GEOG 101: Day 11Finishing up Biodiversity; Forestry

Housekeeping Items For your assignments, try to follow the APA parenthetical style

– see https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ and https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/.

From Purdue OWL: “If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to

include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by ‘p.’). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

Today, our topic is forestry and I think I’ll have to leave it to you to read about the environmental and social impacts of mining. Canadian mining companies have a bad track record, both environmentally and in terms of how they treat communities, around the world, and we have a couple of films about that in the VIU Library – see Defensora, in particular.

Housekeeping ItemsWe will finish up some of the material on

biodiversity and conservation, and then move on to forestry. On Thursday, we will have a special guest talking about Garry Oak ecosystems and restoration projects on Vancouver Island.

Canadian Wildlife Federation does a lot of habitat and wildlife protection work – see http://cwf-fcf.org/en/discover-wildlife/resources/magazines/canadian-wildlife/ma2012/back-where-they-belong.html about elk. Facebook page for the Campus Food Movement:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/218138681603500/.

Housekeeping ItemsMid-term assignments are due on Thursday, if at all

possible.Wikipedia claims that 10-15% of the Earth’s land

surface is in some form of park or protected area, but that is likely high and often meaningless. Only 1.17% of the ocean is under some form of protection.

I looked up debt-for-nature swaps. According to Wikipedia, “[s]ince the first swap occurred between Conservation International and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps.” As of 2010, these totalled over $1 billion worldwide.

The table on p. 4 is hard to read, but it indicates some of the countries that have been involved.

Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010 (Millions US$)[4] – partial list (source: Wikipedia)

CountryThree-party Swap Funding

Non-US Bilateral and Multilateral Swap Funding

US Bilateral Swap Funding

Total

Argentina $3.1 $3.1Bangladesh $8.5 $8.5Belize $9.0 $9.0Bolivia $3.1 $9.6 $21.8 $34.5Botswana $8.3 $8.3Brazil $2.2 $2.2Bulgaria $16.2 $16.2Cameroon $25.0 $25.0Chile $18.7 $18.7Colombia $12.0 $51.6 $63.6Costa Rica $42.9 $43.3 $26.0 $112.2Dominican Republic

$0.6 $0.6

Ecuador $7.4 $10.8 $18.2Egypt $29.6 $29.6El Salvador $6.0 $55.2 $61.2Ghana $1.1 $1.1Guatemala $1.4 $24.4 $25.8Guinea Bissau

$0.4 $0.4

Honduras $21.4 $21.4Indonesia $30.0 $30.0Jamaica $0.4 $37.5 $37.9Jordan $45.5 $45.5

B

Housekeeping ItemsCosta Rica has amongst the highest proportions of their

land base (over 25%) in protected park and reserves, but they’re lacking the resources to manage them.

While there is an active conservation movement, it faces threats:

“Conservationist murders threaten Costa Rica's eco-friendly reputation

The brutal murder of Jairo Mora, who was trying to protect endangered turtle eggs, was the latest in a string of crimes against environmentalists in the country. Many worry activists will stay away if poachers continue to go unpunished 

Seven alleged poachers were accused of the murder of Jairo Mora but all were acquitted on 26 January.”

Resources on Mining

Resources on mining in and based from Canada:Britannia Beach mine tailings: (http://

www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/background.html)Diamond mining in the north – the Canadian Arctic

Resources Committee: http://www.carc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92:diamonds-and-sustainable-development&catid=41:mining-and-sustainability&Itemid=153 and http://geology.com/articles/canada-diamond-mines/

Canadian companies in Latin America. See the film in the Library, Defensora: HD 9539 N52 G93 2013

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Topics This Week – Forestry and Mining: Key Industries in B.C.How many people have family members who or have been involved in these industries, or who have themselves been involved?

Why should we care about them in a course on environmental geography?

What kinds of potential ecological impacts do they have?

How are they linked into globalization?Where are the primary markets for wood products and minerals, including fossil fuels?

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to

Describe the basic functional processes of trees and their role in biogeochemical cycling

Summarize the principal types of forest biomes, especially those indigenous to Canada

Describe the ecological roles and economic contributions of forests

Trace the history and scale of forest loss and identify the current drivers of deforestation

Outline the major methods of harvesting timberExplain the fundamentals of forest management, and identify forest management agencies in Canada and internationally

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1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history (anyone you know involved?)

12,000 Protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (anyone you know involved?), and over 800 were arrested

Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the trees are at least 150 years old

Jobs depended on the timber industry Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for

forestry in the area Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain

a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest ecosystem

Central Case:Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound

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The Forest and the Trees

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See the following for an estimate for how many trees there are in the world: http://www.ibtimes.com/how-many-trees-are-there-world-scientists-have-new-estimate-its-way-more-they-thought-2078774

The Forest and the Trees

Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface (and used to cover much more, though a few areas are reverting back) Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality and

quantity, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles

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Trees have several basic requirementsFor photosynthesis to occurAn amenable temperature

(appropriate to the species)Air (with CO2)

LightProper soil (with certain

nutrients)Water (some tree species

need more than others)

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Macronutrients – required in large amountsMicronutrients – required in small amountsTranspiration – water loss from leaf surface, cools the plant as well as assisting in the movement of nutrientsWater drawn up through xylem by adhesion and cohesion (water being sucked out of the leaf pores by wind, thus creating a vacuum that enables more water to flow up the trunk channels)

Useful to plant trees in close proximity to crops to make water more accessible to crops

Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d)

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There are three major groups of forest biomes (ecosystem type that occurs around the globe)

Boreal forestHigh-latitude forestCold, dry climates with short growing seasons

Temperate forestMid-latitude forest (eastern forests or west-coast rainforests)

Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing season)

Tropical forestEquatorial-latitude forestWet, tropical climate

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Forests grade into open wooded landsDrylands:

- Shrublands = wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)

- Savannah = open area dominated by grasses with widely scattered trees

- Grasslands = lands dominated by grasses and non-woody vegetation

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Canada is a steward for much of the world’s forest

Canada has the highest amount of forested land per capita in the world

More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest remains more or less intact

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Canada’s forests are varied402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land

is 25% of the world’s natural forest. For a fuller description, see http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forest-regions.

Forests of the north:- Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of

Canada- In every province and territory except New Brunswick,

Nova Scotia and Prince Edward IslandForests of the west:

- Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, ColumbiaForests of the east:

- Forest regions: Deciduous (Carolinian), Great-Lakes-St. Lawrence (mixed deciduous & evergreen), Acadian (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests).

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Forests are ecologically valuable

One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversityStructural complexity houses great biodiversitySome animals adapted for living in canopy, others specialize on the sub-canopies

Shrubs and groundcover plants of the understory are home to still more organisms

Fallen leaves and branches, called litter, house still others

Forest edge can be quite different from habitat in the forest core.

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Different storeys (layers) in the forest

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Trees provide ecosystem servicesof value to people

A forest provides many ecosystem servicesStabilizes soil and prevents erosionSlows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies waterStores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

Regions that have lost their forest cover – where are they, and what are they subject to?

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Harvesting Forest Products

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Forest products are economically valued

Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (ships), paper

Helped society achieve a high standard of living

Softwood = timber harvested from coniferous trees

Hardwood = timber harvested from deciduous trees

NTFPs = non-timber forest products such as medicinal, herbal, decorative and edible products (e.g. edible plants, traditional First Nations plants for healing and eating, mushrooms, salal for arrangements, etc.)

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Timber is harvested by several methods

Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut, leaving only stumpsMost cost-efficientGreatest impacts on forest ecosystemsMimics natural disturbances such as firesEnhances soil erosion and run-off

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Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)

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Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)

Selection systems = only select trees are cutSingle tree selection = widely spaced trees are cutGroup tree selection = small patches of trees are cut

All methods disturb habitat, but some more than othersChange forest structure and compositionIncrease erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

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Plantation forestry has grown in North AmericaReforestation = planting of trees after loggingAfforestation = planting of trees where forested

cover has not existed for some time (e.g. Oak Ridges Moraine on Ontario in ‘30s ‘40s, and ’50s)

Even-aged trees = all trees are the same ageMaximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly

after they have gone through their fastest stage of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at intermediate ages

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Land Conversion and Deforestation

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Land Conversion and Deforestation

Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests People have cleared forests for millennia Clearing of land for farming one of the first

significant human environmental impacts Alters landscapes and ecosystems (and hence

habitat)

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The growth of Canada and the U.S. were fueled by land clearing and loggingDeforestation propelled growth throughout North America

Cleared for farmingThen wood used to provide raw materials for industry

Principal cause of deforestation in Canada was agriculture; now it’s

logging and mining.

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Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of forests and grasslands

Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface than forest

Principal driver of land conversion today – examples?

Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared and crops plantedSustains only one or two seasons of plantingSoil depleted quickly7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings

to support crops or forests is it sustainable? Seems to be a minor culprit

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Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface

Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have traditionally been raised by grazing on open rangelands

Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity

Poorly managed grazing impacts savannah and grassland ecosystems

Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl

However, some tropical rainforest is being converted to rangeland or single-crop plantations

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Bad practices and other pressures have led to deforestation Deforestation has altered the landscapes and ecosystems of much or our planet

Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t always happened

Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in dryland regions

Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to atmosphere because forests are carbon sinks

Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and to some degree Asia, affecting species such as orangutans

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Oil Sands Before and After…

Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many developing nations

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• Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in many developing countries

• Advanced technology has allowed the exploitation of resources faster than in the past (often by foreign multinationals)

• Often these countries impose few or no restrictions on logging

• Often timber is extracted by foreign corporations

Logging here or there?

Imagine you are an environmental activist protesting a logging operation that is cutting old-growth trees near your hometown. If the protest is successful, the company will move to a developing country and cut its primary forest instead. Would you still protest the logging in your hometown? Would you pursue any other approaches?

weighing

the issues

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Forest Management Principles

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Forest Management Principles

Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of managing forests by balancing forests as ecosystems and as sources of wood products

Harvesting = the removal of material from the resource Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the capability of the resource to replenish or regenerate itself (‘sustained yield’ – this is the theory, not necessarily the practice)

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Public forests in Canada are managedfor many purposes

Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on federal Crown lands

Provincial crown land used for timber and non-timber forest products (mainly timber)

Multiple use = policy where forests are to be managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral extraction, and various other uses

wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)

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Today some managers try to practice ecosystem-based management, but still much disagreement about what it is

Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processesCarefully managing ecologically important areas

Protecting some forested areas It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

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Adaptive management evolves and improves

Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods based on experimentationMonitoring results and adjusting methods as

needed A fusion of science and managementTime-consuming and complicated

A guiding principle for forest management in CanadaWest Arm Demonstration Forest ExperimentsDonna Creek Biodiversity ProjectGrizzly Bear Habitat Project

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Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests

Many ecosystems depend on fire

Ecosystems dependent of fire are adversely affected by its suppression

Ground fires = the litter layer itself burns, as opposed to crown fires

Crown fires = the upper tree canopy is ignited

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Fire policy has stirred controversy

For over 100 years, all forest fires were suppressedBut many ecosystems

depend on firesFire suppression allows

woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires

Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

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Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)

Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions Effective May get out of control Impeded by public

misunderstanding and

political interference Should development

allowed in fire-prone

areas?

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Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)

Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance

Seems logical, but is really destructive Snags (standing dead trees)

provide nesting cavities for countless animals

Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage

Promotes future fires

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Sustainable forestry is gaining groundSustainable forestry certification = only

products produced sustainably can be certified International Organization for

Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards

Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber

Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood as a result of environmental campaigns Encourages better logging practices

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ConclusionForests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial

ecosystem services that have economic value as well

Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting

There are federal and regional agencies to oversee and manage publicly held land and natural resources

Resource management policies consider sustained yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity

Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves

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