George Hathaway and Peter Graneau's Paper on Water Arc Explosions

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  • 8/14/2019 George Hathaway and Peter Graneau's Paper on Water Arc Explosions

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    r e g a i n i n g c o n c e n t ra t e d s o l a r e n e r g y .P r o g r e s s m a d e i n t h i s re s e a r c h u p t oO c t o b e r 1, 1 9 9 5 , h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d i n ar e c e n t ly p u b l i s h e d b o o k b y G r a n e a u a n dG r a n e au ( 1 9 9 6 ) . F u r th e r i n f o r m a t i o n i sc o n t a i n e d i n a p a p e r w h i c h w a s p r e s e n te d a tt h e 1 9 9 6 W o r l d R e n e w a b l e E n e rg y C o n g r e s s( G r a n e a u , 1 9 9 6 ) .I n t h e r e v i e w e d e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e e n e r g yd e l i v e r e d t o s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s of w a t e r , u p t o1.5 c m 3 , w a s t y p i c a ll y l e s s t h a n 50 J. T h i sc o u l d not h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e w a t e rt e m p e r a t u r e b y m o r e t h a n 1 0 K . S t e a me x p l o s i o n s w e r e o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n b e c a u s en o l iq u i d b r e a k d o w n m e c h a n i s m i s k n o w nw h i c h c a n c h a n n e l a s i g n i f i c a n t f r a c t io n oft h e c u r r e n t i n t o a th i n w a t e r f i l a m e n t . Ap h o t o c e l l m e a s u r e m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d t h a ti o n i z a t i o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n 0.8 ps a n d n oc ur re n t f l owe d a round t he c i r c u i t un t i l a f t e rt h i s t i m e . It h a s t o b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h ei o n iz a ti o n p r o c e s s a b s o r b s e n e r g y a n d d o e sno t g e n e r a t e h e a t .A s s h o w n i n t h e e n e r g y f l o w d i a g r a m off i g . 1 , t h e e n e r g y Ez i s d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h ec a p a c i t o r ( C ) i n t o a s i m p l e s e r i e s c i r c u i tc o m p r i s i n g a n a r c s w i tc h (S) , t h e i n d u c t a n c e( L ) , t h e s h o r t - c i rc u i t r e s i s ta n c e RC a n d t h ewa t e r f i l l e d c a v i t y ( W ) . T h e d i s c h a r g ec u r r e n t i is of t h e f o r m

    w h e r e I O i s t h e i n t e r ce p t o f t h e e x p o n e n t i a le n v e l o p e o n t h e c u r r e n t a x i s , T i s t h ed a m p i n g t i m e c o n s t a n t , o = 2 n f t h e r i n g in gf r e q u e n c y , a n d t s t a n d s f o r t i m e . F r o m t h ec u r r e n t o s c i l l o g r a m w e c a n d e t e r m i n e T a n dt h e d a m p i n g f a c t o r R g i v e n b y s t a n d a r dc i rc u i t t he ory a sR = 2 L / T . (2 )

    R h a s t w o c o m p o n e n t sR = Ro + eb/irms. (3 )

    RO i s t h e o h m i c r e s i s ta n c e o f t h e d i s c h a r g ec i rc u i t a nd eb i s t h e i n d u c e d b a c k - e . m . f . i nt h e w a t e r w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r a n y m e c h a n i c a lw o r k (E7) w h i c h h a s to b e d o n e o n t he wa t e rto g e n e r a t e c o ld f o g . W e k n o w of n o w a y i nw h i c h t h e c o m p o n e n t s of e q u . ( 3 ) ca n b e

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    Fig. 1 Energy Flow Diagram

    o b t a i n e d s e p a r a t e l y .E7 m u s t s u p p l y th e s u r f a c e t e n s i o ne n e r g y i n c r e a s e re q u i re d b y f o g f o r m a t i o n a n di t m a y a c c e l e r a te t h e d r o p l e t s a li t tl e . T h i sh a s t o b e d o n e b y e l e c t r o d y n a m i c L o r e n t z o rA m p e r e f o r c e s . T h e L o r e n t z p i n c h f o r c e c a np r o d u c e t h r u s t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n tf l o w . N o r t h r u p ( 1 9 0 7 ) p r o v e d t h a t t h e p i n c ht h rus t w i l l be of t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t r o d y n a m i cf o r m

    T h e v a l u e c a l c u la t ed b y N o r t h r u p f o r t h ed i m e n s i o n l e s s k - f a c t o r w a s k = O . 5 , w h a t e v e rt h e d i a m e t e r of t he c ur re n t c ros s - se c t i on .E12 is t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e f o g j e ta s i t le a v e s t h e a c c e l e r a t o r . T h e i m p u l s e t h isj e t e x e r t s on a n a b s o r b i n g b a ls a w o o ds e c o n d a r y p r o j e ct i le h a s b e e n m e a s u r e d( G r a n ea u a n d G r a n e a u , 1 9 9 6 ) a n d i s g i v e n b y

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    w h e r e m is t h e m a s s of t h e f o g a n d U a v i t sa v e ra g e v e l o c i ty . T h i s s h o u l d b e c o m p a r e dt o t h e m e c h a n i c a l i m p u l s e re c e i v e d b y t h e f o gd r o p le t s f r o m t h e e l e c t r o d y n a m i c i m p u l s e P 7.W e m a y w r i teP7 = JF7d t = (p0/4n) k J i 2 d t . ( 6 )

    T h e a c ti o n i n t e g r a l J i 2 d t is a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h ec u r r e n t o s c i l l o g r a m . T o c o m p a r e P12 w i t h P7w e e x p r e s s Pi 2 b yP12 = (p0/4n) k Jidt , (7 )

    w h e r ek = 107 m uav/J i2dt . (8)

    T h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s f a c t o r k is n o w a ne x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d q u a n t i t y .A s soon a s w a t e r a r c e x p l o s io n f o r c e sw e r e m e a s u r e d t e n y e a r s a g o ( A z e v e d o e t a l ,1986) i t w a s f o u n d t h a t k > > k . T h i s f a c t w a sc o n f i r m e d i n a l l s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r i m e n t s . I tl e f t l i tt l e d o u b t t h a t th e w a t e r a r c e x p l o s i o n sc o n t a i n e d a d d i t i o n a l e n e r g y (E8) o v e r a n da b o v e E7.W h e n A m p e r e s f o r c e l a w w a s u s e d i ne q u . ( b ) , t h e k - v a l u e s in c r e a s e d f r o m 0 . 5 t o-200 ( G r an e au a n d G r a n e a u , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h i sw a s s ti ll f a r t o o s m a l l t o d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c eof E8 a n d g a v e a n i m p u l s e r a t i o P 12 /P 7 of t h eo r d e r of 50 - 100. N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s t h e nr e q u i r e s t h a t , p r o v i d e d t h e i m p u l s e s a c t o nt h e s a m e m a s s ( f o g ) ,

    E12/E7 = (P12/P7). (9)T h i s c a n b e p r o v e d a s f o l l o w s . If a m a s s mi s a c c e l e r a t e d t o t h e v e l o c i t y V I i t r e qu i re s a ni m p u l s e of

    P i = J F i d t = m v i . (10)L e t t h e s a m e m a s s a c q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l e n e r g yi n f l i gh t (E8) t o r e a c h t he ve l oc i t y vz , t he nt h e i m p u l s e b e c o m e s

    Pz = m v2. ( 1 1 )T h e r e f o r e t h e i m p u l s e r a ti o is

    P2/P1 = v2/v1. (12)T h i s m a k e s t h e r a t i o of f i na l t o i n i t i a l k i ne t i ce n e r g yE2/E1 = % m vz2 / % m v i 2 = ( P 2 / P d 2 ,w h i c h p r o v e s e q u . ( 9 ) .F o r t h e i m p u l s e r a t i o s of 50 - 1 0 0 o ft h e w a t e r a r c e x p e r i m e n t s t h i s i m p l i e s E 1 2 isa t l e a s t 1000 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n E 7. W et he re fo re c l a i m t ha t v i r t ua l l y a l l t he k i ne t i ce n e r g y of t h e f o g j e t l e a v i n g t h e w a t e r p l a s m aa c c e l e ra t o r is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i n t e r n a l w a t e re n e r g y c o n t r i b u t i o n , Es.TYPE B ACCELERATOR RESULTST h e v a r i o u s a c c e l e r a t o r d e s i g n s u s e ds i n c e 1 9 8 3 w e r e d e s c ri b ed b y G r a n e a u a n dG r a n e a u ( 1 9 9 6 ) . A n e w d e s i g n , w h i c h h a sb e e n c a l l e d t h e t y p e B a c c e l e r a t o r , i s s h o w n

    (13)

    i n f i g . 2 . - - - - - - - - - -I II I BalsaWoodI II , Secondary

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    WaterChargeNylonInsulationSleeveNylonSecondaryInsulation

    Center ElectrodeFig. 2 Type B Accelerator withSec0ndary P ojecti e

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    T o d e t e r m i n e t h e f o g j e t m o m e n t u m , as e c o n d a r y p r o j e c t il e c o n s i s t in g of ba l sa woods t a n d s on t h e a c c e l e ra t o r b a r r e l . T h e d r ym a s s o f t h e p r o j ec t i le i s l a b e l e d M w h i l e t h ef o g m a s s a b s o rb e d i n t h e w o o d i s d e n o t e d b ym . C = 0 . 5 6 5 pF c a p a c i ta n c e i s c h a r g e d t o t h ev o l t a g e V O a n d t h e n d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h t h ea c c e l e ra t o r b y c l o s i n g th e s w i t c h S . A no s c i l l o s c o p e r e c o r d s t h e d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t i ( t) .T h e t h r o w h e i g h t h of t h e s e c o n d a r yp r o j e c t i l e i s m e a s u r e d w i t h a f r e e z e - f r a m ev i d e o c a m e r a . T h i s d e f i n e s t h e i n i t ia lve l oc i t y vo of t h e p r o j e c t il e a s

    vo = d ( 2 g h ) , (14)w h e r e g i s t h e a c c e l e ra t i o n d u e to g r a v i t y .B e c a u s e of m o m e n t u m c o n s e r v a t i o n , t h ea v e r a g e v e l o c i t y , U a v , of t h e f o g m a s s t h a tp e n e t r a te d d e e p i n t o t h e b a ls a w o o d i s g i v e nby

    I n s o m e s h o t s n o t a l l t h e c a p a c it o r e n e r g y isd i s c h a r g e d , l e a v i n g a r e s i d u a l v o l t a g e Vr o nt h e c a p a c i to r t e r m i n a l s . H e n c e t h e e n e r g ya c t ua l l y d i s c ha rge d i n t o t he c i r c u i t i s

    T h e k i n e t ic e n e r g y of t h e f o g j et i s

    N e i t h e r t h e m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e f o gd r o p l e t s n o r th e i r v e l o c i ty d i s t r ib u t i o n a r ek n o w n . A s o n p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s , t h es i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n i s m a d e t h a t t h ed r o p l e t s a r e of e q u a l s i z e a n d t h e i r v e l o c i t yd i s t r i bu t i on i s hal f a c yc l e o f a s i n e wa ve .T h i s r e s u l t s i n

    T h e t a b l e lists t h e r e s u lt s o f 1 4 s h o t s . I na ll c a s e s t h e w a t e r c h a r g e w a s w = 1 . 5 c m 3 ofd i s t i l l e d w a t e r a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .DISCUSSION OF RESULTST h e k i n e t i c e n e r g i e s of t h e f o g j e t s(E121 h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e d r y a n d w e tw e i g h t s of t h e b a l sa w o o d s e c o n d a r yp r o j e c t il e , M a n d M + m , t h e t h r o w h e ig h t h ,

    a n d e q u s . ( l O ) t o ( 1 4 ) . T h e t a b le s h o w s t h e see n e r g i e s t o v a ry b e t w e e n 1 3 . 0 a n d 2 9 . 2 J .T a k e s h o t S P 2 4 w i t h t h e l a r g e s t k i n e t i ce n e r g y o u t p u t . F o r t h is s h o t t h e f o g m a s sw a s m = 0 . 5 0 4 g a n d i t s a v e r a g e v e l o c i ty c a m et o u a v= 3 0 6 .4 m / s . T h i s re s u l t ed in ani m p u l s e e x e r t e d o n t h e s e c o n d a r y p r o j e ct i le ofP ~ = m u a v = 0 . 1 5 4N s. T h e a c t i o n i n t e g r a l o ft hi s s h o t w a s l i z d t = 1 2 0 . 5 A's. T h e n w i t h t h eTABLE OF RESULTSShot VO E2 M i n LOSS u a v E12

    # kV J J m l s JS P 1 2 1 0 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 2 5 8 2 1 . 0S P 1 3 9 2 2 . 9 2 2 . 4 2 7 3 2 1 . 5S P 1 4 1 2 4 0 . 7 2 7 . 2 2 3 5 2 1 . 5S P 1 5 1 2 4 0 . 7 2 7 . 2 2 4 4 1 7 . 8S P 1 6 1 2 4 0 . 7 2 7 . 2 2 2 9 2 0 . 9S P 1 7 10 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 1 7 2 1 3 . 0S P 1 8 1 0 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 2 5 8 2 1 . 8S P 1 9 10 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 2 7 4 2 3 . 1S P 2 0 10 2 8 . 3 2 4 .4 2 1 8 1 7 . 8S P 2 1 1 0 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 1 9 1 1 6 . 1S P 2 2 10 2 8 . 3 2 4 . 4 2 5 1 1 9 . 7S P 2 3 1 2 3 9 . 8 2 7 . 2 2 4 3 2 2 . 3S P 2 4 1 2 3 9 . 8 2 7 . 2 3 0 6 2 9 . 2S P 2 5 1 2 3 9 . 8 2 7 . 2 2 7 5 2 8 . 5

    A m p e r e f o r c e f a c to r k = 2 0 0 , e q u . ( 6 ) g i v e sP 7 = 2 . 4 1 x l O 3 N s . T h e i m p u l s e a n d e n e r g yr a t i o s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e P i z / P 7 = 6 3 . 9 a n dE 1 2 /E 7 = 40 8 3 . H e n c e E 7 = 7 . 1 5 m J , w h i c h i sn e g l i g i b l e c o m p a r e d t o E 1 2 = 2 9 . 2 J an dd e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t v i r t u a ll y a ll th e k i n e ti ce n e r g y d e v e l o p e d b y t h e e x p l o s i o n m u s t b ei n t e r n a l w a t e r e n e r g y .I n sp i t e o f t he ga i n i n i n t e rna l wa t e re n e r g y , t h e o v e r a l l e n e r g y r a t i o , E12/E2 i s l e s st h a n u n i t y b e c a u s e o f t h e f i v e lossc o m p o n e n t s ind ica ted i n f i g . 1. A d d i t i o n a ll o s s e s o c c u r b e c a u s e of e l e c t r o l y t i c a c t i o n i nt h e w a t e r a n d t h e e m i s s i o n of l i g h t a n d s o u n df r o m t h e a r c . W e h a v e m a d e a r o u g he s t i m a t e of t h e c i r c u i t l o s s e s . E3 i s d e r i v e df r o m t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t r e s i s t a n c e RC a n d t h ea c t i on i n t e gra l s of t h e w a t e r s h o t s . E6 i so b t a i n e d f r o m t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e r is e of af e w d e g r e e s m e a s u r e d w i t h a t h e r m o c o u p l ep r o j e c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e b a r r e l i n t o t h e w a t e rc a v i t y . T h e i o n i z at io n e n e r g y i s e s t i m a t e d b y

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    a me t hod de sc r i be d by Gra ne a u a nd Gra ne a u( 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s u m of t h e t h r e e lossc o m p o n e n t s is l i s t e d i n t he t a b l e unde rm i n i m u m c i r c u i t l o s s . I t v a r i e s b e t w e en 6 7a nd 9 4 pe rc e n t o f t he i npu t e ne rgy E2 ,p rov i d i ng fu r t he r c onf i rma t i on t ha t E12 / E7> 1 .To ut i l i z e t he i n t e rna l wa t e r e ne rgy fo re l e c t r i c i t y ge ne ra t i on , l a rge r e duc t i ons i nc i rc u i t loss a n d b a r r e l l o s s e s h a v e to bea c h i e v e d . O u r o b j e c t i v e h a s b e en t o p r o v et h e l i be ra t i on o f i n t e rna l wa t e r e ne rg y . W eh a v e m a d e n o e f fo r t to o p t i m i z e t h e p r o c e s s .

    REFERENCESA z e v e d o , R . , G r a n e a u , P . , M i l l e t, C .a n d G r a n e a u , N . , 1 9 8 6 , " P o w e r f u l W a t e r -P l a s m a E x p l o s i o n s " , P h y s i c s L e t t e r s A ,V o 1 . 1 1 7 , p . 1 0 1 .F r u n g e l , F . , 1 9 4 8 , " Z u m m e c h a n i s c h e nW i rkun gsgr a d vo n F1u ss g ke t s f u n ken , 0p t i k ,Vo1. 13 , p . 125 .G i l c h r i s t , I . , a n d C r o s s l a n d , B . , 1 9 6 7 ," T h e Forming of She e t Me t a l Us i ngU n d e r w a t e r E l e c t r i c a l D i s c h a r g e s " , I E EC o n f e r e n c e P u b l i c a t i o n , N o . 3 8 , p . 9 2 .G r a n e a u , P . , 1 9 9 6 , " G a i n in g S o l arE n e r g y f r o m O r d i n a r y W a t e r " , P r o c e e d i n g s o ft h e W o r l d R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y C o n g r e s s I V ,D e n v e r , C O .G r a n e a u , P . a n d G r a n e au N . , 1 9 8 5 ,I'El e c t rod y nam ic Expl os i on s in Li qui ds ,A p p l i e d P h y s i c s L e t t e r s , V o 1 . 4 6 , p . 4 6 8 .

    G r a n e a u , P . a n d G r a n e a u , N . , 1 9 9 6 ,Newtonian Electrodynamics, W o r l dS c i e n t i f i c , N e w J e r s e y , p p . 2 4 9 - 2 7 1 .

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