which are known to exist. These are referred to as "the Dunlap Broadside.” The Dunlap Broadside copies were printed on paper on the night of July 4, 1776.

Q. Was Thomas Jefferson the only person involved in writing the Declaration of Independence?

A. Jefferson was the principal author of the document and was a member of the Committee of Five that was appointed to write the Declaration of Independence. The committee consisted of John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

Facts about the Declaration of Independence continued

Q. Has the Declaration of Independence always been at the National Archives in Washington, DC?

A. No, after the signing ceremony on August 2, 1776, the Declaration was most likely filed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Declaration was probably taken by Continental Congress as the leaders moved throughout the country during the American Revolution. On December 13, 1952, the Declaration, along with the Constitution and Bill of Rights, were formally delivered to the National Archives.

Q. Is the case that holds the Declaration of Independence bullet-resistant?

A. Yes.

Source: National Archives, www.archives.gov

Historical Background Information on the Declaration of Independence

The excerpt below on the Declaration of Independence is from the on-line edition of the World Book Advanced Encyclopedia (2014) available for students and teachers through the Miami-Dade County Public Schools’ Department of Library Media Services. To access the full article:

1. Visit Library Media Services at http://library.dadeschools.net/ (Password needed. Check with the Media Specialist.)

2. Click the On-line Data Bases and select World Book Advanced Online Reference Center

3. Search for “Declaration of Independence.”4. Click on the article entitled “Declaration of Independence.”

Introduction – The Declaration of Independence 

The Declaration of Independence is the historic document in which the American colonies declared their freedom from Britain (now the United Kingdom). The Second Continental Congress, a meeting of delegates from the colonies, adopted the Declaration on July 4, 1776. This date has been celebrated ever since as the birthday of the United States. The Declaration of Independence eloquently expressed the colonies' reasons for rejecting British rule. Its stirring opening paragraphs stated that the people of every country have the right to change or overthrow any government that violates their essential rights. The remainder listed ways the British government had violated American rights. The ideas expressed so majestically in the Declaration have long inspired the pursuit of freedom and self-government throughout the world.

Events leading to the Declaration 

During the 10-year period prior to the adoption of the Declaration, American leaders repeatedly challenged the British Parliament's right to tax the colonies. Three efforts by Parliament to raise taxes provoked heated protest from the colonists. These efforts were the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Acts of 1767, and the Tea Act of 1773.

The Stamp Act required colonists to pay for tax stamps placed on newspapers, playing cards, diplomas, and various legal documents. Colonial resistance forced Parliament to repeal the act in 1766. The Townshend Acts placed duties (taxes) on imported goods. The colonists reacted by boycotting British goods, which hurt British businesses. In 1770, Parliament removed the duties on all items except tea. The Tea Act made British

tea cheaper than tea the colonists had been smuggling into the colonies. The British hoped the colonists would purchase the British tea at the lower price, and thereby acknowledge Britain's right to tax them. But the residents of Boston defied the act by dumping hundreds of pounds of British tea into Boston Harbor. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party.

In 1774, Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by adopting laws that closed the port of Boston and gave the British-appointed governor of Massachusetts more power. In addition, the laws allowed British officials accused of crimes against Americans to be returned to Britain for trial. Angry colonists referred to these laws as the Intolerable Acts or the Coercive Acts.

The Continental Congress

The Intolerable Acts alarmed the colonists. On Sept. 5, 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to plan common measures of resistance. All the colonies except Georgia sent representatives to the Congress. The delegates supported the view held by most colonists—that they could not be ruled by a Parliament in which they were not represented. The most Parliament could do, the delegates suggested, was pass laws regulating the trade of the British Empire. Most colonists still wanted to remain members of the empire, but they felt they owed allegiance only to the British Crown and not to Parliament. The delegates to the First Continental Congress hoped Britain's King George III and his ministers would free the colonies from the Intolerable Acts.

In 1775, most colonists still did not favor declaring themselves independent of the British Crown. Such a declaration would cut the last bond linking the colonies to Britain. The delegates to the Second Continental Congress, which assembled on May 10, 1775, continued to hope the king would help resolve the colonists' differences with Parliament. In July, the colonists sent a final petition to Britain declaring their loyalty to the king and asking him to address their complaints. But the king ignored their request and declared the colonies to be in rebellion.

Meanwhile, the Revolutionary War had begun in April 1775, when British troops clashed with colonial militia at Lexington, Massachusetts, and nearby Concord. In January 1776, the political writer Thomas Paine published Common Sense. This electrifying pamphlet attacked the concept of monarchy and made a powerful case for the independence of the American Colonies.

As the fighting intensified, hopes of reconciliation with Britain faded. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution to the Second Continental

Congress stating that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ..." After several days of debate, the Congress appointed a committee to draft a declaration of independence. The committee gave the task to Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who completed the work in about two weeks. Two other members, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Adams of Massachusetts, made a few minor changes.

Adoption of the Declaration

On July 2, the Congress approved the Lee resolution. The delegates then began to debate Jefferson's draft. A few passages, including one condemning King George for encouraging the slave trade, were removed. Most other changes dealt with style. On July 4, the Congress adopted the final draft of the Declaration of Independence.

The Declaration was signed by John Hancock as president of the Second Continental Congress and by Charles Thomson, the Congress's secretary. It was promptly printed and read to a large crowd in the State House yard on July 8. On July 19, the Congress ordered the Declaration to be engrossed (written in stylish script) on parchment. It also ordered that all its members sign the engrossed copy. Eventually, 56 members signed.

The Importance of the Declaration 

The importance of the Declaration goes far beyond the reasons it provided for abolishing the colonies' allegiance to King George III. Drawing upon the writings of the English philosopher John Locke and other English thinkers, it states two universal principles that have been important to developing democracies ever since. The first principle is that governments exist for the benefit of the people and not their rulers, and that when a government turns to tyranny (unjust use of power), the people of that country have a right to resist and overturn the government. The second principle, that "all men are created equal," has served as a powerful reminder that all members of a society are entitled to the full protection of the law and to the right to participate in public affairs.

The original parchment copy of the Declaration is housed in the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. It is displayed with two other historic American documents - the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

Source: World Book Advanced Encyclopedia (2014) Related Reference: Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Declaration-of-Independence

The Sections of the Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence can be divided into four parts: 1. The Preamble; 2. a Declaration of Rights; 3. A Bill of Indictment; and, 4. a Statement of Independence.

The original text of the Declaration is shown below in italics. It follows the spelling and punctuation of the original copy. But, unlike the original, each paragraph begins on a new line. The notes following each paragraph are not part of the Declaration. They explain the meaning of various passages or give examples of injustices that a passage mentions.

“In Congress, July 4, 1776. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America…”

The Preamble

“When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

Notes: This paragraph tells why the Continental Congress drew up the Declaration. The members felt that when a people must break their ties with the mother country and become independent, they should explain their reasons to the world.

A Declaration of Rights

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

Notes: In stating this principle of equality, the signers of the Declaration did not mean to deny all the inequalities of their own time. Americans had already rejected the idea of a legal aristocracy, but many still approved of or tolerated slavery. Most also assumed that the rights and duties of free men differed from those of free women. But over the years, this section has inspired the struggle against unequal treatment by many ethnic and cultural groups in our nation and the sexes. The rights to "Life" included the right to defend oneself against physical attack and against unjust government. The right to "Liberty" included the right to criticize the government, to worship freely, and to form a government that protects liberty. The "pursuit of Happiness" meant the right to own property and

to have it safeguarded. It also meant the right to strive for the good of all people, not only for one's personal happiness.

“That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…”

Notes: The Declaration states that governments exist to protect the rights of the people. Governments receive their power to rule only through agreement of the people.

“That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security…”

Notes: People may alter their government if it fails in its purpose. Or they may set up a new government. People should not, however, make a revolutionary change in long-established governments for unimportant reasons. But they have the right to overthrow a government that has committed many abuses and seeks complete control over the people.

A Bill of Indictment

“Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world…”

Notes: The Declaration states that the colonists could no longer endure the abuses of their government and so must change it. It accuses King George III of inflicting the abuses to gain total power over the colonies. It then lists the charges against him.

“He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.”

Notes: All laws passed by the colonial legislatures had to be sent to the British monarch for approval. George rejected many of the laws as harmful to Britain or its empire.

“He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.”

Notes: Royal governors could not approve any colonial law that did not have a clause suspending its operation until the king approved the law. Yet it took much time, sometimes years, for laws to be approved or rejected.

“He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.”

Notes: The royal government failed to redraw the boundaries of legislative districts so that people in newly settled areas would be fairly represented in the legislatures.

“He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.”

Notes: Royal governors sometimes had the members of colonial assemblies meet at inconvenient places.

“He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.”

Notes: Royal governors often dissolved colonial assemblies for disobeying their orders or for passing resolutions against the law.

“He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.”

Notes: After dissolving colonial legislatures, royal governors sometimes took a long time before allowing new assemblies to be elected.

“He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.”

Notes: The colonies wanted immigrants to settle in undeveloped lands in the West. For this reason, their laws made it easy for settlers to buy land and to become citizens. But in 1763, King George claimed the Western lands and began to reject most new naturalization (citizenship) laws. In 1773, he prohibited the naturalization of foreigners. In 1774, he sharply raised the purchase prices for the Western lands.

“He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.”

Notes: The North Carolina legislature passed a law setting up a court system. But Britain objected to a clause in the law, which the legislature refused to remove. As a result, the colony had no courts for several years.

“He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.”

Notes: The royal government insisted that judges should serve as long as the king was pleased with them and that they should be paid by him. The colonies felt that judges should serve only as long as they proved to be competent and honest. They also wanted to pay the judges' salaries.

“He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.”

Notes: In 1767, the British Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which taxed various products imported into the colonies. Britain also set up new agencies to enforce the laws and appointed tax commissioners. The commissioners, in turn, hired a large number of agents to aid them in collecting the taxes.

“He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.”

Notes: British armies arrived in North America to fight the French in the French and Indian War (1754-1763). The colonists resented the fact that British troops remained in the colonies after the war.

“He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.”

Notes: The British altered the civil government in Massachusetts and named as governor General Thomas Gage, commander of Britain's military forces in America.

“He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:”

Notes: The Declaratory Act, passed by Britain in 1766, claimed that the king and Parliament had full authority to make laws for the colonies. However, the Declaration of Independence maintained that the colonies' own laws did not give the British that authority.

“For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:”

Notes: The royal government passed various quartering acts, which required the colonies to provide lodging and certain supplies to British troops stationed in America.

“For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:”

Notes: In 1774, Britain passed the Impartial Administration of Justice Act. Under this act, British soldiers and officials accused of murder while serving in Massachusetts could be tried in Britain.

“For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:”

Notes: Britain passed many laws to control colonial trade. The Restraining Acts of 1775, for example, severely limited the foreign trade that several colonies could engage in. One act provided that American ships that violated the law could be seized.

“For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:”

Notes: This charge referred to all taxes levied on the colonies by the British, beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764.

“For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:”

Notes: British naval courts, which had no juries, dealt with smuggling and other violations of the trade laws.

“For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:”

Notes: This charge referred to a 1769 resolution by Parliament that colonists accused of treason could be sent to Britain for trial.

“For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:”

Notes: In 1774, the Quebec Act provided for French civil law and an appointed governor and council in the province of Quebec. The act also extended Quebec's borders south to the Ohio River.

“For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:”

Notes: The Massachusetts Government Act of 1774 drastically changed the Massachusetts charter. It provided that councilors would no longer be elected but would be appointed by the king. The act also restricted the holding of town meetings and gave the governor control over all lower court judges.

“For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.”

Notes: In 1767, Parliament passed an act suspending the New York Assembly for failing to fulfill all the requirements of the Quartering Act of 1765.

“He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.”

Notes: Early in 1775, Britain authorized General Gage to use force if necessary to make the colonists obey the laws of Parliament. The British fought the colonists at the battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill. George declared the colonies to be in revolt and stated they would be crushed.

“He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.”

Notes: The British seized ships that violated the Restraining Act of December 1775. They also bombarded such seaport towns as Falmouth (now Portland), Maine; Bristol, Rhode Island; and Norfolk, Virginia.

“He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.”

Notes: The British used German mercenaries (hired soldiers) to help fight the colonists.

“He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.”

Notes: The British forced American seamen on ships seized under the Restraining Act to join the British navy.

“He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.”

Notes: On Nov. 7, 1775, Virginia's royal governor proclaimed freedom for all black slaves who would join the British forces. British military plans included using Indians to fight colonists in frontier areas.

A Statement of Independence

“In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A

Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.”

Notes: The Continental Congress had asked the king to correct many abuses stated in the Declaration. These appeals were ignored or followed by even worse abuses.

“Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.”

Notes: Congress had also appealed without success to the British people themselves.

“We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.

And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.”

Notes: Because all appeals had failed, the signers of the Declaration, as representatives of the American people, felt only one course of action remained. They thus declared the colonies independent, with all ties to Britain ended.

Source: adapted from World Book Advanced Encyclopedia (2014)

Image of the Declaration of Independence

Full-Text of the Declaration of Independence

IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. --That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, -- That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. -- Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in

the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.______________________________________________________________________

The 56 signatures on the Declaration appear in the positions indicated:

Column 1 Column 2

Georgia: North Carolina:

Button Gwinnett William Hooper

Lyman Hall Joseph Hewes

George Walton John Penn

South Carolina:

Edward Rutledge

Thomas Heyward, Jr.

Thomas Lynch, Jr.

Arthur Middleton

Column 3

Massachusetts: Virginia

John Hancock George Wythe

Maryland: Richard Henry Lee

Samuel Chase Thomas Jefferson

William Paca Benjamin Harrison

Thomas Stone Thomas Nelson, Jr.

Charles Carroll of Carrollton Francis Lightfoot Lee

Carter Braxton

Column 4 Column 5

Pennsylvania: New York

Robert Morris William Floyd

Benjamin Rush Philip Livingston

Benjamin Franklin Francis Lewis

John Morton Lewis Morris

George Clymer New Jersey

James Smith Richard Stockton

George Taylor John Witherspoon

James Wilson Francis Hopkinson

George Ross John Hart

Delaware: Abraham Clark

Caesar Rodney

George Read

Thomas McKean

Column 6

New Hampshire: Connecticut:

Josiah Bartlett Roger Sherman

William Whipple Samuel Huntington

Massachusetts: William Williams

Samuel Adams Oliver Wolcott

John Adams New Hampshire:

Robert Treat Paine Matthew Thornton

Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island:

Stephen Hopkins

William Ellery

Fascinating Facts about the U.S. Constitution

The U.S. Constitution has 4,400 words. It is the oldest and the shortest written constitution of any government in the world.

Of the typographical errors in the Constitution, the misspelling of the word "Pensylvania" above the signers' names is probably the most glaring.

Thomas Jefferson did not sign the Constitution. He was in France during the convention, where he served as the U.S. minister.

Jacob Shallus, a Pennsylvania General Assembly clerk, "penned" the Constitution for a fee of $30 (approximately $261.45 today). Governor Morris was responsible for the wording of the Constitution. It was stored in various cities until 1952, when it was placed in the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. During the daytime, pages one and four of the document are displayed in a bullet-proof case. The case contains helium and water vapor to preserve the paper's quality. At night, the pages are lowered into a vault, behind five-ton doors that are designed to withstand a nuclear explosion. The entire U.S. Constitution is displayed only one day a year, September 17, the anniversary of the day the framers signed the document.

Thirty-nine men signed the U.S. Constitution.

James Madison, "the father of the U.S. Constitution," was the first to arrive in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. He arrived in February; three months before the convention began, bearing the blueprint for the new U.S. Constitution.

At least seven constitutional amendments were passed in order to reverse a Supreme Court decision. Some of the notable ones: The Thirteenth Amendment (1865), barring slavery, and the Fifteenth Amendment (1868), protecting the citizenship of African Americans, effectively overturned the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision of 1857. The Sixteenth Amendment (1913) gave Congress the power to levy an income tax, thereby overturning Pollock v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Co. (1895). And the Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971) overturned Oregon v. Mitchell (1970) which, among other things, held that Congress could not regulate the voting age in state elections. The amendment set the voting age at 18 years.

Fascinating Facts about the U.S. Constitution (continued)

When it came time for the states to ratify the U.S. Constitution, the lack of any bill of rights was the primary sticking point.

The U.S. Constitution does not set forth requirements for the right to vote. As a result, at the outset of the Union, only male property-owners could vote. African Americans were not considered citizens, and women were excluded from the electoral process.

The Great Compromise saved the Constitutional Convention, and, probably, the Union. Authored by Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman, it called for proportional representation in the House, and one representative per state in the Senate (this was later changed to two.) The compromise passed 5-to-4, with one state, Massachusetts, "divided."

Patrick Henry was elected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, but declined, because he "smelt a rat."

Because of his poor health, Benjamin Franklin needed help to sign the U.S. Constitution. As he did so, tears streamed down his face.

The oldest person to sign the U.S. Constitution was Benjamin Franklin (81). The youngest was Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey (26).

When the U.S. Constitution was signed, the United States population was 4 million. It is now approximately 325 million. Philadelphia was the nation's largest city, with 40,000 inhabitants.

The first state to ratify the U.S. Constitution was Delaware, in December, 1787, three months after the framers had adjourned the convention in Philadelphia. When New Hampshire ratified on June 21, 1788, it was the ninth state to do so. By the ratification requirements set forth in Article VII, the U.S. Constitution was now officially established.

Until the Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, Senators were chosen by a state's legislators. As a result, the Senate brimmed with men who obtained their positions through political patronage. Finally, under threat of a Constitutional Convention on the matter, Congress proposed this amendment.

Fascinating Facts about the U.S. Constitution (continued)

The 14th and 15th Amendments were passed in 1868 and 1870, respectively. Initially meant to preserve personal freedoms of African Americans, they now stand, in large part, for the idea that the U.S. Constitution implies, but does not enumerate, certain fundamental rights for all citizens.

To amend the U.S. Constitution, a proposal must gain the support of two-thirds of the House and Senate, and three-fourths of the states. As a result, of the thousands of proposed amendments, only 27 have passed. Amendments must be proposed either by a two-thirds vote in Congress, or by a Constitutional Convention. Such a convention can only be held if two-thirds of the states' legislatures support it.

Source: http://www.constitutionfacts.com/us-constitution-amendments/fascinating-facts/

Historical Background Information on the United States Constitution

The excerpt below on the history of the United States Constitution is from the on-line edition of the World Book Advanced Encyclopedia (2014) available for students and teachers through the Miami-Dade County Public Schools’ Department of Library Media Services. To access the full article:

1. Visit Library Media Services at http://library.dadeschools.net/ (Password needed. Check with the Media Specialist.)

2. Click the On-line Data Bases and select World Book Advanced Online Reference Center

3. Search for “U.S. Constitution.”4. Click on the article entitled “Constitution of the United States.”

The full-article is an overview of the U.S. Constitution. The excerpt below provides basic information on the development and ratification of the document and an overview of the Bill of Rights.

Constitution of the United States

The Constitution of the United States sets forth the nation's fundamental laws. It establishes the form of the national government and defines the rights and liberties of the American people. It also lists the aims of the government and the methods of achieving them.

The Constitution was written to organize a strong national government for the American states. Previously, the nation's leaders had established a national government under the Articles of Confederation, but the Articles granted independence to each state. They lacked the authority to make the states work together to solve national problems.

After the states won independence in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), they faced the problems of peacetime government. The states had to enforce law and order, collect taxes, pay a large public debt, and regulate trade among themselves. They also had to deal with Indian tribes and negotiate with other governments. Leading statesmen, such as George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, began to discuss the creation of a strong national government under a new constitution. Hamilton helped bring about a national convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, a majority of the delegates at the convention decided instead to write a new plan of government—the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution established not merely a league of states but a government that exercised its authority directly over all citizens. The Constitution also

defined clearly the powers of the national government. In addition, it established protection for the rights of the states and of every individual.

The Supreme Law of the Land

The Constitution consists of a preamble, 7 articles, and 27 amendments. It sets up a federal system by dividing powers between the national and state governments. It also establishes a balanced national government by dividing authority among three independent branches—the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive branch enforces the law, the legislative branch makes the law, and the judicial branch interprets the law. The executive branch of the national government is usually represented by the president, the legislative branch by Congress, and the judicial branch by the Supreme Court. This division of the government into three branches is known as the separation of powers. Each branch can use its powers to check and balance (exercise control over) the other two.

Federal powers listed in the Constitution include the right to collect taxes, declare war, and regulate trade. In addition to these delegated, or expressed, powers (those listed in the Constitution), the national government has implied powers (those reasonably suggested by the Constitution). The implied powers enable the government to respond to the changing needs of the nation. For example, Congress had no delegated power to print paper money. But such a power is implied in the delegated powers of borrowing and coining money.

There are some powers that the Constitution does not give to the national government or forbid to the states. These reserved powers belong to the people or to the states. State powers include the right to legislate on divorce, marriage, and public schools. Powers reserved for the people include the right to own property and to be tried by a jury. In some cases, the national and state governments have concurrent powers—that is, both levels of government may act. The national government has supreme authority in case of a conflict.

The Supreme Court has the final authority to explain the Constitution. It can set aside any law—federal, state, or local—that conflicts with any part of the Constitution.

The Need for the Constitution

The government established by the Articles of Confederation was not strong enough to govern the new nation. For example, it lacked an executive branch and a system of national courts. It could not regulate trade between the states or tax the states or their citizens. In addition, it could not maintain its own army. The government was little more than an assembly of the representatives of 13 independent states. Before almost any measure could be adopted, it had to be approved by at least 9 of the states.

In 1783, after the Revolutionary War, the nation entered a period of unstable commercial and political conditions. Alexander Hamilton and his supporters would have had little success in their campaign for a new constitution if conditions had been better. Some historians have painted the troubles of the new republic in much too gloomy colors. But little doubt remains that the situation became steadily worse after 1783. Each state acted almost like an independent country. Each ran its own affairs exactly as it saw fit, with little concern for the needs of the republic. The states circulated a dozen different currencies, most of which had little value. Neighboring states taxed each other's goods. The United Kingdom refused to reopen the channels of trade that the colonies had depended on for their economic well-being. The state legislatures refused to pay the debts they had assumed during the Revolutionary War. Many states passed laws that enabled debtors to escape paying their obligations.

Worst of all, some people began to think once again of taking up arms in order to solve their problems. In western Massachusetts in 1786, hundreds of farmers under Captain Daniel Shays rebelled against the state government in Boston. State troops finally put down Shay's Rebellion. George Washington and other leaders wondered whether the colonies had rebelled against the United Kingdom in vain. They felt it was time to end these troubles and bring peace and order by forming a new national government. This new government would have to be strong enough to gain obedience at home and respect abroad.

Representatives from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786. They proposed that the states appoint commissioners to meet in Philadelphia and consider revising the Articles of Confederation. Congress agreed to the proposal and suggested that each state select delegates to a constitutional convention.

The Constitutional Convention

The convention was supposed to open on May 14, 1787. But few of the 55 delegates had arrived in Philadelphia by that date. Finally, on May 25, the convention formally opened in Independence Hall. Twelve states had responded to the call for the convention. Rhode Island refused to send delegates because it did not want the national government to interfere with its affairs.

Of the 55 delegates, 39 signed the United States Constitution on Sept. 17, 1787. One of the signers was John Dickinson of Delaware, who left the convention but asked another delegate, George Read, to sign for him. William Jackson of Philadelphia, a former major in the Revolutionary War who was chosen to serve as the convention secretary, witnessed the signatures. The delegates included some of the most experienced and patriotic men in the new republic. George Washington served as president of the convention. Benjamin Franklin, at the age of 81, attended as a representative of

Pennsylvania. The brilliant Alexander Hamilton represented New York. James Madison of Virginia received the title of "Father of the Constitution" with his speeches, negotiations, and attempts at compromise. Madison told the delegates they were considering a plan that "would decide forever the fate of republican government." He kept a record of the delegates' debates and decisions.

Other men who had much to do with writing the new Constitution included John Dickinson, Governor Morris, Edmund Randolph, Roger Sherman, James Wilson, and George Wythe. Morris was given the task of putting all the convention's resolutions and decisions into polished form. Morris actually "wrote" the Constitution. The original copy of the document is preserved in the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C.

Several important figures of the time did not attend the convention. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were absent on other government duties. Samuel Adams and John Jay failed to be appointed delegates from their states. Patrick Henry refused to serve after his appointment because he opposed granting any more power to the national government. Three leading members of the convention—-Elbridge Gerry, George Mason, and Edmund Randolph—refused to sign the Constitution because they disagreed with parts of it.

The Background of the U.S. Constitution

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention relied greatly on past experience as they worked to create a new government. They recalled many important events in the development of constitutional government. These included the granting of Magna Carta, an English constitutional document, in 1215 and the meeting of the Jamestown representative assembly in 1619. Some of the American Colonies also served as examples of constitutional forms of government. While colonial governments had weaknesses, they had progressed beyond other governments of their time in achieving liberty under law.

All American states established constitutional governments after they declared their independence from the United Kingdom in 1776. In 1777, John Jay of New York had helped write a constitution for his state. John Adams of Massachusetts had helped write the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780. Delegates to the convention in Philadelphia used many ideas and words from the constitutions of these and other states.

The delegates also drew on their own experiences. Franklin had proposed a plan at the Albany Congress of 1754 to unify the colonies under a central government. Washington remembered his own problems during the war when, as commander in chief, he had to work with the frequently divided Continental Congress. Almost every delegate to the convention had served as a soldier or administrator of the government. They often disagreed on details but were united in wanting the new government to be strong

enough to rule the nation. They also wanted it to respect the liberties of the states and of the people.

The Compromises

The task of creating a new government was not easily accomplished. Disputes among the delegates nearly ended the convention on several occasions. For example, delegates from the large states disagreed with those from the small states about representation in the national legislature. The larger states favored the Virginia Plan, under which population would determine the number of representatives a state could send to the legislature. The small states supported the New Jersey Plan, which proposed that all the states would have an equal number of representatives. The Connecticut delegates suggested a compromise that settled the problem. Their plan provided for equal representation in the Senate, along with representation in proportion to population in the House of Representatives. This proposal became known as the Connecticut Compromise or the Great Compromise.

Compromises also settled conflicts over the issue of slavery. The delegates from the Northern states wanted Congress to have the power to forbid the foreign slave trade. Most Southern delegates did not wish Congress to have this power. A compromise decided that Congress would not be allowed to regulate the foreign slave trade until 1808. Another compromise involved the question of how to count slaves in determining how many members of Congress a state could have. Slaves were not considered citizens, and so the convention agreed that only three-fifths of a state's slaves could be counted.

The delegates agreed that each state should hold a special convention to discuss and vote on the Constitution. They also decided that as soon as nine states had ratified (approved) the Constitution, the Constitution would take effect and they could begin to organize the new government.

Ratifying the U.S. Constitution

Less than three months after the Constitution was signed, Delaware became the first state to ratify it, on Dec. 7, 1787. New Hampshire was the ninth state, putting the Constitution into effect on June 21, 1788. But the Founding Fathers could not be sure that the Constitution would be generally accepted until the important states of New York and Virginia had ratified it. Powerful organized opposition to the Constitution had developed in these two states and in others. Such people as Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and George Mason spoke out against ratification.

Critics objected that a bill of rights had not been included, that the president had too much independence, and that the Senate was too aristocratic. They also thought

Congress had too many powers and the national government had too much authority. Friends of the Constitution rallied support for ratification. They became known as Federalists. Their opponents were called Anti-Federalists. The two groups promoted their causes in newspapers, in pamphlets, and in debates in the ratifying conventions. The groups developed into the first American political parties. Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788, and New York did so on July 26. Early in January 1789, all the ratifying states except New York selected presidential electors in their legislatures or by a direct vote of the people. On February 4, the electors named George Washington as the first president of the United States. The first Congress under the Constitution met in New York City on March 4. Washington was inaugurated on April 30. North Carolina and Rhode Island refused to approve the Constitution and take part in the new government until Congress agreed to add a bill of rights.

The Bill of Rights

The Federalists might never have obtained ratification in several important states if they had not promised to support amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were written to protect individual liberties against possible unjust rule by the national government. Most state constitutions that were adopted during the Revolution had included a clear declaration of the rights of all people. Most Americans believed that no constitution could be considered complete without such a declaration. George Mason of Virginia was responsible for the first and most famous American bill of rights, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776. He and Patrick Henry might have prevented ratification of the Constitution in Virginia if the Federalists had not agreed to their demands for amendments.

James Madison led the new Congress in proposing amendments. He suggested 15 amendments, and the Congress accepted 12 of them to be submitted for approval by the states under the amending process outlined in the Fifth Article of the Constitution. By Dec. 15, 1791, enough states had approved 10 of the 12 amendments to make them a permanent addition to the Constitution. These amendments are known as the Bill of Rights.

One of the two unapproved amendments dealt with the size of the House of Representatives. It would have changed representation from no more than one representative for every 30,000 people to one for every 50,000 people. The other unapproved amendment provided that whenever Congress changed the salaries of its members, the change could not take effect until after the next election of representatives had been held. This amendment was ratified in 1992.

The Development of the U.S. Constitution

Through the years, the Constitution has developed to meet changing needs. James Madison declared, "In framing a system which we wish to last for ages, we should not lose sight of the changes which ages will produce." The Constitution was designed to serve the interests of the people—rich and poor, Northerners and Southerners, farmers, workers, and business people.

The Anti-Federalists accepted defeat when the Constitution was adopted and set about to win power under its rules. Their action set a style for American politics that has never changed. Americans sometimes feel dissatisfied with the policies of those who govern. But few Americans have condemned the constitutional system or demanded a second constitutional convention.

Delegates to the Constitutional Convention believed strongly in the rule of the majority, but they wanted to protect minorities against any unjustness by the majority. They achieved this goal by separating and balancing the powers of government. Other basic constitutional aims included respect for the rights of individuals and states, rule by the people, separation of church and state, and supremacy of the national government.Source: World Book Advanced Encyclopedia (2014)

The Sections of the U.S. ConstitutionThe Preamble

The first sentence of the U.S. Constitution is called the preamble. It reads:

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessing of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity. Do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

The preamble does not give or limit powers. It explains the purpose of the U.S. Constitution and sets the stage for the 7 articles and the first 10 amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, which follow.

The first three words of the preamble, "We the People," may be the three most important words in the history of our nation.

The Articles

The main body of the U.S. Constitution is made up of seven articles. The Articles explain how the government works. They also carefully describe the rules for electing government officials, Members of Congress and the President. The U.S. Constitution is based on the separation of powers. It divides power between the three separate branches of the government. They are the legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The U.S. Constitution also separates powers between the national and state governments.

Article I - The role of the legislative branch is discussed in Article I. The legislative branch includes the House of Representatives and the Senate. Together they are called Congress. Members of the House of Representatives are often referred to as members of Congress, but Senators are always called Senators.

Article II - Rules for how the President and the Vice President are elected are defined in Article II. It also defines the responsibilities and powers of the President and the executive branch.

Article III - The judicial branch includes the Supreme Court and lower courts. Article III states that Supreme Court Justices (judges) can hold office for life, unless they are

Sections of the U.S. Constitution (continued)

removed, impeached, or convicted of a crime. It also says that anyone accused of committing a federal crime has the right to a trial by jury.

Article IV - Article IV discusses the relationship between states and the national or federal government. It also outlines the rules for admitting new states to the Union.

Article V - The Founding Fathers realized that over time, the government might need to make changes, called amendments, to the U.S. Constitution. Two thirds of both houses of Congress must agree to propose an amendment. It takes the approval by three fourths of the states to make an amendment become law.

Article VI - Article VI states that the U.S. Constitution is the highest law of the land. Federal and state officers and judges must uphold the U.S. Constitution.

Article VII - The names of the men who signed and ratified, or approved the Constitution, are in Article VII. It confirms the establishment of the U.S. Constitution.

Bill of Rights

The United States Constitution has 27 Amendments. The first 10 Amendments to the Constitution are called the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was ratified, or approved, in 1791. It outlines the basic rights and freedoms of American citizens.

Amendment 1 - The First Amendment protects the rights of every American. It defines the freedoms of religion, speech, and press. Most Americans believe that the First Amendment guarantees their most important rights.

Amendment 2 - The Second Amendment guarantees Americans the right to bear arms, or own guns.

Amendment 3 - The Third Amendment prevents the government from forcing citizens to shelter soldiers in their homes.

Amendment 4 - The Fourth Amendment protects the privacy of American citizens. It prohibits, or prevents, unnecessary or unreasonable searches of a person's property.

Sections of the U.S. Constitution (continued)

Amendment 5 - In the Fifth Amendment, all Americans are guaranteed the right to a fair and legal trial. It also protects someone from testifying against him- or herself under oath.

Amendment 6 - A right to a speedy trial is guaranteed in the Sixth Amendment.

Amendment 7 - The Seventh Amendment guarantees the right to a trial by jury in civil, or private, legal cases where damages are more than $20. Civil cases solve disagreements between citizens.

Amendment 8 - Unreasonable bail or fines and cruel and unusual punishment are prohibited in the Eighth Amendment.

Amendment 9 - The Ninth Amendment recognizes that Americans have additional rights that are not listed in the U.S. Constitution.

Amendment 10 - The Tenth Amendment says that the powers not given to the United States government by the U.S. Constitution belong to the states or to the people.

Other Amendments were added to the Constitution over the years, and more may be added later. The U.S. Constitution currently contains 27 amendments. Below are some of the highlights of the 17 Amendments added after the Bill of Rights was ratified.

The Thirteenth Amendment became law in 1865. It makes slavery and other forms of forced labor, illegal.

Ratified in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment stated that no citizen should be denied the right to vote on the basis of race or color.

In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote.

Source: adapted from the National Constitution Center, www.constitutioncenter.org.

Image of the U.S. Constitution (page 1 only)

Preamble to the United States Constitution

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

NOTE: This copy includes the original spelling of “defense” and the original capitalization.

FULL TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Preamble

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establishjustice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote thegeneral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, doordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article I

Section 1.

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2.

The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authoritythereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

Section 3.

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the UnitedStates: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

Section 4.

The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Section 5.

Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.

Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.

Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6.

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office.

Section 7.

All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but theSenate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House ofRepresentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect,hall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

Section 8.

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the UnitedStates; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with theIndian tribes;

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of theUnited States;

To establish post offices and post roads;

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

Section 9.

The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one

thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it.

No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another.

No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

Section 10.

No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marquee and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

Article II (2)

Section 1.

The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows:

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each state having one vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President.

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty five years, and been fourteen Years a resident within the United States.

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office ofPresident of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section 2.

The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the UnitedStates; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of theUnited States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session.

Section 3.

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and

expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.

Section 4.

The President, Vice President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

Article III (3)

Section 1.

The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

Section 2.

The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under thisConstitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two or more states;-- between a state and citizens of another state;-- between citizens of different states;-- between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects.

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when

not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

Section 3.

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted.

Article IV (4)

Section 1.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

Section 2.

The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states.

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

Section 3.

New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by

the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state.

Section 4.

The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence.

Article V (5)

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI (6)

All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of

the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.

Article VII (7)

The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty seven and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

G. Washington Presidt. and deputy from VirginiaNew Hampshire John Langdon, Nicholas GilmanMassachusetts: Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus KingConnecticut Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger ShermanNew York Alexander HamiltonNew Jersey Wil. Livingston, David Brearly, Wm. Paterson, Jona. DaytonPennsylvania B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos.

FitzSimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv MorrisDelaware Geo. Read, Gunning Bedford jr, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett,

Jaco. BroomMaryland James McHenry, Dan of St Thos. Jenifer, Danl CarrollVirginia John Blair, James Madison Jr.North Carolina Wm. Blount, Richd. Dobbs Spaight, Hu WilliamsonSouth Carolina J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney,

Pierce ButlerGeorgia William Few, Abr Baldwin

Amendments to the Constitution of the United States

Amendment I (1791)

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II (1791) (2)

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III (1791) (3)

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV (1791) (4)

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V (1791) (5)

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI (1791) (6)

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be

informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

Amendment VII (1791) (7)

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII (1791) (8)

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX (1791) (9)

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X (1791) (10)

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Amendment XI (1798) (11)

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.

Amendment XII (1804) (12)

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President andVice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of

the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office ofPresident shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

Amendment XIII (1865) (13)

Section 1.

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XIV (1868) (14)

Section 1.

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or

property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2.

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.

Section 3.

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4.

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5.

The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Amendment XV (1870) (15)

Section 1.

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2.

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XVI (1913) (16)

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census of enumeration.

Amendment XVII (1913) (17)

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Amendment XVIII (1919) (18)

Section 1.

After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Section 2.

The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section 3.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several states, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress.

Amendment XIX (1920) (19)

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XX (1933) (20)

Section 1.

The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section 2.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Section 3.

If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall

be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

Section 4.

The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

Section 5.

Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

Section 6.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission.

Amendment XXI (1933) (21)

Section 1.

The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2.

The transportation or importation into any state, territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several states, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress.

Amendment XXII (1951) (22)

Section 1.

No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

Section 2.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.

Amendment XXIII (1961) (23)

Section 1.

The District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a state, but in no event more than the least populous state; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a state; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

Section 2.

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXIV (1964) (24)

Section 1.

The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

Section 2.

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXV (1967) (25)

Section 1.

In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

Section 2.

Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3.

Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and theSpeaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

Section 4.

Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

Amendment XXVI (1971) (26)

Section 1.

The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of age.

Section 2.

The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXVII (1992) (27)

No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

An Overview of the Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments to the Constitution make up the Bill of Rights. Written by James Madison in response to calls from several states for greater constitutional protection for individual liberties, the Bill of Rights lists specific prohibitions on governmental power. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason, strongly influenced Madison.

One of the many points of contention between Federalists and Anti-Federalists (see the definitions below) was the Constitution’s lack of a bill of rights that would place specific limits on government power. Federalists argued that the Constitution did not need a bill of rights, because the people and the states kept any powers not given to the federal government. Anti-Federalists held that a bill of rights was necessary to safeguard individual liberty.

Madison, then a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, went through the Constitution itself, making changes where he thought most appropriate. But several Representatives, led by Roger Sherman, objected that Congress had no authority to change the wording of the Constitution itself. Therefore, Madison’s changes were presented as a list of amendments that would follow Article VII.

The House approved 17 amendments. Of these 17, the Senate approved 12. Those 12 were sent to the states for approval in August of 1789. Of those 12, 10 were quickly approved (or, ratified). Virginia’s legislature became the last to ratify the amendments on December 15, 1791.

The Bill of Rights is a list of limits on government power. For example, what the Founders saw as the natural right of individuals to speak and worship freely was protected by the First Amendment’s prohibitions on Congress from making laws establishing a religion or abridging freedom of speech. For another example, the natural right to be free from unreasonable government intrusion in one’s home was safeguarded by the Fourth Amendment’s warrant requirements.

Other precursors to the Bill of Rights include English documents such as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the English Bill of Rights, and the Massachusetts Body of Liberties.

(Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist - Not everyone agreed that a new Constitution was necessary. Anti-Federalists were those who opposed the development of a strong federal government and the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, preferring instead for power to remain in the hands of state and local governments. Federalists wanted a

An Overview of The Bill of Rights continued

stronger national government and the ratification of the Constitution to help properly manage the debt and tensions following the American Revolution. Formed by Alexander Hamilton, the Federalist Party, which existed from 1792 to 1824, was the culmination of American federalism and the first political party in the United States. John Adams, the second president of the United States, was the first and only Federalist president.)

Sources: Adapted from The Bill of Rights Institute, https://www.billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/bill-of-rights/ and http://www.diffen.com/difference/Anti-Federalist_vs_Federalist

Summary of the Bill Of Rights

The United States Constitution has 27 Amendments. The first 10 Amendments to the U.S. Constitution are called the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was ratified, or approved, in 1791. It outlines the basic rights and freedoms of American citizens. A summary of the first ten amendments follows.

Amendment 1 - The First Amendment protects the rights of every American. It defines the freedoms of religion, speech, and press. Most Americans believe that the First Amendment guarantees their most important rights.

Amendment 2 - The Second Amendment guarantees Americans the right to bear arms, or own guns.

Amendment 3 - The Third Amendment prevents the government from forcing citizens to shelter soldiers in their homes.

Amendment 4 - The Fourth Amendment protects the privacy of American citizens. It prohibits, or prevents, unnecessary or unreasonable searches of a person's property.

Amendment 5 - In the Fifth Amendment, all Americans are guaranteed the right to a fair and legal trial. It also protects someone from testifying against him- or herself under oath.

Amendment 6 - A right to a speedy trial is guaranteed in the Sixth Amendment.

Amendment 7 - The Seventh Amendment guarantees the right to a trial by jury in civil, or private, legal cases where damages are more than $20. Civil cases solve disagreements between citizens.

Amendment 8 - Unreasonable bail or fines and cruel and unusual punishment are prohibited in the Eighth Amendment.

Amendment 9 - The Ninth Amendment recognizes that Americans have additional rights that are not listed in the U.S. Constitution.

Amendment 10 - The Tenth Amendment says that the powers not given to the United States government by the U.S. Constitution belong to the states or to the people.

Photo Image of the Bill of Rights

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/94/91194-004-5BB45269.jpg

Full Text of the Bill of Rights

Amendment I

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

Full Text of the Bill of Rights continued

Amendment VII

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Suggested American Founders’ Month Classroom Activities for the

Secondary ClassroomIncludes:

Suggested Classroom Activities for Secondary Students

Student Reading and Activity Sheets for Secondary Students

American Founders’ Month Classroom Activities for Secondary Students

The following suggested classroom activities are provided to help secondary teachers provide instruction during American Founders’ Month.

Please note the following:

Suggested classroom activities for secondary students are listed below.

Teachers are encouraged to adapt the activities to address the grade level of their students.

Student Reading and Activity Sheets to support these classroom activities are provided, where required, and are found following the suggested activities. In some instances, both middle and senior high school handouts and readings are provided.

The following additional instructional resource guides developed by the Department of Social Sciences are available to further support instruction during American Founders’ Month:

o Constitution Day and Citizenship Day – INSERT LINK o Celebrate Freedom Week (Declaration of Independence) – INSERT LINK

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Core American Values - Review the District’s nine core values with students. Have students draw or find pictures to illustrate the following values that are important to the American way of life, including our representative government.

Honesty, Responsibility, Respect, Integrity, and Cooperation

Also discuss the values that further contributed to establishing our nation, including:

Freedom and Equality

Handout entitled, “Miami-Dade County Public Schools’ Nine Core Character Education Values”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

History of the Declaration of Independence - For background information, have students read/review the passages in their textbooks or excerpts from the article entitled “Historical Background Information on the Declaration of Independence” (provided in the Background section of this instructional resource guide) about the events in Colonial America that led to the American Revolution. Give special attention to the colonial dissent brought about by Britain’s taxation and governmental control over the colonies.

Read the Student Handout entitled, “Declaration of Independence” and have students answer the “Declaration of Independence – Questions.” Separate readings are provided for middle and senior high school students. The questions are the same.

Following the reading, review the answers to the questions with the class. Continue the discussion, by defining “unalienable rights” (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) as contained in the Declaration. (Note: The correct term is “inalienable rights.” A copyist changed the word to “unalienable.”)

Ask students to consider if they would be willing to give up these rights or if they would fight for them as the colonists did in 1776. Ask students to consider what would have happened to the colonists, most notably the signers of the Declaration, if they had lost the war with England.

As a class, list and discuss the fundamental democratic principles contained in the Declaration of Independence ("that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with unalienable rights," and "that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.")

Student reading entitled, “Declaration of Independence” (Separate middle and senior high readings provided)

Student Handout entitled, “Declaration of Independence – Questions.”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

(Continued)

Next, read aloud to students the following excerpt from the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

Discuss the following:

Throughout the history of our nation, have all individuals been treated equally and fairly? Give examples to explain your answer.

Agree or Disagree? When one person loses his/her rights, we all lose our rights.

What does it mean when the Declaration states that governments are “instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed”?

Natural Rights – Introduce and discuss natural rights, the political theory that maintains that an individual enters into society with certain basic rights and that no government can deny these rights. The modern idea of natural rights grew out of the ancient and medieval doctrines of natural law; i.e., the belief that people, as creatures of nature and God, should live their lives and organize their society on the basis of rules and precepts laid down by nature or God. With the growth of the idea of individualism, especially in the 17th century, natural law doctrines were modified to stress the fact that individuals, because they are natural beings, have rights that cannot be violated by anyone or by any society. Perhaps the most famous formulation of this doctrine is found in the writings of John Locke. Locke assumed that humans were by

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Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

(Continued)

nature rational and good, and that they carried into political society the same rights they had enjoyed in earlier stages of society, foremost among them being freedom of worship, the right to a voice in their own government, and the right of property. Jean Jacques Rousseau attempted to reconcile the natural rights of the individual with the need for social unity and cooperation through the idea of the social contract. The most important elaboration of the idea of natural rights came in the North American colonies, however, where the writings of Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine made of the natural rights theory a powerful justification for revolution. The classic expressions of natural rights are the English Bill of Rights (1689), the American Declaration of Independence (1776), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789), the first 10 amendments to the Constitution of the United States (known as the Bill of Rights, 1791), and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations (1948).

In summary, many of the ideas Jefferson included in the Declaration were borrowed. The idea that all people are equal and that no person is born with the right to have power over another came from the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The idea that people have certain natural rights or unalienable rights that no government may interfere with came from the English philosopher John Locke. Locke defined those rights as “life, liberty, and property.” Jefferson added “the pursuit of happiness.”

Source: adapted from answers.com

Compare/Contrast the Draft of the Declaration to

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

the Final Version - Have students read the original draft of the Declaration of Independence as written by Thomas Jefferson and the final version as we know it today. Working in groups, identify the differences between the two versions. Students should speculate as to why the changes were made and whether they would have made the same changes.

The original draft and final version of the Declaration of Independence are available at: http://www.education-world.com/a_lesson/00-2/lp2046.shtml

Handout entitled, “Compare/Contrast Graphic Organizer”

Declaration of Independence Timeline – Using the Internet and print resources, have students create a timeline of at least five events that led to the Continental Congress to decide to declare the colonies freedom from Great Britain. Students should also justify the events they selected to place on the timeline.

The following timeline from the World History Project will be a helpful place for students to begin.

https://worldhistoryproject.org/topics/american-revolution-revolutionary-war

Student Handout entitled, “Timeline – Events Leading to the Adoption of the Declaration of Independence”

Biography of Thomas Jefferson - Review the difference between a “biography” and “autobiography.”

Have students read the handout entitled, “The Biography of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)” and complete the handout entitled, “The Biography of Thomas Jefferson – Questions.” Separate readings are provided for middle and senior high school students. The questions are the same.

Discuss the answers to the reading questions as a class.

Student Handout entitled, “The Biography of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)”

The Student Handout entitled, “The Biography of Thomas Jefferson – Questions.”

(Separate middle and senior high readings are provided. The questions are the same.)

Character Analysis - Jefferson and Today’s Handout entitled, “Miami-

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Leaders - After reading the biography of Thomas Jefferson, ask students to identify the character traits that Jefferson exemplified; e.g., courage, leadership. Ask students to make a similar list of character traits for a person currently holding an elected leadership position. Discuss the similarities and differences among the lists made for the elected leader and Jefferson

Dade County Public Schools’ Nine Core Character Education Values”

Do the Times Make the Person or… - Discuss the following: Consider the life and times of American colonial patriots such as Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Abigail Adams, Mercy Otis Warren, and Patrick Henry. Discuss: Do you believe that the times in which a person lives makes the person or does the person make the time in which they live?

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Interviewing the Signers of the Declaration of Independence - Divide the class into four to five groups. Assign each group one of the following signers of the Declaration of Independence: John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and John Adams. (Note: 56 men signed the Declaration. A complete list of signers is included on the final page of the Declaration. A list of signers and a brief biography on each man may be found at ushistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/index.html)

Challenge students to imagine that they are newspaper reporters in 1776 covering the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Each group will “meet” with one of the signers listed above and ask the signer three questions.

Before students can develop the questions, they must first research the history of the Declaration and

(Continued)

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Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

complete research on the signer they were assigned.

Once the research is completed, have each group brainstorm the questions they would ask each signer.

Have each group present their interview questions to the class. Discuss the questions and ask each group to defend/explain their choice of questions.

The Declaration of Independence - Map the Five Ws and H - Remind the students that in 1776, many colonists were dissatisfied with British rule of the colonies and that the Declaration of Independence includes a lengthy list of grievances or complaints against King George III of Great Britain.

Distribute the following to students:

a. A copy of the Declaration of Independence. (The full-text of the Declaration is provided in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

b. Student Handout, “Map the Five Ws and H”c. Student Handout, “Summary of the Declaration

of Independence”

Explain that students will read the original text of the Declaration while using the summary to help clarify what they read. The graphic organizer (“Map the Five Ws and H”) will help them answer key questions about the Declaration of Independence. (Who? What? When? Where? etc.)

To assist students in getting started, orally discuss/complete the section of the graphic organizer entitled, “The Event” (i.e., the writing of the Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Congress in 1776).

(Continued)

Allow 30-45 minutes for students to read the

Copy of the Declaration of Independence (A copy is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Student Handout entitled, “Map the Five Ws and H”

Student Handout entitled, “Summary of the Declaration of Independence”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Declaration and the “Summary of the Declaration of Independence.” Have students complete the graphic organizer (“Map the Five Ws and H”). This can be completed individually or in pairs.

When completed, discuss the answers provided for each section of the graphic organizer (“Map the Five Ws and H”). Have students make changes or corrections to the graphic organizer, as needed.

Paraphrasing the Declaration of Independence - Define paraphrasing (to re-state something using other words). Explain that paraphrasing is an important skill and an excellent way of determining whether someone truly comprehends what they are reading.

To illustrate the skill of paraphrasing, ask students to paraphrase the following statement: “The teacher insisted that all students follow the rules by: 1. being properly attired as required by the school uniform policy; 2. not being tardy; and, 3. not speaking aloud without first obtaining permission from the teacher. Violators would serve an afternoon detention.” (e.g., The teacher demanded that all students follow the school rules by wearing their school uniform, not being late, and not speaking until they had permission. Any student who did not follow the rules would have to stay after school.)

Explain that students will be asked to read and paraphrase an important passage from the Declaration of Independence.

Divide the class into groups of three and distribute copies of the quote below from Declaration of

(Continued)

Independence to each group. Also supply each group

None

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

with a dictionary or online access..

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

Assign each group the task of paraphrasing the quote from the Declaration and re-writing it into more current language. Offer the following questions as a guide:

After discussing the quote with your group, what are the main ideas the writer is trying to help you understand? Let each group member orally paraphrase the quote or a portion of the quote.

What vocabulary words used in the quote do you not understand? Look these words up in the dictionary. Also read the examples given with the definition. Do the examples help you better understand the language being used in the quote?

What new language can you suggest to re-write the quote into more current language? Is your paraphrasing clear and does it still express the original ideas of the writer?

Using the best ideas from each group, create a “new” Declaration of Independence and post the paraphrasing in the classroom.

Fundamental Ideas of Government in the Declaration of Independence - Explain that in this lesson, students will examine some of the fundamental

Student Handout, “Interpreting Excerpts from the Declaration of

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

ideas about government that are outlined in the Declaration of Independence. After completing this lesson, they should be able to explain those ideas.

Working in groups of 3-4, have students research and complete the Student Handout entitled, “Interpreting Excerpts from the Declaration of Independence” (Note: Information on the Declaration of Independence provided in the Background section of this instructional resource guide and on-line sources will be needed to help students interpret and paraphrase the excerpts from the Declaration.)

At the conclusion of the group work, write the original 5 excerpts from the Student Handout, “Interpreting Excerpts from the Declaration of Independence,” on the board and leave sufficient leave room for each group to write their paraphrasing under the original.

Have each group share their paraphrasing for each of the five excerpts. Write the paraphrased responses from each group on the board under the original wording.

After listing all of the paraphrased excerpts the groups have written, the class should indicate by a vote of hands which of the paraphrased ideas they feel are correct and clear (i.e., the paraphrasing correctly captures the intent of the original phrase in the Declaration) or not clearly paraphrased.

As closure, have students identify the fundamental ideas of American government they identified during the lesson. Utilize the following questions to guide the discussion:

(Continued) What is the purpose of government? Can people get rid of their government, and if

Independence”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

so, under what conditions? What are people’s basic human rights?

An Introduction to the U.S. Constitution – Ask students to imagine they are being asked to create a new government. Brainstorm the qualities they would want to see in a new government (e.g., fairness and equality, strong, ethical leadership, respect for individual rights, shared power, right to vote, freedom of speech, religion, assembly). Discuss these qualities and emphasize that people seek a government that:

a. has enough power to do its job effectively;b. does not give too much power to anyone;c. considers the needs of the citizens and states;

and,d. allows citizens to participate and have a say in

government; and protects the individual rights of citizens.

Pass out copies of the U.S. Constitution. (If a copy is not included in the class textbook, the full-text of the document is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Ask students to quickly scan the document and answer the following questions:

a. How many separate sections (called Articles) does the U.S. Constitution have? (Seven)

b. How many pages is the U.S. Constitution? Is it longer or shorter than you expected? (Answers will vary depending on the copy used.)

(Continued)

c. The first article is about the legislative branch,the second article is about the executive branch,

Copy of the U.S. Constitution (A copy of the document is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Student Handout entitled, “The United States Constitution”

Student Handout entitled, “The United States Constitution – Questions.”

(Separate readings and questions are provided for middle and senior high school students.)

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

and the third article deals with the judicial branch. Without reading the articles themselves, what can you infer about how the Founders viewed these three branches of government? (Students may suggest that the three branches are to share power. Students may also suggest that because the section about the legislative branch is so much longer, the Founders saw it as the most significant branch of government.)

d. What can you tell about the U.S. Constitution based on the way it is organized? (Students may suggest that the U.S. Constitution is organized in an orderly way, divided into clear sections and subsections.)

e. How many people signed the U.S. Constitution? Is this number higher or lower than you expected? What do you notice about the makeup of the list of signers? (Thirty-nine people signed. The signers are all men, and their names are associated with twelve states. Rhode Island is not represented.)

Explain that the class is going to learn how and why the U.S. Constitution was created in 1787. They will further compare it to the first national government under the Articles of Confederation.

Review the events leading to the establishment of the new nation and government (i.e., colonial discontent with the British King and government leads to war,

(Continued)

American principles and beliefs set forth in the Declaration of Independence, results of the American

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Revolution, distrust of strong governments by the citizens of the new nation.)

Assign the reading of the Student Handout entitled, “The United States Constitution” Have students writeand/or discuss the questions on the Student Handout entitled, “The United States Constitution – Questions.”

Thoroughly discuss and review the answers to the questions completed by the students. In some cases, answers to the questions will vary.

As closure, discuss how well the new U.S. Constitution addresses the characteristics of effective government that were brainstormed and discussed at the beginning of the lesson.

The Preamble of the U.S. Constitution – Explain that in this lesson, students will identify the purposes of government and the essential ideas of American constitutional government as presented in the Preamble or introduction to the U.S. Constitution.

Distribute copies of the Student Handout entitled, “The Preamble to the U.S. Constitution.” Have students work in pairs to complete the assignment.

Read the section, “Purpose of the Lesson,” and consider the objectives of the lesson. Ask students to then read the section, “What Do You Think the Purpose of Government Should Be?” Working with their partner, students should read the two questions and discuss possible answers. Have several pairs share their

(Continued)responses with the class.

Have students read the final section, “What Does the

Student Handout entitled, “The Preamble to the U.S. Constitution.”

Student Handout entitled, “Problem-Solving Group Activity.”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Preamble Say?” Have the students also write down any words or phrases found in the Preamble that needfurther definition or clarification.

Next, pass out copies of the Student Handout entitled, “Problem-Solving Group Activity.”

Organize the class into six groups and assign each group one of the phrases from the Preamble. Follow the directions on the problem-solving activity. Allow students to use print and online resources to help them in answering the three questions on the assignment.

Ask each group to make a brief oral presentation to the class on the phrase in the Preamble they studied.

Once all six groups have made their presentations on the meaning of the key phrases in the Preamble to the U.S. Constitution, explain that the class will further demonstrate its understanding of the phrases by creating a new preamble.

Write the entire, original Preamble on the board or white board leaving adequate space to write student responses between each phrase.

Taking one phrase at a time, discuss how to re-write each phrase. Have the group that analyzed each phrase in the previous exercise to take the lead on making suggestions for the new wording. Decide on the best re-write through consensus. When completed,

(Continued)

re-write and post the new preamble in the class.

Conclude the lesson by discussing the following

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

questions:

What basic ideas about the purposes of our government are included in the Preamble?

Some people have said the most important words in our U.S. Constitution are the first three words: “We the People.” Explain why you agree or disagree with this opinion.

Explain these terms: preamble, justice, domestic tranquility, common defense, general welfare.

The Bill of Rights - Remind students that the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution are called the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights limits or prohibits the national (federal) government from denying certain rights. For example, the right of individuals to speak and worship freely was protected by the First Amendment’s prohibitions on Congress from making laws establishing a religion or limiting freedom of speech.

Explain that in today’s lesson, students will review each of the amendments and provide a reason why each amendment is important.

Pass out copies of the Student Handout entitled, “Bill of Rights Overview.” Read the article and discuss making special note of the following key points:

a. One of the major arguments between Federalists and Anti-Federalists was the U.S. Constitution’s lack of a bill of rights that would place specific limits on government power.

(Continued)

Federalists argued that the U.S. Constitution did not need a bill of rights because the people and the states kept any powers not given to the

Copy of the Bill of Rights (A copy of the document is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Student Handout entitled, “Bill of Rights Overview”

Student Handout entitled, “Rights Guaranteed Under the Bill of Rights”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

federal government. Anti-Federalists disagreed and stated that a bill of rights was necessary tosafeguard individual liberty.

b. The Bill of Rights was written by James Madison in response to calls from several states for greater Constitutional protection for individual liberties.

c. The Bill of Rights is a list of limits on government power.

Pass out copies of the Student Handout entitled, “Rights Guaranteed Under the Bill of Rights.”

Working as an individual or in pairs, have students complete the assignment entitled, “Rights Guaranteed Under the Bill of Rights.” (Students can either utilize the Bill of Rights included in the full-text of the U.S. Constitution or the full-text of the Bill of Rights found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

As closure, discuss the reasons given by students to support the amendments. Also emphasize that with rights come corresponding responsibilities.

Is it Constitutional or Unconstitutional? - Explain that in today’s lesson, students will read brief case scenarios and decide whether the scenario is legal or in violation of the Bill of Rights; i.e., Is it constitutional or unconstitutional?

(Continued)

Have students work in pairs to complete the Student Handout entitled “Bill of Rights Case Scenarios” (Students may either use the full-text of the Bill of

Student Handout entitled “Bill of Rights Case Scenarios”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Rights or the Summary of the Bill of Rights. Both are provided in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Following the completion of the activity, have students discuss the results as a whole group activity. During the discussion, be sure to emphasize that all rights have corresponding responsibilities.

Treasure Hunt - Exploring the Contents of the Constitution - Through large group discussion, review the focus of each of the seven articles found in the U.S. Constitution:

Article I established the legislative branch.Article II established the executive branch.Article III established the judicial branch.Article IV describes the relationship among the states.Article V describes the process by which the U.S. Constitution can be amended.Article VI explains that neither federal or state laws may conflict with any part of the Constitution (the Supremacy Clause).Article VII describes the process for ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Pass out copies of the full-text of the U.S. States Constitution. (A copy is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

(Continued)

Distribute copies of the Student Handout entitled, “U.S. Constitution Treasure Hunt.”

Copy of the U.S. Constitution (A copy of the document is found in the Background section of this instructional resource guide.)

Student Handout entitled, “U.S. Constitution Treasure Hunt.”

(Separate Student Handouts are provided for middle and senior high school students.)

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Have students work individually or in pairs to locate the answers to the activity sheet. Review and discuss the answers.

The Biography of James Madison - Explain that in this lesson, students will be reading about the life of James Madison, an important Founding Father and a man known as “The Father of The Constitution.”

Pass out copies of the Student Handout entitled, “Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution” and the Student Handout entitled, “Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution – Questions.” Separate readings and questions are provided for middle and senior high school students.

Define and discuss key social science vocabulary terms/concepts found in the reading including: U.S. Constitution, legislature, American Revolution, Continental Congress, Articles of Confederation, delegate, Constitutional Convention, branches of government, checks and balances, ratify, Federalist Papers, Bill of Rights, Secretary of State, War of 1812, Star Spangled Banner.

Have students read the “Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution” and answer the questions in writing.

As closure, review the students’ answers, with additional attention given to the last question regarding Madison’s nickname as the “Father of the Constitution.”

The Federal System of Government - Explain that in this lesson, students will study the federal system of government created by the Framers. The federal system shares power among the national (federal) government, the states, and the people themselves.

Student Handout entitled, “Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution”

Student Handout entitled, “Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution – Questions.”

(Separate readings and questions are provided for middle and senior high school students.)

Student Handout entitled “What is the Federal System of Government Created by

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

Pass out copies of the Student Handout entitled “What is the Federal System of Government Created by the U.S. Constitution?”

Have students read the first section, “What are the Different Kinds of Government?” Discuss the definitions and characteristics of unitary and confederation governments.

Have students next read the section, “How is the Federal System Different from Other Systems of Government?” Be sure students understand and can explain the concepts of sovereignty and federal, unitary, and confederate systems of government. Ask students to give examples of each type of system, e.g., the present United States is a federal system, Switzerland is a confederate system, and Great Britain is a unitary system.

Have students read the next two sections, “How is Power Distributed and Shared in the Federal System?” and “Why Does the Federal Government Have Greater Power than the State Government?"

Be sure that students understand the following:

A federal system of government is one that divides the powers of government between the national (federal) government and state and local governments. The term “federal government” refers to the national government of the United States.

(Continued)

The people are the ultimate source of power in our system (“We the people…”) and in the Constitution, the people have delegated some power to the state and federal governments and retained some powers

the U.S. Constitution?”

Student Handout entitled, “The Federal System”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

for themselves.

The Supremacy Clause of the Constitution (Article VI) places the federal government in a position of superior power over state governments.

Have students read the last section, “What Conflicts Might Occur Between the Federal and State Government?” Discuss with students how the complexity of the federal system was thought by the Framers to be an advantage over other forms of government. The Framers thought that the separation of powers between the federal and state governments was one way to protect the rights of the people.

Following the initial reading of the assignment entitled “What is the Federal System of Government Created by the U.S. Constitution?”, have students work in pairs to re-read the assignment and complete “The Federal System.”

Analyzing Historical Quotations - Explain that students will be reading and analyzing several quotations regarding the U.S. Constitution and democracy.

Distribute the Student Handouts entitled, “Famous Quotations” and the “Quote Analysis Assignment.” Review the directions and ask students to complete the activity individually or in pairs. Provide students with access to the Internet for research, if available.

(Continued)

Following the completion of the group activity, select 2-3 quotes to review with the entire class. Write these on the board and analyze them as a whole group activity using the questions from the “Quote Analysis” activity

Student Handout entitled, “Famous Quotations”

Student Handout entitled, “Quote Analysis Assignment.”

Suggested Activities for Secondary Students Activity Sheet Provided

as a guide. Solicit answers to the questions from the class.

As closure, ask students which quote, in their opinion, best represents the importance of the U.S. Constitution.

Miami-Dade County Public Schools’ Nine Core Character Education Values

Citizenship:  Helping to create a society based upon democratic values; e.g., rule of law, equality of opportunity, due process, reasoned argument, representative government, checks and balances, rights and responsibilities, and democratic decision-making.

Examples:

Obeying classroom and school rules. Forming a representative government in school; i.e., student government.

Cooperation:  Working together toward goals as basis as human survival in an increasingly interdependent world.

Examples:

Practicing cooperative learning activities in the classroom. Being a member of the team on the athletic field.

Fairness:  Treating people impartially, not playing favorites, being open-minded, and maintaining an objective attitude toward those whose actions and ideas are different from our own.

Examples:

Taking turns in a game/activity. Treating people the same, no matter what their ethnicity, race, religion, gender,

sexual preference, or physical condition may be.

Honesty:  Dealing truthfully with people, being sincere, not deceiving them nor stealing from them, not cheating nor lying.

Examples:

Doing one's own work when taking a test or working on an individual assignment. Telling the truth although it may place a person in a negative circumstance.

Integrity:   Standing up for your beliefs about what is right and what is wrong and resisting social pressure to do wrong.

Examples:

Expressing one's conviction in a group of peers although it may not be popular with the majority.

Not joining fellow students who are bullying others when "everyone" is doing it.

Kindness:   Being sympathetic, helpful, compassionate, benevolent, agreeable, and

gentle toward people and other living things.

Examples:

Particpating in a class project to help lost or stray pets. Helping a fellow student who has been injured.

Pursuit of Excellence:   Doing your best with the talents you have, striving toward a goal, and not giving up.

Examples:

Putting forth one’s best effort when taking an exam or doing homework. Trying one's hardest when participating in sports.

Respect:  Showing regard for the worth and dignity of someone or something, being courteous and polite, and judging all people on their merits. It takes three major forms: respect for oneself, respect for other people, and respect for all forms of life and the environment.

Examples:

Practicing acceptable manners in the school cafeteria. Not damaging or defacing property (graffiti) which belongs to someone else.

Responsibility:  Thinking before you act and being accountable for your actions, paying attention to others, and responding to their needs.  Responsibility emphasizes our positive obligations to care for each other.

Examples:

Fulfilling one’s part of an assignment in a group project. Performing a community service project.

Source: Miami-Dade County Public Schools, adopted 1994-1995

Declaration of Independence (Middle School)

The Declaration of Independence which announced or declared the independence of the thirteen colonies in North America from Great Britain was adopted on July 4, 1776. However, the road to American independence and the creation of the United States took far longer than a single day.

The Road to Its Adoption - Official acts of the British government that colonists considered violations of their rights had previously led to the Stamp Act Congress (1765) and to the First Continental Congress (1774), but these assemblies sought solutions to the colonial complaints, not independence. The efforts of the First Continental Congress in 1774 to reason with Britain failed. Discontent grew in the colonies, and the battles at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts in April 1775 developed into the American Revolution. Many members of the Second Continental Congress of Philadelphia followed the leadership of John Hancock, John Adams, and Samuel Adams in demanding independence.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, a delegate to the Second Continental Congress from Virginia, called for a declaration of independence. On June 11, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman were instructed to draft such a declaration. The actual writing was assigned to Jefferson, a young lawyer from Virginia. The first draft was revised by Franklin, Adams, and Jefferson before it was sent to Congress, where it was again changed numerous times. That final draft was adopted on July 4, 1776, and Independence Day has been the most important American patriotic holiday ever since.

The Declaration and Its Importance -The Declaration of Independence is one of the most important of all American historical documents. It is basically a justification of the American Revolution presented to the world. After stating its purpose, the opening paragraphs clearly state the American ideal of government based on the natural rights philosophy of John Locke, Emerich de Vattel, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, among others. The Declaration begins:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the

forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security...”

In just a few sentences, the Declaration presents the basic foundations of American government: "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed (granted) by their creator with unalienable rights," (rights given by God that cannot be taken away by government) and "that to secure these rights, governments are instituted (established) among men, deriving (getting) their just powers from the consent (approval) of the governed."

The document follows with an indictment of King George III for purposely abusing the rights of the colonists in order to establish an “absolute Tyranny” over the colonies. The document states that colonial patience and efforts to reach agreement with the King had achieved nothing. Therefore, the colonists found themselves forced to declare their independence. The powerful closing paragraph is the formal announcement of independence from Great Britain. It states:

“We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.—And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our fortunes and our sacred Honor.”

The unique combination of philosophy and theory of government and the detailed listing of specific grievances and injustices suffered by the colonists has given the Declaration of Independence lasting recognition as one of the greatest political documents ever written. Many of the fundamental principles found in the Declaration were later included in the United States Constitution.

Source: Adapted from answers.com

Declaration of Independence (Senior High School)

The Declaration of Independence which announced the independence of the thirteen colonies in North America from Great Britain was adopted on July 4, 1776. However, the road to American independence and the creation of the United States took far longer than a single day.

The Road to Its Adoption - Official acts that colonists considered infringements upon their rights had previously led to the Stamp Act Congress (1765) and to the First Continental Congress (1774), but these were mostly conservative assemblies that sought reconciliation, not independence. The efforts of the First Continental Congress in 1774 to reason with Britain failed. Discontent grew, and as the battles at Lexington and Concord in April 1775 developed into the American Revolution. Many members of the Second Continental Congress of Philadelphia followed the leadership of John Hancock, John Adams, and Samuel Adams in demanding independence.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, a delegate to the Convention from Virginia, called for a resolution of independence. On June 11, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman were instructed to draft such a declaration. The actual writing was entrusted to Jefferson, a young lawyer from Virginia. The first draft was revised by Franklin, Adams, and Jefferson before it was sent to Congress, where it was again changed numerous times. That final draft was adopted on July 4, 1776, and Independence Day has been the most important American patriotic holiday ever since.

The Declaration and Its Importance - The Declaration of Independence is one of the most important of all American historical documents. It is essentially a justification of the American Revolution presented to the world. After stating its purpose, the opening paragraphs clearly state the American ideal of government based on the natural rights philosophy of John Locke, Emerich de Vattel, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, among others. The Declaration begins:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes

destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the

forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security...”

In just a few sentences, the Declaration presents the basic foundations of American government: "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with unalienable rights," and "that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."

The document follows with an indictment of King George III for purposely abusing the rights of the colonists in order to establish an “absolute Tyranny” over the colonies. The document states that colonial patience had achieved nothing. Therefore, the colonists found themselves forced to declare their independence. The powerful closing paragraph is the formal pronouncement of independence from Great Britain. It states:

“We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.—And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our fortunes and our sacred Honor.”

The unique combination of philosophy and theory of government and the detailed listing of specific grievances and injustices suffered by the colonists has given the Declaration enduring power as one of the greatest political documents ever written. Many of the fundamental principles found in the Declaration were later included in the United States Constitution.

Source: Adapted from answers.com

The Declaration of Independence – Questions (Middle and Senior High)

1. Explain the meaning of the following statement taken from the reading:

“Official acts of the British government that colonists considered violations of their rights had previously led to the Stamp Act Congress (1765) and to the First Continental Congress (1774), but these assemblies sought solutions to the colonial complaints, not independence.”

2. Who first called for a resolution of independence? Name the committee members who were finally given the task of drafting the Declaration of Independence.

3. Within the Declaration, three natural rights are described as “unalienable rights.” What are these rights?

4. The first paragraph of the Declaration outlines two of the basic foundations of American government. List and define each in your own words.

a.

b.

5. What is declared in the last paragraph of the Declaration?

6. Agree or disagree? Cite examples to support your answer.

“Many of the fundamental principles found in the Declaration were later included in the United States Constitution.”

Compare and Contrast Graphic OrganizerThe Original Draft vs. the Final Version of the Declaration of Independence

Source: https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MODqGYWSEOA/V0tglF8h2mI/AAAAAAAAG4Q/AApsiATjVpIAxcFk8jT8pw3_sQiFypVuACKgB/s1600/venn.png

Timeline – Events Leading to the Adoption of the Declaration of Independence

Directions: Research the events leading to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Select the five events you feel contributed the most to the colonists declaring their independence from Great Britain. Place these events on the timeline below and explain your reasons for selecting the events.

1. Complete the timeline:

Source: https://squareheadteachers.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/timeline-simple-boxes.jpg?w=245&h=190

2. On your own paper, describe the five events you selected and explain why you feel it is critical to understanding why the colonies declared their freedom.

For example: The ABCD Act (Date) – This British law angered the colonists because it forced them to pay a tax on an item not previously taxed. Complaints to the King went unanswered, which angered the colonists even more.

The Biography of 1Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (Middle School)

Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 in Shadwell, Virginia. One of eight children, his father was a wealthy surveyor who owned many slaves and his mother came from an important Virginia family. Jefferson had six sisters and one brother.

At age 9, Jefferson went to live with a Scottish clergyman, who taught him French, Greek and Latin along with his regular subjects. Young Jefferson developed a life-long hunger for learning. Jefferson entered William and Mary College in Williamsburg, Virginia at age 16 and, after graduation, he studied law.

In 1769, Jefferson was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses (legislature), where he developed friendships with other champions of individual liberty like Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee. Six years later, he was elected to serve as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1775, the Continental Congress asked Jefferson to work with a committee of five men, which also included Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, to write a declaration of independence from England. Borrowing ideas from the English philosopher John Locke, Jefferson eloquently, but clearly, explained the reasons why the American colonists should not be subject to the authority of the English government. The result was the Declaration of Independence. After revising some portions of the draft, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

The Declaration of Independence said that all men were equal and that God had given them certain unalienable rights. Those rights included life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It went on to say that men created governments in order to make sure all men had these rights and that governments received their power from those men. These ideas are stated in the following quote from the Declaration of Independence.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

1Jefferson left the Continental Congress in 1776 and served in the Virginia legislature until his election as governor in 1779. He was governor from 1779 to 1781. Following the American Revolution, Jefferson served the United States as the Minister to France, Secretary of State, and Vice-President under President John Adams.

Thomas Jefferson further served as the new nation’s third president from 1801-1809. During the last 17 years of his life, Jefferson remained in Virginia. He died at his home, Monticello, on July 4, 1826 on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.

Sources: Kings Park School, Springfield, Virginia http://www.fcps.edu/KingsParkES/technology/bios/ (link no longer available) and Social Studies for Kids http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/

Biography of 1Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (Senior High)

In the middle of a political conflict in 1800, Thomas Jefferson wrote in a private letter, "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man."

This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albemarle County, Virginia, inheriting from his father, a planter and surveyor, some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a Randolph, high social standing. He studied at the College of William and Mary. Upon graduation, he studied law. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow, and took her to live in his partly constructed mountaintop home, Monticello.

Freckled and sandy-haired, rather tall and awkward, Jefferson was eloquent as a writer, but he was no public speaker. In the Virginia House of Burgesses (legislature) and the Continental Congress, he contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriot cause. In 1775, the Congress asked Jefferson to work with a committee of five men, which also included Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, to write a declaration of independence from Britain. Borrowing ideas from the English philosopher John Locke, Jefferson eloquently, but clearly, explained the reasons why the American colonists should not be subject to the authority of the British government. The result was the Declaration of Independence. After revising some portions of the draft, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

The Declaration of Independence said that all men were equal and that God had given them certain unalienable rights. Those rights included life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It went on to say that men created governments in order to make sure all men had these rights and that governments received their power from those men. These ideas are stated in the following quote from the Declaration of Independence.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

After the American Revolution and independence from Britain, Jefferson succeeded Benjamin Franklin as minister to France in 1785. His sympathy for the French Revolution led him into conflict with Alexander Hamilton when Jefferson was Secretary of State in President Washington's Cabinet. He resigned in 1793.

Sharp political conflict developed, and two separate parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, began to form. Jefferson gradually assumed leadership of the Democratic-Republicans, who sympathized with the revolutionary cause in France. Attacking Federalist policies, he opposed a strong federal government and championed the rights of states.

As a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, Jefferson came within three votes of election. Through a flaw in the United States Constitution, he became Vice President, although a political opponent of President Adams. In 1800, the flaw caused a more serious problem. Democratic-Republican electors, attempting to name both a President and a Vice President from their own party, cast a tie vote between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The House of Representatives settled the tie. Hamilton, disliking both Jefferson and Burr, nevertheless urged Jefferson's election. Jefferson was elected the nation’s third president.

When Jefferson assumed the Presidency, the crisis in France had passed. He slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey so unpopular in the West, yet reduced the national debt by a third. He also sent a naval squadron to fight the Barbary pirates, who were harassing American commerce in the Mediterranean. Further, although the Constitution made no provision for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality when he had the opportunity to acquire the Louisiana Territory from France’s Napoleon in 1803.

During Jefferson's second term, he was increasingly preoccupied with keeping the United States from involvement in the Napoleonic wars, though both England and France interfered with the neutral rights of American merchantmen. Jefferson's attempted solution, an embargo upon American shipping, worked badly and was unpopular.

After serving two terms as President of the United States, Jefferson retired to his Monticello home to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia. A French nobleman observed that he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."

He died on July 4, 1826, exactly fifty years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

Adapted from the White House website, https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/Presidents and Social Studies for Kids http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/

Questions - Biography of 1Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (Middle and Senior High)

1. Based on your understanding of Thomas Jefferson’s beliefs, explain the following quote made by him: “I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man."

2. Who did Jefferson primarily work with to draft the Declaration of Independence? Whose ideas did Jefferson borrow?

3. In your own words, explain the following quote from the Declaration of Independence:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

4. List at least 4 positions held by Jefferson during his career.

Map the Five Ws and H Directions: In the appropriate boxes, write who, when, where, why, and how regarding the Declaration of Independence. Complete the last box at the conclusion of the lesson.

Source: From the Ohio Department of Education

Summary of the Declaration of Independence

Part One – Preamble or Introductory Section - In the preamble, the Second Continental Congress begins the explanation of why the colonies want to separate from Britain and become a separate group of states.

Part Two - Right of People to Govern Themselves - The second part of the Declaration of Independence states that people are equal and have rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. To guarantee these rights, people create governments. Governments get their power when people agree to let them rule. Whenever a government fails to protect its people, the people have the right to change the government or get rid of it and start a new government. The new government should organize its powers for the safety and happiness of its people. People should not abolish or overthrow a government for unreasonable causes. But when a government fails to protect the people over a long period of time, it is the right of citizens to overthrow that government and provide a new government for the citizens’ safety. The King of England has for a long time failed to protect the people of the colonies and the Declaration points out what he has done wrong.

Part Three – Grievances - The Declaration of Independence provides a list of many grievances or complaints against the King of England. Some of the grievances were that:

The king kept an army in the colonies in times of peace. The king allowed soldiers to be quartered or housed in the colonists’ homes. The king protected soldiers who committed murder. The king cut off colonial trade with the rest of the world. The king taxed the colonists without their permission. The king took away colonial charters and did not let colonists make laws. The king burned the towns and destroyed the lives of the colonists.

Part Four - Attempts at Trying to Avoid Separation from England - The Declaration states that the colonies’ repeated attempts to try to solve the problems were met with further injuries. The colonies warned the British people of attempts by the British legislature to extend their law over the colonists. The colonies kept reminding the British of the reasons the colonies were founded in the first place and asked for their help. These appeals were ignored and so the British people had to be regarded as enemies.

Part Five - Declaration of Separation - The last section of the Declaration states that having explained the reasons for their actions, the colonists’ political connections to Great Britain were ended. As free and independent states, the colonies could wage war, have peace, make agreements with other countries, establish trade and do all the other things free and independent states do. In support of the Declaration of Independence, the signers pledged their lives, their fortunes and their honor.

Source: Adapted from the Ohio Department of Education

Interpreting Excerpts from the Declaration of Independence

Directions: Working in groups, read and discuss the five excerpts below from the Declaration of Independence. Together, re-write the ideas contained in these excerpts into your own words. In addition, identify the fundamental ideas of American government found in each excerpt.

You will find that some of the ideas are clear and easily understood. However, for others you might need to research what the writers of the Declaration intended to say. For example, what did the writers mean when they wrote that they held “these Truths to be self-evident,” “all Men are created equal,” “unalienable rights,” and the “Pursuit of Happiness”? For help with these phrases, research the meaning of these words or alternative interpretations of their meaning.

Excerpts from the Declaration of Independence:

1. “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal…”

2. “…That they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness;”

3. “That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men…”

4. “…deriving their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed…”

5. “…that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these Ends it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its Foundation on such Principles, and organizing its Power in such Form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

The United States Constitution (Middle School)

Introduction

In 1987, the United States celebrated the bicentennial or 200th anniversary of the signing of the United States Constitution. This document has served as the supreme law of our nation for more than two centuries. “We the People,” the first three words of the U.S. Constitution, emphasize our nation’s efforts to enact the will of the people and to protect the rights and freedoms of all Americans.

The U.S. Constitution is a system of basic laws and principles that defines the rights of American citizens and sets limits on what the government can and cannot do. It provides the framework for the federal (national) government. It further establishes a system of federalism, by which roles and responsibilities are divided between the national government and the governments of the states. States can act together as one, while also preserving their individual sovereignty (authority).

One of the important principles on which the U.S. Constitution is based is the separation of powers within the federal government. The U.S. Constitution divides power between three separate branches of the federal government. The legislative branch (represented by Congress) has the power to create laws; the executive branch (represented by the president and his advisers) has the power to enforce laws; and, the judicial branch (represented by the Supreme Court and other federal courts) has the power to dismiss or reverse laws that it determines are "unconstitutional."

The Articles of Confederation and the Growing Need for a Stronger National Government

When the United States won its independence from Britain in 1781 as a result of the American Revolution, a majority of Americans felt a stronger loyalty to their states than to their new country. For example, they most often considered themselves a Virginian or North Carolinian first and an American second! Also, most people did not wish to create a strong national government. They had just fought a long war to free themselves from the British king and government and did not want to establish another strong government they thought they would have little control over.

In response to these attitudes, leaders organized the new American government in a document known as the Articles of Confederation. The main purpose of the Articles was to establish a loose system by which the states could cooperate with one another if they needed to defend themselves against a foreign enemy. The Articles did not establish a strong national government. Instead, the Articles gave each state more power than the national government.

The Articles of Confederation outlined how the 13 states would be governed as one nation as follows:

Each state was independent and had its own government. Each state would send representatives to the “Congress of the Confederation,” a

lawmaking body. Congress was the only branch of government. (No president or courts.) In Congress, each state got one vote.

On one hand, the Articles of Confederation had qualities that citizens liked. Because the Articles did not set up a very strong government, states got to keep their power and independence. There was no powerful government telling them what to do. Citizens also wanted protection, and the Articles gave Congress the power to create a military to protect all the states, if needed.

However, there were serious problems. For one thing, the Articles did not give Congress the power to enforce its laws. Congress also had no power to collect taxes to pay for the military. Furthermore, to change the Articles, every single state had to agree to the changes. These and other problems led citizens to believe the government, wasn't working.

In 1786, leaders in Virginia passed a resolution calling for delegates (representatives) from the 13 states to meet in Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss the nation's problems. Their goal was to amend (change) the Articles of Confederation to make the national government stronger and more effective. But, only twelve representatives from five states attended the Annapolis Convention, so they resolved to call another meeting the following year.

The Constitutional Convention

On May 25, 1787, delegates from twelve of the thirteen states gathered in Independence Hall in Philadelphia to open the Constitutional Convention. Rhode Island was the only state not represented. In attendance were 55 men, including many talented scholars, philosophers, war leaders, and politicians. These men are now referred to as the Founding Fathers or Framers.

Alexander Hamilton, representing New York, was largely responsible for arranging the Constitutional Convention. George Washington, from Virginia, was president of the convention. Benjamin Franklin, representing Pennsylvania, offered the incomparable wisdom of his 81 years. Gouverneur Morris, also from Pennsylvania, headed up the committee that actually wrote the U.S. Constitution. James Madison, also from Virginia,

earned the nickname "Father of the Constitution" because his brilliant ideas kept the convention moving forward when problems developed.

Almost immediately after the convention opened, a major disagreement developed between the delegates of the large and small states as to what form the new government should take. The larger, more populous states supported the Virginia Plan, which proposed that representation within the government should be based on the size of a state's population. The plan was designed to give states with large populations a proportionately large share of decision-making power. Smaller, less populous states, opposed the Virginia Plan. They supported the New Jersey Plan, which proposed that every state, regardless of size, would have the same representation within the government. The two plans are compared below:

Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan

Legislative branch has two chambers Legislative branch has one chamber

Number of votes for each state depends on the state’s population

Each state gets one vote

The convention was deadlocked while the delegates debated the merits of the Virginia and New Jersey Plans until the delegates from Connecticut devised a compromise to settle the dispute. The Connecticut Compromise or the Great Compromise called for the creation of a bicameral (two-house) legislature, or Congress. One of the two houses of the new Congress (the House of Representatives) would be elected according to the size of the individual state’s population. The other house (the Senate) would have equal representation for each state regardless of its population. Once this critical compromise was reached, the delegates agreed more readily on most of the remaining issues.

The Constitution also solved some other problems found in the Articles of Confederation.

The Articles didn’t require states to treat citizens from other states the same as their own citizens, but the U.S. Constitution does.

The Articles couldn’t be changed unless all states agreed, but the U.S. Constitution can be amended or changed if 3/4 of the states agree.

The Articles didn’t require states to follow the laws Congress passed, but the U.S. Constitution says federal laws are superior to state laws.

On September 17, 1787, the U.S. Constitution was signed by 39 of the original 55 delegates. Several had left the convention altogether. Three others - Elbridge Gerry ofMassachusetts and George Mason and Edmund Randolph of Virginia - refused to sign because they lacked confidence in the document's ability to rule the nation.

Ratifying the U.S. Constitution

The U.S. Constitution was signed by most of the delegates who created it, but the states still had to ratify or approve it before it became the law of the nation. The U.S. Constitution itself required that 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify the document before it could become effective. Delaware had the honor of being the first state to approve the U.S. Constitution on December 7, 1787. However, the remaining push for ratification for was far from easy. In three of the largest (most populated) states - Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia - the contest was close.

The Framers knew that the new government would have no chance of succeeding without the support of these large states, so they organized a campaign in support of the U.S. Constitution by publishing a series of essays in New York newspapers. These essays, which came to be known as The Federalist Papers, were written under the name Publius, a pen name adopted by the authors James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Supporters of the U.S. Constitution were called Federalists.

People who opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution were known as Anti-Federalists. They launched a campaign to defeat ratification, believing the U.S. Constitution would make the national government too powerful. However, they mostly objected that the document did not contain a bill of rights, which would guarantee citizens certain rights that the government could never take away from them. Anti-Federalists published their own series of essays, under pen names such as Brutus, to oppose ratification.

In response to the Anti-Federalists, John Hancock at the Massachusetts ratifying convention proposed that a bill of rights be added to the new U.S. Constitution as the first group of amendments to the document. Ratification in Massachusetts and almost all the rest of the uncommitted states depended on the understanding that adopting a bill of rights would be the new government's first order of business after the U.S. Constitution was ratified.

On June 21, 1788, the U.S. Constitution went into effect when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the document. New York and Virginia also ratified the document.

Amending the U.S. Constitution

The first Congress to conduct business under the authority of the new U.S. Constitution met in New York City on March 4, 1789. The promised addition of a bill of rights was proposed at once, and the new government began following constitutional procedures to change, or amend, the document. According to the U.S. Constitution, amendments must be approved by at least two thirds of the members of each house of Congress and by three quarters of the states. The Framers had intentionally made it difficult to amend the document.

In 1791, the first ten amendments, now known as the Bill of Rights, were added to the U.S. Constitution. These ten amendments define and protect the rights of the American people. Each of the 17 amendments that followed over the course of the next two centuries reflects the ever-changing American society. The power to amend the U.S. Constitution is the primary reason the document has often been referred to as a “living document.”

Sources: Adapted from an article in Grolier, 2003 and a handout developed by ICivics

The United States Constitution – Questions (Middle School) Directions: Answer the following questions on your own notebook paper. Answer in complete sentences and be careful to answer all parts of the question.

1. Define each of the following vocabulary terms and write a sentence using the word:

amend federalismAnti-Federalists Federalistsbicameral Framerbicentennial ratifydelegate sovereignty

2. In your own words, write a two paragraph definition/description of the U.S. Constitution.

3. Explain why Americans did not want a strong government following the American Revolution.

4. Define the Articles of Confederation and list at least three weaknesses of this government.

5. Why were the 55 men who attended the Constitutional Convention called Framers or Founding Fathers?

6. Describe the difference between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan.

7. Describe the Great Compromise. Why was this compromise so important?

8. What two groups opposed one another while the ratification of the U.S. Constitution was being discussed?

9. What suggestion was made by John Hancock that helped the U.S. Constitution be ratified?

10.What are the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution known as? How many amendments in total have been made to the document?

11.The first three words of the U.S. Constitution are “We the People.” In your opinion, why are these words so important to Americans?

The United States Constitution (Senior High)

Introduction

In 1987, the United States celebrated the bicentennial or 200th anniversary of the signing of Constitution of the United States. This document has served as the supreme law of our nation for more than two centuries. “We the People,” the first three words of the U.S. Constitution, emphasize our nation’s efforts to enact the will of the people and to protect the rights and freedoms of all Americans.

The U.S. Constitution is a system of basic laws and principles that defines the rights of American citizens and sets limits on what the government can and cannot do. It provides the framework for the federal (national) government. It further establishes a system of federalism, by which roles and responsibilities are divided between the national government and the states' governments. States can act together as one, while also preserving their individual sovereignty (authority).

One of the important principles on which the U.S. Constitution is based is the separation of powers within the federal government. The U.S. Constitution divides power between three separate branches of the federal government. The legislative branch (represented by Congress) has the power to create laws; the executive branch (represented by the president and his advisers) has the power to enforce laws; and the judicial branch (represented by the Supreme Court and other federal courts) has the power to dismiss or reverse laws that it determines are "unconstitutional."

The Articles of Confederation and the Growing Need for a Stronger National Government

When the United States won its independence from Britain in 1781 as a result of the American Revolution, a majority of Americans felt a stronger loyalty to their states than to their new country. For example, they more often considered themselves a Virginian or North Carolinian first and an American second. Also, most people did not wish to create a strong national government. They had just fought a long war to free themselves from England’s king and government and did not want to establish another strong government they thought they would have little control over.

In response to these attitudes, leaders organized the new American government in a document known as the Articles of Confederation. The main purpose of the Articles was to establish a loose system by which the states could cooperate with one another if they needed to defend themselves against a foreign enemy. The Articles did not establish a strong national government. Instead, the Articles gave each state more power than the national government. For example, the Articles established a Congress that could raise an army and a navy, but only when the states gave permission. Congress could also pass laws, yet it did not have the power to make the states obey them. States could also

print their own currency. Nor was the government under the Articles able to control citizen uprisings, such as Shays' Rebellion, which occurred from 1786 to 1787. Farmers in western Massachusetts staged violent protests against their state government. Many people began to question the weak Articles of Confederation and to feel that a stronger national government might be necessary after all.

In 1786, leaders in Virginia passed a resolution calling for delegates (representatives) from the 13 states to meet in Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss the nation's problems. Their goal was to amend (change) the Articles of Confederation to make the national government stronger and more effective. But, only twelve representatives from five states attended the Annapolis Convention, so they resolved to call another meeting the following year.

The Constitutional Convention

On May 25, 1787, delegates from twelve of the thirteen states gathered in Independence Hall in Philadelphia to open the Constitutional Convention. Rhode Island was the only state not represented. In attendance were 55 men, including many talented scholars, philosophers, war leaders, and politicians. These men are now referred to as the Founding Fathers or Framers.

Alexander Hamilton, representing New York, was largely responsible for arranging the Constitutional Convention. George Washington, from Virginia, was president of the convention. Benjamin Franklin, representing Pennsylvania, offered the incomparable wisdom of his 81 years. Gouverneur Morris, also from Pennsylvania, headed up the committee that actually wrote the U.S. Constitution. James Madison, also from Virginia, earned the nickname "Father of the Constitution" because his brilliant ideas kept the convention moving forward when problems developed.

Almost immediately after the convention opened, a major disagreement developed between the delegates of the large and small states as to what form the new government should take. The larger, more populous states supported the Virginia Plan, which proposed that representation within the government should be based on the size of a state's population. The plan was designed to give states with large populations a proportionately large share of decision-making power. Smaller, less populous states, opposed the Virginia Plan. They supported the New Jersey Plan, which proposed that every state, regardless of size, would have the same representation within the government.

The Virginia and New Jersey plans are compared below:

Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan

Legislative branch has two chambers Legislative branch has one chamber

Number of votes for each state depends on the state’s population

Each state gets one vote

The convention was deadlocked while the delegates debated the merits of the Virginia and New Jersey Plans until the delegates from Connecticut devised a compromise to settle the dispute. The Connecticut Compromise or the Great Compromise called for the creation of a bicameral (two-house) legislature, or Congress. One of the two houses of the new Congress (the House of Representatives) would be elected according to the size of the individual state’s population. The other house (the Senate) would have equal representation for each state regardless of its population. Once this critical compromise was reached, the delegates agreed more readily on most of the remaining issues.

The U.S. Constitution also solved some other problems found in the Articles of Confederation.

The Articles didn’t require states to treat citizens from other states the same as their own citizens, but the U.S. Constitution does.

The Articles couldn’t be changed unless all states agreed, but the U.S. Constitution can be amended or changed if 3/4 of the states agree.

The Articles didn’t require states to follow the laws Congress passed, but the U.S. Constitution says federal laws are superior to state laws.

On September 17, 1787, the U.S. Constitution was signed by 39 of the original 55 delegates. Several had left the convention altogether. Three others - Elbridge Gerry ofMassachusetts and George Mason and Edmund Randolph of Virginia - refused to sign because they lacked confidence in the document's ability to rule the nation.

Ratifying the U.S. Constitution

The U.S. Constitution was signed by most of the delegates who created it, but the states still had to ratify or approve it before it became the law of the nation. The U.S. Constitution itself required that 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify the document before it could become effective. Delaware had the honor of being the first state to

approve the U.S. Constitution on December 7, 1787. However, the remaining push for ratification for was far from easy. In three of the largest, most populated states - Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia - the contest was close.

The Framers knew that the new government would have no chance of succeeding without the support of these large states, so they organized a campaign in support of the U.S. Constitution by publishing a series of essays in New York newspapers. These essays, which came to be known as The Federalist, were written under the name Publius, a pen name adopted by the authors James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Supporters of the U.S. Constitution were called Federalists.

People who opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution were known as Anti-Federalists. They launched a campaign to defeat ratification, believing the U.S. Constitution would make the national government too powerful. However, they mostly objected that the document did not contain a bill of rights, which would guarantee citizens certain rights that the government could never take away from them. Anti-Federalists published their own series of essays, under the pen name Brutus, to oppose ratification. The author is thought by most scholars to have been Robert Yates, a New York judge.

In response to the Anti-Federalists, John Hancock at the Massachusetts ratifying convention proposed that a bill of rights be added to the new U.S. Constitution as the first group of amendments to the document. Ratification in Massachusetts and almost all the rest of the uncommitted states depended on the understanding that adopting a bill of rights would be the new government's first order of business after the U.S. Constitution was ratified.

On June 21, 1788, the U.S. Constitution went into effect when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the document. New York and Virginia also ratified the document.

Amending the U.S. Constitution

The first Congress to conduct business under the authority of the new U.S. Constitution met in New York City on March 4, 1789. The promised addition of a bill of rights was proposed at once, and the new government began following constitutional procedures to change, or amend, the document. According to the U.S. Constitution, amendments must be approved by at least two thirds of the members of each house of Congress and by three quarters of the states. The Framers had intentionally made it difficult to amend the document.

In 1791, the first ten amendments, now known as the Bill of Rights, were added to the U.S. Constitution. These ten amendments define and protect the rights of the American

people. Each of the 16 amendments that followed over the course of the next two centuries reflects the ever-changing American society. The power to amend the U.S. Constitution is one reason why the document has often been referred to as a “living document.”

Source: Adapted from an article in Grolier, 2003

The United States Constitution – Questions (Senior High)

Directions: While reading the article entitled “The United States Constitution,” answer the following questions on your own notebook paper.

1. Define each of the following vocabulary terms and write a sentence about the history of U.S. Constitution’s using the word:

amend federalismAnti-Federalists Federalistsbicameral Framerbicentennial ratifydelegate sovereigntyfederal government

2. Write a 2-3 paragraph definition/description of the U.S. Constitution. Include its purpose and a description of what it does.

3. Explain why Americans did not want a strong government following the American Revolution.

4. Define the Articles of Confederation and list at least three weaknesses of this first government.

5. Why were the 55 men who attended the Constitutional Convention called Framers or Founding Fathers?

6. Describe the difference between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan.

7. Describe the Great Compromise. Why was this compromise so important to the Constitutional Convention?

The United States Constitution - Questions continued

8. What two political groups opposed one another while the ratification of the U.S. Constitution was being discussed? What was each group’s position on the ratification of the U.S. Constitution?

9. What suggestion was made by John Hancock that helped the U.S. Constitution be ratified?

10.What are the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution known as? How many amendments in total have been made to the document?

11.The first three words of the U.S. Constitution are “We the People.” In your opinion, why are these words so important to Americans?

Preamble to the U.S. Constitution (Middle and Senior High)

Purpose of the Lesson

The Framers wrote a brief but powerful introduction to the U.S. Constitution called the Preamble. It outlines the general goals of the Framers: to create a just government and to ensure peace, an adequate national defense and a healthy, free nation. With its first three words, “We the People,” the Preamble emphasizes that the nation is to be ruled by the people - not by a king or a dictator, not by the president, the Supreme Court justices, members of Congress or the state legislators.

The U.S. Supreme Court held in 1905 (Jacobson v. Massachusetts) that the Preamble is not a source of federal power or individuals' rights. Rather, all rights and powers are set out in the articles and amendments that follow.

What Do You Think the Purpose of Government Should Be?

Before you learn about the purposes of government stated in the Preamble, first consider your own ideas. Then later, compare your ideas with those in the U.S. Constitution.

Work with a partner and answer the following questions:

a. What is government?b. List five purposes that you think a government should have. Then explain why you

think they are important.

What Does the Preamble Say?

The Preamble explains who created the U.S. Constitution and the basic purposes of the government. While the language used in the Preamble may seem awkward and difficult to understand at first, the ideas and principles contained in the Preamble are actually simple and fundamental. The language will become clearer as the words and phrases contained in the Preamble are analyzed and discussed.

“We the People” are the first words in the Preamble. These powerful and often quoted words clearly show that the power to govern belongs to the people. In simple terms, the people established the U.S. Constitution. They used it to create a government designed to protect their rights and their welfare.

The ideas in the Preamble are so important that they should be studied carefully. Read the entire Preamble.

The Preamble to the Constitution of the United States

“We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

After reading the Preamble, write down the words or phrases below that you need defined or further clarified.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Sources: adapted from the Center for Civic Education, www.civiced.org and the Constitution Center, www.constitutioncenter.org

Problem-Solving Group Activity (Middle and Senior High)

Names: _____________________________________________ Group #__________

Directions:

Examine the basic ideas in the Preamble to see how important they are to our nation and citizens. To do this, the class has been divided into six groups. Each group has been assigned to study ONE of the important phrases of the Preamble listed below.

Group: Phrase:

Group #1 We the People do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Group #2 establish justice

Group #3 insure domestic tranquility

Group #4 provide for the common defense

Group #5 promote the general welfare

Group #6 secure the blessings of liberty

Each group should answer the following questions about the phrase in the Preamble it is studying. Be prepared to explain your group’s answers to the rest of the class.

1. What does the part of the Preamble you are studying mean? Explain.

2. Why is it important?

3. What does it have to do with protecting your rights and well-being?

The Bill of Rights Overview

The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights. Written by James Madison in response to calls from several states for greater Constitutional protection for individual liberties, the Bill of Rights lists specific prohibitions on governmental power.

During the debates on the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, two groups disagreed on whether the U.S. Constitution should be the supreme law of the land. The argument between the Federalists (pro adoption of the U.S. Constitution) and the Anti-Federalists (against the adoption) centered primarily on the addition of a bill of rights that would limit the government’s power and protect individual rights. Federalists argued that the U.S. Constitution did not need a bill of rights because the people and the states kept any powers not given to the federal government. The Anti-Federalists repeatedly charged that the U.S. Constitution as drafted would open the way to tyranny by the national government. Fresh in their minds was the memory of the British violation of civil rights before and during the American Revolution. They demanded a "bill of rights" that would spell out the rights of individual citizens. Several state conventions in their formal ratification of the U.S. Constitution asked for such amendments. Other states ratified the U.S. Constitution with the understanding that the amendments would be added.

James Madison, then a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, went through the U.S. Constitution itself, making changes where he thought most appropriate. However, several Representatives, led by Roger Sherman, objected that Congress had no authority to change the wording of the U.S. Constitution itself. As a compromise, Madison’s changes were presented as a list of amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason, strongly influenced Madison when writing the Bill of Rights.

The House approved 17 amendments. Of these 17, the Senate approved 12. Those 12 were sent to the states for approval in August of 1789. Of those 12, 10 were quickly ratified. Virginia’s legislature became the last to ratify the amendments on December 15, 1791.

Sources: adapted from the Bill of Rights Institute, www.billofrightsinstitute.org and the National Archives, www.archives.gov

Rights Guaranteed Under the Bill of Rights

Directions: Write the number of the amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees each of the rights listed below. Give at least one reason why you feel the right is important.

Amendment # Right Guaranteed ReasonFreedom of religion

Freedom of speech

Freedom of the press

To peacefully attend meetings

To petition the government

To keep and bear arms

Fair treatment when accused of a crime

Privacy

Bail while awaiting trial

Speedy trial by jury

Freedom from cruel and unusual punishment

To enjoy other rights not described by the U.S. Constitution

Activity adapted from A Guidebook for Teaching U.S. History: Earliest Times to the Civil War by Tedd Levy and Donna Collins Krasnow, 1979.

Bill of Rights Case Scenarios

Directions: Read the following case scenarios and decide if they violate the protections guaranteed by the Bill of Rights. After each case, write the number of the amendment and the appropriate phrase from the amendment that proves the case is a violation or not.

1. A man is arrested and charged with robbing a store at gunpoint. He spends three years in prison awaiting his trial.

2. A man is tried and found not guilty of murder. Two years later, new evidence is found that indicates the man is probably guilty of the murder. He is arrested again on the same charge and a new trial is ordered. He objects to the arrest and new trial.

3. An Internet-based news agency obtains documents that the government wants to keep secret. The Internet news agency plans to post the documents online. The government demands that the documents not be published. The case goes to court.

4. A well-known crime boss is being tried for attempting to fix the scores at sporting events. The district attorney calls him to the witness stand to testify about his involvement in the investigation. He refuses to answer the questions he is asked.

5. A man is arrested for stealing expensive sports cars. He is quickly tried and found guilty. Following his conviction, the man complains that he had no attorney.

6. On a tip from a neighbor, the police storm a house and arrest a suspect and charge him with selling illegal drugs. The police use guns found in the house during the raid as evidence during the trial. The suspects complain about how evidence was obtained during the raid.

7. A well-known movie star is accused of killing her husband. The judge is afraid that she will not get a fair trial and moves the trial to a different city. The victim’s family complains that the trial should not be moved.

Source: adapted from A Guidebook for Teaching U.S. History: Earliest Times to the Civil War by Tedd Levy and Donna Collins Krasnow, 1979.

U. S. Constitution Treasure Hunt (Middle School)

1. What are the six goals stated in the Preamble to the U.S. Constitution?

2. Which article of the U.S. Constitution established the U.S. Constitution as the “supreme law of the land?”

3. Questions about interpreting the U.S. Constitution are decided by which branch of government?

4. Under the U. S. Constitution, Americans are free to disagree with and criticize government officials. Which amendment guarantees this right?

5. According to the Declaration of Independence and the U. S. Constitution, where does government get its power?

6. The former colonists did not want the government to have the ability to search people’s homes whenever they wanted. What amendment to the U.S. Constitution addressed this concern?

7. What article of the U.S. Constitution established the legislative branch of government?

8. How long is a U.S. Representative’s term of office? U.S. Senator?

9. In the Declaration of Independence, the colonists complained that the King imposed taxes without their consent/approval. In the United States Constitution, which branch of government has the power to “lay and collect taxes”?

10.Both due process of law and equal protection of the law are addressed together in which amendment to the U.S. Constitution?

11.The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution included five rights. What are the five rights in the First Amendment?

12.What are the qualifications for being President of the United States?

13.According to the U.S. Constitution, what are the crimes for which an elected official may be impeached?

14.What amendment states that people have the right to bear arms?

U. S. Constitution Treasure Hunt (Senior High)

Directions: Answer each question on your own paper. Some questions have multiple parts.

1. What are the six goals stated in the Preamble to the United States Constitution?

2. Questions about interpreting the U.S. Constitution are decided by which branch of government? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

3. Under the U. S. Constitution, Americans are free to disagree with and criticize government officials. Which amendment guarantees this right?

4. According to both the Declaration of Independence and the U. S. Constitution, where does government get its power?

5. The former colonists did not want the government to have the ability to search people’s homes whenever they wanted and for any reason. What amendment to the U.S. Constitution addressed this concern and what does the government need before it can search your home?

6. What branch of government is constitutionally responsible for establishing the lower courts? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

7. How long is a US Representative’s term of office? U.S. Senator? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

8. Who serves as President of the United State Senate?

9. What are the qualifications for being President of the United States? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

10.What are the qualifications for being a Supreme Court Justice? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

U. S. Constitution Treasure Hunt (Senior High) continued

11. In the Declaration of Independence, the colonists complained that the British King imposed taxes without their consent/approval. In the United States Constitution, which branch of government has the power to “lay and collect taxes”? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

12.Both due process of law and equal protection of the law are addressed together in which amendment to the U.S. Constitution?

13.The First Amendment to the United States Constitution includes five rights. What are the five rights?

14.The British King interfered with justice by not allowing the colonies to establish their own courts or denying certain powers to their courts. What article in the U.S. Constitution established the judicial branch?

15.Which amendment secures rights for the people that are not specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution?

16.What amendment states that people have the right to bear arms?

17.According to the U.S. Constitution, what is the definition of treason? From what article and section is this information found in the U.S. Constitution?

18.According to the U.S. Constitution, what are the crimes for which an elected official may be impeached?

19.Which article of the U.S. Constitution established it as the “supreme law of the land?”

20.Which amendment extended voting rights to those who were once held in servitude?

Biography of James Madison (1751-1836)“Father of the U.S. Constitution” (Middle School)

Early Years - James Madison was born on March 16, 1751 at his grandmother’s home in Port Conway, Virginia. He was the oldest of the twelve children of James Madison Sr. and Nelly Conway Madison. His early years were spent at Mount Pleasant, the first house built on the Montpelier plantation. At age 12, Madison’s father sent him to Donald Robertson’s school in King and Queen County. There Madison studied arithmetic and geography, learned Latin and Greek, acquired a reading knowledge of French, and began to study algebra and geometry.

After further study with a private tutor at Montpelier, Madison enrolled in college at the College of New Jersey, which is today known as Princeton University. He earned his degree in 1771, after only two years. In poor health, he returned to Montpelier, where he continued to study a variety of topics, particularly law. 

Early Political Career - After college, Madison went into politics and within a few years became a member of the House of Burgesses (Virginia’s legislature). Madison helped write the Virginia Constitution in 1776. Madison and Thomas Jefferson also became close friends at that time.

During the American Revolution (1776-1783) - Madison was a strong supporter of the American colonial fight for independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution (1776-1783). Madison served as a member of the Continental Congress, where he represented the colony of Virginia from 1780-1783. Here, he became an influential member of the Continental Congress and worked hard to keep the states united in the war for independence against the British. 

Constitutional Convention - Following the American victory over the British, the newly created United States formed a government under the Articles of Confederation. This first government proved to be weak and ineffective. In 1787, the Continental Congress called for a Convention to consider revisions to the Articles of Confederation. Madison and others believed it was time for the U.S. to create a new, stronger, more effective government. Madison made specific proposals for developing a new constitution. He believed in forming a government composed of three branches – legislative, executive and judicial branches. He also thought it was important for each branch of government to have the ability to check and balance the power of the other branches so that no branch could have too much control. These ideas were included in the new U.S. Constitution written at the Constitutional Convention. Madison also participated in editing the final draft of the US Constitution.  Madison’s leadership and ability to solve problems through compromise at the Constitutional Convention earned him the nickname “Father of the Constitution.”

After the Constitution was written, it had to be ratified or approved by the states. Madison worked tirelessly to encourage the states to ratify the new Constitution, writing 29 of the 85 anonymous essays known as The Federalist. 

Madison was elected to Congress under the new U.S. Constitution, where he served from 1789 until 1797. During this period, Madison met and married the widowed Dolley Payne Todd. In 1799, Madison returned to politics when he was elected to the Virginia Assembly.

Secretary of State and Presidency - Early in his term, President Jefferson appointed Madison as his Secretary of State (1801-09). Responsible for foreign affairs and some domestic duties, Madison oversaw significant changes to the young nation, including the Barbary Wars, a major embargo, the Lewis and Clark expeditions, and the Louisiana Purchase, which enlarged the nation by 828,000 square miles.

At the conclusion of Jefferson’s second term, James Madison was elected as the fourth president of the United States in 1808. The main event during Madison's presidency was the War of 1812 with Britain. France and Britain were at war. Madison did not want to enter the war, but Britain was seizing U.S. trade ships. Madison finally felt he had no choice and in 1812 he asked Congress to declare war on Britain. Unfortunately, the U.S. was in no position to fight the British and lost many battles, including one where the British marched on Washington D.C. and burned the White House and the Capitol. However, the final battle of the war, the Battle of Orleans, was a victory led by General Andrew Jackson. This helped the country to feel they had done well and raised Madison's popularity.

During Madison's term as President, the "Star-Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott Key, steamboats began to operate, gaslights were introduced, many new roads were being built (mostly by private companies), parts of Florida became U.S. territory, and Native Americans were defeated in many areas.

Final Years - Madison retired to Montpelier, his home in Virginia, in 1817. Late in life, he worked in the Virginia Constitutional Convention, helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia, and worked against slavery. Madison died on June 28, 1836. He was 85 years old. He was the last person alive who had signed the U.S. Constitution. 

Source: Adapted from http://www.montpelier.org/james-and-dolley-madison/james-madison/bio; www.ducksters.com; and, www.enchantedlearning.com

Biography of James Madison – Questions (Middle School)

Directions: Answer the following questions on your own paper after reading the biography of James Madison.

1. Describe the early years of James Madison’s life in Virginia, including his education.

2. After graduation from college, what did Madison do?

3. What did Madison believe about the colonial fight for independence from Britain?

4. What was the first form of government in the U.S. called? What did Madison believe about this government?

5. Describe the contributions made by Madison to the writing of the new Constitution:

6. After the Constitution was ratified (approved), how did Madison serve his country?

7. What war occurred during Madison’s presidency? What helped cause the war with Britain?

8. What other important events happened during the time that Madison was President?

9. Place the following events in Madison’s life in chronological order:

_____Madison is elected as the 4th President of the United States._____Madison serves as Secretary of State_____Madison attends the Constitutional Convention_____Madison helps publish The Federalist_____The United States declares war on Great Britain for seizing ships.

10.Madison was nicknamed “The Father of the Constitution.” Explain why you agree or disagree with this nickname.

Biography of James Madison (1751-1836), Father of the U.S. Constitution (Senior High)

Early Life

James Madison was born on March 16, 1751 at his grandmother’s home in Port Conway, Virginia. Madison was the eldest of the twelve children of James Madison Sr. and Nelly Conway Madison. His early years were spent at Mount Pleasant, the first house built on the Montpelier plantation. At age 12, Madison’s father sent him to Donald Robertson’s school in King and Queen County. There Madison studied arithmetic and geography, learned Latin and Greek, acquired a reading knowledge of French, and began to study algebra and geometry.

After further study with a private tutor at Montpelier, Madison enrolled in college at the College of New Jersey (today known as Princeton University), earning a bachelor’s degree in 1771. He continued his education at Princeton through the next winter, studying Hebrew and ethics. Madison overworked himself in order to complete two years of coursework in one. In poor health, he returned to Montpelier, where he continued to study a variety of topics, particularly law. 

Early Political Career

After college, Madison went into politics and within a few years became a member of the House of Burgesses (Virginia’s legislature). Madison helped write the Virginia Constitution in 1776. Madison and Thomas Jefferson also became close friends at that time. Madison also joined the local militia, but after participating in their exercises, he realized that his poor health would prevent him from serving in the military.

During the American Revolution (1776-1783)

Madison was a strong supporter of the American colonial fight for independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution (1776-1783). Madison served as a member of the Continental Congress where he represented the colony of Virginia from 1780-1783. Here he became an influential member of the Continental Congress and worked hard to keep the states united in the war for independence against the British. 

Constitutional Convention, 1787

Following the American victory over the British, the newly created United States formed a government under the Articles of Confederation. This first government proved to be weak and ineffective. In 1787, the Continental Congress was to consider revisions to the Articles of Confederation. Madison and others believed it was time for the U.S. to create a new, stronger, more effective government. Madison made specific proposals for developing a new constitution. He believed in forming a government composed of three branches – legislative, executive, and judicial branches. He also thought it was important for each branch of government to have the ability to check and balance the

power of the other branches so that no branch could have too much control. These ideas were included in the new U.S. Constitution written at the Constitutional Convention. Madison also participated in editing the final draft of the US Constitution.  Madison’s leadership and ability to solve problems through compromise at the Constitutional Convention earned him the nickname “Father of the Constitution.”

After the Constitution was written, it had to be ratified or approved by the states. Madison worked tirelessly to encourage the states to ratify the new Constitution, writing 29 of the 85 anonymous essays known as The Federalist. 

Madison was elected to Congress under the new Constitution, where he served from 1789 until 1797. During this period, Madison met and married the widowed Dolley Payne Todd and, by 1797, described himself as “wearied with public life” and eager to “indulge his relish for the intellectual pleasures ... and the pursuits of rural life.” He looked forward to enjoying life at Montpelier with “a partner who favored these views, and added every happiness to his life which female merit could impart.” 

In 1799, Madison returned to politics when he was elected to the Virginia Assembly. In the 1798-99 session of the Virginia legislature, Madison’s anonymous Virginia Resolutions, a response to the federal Alien and Sedition Acts, were adopted. In the 1799-1800 session, Madison served in the House of Delegates where he wrote his Report of 1800, a defense of the Virginia Resolutions. He was appointed to the Electoral College for the election of 1800, an election famously thrown to the House of Representatives when the Electoral College vote was tied between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The House selected Jefferson, Madison’s longtime friend and neighbor.

Secretary of State and Presidency

Early in his term, President Jefferson appointed Madison as his Secretary of State (1801-09). Responsible for foreign affairs and some domestic duties, Madison oversaw significant changes to the young nation, including the Barbary Wars, a major embargo, the Lewis and Clark expeditions, and the Louisiana Purchase, which enlarged the nation by 828,000 square miles.

At the conclusion of Jefferson’s second term, James Madison was elected as the fourth president of the United States in 1808. The main event during Madison's presidency was the War of 1812 with Britain. France and Britain were at war. Madison did not want to enter the war, but Britain was seizing U.S. trade ships. Madison finally felt he had no choice and in 1812 he asked Congress to declare war on Britain. Unfortunately, the U.S. was in no position to fight the British and lost many battles, including one where the British marched on Washington D.C. and burned the White House and the Capitol. However, the final battle of the war, the Battle of Orleans, was a victory led by General Andrew Jackson. This helped the country to feel they had done well and raised Madison's popularity.

During Madison's term as President, the "Star-Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott Key, steamboats began to operate, gaslights were introduced, many new roads were being built (mostly by private companies), parts of Florida became U.S. territory, and Native Americans were defeated in many areas.

Final Years

Madison retired to Montpelier, his home in Virginia, in 1817. Late in life, he worked in the Virginia Constitutional Convention, helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia, and worked against slavery. He also organized and edited his papers from the 1787 Constitutional Convention, kept up with his correspondence, and received the many visitors who journeyed to meet the “Father of the Constitution.” Madison died on June 28, 1836. He was 85 years old. He was the last person alive who had signed the U.S. Constitution. 

Source: Reading adapted from http://www.montpelier.org/james-and-dolley-madison/james-madison/bio; www.ducksters.com; and, www.enchantedlearning.com

Biography of James Madison – Questions (Senior High)

Directions: Answer the following questions on your own paper after reading the Biography of James Madison.

1. Describe the early years of James Madison’s life in Virginia, including his education.

2. After graduation from college, what career did Madison enter?

3. What did Madison believe about the colonial fight for independence from Britain?

4. What was the first form of government in the U.S. called? What did Madison believe about this government?

5. Describe the contributions made by Madison to the writing of the new Constitution:

6. After the Constitution was ratified, how did Madison serve his country?

7. As Secretary of State, what foreign and domestic changes did Madison oversee for the young nation?

8. What war occurred during Madison’s presidency? What helped cause the war with Britain?

9. What other important events happened during the time that Madison was President?

10.After Madison retired, what work did he become involved with?

11.Place the following events in Madison’s life in chronological order:

_____Madison is elected as the 4th President of the United States._____Madison serves as Secretary of State_____Madison attends the Constitutional Convention_____Madison helps publish The Federalist_____The United States declares war on Great Britain for seizing ships.

12.Madison was nicknamed “The Father of the Constitution.” Explain why you agree or disagree with this nickname.

What is the Federal System of Government Created by the U.S. Constitution?

Introduction

In this lesson you will learn how the U.S. Constitution established a new way to organize a government. It is called a federal system. When you finish this lesson, you should be able to explain what a federal system is and how it differs from other forms of government. You should also be able to identify some strengths and weaknesses of a federal system. Finally, you should be able to explain why you think the Framers created such a system of government.

What are the Different Kinds of Government?

Before our government was established under the U.S. Constitution, most nations had been organized in one of two ways.

Unitary governments were those in which national governments acted directly upon their citizens. Local and state governments received their powers from the national government and were under its control. As a result, national governments were much stronger than local and state governments. Great Britain had a unitary form of government.

Confederations were national governments organized for limited purposes, such as defense and regulation of trade. The state governments in a confederation kept full control over anything that affected their own citizens and territory. The separate states were considered stronger than the national government. The United States under the Articles of Confederation had a confederate form of government. In contrast to these ways of organizing a government, the Constitution created a federal system of government.

How is the Federal System Different from Other Systems of Government?

The government created by the Framers differed in two important ways from other existing systems of government. To understand these differences we must introduce a new term — authority. We will define authority as the right to govern. According to the natural rights philosophy, people have the right, or authority, to govern themselves. They also have the right, or authority, to create a government and give it the right to govern them. These ideas were used by the Framers in creating a federal system.

First, sovereignty, or the ultimate authority of the government, is held by the people. The U.S. Constitution begins with the words “We the People of the United States.” The people have created the government and given it the authority to govern them. The people, however, have the final or ultimate authority to control their government by the means provided in the U.S. Constitution. In most other nations of that time, the government held the ultimate authority. This was true even if the government had originally received its authority from the people. For example, in some countries the king

was sovereign. In Great Britain, the Parliament was sovereign. In the United States, the people are sovereign.

The second major difference is that the Constitution provides for a federal system of government. In a federal system the people do not delegate, or give, all power to one national government. Instead, they delegate some power to their national government, some to their state governments, some to both, and they keep some powers, or rights, for themselves.

How is Power Distributed and Shared in the Federal System?

The following are examples of how power is distributed in our federal system.

Powers to the National or Federal Government - As citizens of the nation, the people give certain powers to the federal government. These powers are described in the U.S. Constitution. They include the power to create post offices, control interstate and foreign trade, declare and conduct war, and create a national currency.

Powers to State Governments - As citizens in the various states, the people give certain powers to their state governments. These powers are listed in each state’s constitution. They include the power to control trade within the state, establish public schools, and create motor vehicle laws.

Powers that are Shared - It is important to know that in our federal system, the federal and state government share certain powers. For example, both governments have the power to tax citizens and businesses and to provide for the health and welfare of the people.

Powers Kept by the People - Certain rights and powers have been kept by the people and not delegated to any government. They include the right to believe what we wish, select our careers, choose our friends, travel, and raise a family.

Why Does the Federal Government Have Greater Power than the State Government?

There were many disagreements among the Framers about what powers the federal government should have. They did agree, however, that the powers of the federal government were to be greater than those of the state governments. This is clearly stated in the Supremacy Clause of Article VI of the U.S. Constitution. The states cannot make laws that conflict with the U.S. Constitution or laws made by Congress.

What Conflicts Might Occur Between the Federal and State Government?

In our federal system, Congress can make laws governing the people. The state governments can also make laws governing the people. You can imagine that in this kind of system, there will be many times when state laws conflict with those made by Congress. In one instance, these conflicts led to a war between the states — the Civil War. The Framers created a new and very complicated form of government. They could not predict exactly what powers the state and federal governments would eventually have. Early in our history, the state governments were very powerful. Today, the federal government has far more power over the state governments than most of the Framers could have imagined.

In thinking about the relationship between the federal and state governments, it is important to understand the following things.

In spite of the increase in the power of the federal government, most of the laws that affect us directly are state laws. These include laws regarding education, property, contracts, and criminal behavior.

In most cases it is Congress that decides how much power will be left to the states. Congress makes its decisions on the basis of practical and political issues. Voters can influence these decisions.

In developing a federal system of government, the Framers invented a new way to organize a government. In this system, sovereignty (authority) remains with the people. The people give certain limited powers to the federal and state governments. Each level of government has the authority to act directly upon the people.

This complicated system is sometimes not as efficient as a unitary system of government. The Framers did not see this as a disadvantage. In fact they considered it to be one of the advantages of federalism. The Framers thought that the separation of powers between the federal and state governments was one way to protect the rights of the people.

Adapted from a reading developed by the Center for Civic Education, www.civiced.org

The Federal System

Directions: Working with a partner, re-read the handout “What is the Federal System of Government Created by the U.S. Constitution?” and answer the following questions.

1. Explain what a federal system is. Draw a diagram that shows how the federal system works in the United States.

2. Suppose you were in a situation, like the Framers, where you were organizing a government. Explain what you think might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of a federal system of government. Which responsibilities and powers would you give to the federal government? Which powers would you give to the state governments? Which powers would you keep for yourselves?

3. Define “sovereignty.” Who has sovereignty in the United States? Give evidence to support your answer.

4. Discuss what problems might arise from different states passing different laws regarding:

crime

education

employment

housing

welfare benefits

Famous Quotations

About The Constitution

“I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. For having lived long, I have experienced many instances of being obliged by better information, or fuller consideration, to change opinions even on important subjects, which I once thought right, but found to be otherwise.” Benjamin Franklin, 1787

“My political curiosity, exclusive of my anxious solicitude for the public welfare, leads me to ask who authorized them (the framers of the Constitution) to speak the language of ‘We, the People,’ instead of ‘We, the States’?” Patrick Henry, 1788 (Orations of American Orators)

“As the British Constitution is the most subtle organism which has proceeded from the womb and long gestation of progressive history, so the American Constitution is, so far as I can see, the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man.” W. E. Gladstone

“The Constitution, on this hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the Judiciary, which they may twist and shape into any form they please.” Thomas Jefferson

“I am exceedingly distressed at the proceedings of the Convention - being ... almost sure, they will ... lay the foundation of a Civil War.” Elbridge Gerry (Massachusetts Delegate), 1787

“I consider the difference between a system founded on the legislatures only, and one founded on the people, to be the true difference between a league or treaty and a constitution.” James Madison, at the Constitutional Convention, 1787

“Let our government be like that of the solar system. Let the general government be like the sun and the states the planets, repelled yet attracted, and the whole moving regularly and harmoniously in several orbits.” John Dickinson (Delaware Delegate), 1787

About Democracy

“Too many people expect wonders from democracy, when the most wonderful thing of all is just having it.” Walter Winchell

“In free countries, every man is entitled to express his opinions and every other man is entitled not to listen.” G. Norman Collie

Famous Quotations (continued)

“Democracy is the form of government that gives every man the right to be his own oppressor.” James Russell Lowell

“You can never have a revolution in order to establish a democracy. You must have a democracy in order to have a revolution.” Gilbert K. Chesterton

“Democracy is based upon the conviction that there are extraordinary possibilities in ordinary people.” Harry Emerson Fosdick

“Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people.” Abraham Lincoln

“Democracy is good. I say this because other systems are worse.” Jawaharlal Nehru

“Democracy ... is a system of self-determination. It’s the right to make the wrong choice.” John Patrick

“In a democracy, the individual enjoys not only the ultimate power but carries the ultimate responsibility.” Norman Cousins

“Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible, but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.” Reinhold Niebuhr

“A free government is a complicated piece of machinery, the nice and exact adjustment of whose springs, wheels, and weights, is not yet well comprehended by the artists of the age, and still less by the people.” John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, May 19, 1821

“It is much easier to pull down a government, in such a conjuncture of affairs as we have seen, than to build up, at such a season as the present.” John Adams letter to James Warren, 1787

Source: ConstitutionFacts.com, www.constitutionfacts.com

Quote Analysis Assignment

Directions: Select four historical quotations to analyze from the list provided. Copy each quote and answer each of the questions below for all four quotations. Answer on your own paper.

1. Who is the speaker? When and where was the quote made by the speaker?

2. What is the main topic of the quote?

3. What other issues are discussed in the quote?

4. List a fact contained in the quote. List an opinion contained in the quote. How can you differentiate between fact and opinion?

5. Why do you think the speaker made this statement?

6. In your opinion, are there multiple interpretations for the quote? Explain.

7. Paraphrase the quote in your own words.

Source: adapted from an activity developed by the U.S. House of Representatives, Black Americans in Congress lesson plans, http://baic.house.gov

Internet Resources

Internet Resources

Center for Civic Education - Offers lesson plans for Independence Day and Constitution Day.http://www.civiced.or

Citizenship Activity Pack – Suggestions on how students can get involved as citizens. http://www.phschool.com/webcodes10/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.gotoWebCode&wcprefix=mqk&wcsuffix=1900

Citizenship Activity Pack: Agents of Change – Interactive game on citizenship http://www.phschool.com/atschool/Civics/citizenship_activity_pack/AgentsOfChange.ht

Constitutionfacts.org - Offers a range of materials on the Founding documentshttp://www.constitutionfacts.com

Education World - Presents lesson plans on the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. 1http://www.educationworld.com/holidays/archives/independence.shtml

Games about the Constitution – Offers games and quizzes about the U.S Constitution and the U.S government.http://www.congressforkids.net/games/billofrights/2_billofrights.htm#

ICivics - Offers lessons, games and activities; free registration required. https://www.icivics.org/

Interactive Constitution – Provides a simplified commentary on the Constitutionhttp://www.phschool.com/curriculum_support/interactive_constitution/

Library of Congress - Offers exhibits, including one on the Declaration of Independence.http://www.loc.gov/search/?in=&q=declaration+of+independence&new=true&st=

National Constitution Center – Official website of the National Constitution Center http://www.constitutioncenter.org

Teaching with Documents: Observing Constitution Day – Provides lessons, activities, and simulations using primary source documents from the National Archives.http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/

The Bill of Rights Institute – Provides resources on the Bill of Rightshttp://billofrightsinstitute.org/resources/

Internet Resources continued

U.S. History.org - Offers information on the history of the Declaration of Independence and Benjamin Franklin.http://www.ushistory.org

The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration – The site links students and teachers to resources on primary documents including the Declaration of Independence.http://archives.gov

We the People... - Lessons for Constitution Day and Citizenship Day from the Center for Civic Education http://www.civiced.org/resources/curriculum/constitution-day-and-citizenship-day

Secondary Character Education Activities to Support

American Founders’ Month

Secondary Character Education Activities to SupportAmerican Founders’ Month

Core Value: Respect

Miami-Dade County Public Schools (M-DCPS) is committed to helping all students develop the values and strength of character needed for them to become caring, responsible citizens at home, school, and in the community. To support this goal, character education has been an instructional requirement, grades K-12, since 1995.

The foundation of the District’s character education requirement is the nine core values adopted by The School Board of Miami-Dade County, Florida in 1995. The District’s nine core values are: citizenship, cooperation, fairness, honesty, integrity, kindness, pursuit of excellence, respect, and responsibility. Each month a different core value has been designated for emphasis in all classrooms throughout the District.

In September, students need to understand the importance of respect. Respect should include showing regard for the worth and dignity of everyone. Students should learn to respect individual differences and views of others. Respect should include showing regard for oneself, one’s school, and the rules and expectations for behavior in the school and the community.

In addition to the enclosed lessons on the U.S. Constitution, teachers may further emphasize the core value of respect through the following lesson ideas.

In September, we also commemorate Constitution Day (September 17 th) and Celebrate Freedom Week (the Declaration of Independence; last week in September). Ask students to think about the men who drafted these documents and the respect the Founding Fathers earned for helping to create our new nation. Have students write an essay about one Founding Father explaining what challenges this person met and why they chose this person as an individual that is worthy of respect.

Review the Pledge of Allegiance and the Star Spangled Banner. Have students analyze and discuss the meaning of the words and importance of reciting or singing them with respect; i.e., standing quietly at attention, placement of right hand over one’s heart. For students who choose not to participate in the Pledge, discuss how to refrain from participating, but still maintain respect for the occasion.

Identify American symbols and documents and their significance; e.g., the Declaration of Independence, Preamble, United States Constitution, American

flag, Star Spangled Banner, the bald eagle, the Statue of Liberty, the Liberty Bell. Identify and discuss how these symbols became representative of the United States. Ask students to research and write about the various symbols of American national pride and why they deserve our respect.

In September and October, we also observe Hispanic Heritage Month. Discuss the importance of respecting and celebrating the diverse cultures that exist within our community.

Ask: What does it mean to treat other people with respect? Ask the class to brainstorm a list of do’s and don’ts for treating people with respect. Compare the student lists to the following Six Rules of Respect:

1. Treat other people the way you want to be treated.2. Be polite and courteous.3. Listen to what other people have to say.4. Do not insult people, or make fun of them, or call them names.5. Do not bully or pick on people.6. Do not judge people before you get to know them.

Write down the name of someone in your life right now who you respect very much. Name two things that person does that cause you to respect him or her. Do you share either of those traits with that person? Write about a time recently when you felt you didn't treat someone with respect. Describe the situation. Why did it happen? Was it the right thing to do? What were the consequences? How did it make the other person feel? Would you behave differently if you were given another chance? How, and why or why not? What did you learn from the experience?

Local, national and world events reported in the newspapers or on television often illustrate actions taken by community members or local groups seeking respect. Discuss local or national events and the actions citizens have taken. Have students look through newspapers and magazines for evidence of community members seeking respect. Create space on a bulletin board or a large poster where students can post these stories.

Throughout history, various human rights groups have demanded respect for the social, political and economic rights of specific groups. Invite students to research organizations and groups that have served as advocates for the rights of others. Have students present skits or write essays representing the point of view of the group.

Have student’s research individuals throughout history that have demonstrated respect for others. Ask students to write biographies based on the person they have chosen. Some examples may include Mother Theresa, Mohandas Gandhi, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Review the following quotes. Choose one or more and ask students to think about, write, or discuss what the quote means.

o “Nobody can make you feel inferior without your consent.” Eleanor Roosevelt

o “Leaders who win the respect of others are the ones who deliver more than they promise, not the ones who promise more than they can deliver.” Mark A. Clement

o “Not until we dare to regard ourselves as a nation, not until we respect ourselves, can we gain the esteem of others, or rather only then will it come of its own accord.” Albert Einstein

o “The heart of politeness is respect.” Unknowno “Remember the three R’s, Respect for self; Respect for others; and

Responsibility for all your actions.” Unknown

Source: Activities adapted from Goodcharacter.org, http://www.goodcharacter.com/

Anti-Discrimination PolicyFederal and State Laws

The School Board of Miami-Dade County, Florida adheres to a policy of nondiscrimination in employment and educational programs/activities and strives affirmatively to provide equal opportunity for all as required by:

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as amended - prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 - prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender.

Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) as amended - prohibits discrimination on the basis of age with respect to individuals who are at least 40.

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 as amended - prohibits gender discrimination in payment of wages to women and men performing substantially equal work in the same establishment.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 - prohibits discrimination against the disabled.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) - prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public service, public accommodations and telecommunications.

The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) - requires covered employers to provide up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave to "eligible" employees for certain family and medical reasons.

The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 - prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.

Florida Educational Equity Act (FEEA) - prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender, national origin, marital status, or handicap against a student or employee.

Florida Civil Rights Act of 1992 - secures for all individuals within the state freedom from discrimination because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap, or marital status.

Title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) - Prohibits discrimination against employees or applicants because of genetic information.

Veterans are provided re-employment rights in accordance with P.L. 93-508 (Federal Law) and Section 295.07 (Florida Statutes), which stipulate categorical preferences for employment.

In Addition: School Board Policies 1362, 3362, 4362, and 5517 - Prohibit harassment and/or discrimination against students, employees, or applicants on the basis of sex, race, color, ethnic or national origin, religion, marital status, disability, genetic information, age, political beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, gender identification, social and family background, linguistic preference, pregnancy, and any other legally prohibited basis.  Retaliation for engaging in a protected activity is also prohibited. Rev. (05-12)