Geomorphological and sedimentological comparison of ﬂuvial ... · lution of the unique sandstone...

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Geomorphological and sedimentological comparison of fluvialterraces and karst caves in Zhangjiajie, northwest Hunan, China:an archive of sandstone landform development

Guifang Yang • Xujiao Zhang • Mingzhong Tian •

Yamin Ping • Anze Chen • Zhiliang Ge •

Zhiyun Ni • Zhen Yang

Received: 3 January 2010 / Accepted: 27 November 2010 / Published online: 18 December 2010

� Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract The Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geo-

park (Zhangjiajie World Geopark) of northwest Hunan,

China hosts a well-preserved sequence of fluvial terraces

and karst caves. In this contribution, a comparative study of

fluvial terraces with karst caves along the middle-lower

Suoxi River in Zhangjiajie World Geopark is presented to

improve the understanding of the development of striking

sandstone landscape in the upper Suoxi River. By inte-

grating geomorphological, sedimentological, and geochro-

nological techniques, the possible correlation between

fluvial terraces and karst caves, as well as their climatic

and tectonic implications is investigated. The available

electron spin resonance and thermo-luminescence numeri-

cal ages coupled with morphostratigraphic analysis indi-

cate that aggradation of fluvial terrace levels occurred at

ca. 347 ± 34 ka (T4), 104.45 ± 8.88 to 117.62 ± 9.99 ka

(T3), 60.95 ± 5.18 ka (T2), and Holocene (T1), followed

by the stream incision. Fluvial terrace levels (T4 to T1)

correlate morphologically with the karst cave levels (L1 to

L4), yet the proposed chronology for the fluvial terrace

levels is a bit later than the chronological data obtained

from karst caves. In northwest Hunan, where a unique

sandstone peak forest landscape was extensively developed,

the fluvial terrace sequences as well as the cave systems are the

important archives for studying the evolution of the sandstone

landscape. The beginning of the sandstone landscape devel-

opment must be earlier than the aggradation of the fluvial

terrace T4, allowing this unique landscape to occur in the

Middle Pleistocene.

Keywords Fluvial terrace � Karst cave � Sandstone

landscape � Geomorphic evolution � Zhangjiajie

Introduction

The geomorphic features of the quartz sandstone landscape

in Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark (or Zhang-

jiajie World Geopark), northwest Hunan, China, have been

roughly described through the comparative analysis with

adjacent regions aiming to determine their connection with

climatic control and surface uplift (Guo 1982; Chen 1988;

Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center 1988; Deng

1989; Chen 1993; Wu and Zhang 2002; Tang et al. 2005).

Recent studies have been focused on the timing and geo-

morphic evolution of the sandstone landscape in the upper

reach of the Suoxi River in Zhangjiajie World Geopark

through the analysis of fluvial terraces and karst caves with

a wide distribution in the middle and lower reaches of the

Suoxi River (Fig. 1a). However, prior to this study, very

little was known about the chronology of these morpho-

genetic sequences, which could be very useful for the

reconstruction and interpretation of the geomorphic evo-

lution of the unique sandstone landscape in the study

area (Yang et al. 2009). Difficulties arise when dateable

landforms and deposits are poorly preserved or even

unavailable, as it is often the case in many geological

settings, such as the exposed sandstone areas. The stepped

morphostratigraphic sequences in the study area suggest

that integrated geomorphological, sedimentological, and

G. Yang (&) � X. Zhang � M. Tian � Y. Ping � Z. Ge � Z. Ni �Z. Yang

School of Earth Sciences and Resources,

China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

e-mail: [email protected]

A. Chen

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences,

Beijing 100037, China

123

Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:671–683

DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0887-6

geochronological analyses may provide valuable informa-

tion on the evolution of the sandstone landscape in the

study area.

For a long time it was believed that fluvial terrace

staircases or multileveled karst caves could indicate former

river bed levels that would provide field evidence for long-

term evolution of river catchments (e.g., Bull 1990; Bourne

and Twidale 2000; Bridgland 2000; Maddy et al. 2000;

Piccini et al. 2003). In recent years, there is growing

awareness of the importance of stepped morphogenetic

sequences because of their potential climatic and tectonic

significance (Bridgland et al. 2004; Peulvast and Sales

2004; Gao et al. 2005, 2008; Westaway et al. 2006; Brid-

gland and Westaway 2008; Carcaillet et al. 2009; Claessens

et al. 2009; Robustelli et al. 2009; Strasser et al. 2009;

Westaway 2009, 2010). Chronologically, dating is a key

to link terraces with karst caves. By integrating

geomorphological, sedimentological, and geochronological

techniques, the possible correlation between terraces and

karst caves, as well as their climatic and tectonic impli-

cations can be investigated. These studies allow recon-

structing the evolution of depositional systems and offer

valuable insights into the basin geomorphic changes in

response to allocyclic factors (Maddy et al. 2001; Robus-

telli et al. 2005, 2009).

Given the specific geological and climatic settings of the

study area, the present study reports the results of geo-

morphological and sedimentological investigation analyz-

ing the relationships between fluvial terraces and karst

caves in the Suoxi River basin from Zhangjiajie Sandstone

Peak Forest Geopark to adjacent areas. The aim of this

work is to characterize the fluvial terraces and karst caves,

relating them to the formation and geomorphic evolution of

the unique sandstone landscape of Zhangjiajie. Numerical

Fig. 1 a The satellite image of

Zhangjiajie showing the spatial

distribution of sandstone

landscapes, karst caves and

fluvial terraces in the upper,

middle, and middle-lower

reaches of the Suoxi River;

b geomorphic sketch map of

Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak

Forest Geopark indicating the

major landform areas in the

study region

672 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:671–683

123

age data provide information on the timing of sandstone

landform development in Zhangjiajie World Geopark.

Regional setting

Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark (29�1301800–29�2702700N, 110�1800000–110�4101500E) is located in the

northwestern sector of Hunan Province, China, covering a

total area of 398 km2 (Fig. 1). Elevation ranges from

*200 to 300 m a.s.l. in the valley bottom to ca. 1,300 m

a.s.l. in the mountain peaks (Fig. 2). The area is charac-

terized by a plateau-type monsoon climate, receiving an

annual average precipitation of 1,400 mm and with an

annual average temperature of 16�C (Hunan Geo-envi-

ronmental Monitoring Center 1988).

The geopark stands across the Jiangnan Oldland and

Yangtze Platform. The area can be considered as relatively

stable from the tectonic point of view and magmatic

activity is absent (Fig. 2). Physiographically, the study area

is characterized by a slightly undulating terrain with a

general slope of 5� to 8� towards the NE–NNE direction

(Hunan Geo-environmental Monitoring Center 1988).

In the study area, the drainage system is controlled by the

Suoxi River, a second-order tributary of the Lishui River,

which flows eastward through the region. Of the approxi-

mately 70 km long segment of the Suoxi Valley studied

here, the upper 20 km stretch lies in the core part of

Zhangjiajie Geopark whereas the remaining 50 km lies

downstream. It has dissected the quartz sandstone bedrock

forming various sandstone topographies at different heights

varying from 1,000 m a.s.l. to the present-day river bed.

Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest Geopark is just in the

transition zone between the northeastern Yun-Gui Plateau

and the middle-low mountain area of northwestern Hunan

Province. Stratigraphic deposits range from youngest

Holocene to Silurian and Devonian age that are represen-

tative of the region (Hunan Bureau of Geology and Mineral

Resources 1988; Fig. 2). Strata of the Middle Silurian

occur in the south, north, and west of the geopark and

constitute the bedrock foundation underlying the sand-

stone. The Silurian strata is disconformably overlain by the

approximately 520 m thick Middle Devonian Yuntaiguan

Formation (D2yn), which is dominated by gray-white, fresh

pink, thick or medium-thick fine-grained quartz sandstone

with a series of interbedded thin-layer siltstones and muddy

Fig. 2 Geological map and

cross-section of Zhangjiajie

World Geopark (modified from

Hunan Geo-environmental

Monitoring Center 1988)

Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:671–683 673

123

siltstones. The overlying Huangjiadeng Formation (D3h) of

the Upper Devonian has a regional thickness of 5.3–40.6 m

and is a fine-grained ferruginous quartz sandstone, with

1–3 layers of oolitic hematite on the top, making the

resistant red hats on some sandstone peaks. The Huangj-

iadeng Formation sandstone is unconformably overlain by

thick Permian limestone, with Carboniferous strata being

normally absent. In the geopark, the sandstone peak forest

landforms are mostly developed in the Upper and Middle

Devonian units (D2?3), whereas limestone karst landforms

appear in the Permian strata in northeast Tianzi Mountain

above the peak forest landforms or in the Triassic strata

along the Suoxi River valley (Fig. 2). The Quaternary

deposits are very limited, usually represented by fluvial

deposits.

Materials and methods

Two field surveys were carried out in October 2008 and

May 2009 to examine the various stepped morphogenetic

sequences developed in the Zhangjiajie World Geopark

and its adjacent terrains (Fig. 1). Multidisciplinary geo-

morphological, sedimentological, and geochronological

approaches have been applied to better understand the

evolutionary history of the striking sandstone landscape.

The thickness and elevation of the terraces above the

present river bed have been measured by means of GPS,

large-scale topographic mapping and field surveys. The

height, length, and structural configuration of the caves

were systemically measured and analyzed in detail during

the investigation. The lithofacies were identified and

broadly grouped into gravel, sand, and clay, which was

further divided into sub-facies based on textural maturity,

stratigraphication, and color. A total of seven bulk samples

was collected from silt-sized deposits of fluvial terraces

and karst caves along the Suoxi River valley, as well as the

adjacent Maoxi River. The geochronology of terrace and

karst cave deposits was established by means of thermo-

luminescence (TL) and electron spin resonance (ESR)

analyses based on previous publications (Forman 1989;

Laurent et al. 1998; Chiavari et al. 2001; Wray et al. 2001;

Tissoux et al. 2008). Two quartz-rich samples were

selected from the highest terrace and karst cave level for

ESR dating, and five quartz-rich samples were collected

from lower terrace levels for TL dating, respectively

(Table 1). The samples were mostly composed of sand and

silt and they were collected from 10–15 cm from the

exposures in the fluvial terraces along the Suoxi and

adjacent Maoxi Rivers and highest level in Huanglong

Cave. Proximity to boulders was avoided of the removing

and a distance of 20 cm was considered sufficient to

minimize possible contamination of the sample material.

During sampling, iron tubes 10-cm in diameter were driven

into the fluvial profiles and sealed immediately after sam-

ple collection. In the dating lab, the laboratory technician

removed both ends of the samples to yield reliable

numerical ages. The TL dating was performed in the

Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration

(CEA), whilst the ESR dating was examined in the Institute

of Crustal Dynamics, CEA. The general principles and

experimental protocols of the ESR and TL dating methods

for deposits from fluvial terraces and highest level of Hu-

anglong Cave are based on previous studies (Lu et al. 1987,

1988; Bahain et al. 2007; Yin et al. 2007). According to

prior works, the systematic error of ESR and TL dating was

estimated to be within 10% (Bahain et al. 2007; Yin et al.

2007). In order to compare the chronology of different

terraces with cave levels, the weathering rinds and sedi-

mentary features of the gravels from the highest level of

Huanglong Cave were investigated using the method of

field gravel counts, including determining the weathering

rinds and colors, lithology, orientation, size and roundness

of the clasts in conglomerates (cf., Laming 1966). At least

116 pebbles and cobbles were measured, allowing for the

statistically valid results.

Description of fluvial terraces and karst caves

Fluvial terraces

In the study area, a stepped sequence of fluvial terraces

occurs along the Suoxi River in Zhangjiajie, northwest

Hunan Province, China. By integrating the interpretation of

large-scale topographic maps, chronologic analyses, and

field surveys, we distinguished four terrace levels in the

Suoxi River. These terrace levels are labeled according to

their relative topographic position from the highest (T4) to

the present-day floodplain (Figs. 3, 4).

In the upstream stretch, one terrace level has been

observed on both banks of the Suoxi River. This terrace

level is present from 275 to 280 m a.s.l. and *10–12 m

above the Suoxi River bed, becoming continuous in

downstream areas (Figs. 3a, 4). The fluvial terrace T1 is a

strath cut across the Triassic limestone. Its surface is

covered by some gravel deposits, which occur in patches

on the left/north bank of the Suoxi River and extend in the

downstream direction around Dengjiaping (P01, Fig. 3a).

In the lower reaches of the Suoxi River, the T1 terrace

lies at about 7 m above the present-day river bed (ca.

173 m a.s.l.). At places, this terrace level is predominant by

a simple dual-texture, with 2–3 m thick finer alluvial

deposits resting on the 1–2 m thick gravel layer (Fig. 3d).

The T2 terrace consists of a lower faces of gravel layer

3–5 m in thickness and an overlying faces of alluvial silts


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Table 1 Age of Huanglong

Cave and fluvial terraces from

the Suoxi, Maoxi, Yangtze,

Yellow, and Weihe rivers

Geomorphic feature Level Elevation/

m a.s.l.

Above river

level/m a.s.l.

Age

Huanglong Cave (by authors) L1 *345 80–90 463 ± 46 ka (ESR)

L2 *300 40–45 Qp2–Qp

3

L3 *280 20–25 Qp3

L4 *262 2–5 Qh

Terraces of middle Suoxi River

(by authors)

T4 238 *35–40

T3 230 *25–30 104.45 ± 8.88 ka (TL)

117.62 ± 9.99 ka (TL)

T2 220 *15–20

T1 207 *4–6

Terraces of lower Maoxi River

(by authors)

T4 256 78–83 347 ± 34 ka (ESR)

T3 235 57–62 151.05 ± 12.84 ka (TL)

201.24 ± 17.11 ka (TL)

T2 206 28–33 60.95 ± 5.18 ka (TL)

T1 188 10–15

Terraces of the middle Yangtze River

(Li et al. 2001)

T4 0.3–0.5 Ma

T3 0.11–0.15 Ma

T2 0.05–0.06 Ma

T1 0.01–0.03 Ma

Terraces of the Weihe River

(Gao et al. 2008)

T4 0.412 Ma

T3 0.128 Ma

T2 0.064 Ma

T1 0.011 Ma

Terraces of the Yellow River

(Li et al. 1997)

T4 0.6 Ma

T3 0.120 Ma

T2 0.055 Ma

T1 0.010 Ma

Fig. 3 Integrated cross-section depicting various terrace levels on both banks of the upper (a) to middle (b) and lower reaches (c) and (d) of the

Suoxi River


123

0.5–1 m in thickness. This terrace is represented by small

treads ranging from 178 to 183 m a.s.l. Remnants of terrace

T2 are continuous in downstream areas of the Suoxi River

with a tread at 180 m a.s.l. The T3 terrace level is repre-

sented at *22–25 m above the Suoxi River bed in some

reaches of the Suoxi River valley by a 1–1.5 m thick gravel

layer, overlain by 0.2–0.4 m of alluvial silts. The fluvial

succession comprise dominantly well-sorted, weakly

weathered, and moderate imbricated sandstone or siltstone,

which was stuffed by relatively loose and light brown

sands and silts (Fig. 5). Clast size ranges from 10 to 20 cm

(along a axis) but the maximum size measured up to

*50 cm. The matrix is light olive brown, coarse sand and

grit. In the middle reach of the Suoxi River valley, terraces

show similar characteristics in terms of relative height and

sedimentary features, whereas having a higher absolute

height (Fig. 3b, c). These three terrace levels can be traced

downstream and at P06, they occur at *9, 24 and 39 m

above the Suoxi River bed (Figs. 3c, 4). Additionally, some

small relics of fluvial deposits occur at higher elevation in the

peak summits along the middle Suoxi River valley (Figs. 3b,

4). When taking the relative height from the Suoxi River

bed and spatial distribution pattern into consideration,

these deposits might be equivalent to the terrace level T4,

extending laterally for several kilometers (Figs. 3b, 4).

Two samples from the T3 terrace level were collected

for TL dating (Fig. 3b), yielding 104.45 ± 8.88 and

117.62 ± 9.99 ka (Table 1), in agreement with regional

results of 0.1–0.2 Ma from the adjacent Maoxi River

(151.05 ± 12.84 ka and 201.24 ± 17.11 ka, Table 1) and

middle Yangtze River (Xie 1991; Li et al. 2001; Yang

2006).

Typical karst cave: Huanglong Cave

Huanglong Cave is located 10 km east of Jundiping village

and in the northern side of the Suoxi Valley, forming part

of the Zhangjiajie World Geopark (Chen 1987; Ge et al.

2009). The cave network ranges from 260 to 400 m a.s.l.,

with exit standing approximately 5 ± 2 m above the

present Suoxi River. Huanglong Cave is characterized by a

unique configuration and wide variety of stalactites, sta-

lagmites, columns, and flowstones (Cheng 1988; Yang

2007; Ge et al. 2009; Fig. 6). The cave can be divided into

four different east–west trending levels, with a total length

of 13 km and a vertical development of 140 m.

The upper level ranges from 345 to 400 m a.s.l.,

including Dragon King’s Palace and the Stone-flower

Chamber (Fig. 6). A 60-cm thick water-laid deposits

composed of clayey sand and gravels have been recognized

(Figs. 6, 7). The gravel diameter is dominantly 3–5 cm,

reaching up to 18 cm and showing relatively good sorting

and roundness though with poor fabrics and a weak degree

of weathering (Figs. 6, 7). The sedimentary succession

exhibits a characteristic and fairly simple admixture of

resistant sandstone/siltstone clasts floating in reddish-

brown mud matrix. For instance, among the 116 pebbles

and cobbles of water-laid deposits, 31% were milky quartz

siltstone, 29.3% grayish yellow quartz siltstone, 14% light

fresh red Quartz siltstone, 10% grayish white quartz silt-

stone, 9% purple quartz siltstone, and a small amount of

brick-red siltstone, light brown quartz siltstone, and sage

green quartz siltstone (Fig. 6). Infilling fine-grained sand,

silt, and even clay of matrix materials are strongly

cemented and very tough indeed. The ESR dating of the

highest gravel layer found in Huanglong Cave indicate that

the formation of the cave started more than 463 ± 46 ka

ago (Table 1).

Assemble Platform and Immortal Hall, with an

approximate elevation of 300 m a.s.l., constitute the second

level. Water-laid deposits including silt, sand, and pebbles

have been found at the junction of Dragon Ballroom and Ji

Platform. This level is the one that reached the highest

length. The third floor is represented by the Charming

Fig. 4 Longitudinal profile

with west–east direction of

fluvial terraces in the Suoxi

River Basin


123

Palace situated at 280 m a.s.l. and 20–25 m above the

present river channel (255–260 m). On the west of the cave

corridor, the water-laid deposits, mainly consisting of

sandy clay, sand, and gravels are 1.5–2.0 m thick (Fig. 6).

The detrital sediments from Yanba Grotto to Charming

Palace are dissected by a modern underground river,

becoming the lowest level of the karst cave. The present

underground river, with the same elevation as the T1 ter-

race level in the upper Suoxi River (Chen 1987), maintains

a hydraulic connection with the Suoxi River by supplying

and receiving water in the low-flow and flood seasons,

respectively.

Fig. 5 Simplified vertical

section of terrace level T3 in P05

along the Suoxi River

Fig. 6 Horizontal (a) and vertical (b) distribution of Huanglong Cave (shaded colors used to differentiate different levels; modified from Hunan

Geo-environmental Monitoring Center 1988)


123

Discussion

Terraces ages and correlation with karst caves

In the study area, the relatively hot and dry Neocene cli-

mate was not favorable for alluviation process and cave

development. During the Quaternary, however, with gla-

cial-interglacial cycles accompanied by tectonic uplift, the

conditions were adequate for developing stepped morpho-

genetic sequences (Cheng 1988; Hunan Geo-environmental

Monitoring Center 1988; Bourne and Twidale 2000; Ge

et al. 2009; Yang et al. 2009). As noted in many other

Fig. 7 Gravel layer and its characteristics in the highest level of

Huanglong Cave (a) and (b) general and close-up views of gravel

layer in the highest level in Huanglong Cave; c Roundness: 1–5

represent the extremely well-, well-rounded, rounded, subangular and

angular geometry of clasts; d weathering degree; 1–4 indicate the

fresh, weak, moderate and complete-weathering, respectively;

(e) Lithologic component: 1, light red quartz siltstone; 2, milky

quartz siltstone; 3, purple quartz siltstone; 4, light brown quartz

siltstone; 5, grayish white quartz siltstone; 6, grayish yellow quartz

siltstone; 7, sage green quartz siltstone; 8, brick-red quartz siltstone

Fig. 8 Major karst caves and

stepped morphogenetic

sequences developed during the

middle Mid-Pleistocene in

China


123

studies, episodes of karst cave and terrace aggradation can

be associated with periods of interglacial and glacial, while

river incision is more intensive during glacial/interglacial

transitions (Bridgland 2000; Piccini et al. 2003; Bridgland

and Westaway 2008).

The Huanglong Cave initially occurred more than

463 ± 46 ka ago, broadly contemporaneous with MIS 11,

during interglacial conditions dominated by the wettest

climate. The warm and humid climatic conditions during

the Middle Pleistocene would be favorable for cave

development (Lu 1986; Chen 1992). In regional terms, a

large number of caves developed during this time from

southern to northern China (Lu 1986; Chen 1992; Wang

et al. 2002; Ge et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2009; Fig. 8). This

was followed by the aggradation of terrace level T4 in the

adjacent Maoxi River and middle Yangtze River (0.46 ±

0.046 Ma, 0.347 ± 0.034 Ma, and 0.3-0.5 Ma, respec-

tively; see Li et al. 2001; Xiang et al. 2005; Yang 2006;

Table 1). Four horizontal or slightly inclined cave passages

provide valuable evidence to reconstruct the former

groundwater table and its relation to the regional fluvial

base level, indicating ages of MIS 11, 7e, 5e and 3,

respectively.

In the present study, TL dating of five samples from the

Suoxi and the adjacent Maoxi River valleys offer an

opportunity to develop a chronologically constrained evo-

lutionary history for the Zhangjiajie area during the Late

Quaternary, with terrace levels T3 and T2 formed at ca.

0.1–0.2 Ma and 0.06 Ma, respectively (Table 1). The

positions of T3 and T2 levels above the Suoxi River suggest

that they were most likely developed during the Late

Pleistocene, during MIS 6 and 4, and controlled by the

middle Yangtze River (Yang and Chen 1988; Xie 1990,

1991; Tian et al. 1996; Li et al. 2001; Xiang et al. 2005;

Yang 2006).

The good correlation between terrace level T4 and the

upper cave level indicate that karst cave was formed in the

middle Middle Pleistocene or even earlier. A significant

base-level standstill is likely to have occurred during this

period, at which time a new karst feature emerged at an

elevation approximately 80–90 m above the contemporary

river level in Zhangjiajie, followed by the aggradation of

terrace level T4 during a cold period (Table 1).

Geomorphological and sedimentological comparison

of fluvial terraces and karst caves

The highest terrace level is not well preserved along the

Suoxi River, because the high relief and climatic condi-

tions (i.e., high temperature excursions and rainfall up to

1,400 mm/year) favor rapid erosion over a longer time

span. Mechanical erosion must have been very active

during the middle Middle Pleistocene, destroying most of

the fluvial terraces. Some remnants of this level have been

identified in the middle reach of this valley during the

investigation, the typical dual stratigraphy and pebble im-

brications, however, cannot be recognized (Fig. 3). Only in

some restricted low-relief areas there are small to medium-

scale remnants of this level (Figs. 3b, 4).

The altitude of the widespread and continuous T3 terrace

level in the adjacent Maoxi River and the most extensive

level 2 of Huanglong Cave (Ge et al. 2009) indicate the

paleoclimatic condition during they were formed. The

climate of MIS 7 during the level 2 of karst cave developed

must be extremely warm and moist in this area. This par-

ticular period of MIS 7e dominated by extremely warm and

humid climate would favour the extensive karstification

development. On the basis of regional correlations, the

well-developed terrace level T3 has been assigned to MIS

6. Given the abundance of surface cobbles and pebbles

observed, the relatively weak weathering rinds of the

gravels (with an average thickness of approximately

\0.6 cm) in terrace level T3 from the Suoxi River and the

adjoining Maoxi River are considered to represent deposits

of MIS 6, during which the dominant cool the dry climate

was likely resulted in the deposition of coarse sedimentary

units. When the finer matrix, mainly slit and clay, enter

simultaneously into the alleviation during interglacial

times, they will aggradate atop the coarser groups, pro-

ducing to the dual stratigraphy. In regional correlations, the

numerical ages, the relative height and sedimentological

features of terrace level T3 indicate that it was formed

during the Late Pleistocene in both Maoxi and Suoxi

Rivers. Similarly, the relative height and geomorphic

configuration of terrace levels T2 and T1 suggest that they

are correlative to the two lower levels of Huanglong Cave,

Late Pleistocene to Holocene in age.

The gravel layer identified in the Huanglong Cave

dominated by siltstone can provide some clues on the

origin of the cave. The completely different lithology

between the gravel layer and the host rock indicates an

allochthonous source for the gravel (Cheng 1988; Huang

et al. 2006). We deemed that the fairly uniform lithology of

water-laid gravels with a good sorting and roundness

should be conveyed by the river flow from the local

Devonian sandstone outcrops, where large amounts of

detritus would have been supplied by mass wasting and

stream erosion (Yang et al. 2009; Fig. 7). This conclusion

is also confirmed by other lithological data (Hunan Bureau

of Geology and Mineral Resources 1988; Huang et al.

2006; Tables 2, 3). The poor fabrics and the lack of a dual

stratigraphy associated with gravel layer give evidence of

the larger water flow and prompt deposition process. It is

probable that rainfall was abundant, perhaps confined to a

short reason, but coming as occasional violent cloudbursts;

these would have been sufficient to cause torrential flow in


123

valleys. Material of all sizes would be moved and carried

relatively long distances. When transported into the cave,

the pebbles and cobbles were deposited quickly in a rela-

tively closed environment. Due to the lack of exposure to

the surface, weathering process on gravels was limited

(Fig. 7). In this case, the medium to weak weathering rinds

of most gravels (mostly \0.8 cm) indicative of Late

Pleistocene or even in late Middle Pleistocene times may

post-date the deposition (Fig. 7d). The saturated infilled

finer sediments with widespread rubefaction are evidence

of onetime presence of a warm and humid climate during

which they were formed, in consistence with the paleo-

climatic picture of the study area over the middle Middle

Pleistocene (Hunan Bureau of Geology and Mineral

Resources 1988; Liu 2002). From this it may be deduced

that the Huanglong Cave preferably occurred in thus a

subtropical climatic regime in Zhangjiajie during the

middle Middle Pleistocene.

Implication for sandstone landform development

The sandstone landforms concentrate mainly on the

boundary of Tianzi Mountain and areas between Wangjia

village and Heicao Valley in the upper reach of the Suoxi

River (Fig. 1b). Their summits show four distinctive ero-

sional levels varying primarily from 800 to 1,000, 700 to

750, 500 to 550 and 300 to 400 m. a.s.l., respectively

(Fig. 9a). When comparing the typical sandstone land-

scapes with those of fluvial terraces and karst caves, four

distinctive geomorphic levels are evident and correspond to

each other very well since they are commonly controlled

by the Suoxi River (Fig. 9). The top level of Huanglong

Cave corresponds to the highest level (L1) of sandstone

landform and the highest terrace level of the Suoxi River,

while the lowest river water levels of cave and fluvial

systems should represent the current standstill level. The

good correlations in geomorphic pattern among these

stepped morphogenetic sequences suggest that the warm

and moist climate during middle Middle Pleistocene

(*46.3 ka) favored karstification processes, followed by

the aggradation of terrace level T4 during a cold period

(Table 1).

Therefore we assume the beginning of incision is a bit

earlier than the aggradation of terrace level T4

([0.35 Ma) on the scale of the Suoxi River. During an

early stage, the Suoxi River might have begun to develop

its drainage network, with the fluvial dissection of river

into the sandstone bedrock within the Zhangjiajie Sand-

stone Peak Forest Geopark. The regional tectonic move-

ment and associated stress release lead to highly

developed fracture and joint systems in the study area,

which generates the mass wasting and greatly accelerate

the stream incision process (Chen 1987, 1988; Yang et al.

2009). For these reasons, the timing of sandstone land-

form formation, however, should be constrained to Mid-

dle Pleistocene when the long-term tectonic stable period

was finished.

The chronologic data from the karst cave and terrace

sequences in the Suoxi and its adjacent Maoxi rivers also

helps to understand the evolution of sandstone landform.

Table 2 Host rock component of Huanglong Cave (unit: %; revised from Cheng 1988)

Host rock Calcite Clay Ferric ingredient Dolomite Micro-fissure

Fine-grained silty limestone 98 2–3 1 Minority

Dolomitic limestone 86 0.5–1.0 11 1.0–2.0

Table 3 Lithologic components of different Zhangjiajie sandstone landscapes (unit: %; modified from Huang et al. 2006)

Locality Lithology Stratum SiO2 CaO Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 Others

Baofeng Lake White quartz sandstone D2yn 97.20 0.00018 1.84 0.15 0.00076 0.0015

White quartz sandstone D2yn 94.20 0.00039 1.66 0.00063 0.0004 0.0007

Jinbian stream White Quartz sandstone D2yn 95.90 0.71 2.18 0.13 0.14 0.13053

White quartz sandstone D2yn 94.00 0.51 2.94 0.23 1.25 0.00058

Baizhang Valley Red quartz sandstone D2yn 83.60 0.00066 10.60 0.36 2.67 0.00127

Red silty mudstone D2yn 67.20 0.00011 22.00 0.92 2.17 0.00055

Xianyao bay Red quartz sandstone D2yn 79.40 0.12 4.77 0.39 13.20 0.000132

White siltstone D2yn 66.80 0.00021 24.70 1.30 0.27 0.00092

Koho Red quartz sandstone D3h 92.20 0.00097 5.26 0.21 0.46 0.33

Peak forest Red quartz sandstone D3h 93.50 0.00062 0.88 0.21 3.96 0.24019

D2yn Yuntaiguan Formation of Middle Devonian, D3h Huangjiadeng Formation of Upper Devonian


123

The geochronology of the stepped morphogenetic sequen-

ces of the Suoxi River that formed during the middle period

of the Middle Pleistocene has been constrained dating

terraces and karst cave systems. The integration of a geo-

morphological analysis and the available data may allow us

to propose some inferences on the age of the sandstone

landscape. Consequently, the earliest possible time of

stream incision of Suoxi should be earlier than the age of

the oldest terrace level T4 (approximately [347 ± 34 ka;

Fig. 9). They are also supported by the additional evidence

from sedimentary features and geomorphic pattern in the

study region. The strongly cemented gravel layer and

red infilled deposit features in highest level of Huanglong

Cave should be dated as middle Middle Pleistocene

when warm and humid climate was predominant. Based on

these comparable evidences from geomorphological,

sedimentological and geochronological features, we thus

propose that the Suoxi River began to incise the sandstone

landform in the Middle Pleistocene, accompanied by the

later mass wasting owing to the well-developed fracture

and joint systems in the region.

Conclusions

In this paper, we present the results of an integrated geo-

morphological, sedimentological and geochronological

study carried out along the Suoxi River of northwest Hunan

Province, China. This area is characterized by the occur-

rence of four distinct erosional levels in the sandstone

landscape, karst caves and fluvial terraces in the upper,

middle, and middle-lower reaches of the Suoxi River. This

Fig. 9 Geomorphic correlation

of the sandstone peak forest

landscapes (a), karst caves

(b) and fluvial terraces (c) in the

upper, middle, and middle-

lower Suoxi catchment from

Zhangjiajie


123

present study indicates that fluvial terraces and karst caves

from the Suoxi River basin with comparable ages help to

understand the evolution of the sandstone landscape.

Sandstone landscape development occurred probably in the

middle Middle Pleistocene due primarily to the surface

uplift and stream incision. These also can be generally

correlated with each other both temporally and spatially

based on weathering rinds and sedimentary features

through the Suoxi River valley and adjacent Maoxi River

valley. Pebble and cobble roundness in the highest cave

level reflects relatively long transport distance or repeated

transport processes and thus is mostly rounded but uniform

in lithology, showing an origin from Devonian rock

exposures. Due to the lack of exposure to the surface, the

medium to weak weathering rinds of most gravels and the

matrix of fine-grained particles with widespread rubefac-

tion in the highest cave level provide evidence of a warm

and humid climate picture in the study area. A significant

base-level standstill is likely to have occurred during this

period, followed by aggradation of terrace level T4 during a

cold period. From this it may be deduced that the timing of

sandstone formation must be earlier than the aggradation of

highest terrace level T4 in Zhangjiajie during the Middle

Pleistocene.

Acknowledgments This work is within the scope of the specific

funding ‘‘Formation age of sandstone peak forest landform and crustal

stability of Zhangjiajie World Geopark’’ from Zhangjiajie Geopark

Management Department. We are extremely thankful to the anony-

mous reviewer(s) for fruitful comments and suggestions. We

acknowledge with gratitude the advice of Professors Zhijiu Cui,

Naigong Deng and Keyi Guo in our research group. Special thanks

should be given to the cooperation of the staff at Zhangjiajie Geopark

Management Department, and the Bureau of Land Resource Man-

agement office in Zhangjiajie, who made much of this work possible.

Professor Chuanlun Zhang provides some helpful reviews and edi-

torial suggestions.

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