Geology of Embankment Dams

8/10/2019 Geology of Embankment Dams

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0: Background

Dams are constructed of earth and rock materials and are generally referred

to as embankment dams or fill-type dams. The history of construction of

embankment dams is much older than that of concrete dams. It is evident that some

earth dams were constructed about 3,000 years ago in the cradles of ancient

cultures such as east countries. Two major distinct features and advantages are

noticed for the construction of embankment dams. Rigorous conditions are not

required for the dam foundation, while hard and sound rock foundation is

necessary for concrete dams. Embankment dams can be constructed even on the

alluvial deposit and pervious foundations. Construction of embankment dams has

an economical advantage and construction materials are principally to be supplied

near the dam site (Chanson,2009).

1.1: Geology of Embankment Dams

There are three main steps of working in a dam project: i.e., investigation,

design and construction. Individual works in these three steps are summarized as

listed below with key words associated with them.
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Investigation

Design

Construction

Investigation: This process involves checking of dam planning for appropriate

purposes and it involves various survey procedures such as; Metrological surveys,

Foundation survey and Fill materials.


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CHAPTER TWO

DESIGN AND TYPES OF EMBANKMENT DAMS

2.0: Design of Embankment Dams

The design of an embankment dam involves the following; stabilizing dam

body against sliding and failure of embankment, seepage analysis so as to detect

leakage through foundation as well as pressure analysis of dam, foundation

treatment: This involves counterweight fill and inspection of gallery drainage

facilities (Seed, 1999).

2.1: Construction of an Embankment Dam

The steps involved in construction include planning for construction which

involves bulldozing of site and supply of equipment to site, foundation treatment

which involves the actual placement of dam structure and laboratory testing,

observation involves the actual process of pore-water to observe pressure or any

form of deformation in dam, maintenanceand repair involves the correction of any

observed error in dam construction (Mansouri, et al., 2011).

2.2: Types of Embankment Dams

Embankment dams are made fromcompacted earth, and have two main types,

rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back
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the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete. Embankment dams are

classified into two main categories which includes;

Rockfill Dams

Earthfill Dams

2.2.1: Rock-fill Dams

TheGathright Dam inVirginia is a rock-fillembankment dam.Rock-fill dams

are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious

zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence

the term rock-fill (Newmark, 2009). The impervious zone may be on the upstream

face and made ofmasonry,concrete,plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or

other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which

case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the

impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal

erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a

filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine

grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized

leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage

from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can

lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to
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liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be

reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing

adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New

Melones Dam inCalifornia.

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete.The majority of such

dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams

of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was

completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent

performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that

can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a

whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt

make such dams especially suited inearthquake regions (Poulos, et al., 2005).

2.2.1.1: Concrete-Face Rock-Fill dams

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam withconcrete slabs on

its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to

prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In

addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less

costly than earth-fill dams (Moffat, and Fannin, 2011). The CFRD originated

during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill

timber-face dams forsluice operations.The timber was later replaced by concrete
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as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew

in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and

vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades,

the design has become popular.[42]Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the

233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008

(Einstein, 1997).

Fig. 1: Structural Features of a Rock-fill Embankment Dam

Source: Mansouri, et al., (2011).

2.2.2: Earth-Fill Dams

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth

dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A

homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but
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may contain a drain layer to collect seepwater (Pelecanos, et al., 2013). A zoned-

earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally

plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments

employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the

integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam

construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth

dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam.

An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is

thefrozen-coredam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam

to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it (Noorzad and Taghavi,

2008).

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan.It is located about

50 km (31 mi) northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 485 ft (148 m) above the

river bed and a reservoir size of 95 sq mi (250 km2) makes it the largest earth filled

dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 9,000

feet (2,700 metres) long with a maximum height of 465 feet (142 metres). The total

volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 200 million cubic

yards (152.8 million cu. Meters) which makes it one of the largest man made

structure in the world. Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials
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found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost

of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

Fig. 2: Structural Features of an Earth-fill Embankment Dam

Source: Mansouri, et al., (2011).


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CHAPTER THREE

FAILURES AND DAMAGES OF EMBANKMENT DAMS

3.1: Preamble

Most of catastrophic failures of embankment dams causes by overtopping of

the reservoir water due to flooding or loss of free board (Seed, 1999). Despite

embankment dams should not be designed to withstand erosive action of water

flow over the crest, case histories reveal that inadequate capacity of spillway, that

is, insufficient estimation of the amount of flooding has often led to the failure of

the embankment due to overtopping (Sherard, 2003). Failures of this type,

however, cannot be a decisive defect of embankment dams, because the

accumulation of available accurate data of hydrology and the improvement of

design method can readily settle the problem.

Other main factors to cause embankment failures are hydraulic erosion, high

pore-water pressure, earthquake forces and so forth. More than 50 percent of

embankment failures are above all due to hydraulic erosion, and remaining each

several percent is caused by other respective factors. Several typical patterns of

failures and damages of embankment dams and their foundations are illustrated in

the table 2 below.


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3.2: Seepage Failure (Hydraulic Fracture)

When water flows passing through soil in an embankment and foundation,

seepage forces act on soil particles due to its viscosity (Yousefi1, et al., 2013). If

seepage forces acting in the soil are large enough as compared to the resisting

forces based on the effective earth pressure, erosion by quick sand takes place by

washing soil particles away from the surface, and piping successively develops as

erosion gradually progresses(Vrymoed, and Calzascia, 1998).

One of the actions of seepage through pervious foundation is that which the

uplift pressure acting on the impervious foundation causes heaving near the toe of

the embankment. Hydraulic fracturing, quick sand and piping, can readily occur

around the downstream toe when the hydraulic gradient increases with the

concentration of flow lines, and the reduction in effective stresses is inevitable in

the ground due to the action of the upward seepage forces.

In an actual dam design, adequate drainage facilities such as filter zones and

drains are provided in the interior of the embankment, and piping failures as stated

above would not be expected to occur in ordinary situations. One of unusual

situations to be considered is the generation of interior cracks in the impervious

zone and foundation, which is mainly, caused by differential settlements during

and after construction.


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Table.3.1: Failure Causes of Embankment Dams

During Construction (a). Poor water pressure built-up during

construction

(b). Reduction of shear strength due tothixotropical property

After construction (a). Hydraulic fracture/internalerosion/piping

(b). Excess hydrostatic pressure due to

rapid draw down.(c) Reduction in shear

strength/Weathering, swelling of

compacted soil(d) Settlement and cracking

(e) Earthquake forces

3.3: Correction of Failures in Dam Construction

Most of catastrophic failures of embankment dams are caused by

overtopping of the reservoir water due to flooding or loss of free board. Other main

factors to cause embankment failures are hydraulic erosion, high pore-water

pressure, earthquake forces and so forth.


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CHAPTER FOUR

IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF EMBANKMENT DAMS

4.1: Impact Assessment

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising

from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit

to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area whether the change to

water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to

human lives (relocation, loss ofarcheological or cultural matters underwater).

4.2: Environmental Impact Embankment Dams

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river.

Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers

below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw

tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases

from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little

suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of

riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by theGlen Canyon

Dam was a contributor tosand barerosion.

Older dams often lack afish ladder,which keeps many fish from moving up

stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or

blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always
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prevent a reduction in fish reaching thespawning grounds upstream. In some areas,

young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream bybarge during parts of the year.

Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an

active area of research. A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres,

includingendangered andundiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of

the original environment by a new inland lake. Large reservoirs formed behind

dams have been indicated in the contribution ofseismic activity,due to changes in

water load and/or the height of the water table. Dams are also found to have a role

in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in

reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane.[56]While

dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they

harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

4.3: Human Social Impact

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in

Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle against Poverty in Asia that dam

construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the

common good,and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites

Morarji Desai,Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about
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thePong Dam,who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if

they did not cooperate (Newmark, 2009).

For example, theThree Gorges Dam on theYangtze River inChina is more

than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir

600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the

loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many

valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change.

It is estimated that to date, 4080 million people worldwide have been physically

displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction ( Mohammed, 2006).

4.4: Economics

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site

studies,hydrological studies, andenvironmental impact assessments,and are large-

scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil

fuels.The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric

production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually

require extensive power transmission lines (Mohammed, 2006). Hydroelectric

generation can be vulnerable to major changes in theclimate,including variations

in rainfall,ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional
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expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-

water years.

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power

source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape

risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind

power (Arenillas and Castillo, 2009 ). It is more easily regulated to store water as

needed and generate high power levels on demand compared towind power.

4.5: Conclusion

In order to achieve the construction of a stable embankment dam that will

pass the test of time, it is advised that all precautions discussed above be adhered

to.
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Moffat, R. and Fannin, J.R (2011). A hydromechanical relation governing internalstability of cohesionless soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal11:413424

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