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The "Military Revolution," 1560-1660--a Myth?Author(s): Geoffrey ParkerSource: The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Jun., 1976), pp. 195-214Published by: University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1879826Accessed: 09-03-2016 18:44 UTC
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The"M taryRevouton 1560-166aMyth?*
GeoffreyParker
S t S u a t orsC o e g e U n v e rs t y of S t An dreu s
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s gh t y amen d ed f ormn E s s ays n Sw e d sh H s t oryL on don 1967 pp 195-225
w t h s ome add t on a mate ra on pp 56-81F ore x amp e s of h ow t he "m t ary
re vou t on "h a sb ee n ac ce p te d by o t he rs c ho ars s e e G N C ark Waran d S o c e ty n
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b rdg e 1964 c h ap 8 C omp are th e ap pro ac h of C W C Oman A H s t ory of t h e
ArtofWar ntheSxteenthCentry London 1937
Journa efModernHst1rx4X June1976 195-2141
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196 GeoffreyPa1ker
t on ary "2Th e p rn c p a n n ov at on n t h e n f an tryw ash e c ame d
theecpse ofthepreva ngtechnqueofhur ngenormoussquares
ofpkemenateachother nfavorof nearformatonscomposedof
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ag an t h e c ara c o e w as req u re d t o c harge s abe rsn h an d re ady
forthek Accordngto Roberts thesenewbatte procedureshad
far-reachng ogstca consequencesTheyrequredtroopswhowere
h gh y t ran e d andd s c p n e dme n w how oud ac t a s c og sn a
machneandthecogshad to earnhowtomarch nstepandhowto
erformthermovementsn perfectunsontheyevenhadtodress
t h e s ame 3n dv du ap rodg e s of v aoran d sk w e re n o on ge r
re qu re dOf c ou rse a t h s t ran n g c o st mon ey an db e c au s e t he
troopshadacqured therexpertseatthegovernments expense
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demob zedwhenthecampagnngendedthetranedmenhad tobe
retanedonapermanentfootngThenewtactcs hearguedthus
gaverse nexorabyto theemergenceofthestandngarmy andthe
frsttoponeerthesetactcareformsandthereforeoneof thefrst
tocreateastandngarmy nEuropewasMaurceofNassau
captan-genera ofthearmyoftheDutchRepubc 4
A"revouton nstrategy"formedthesecondmaorstrandof
Robe rts s t h e s s g *Wt h t h e n ew sod e rs t p rove d p o ss b e t o a t -
temptmoreambtousstrategesto campagnwthsevera armes
smutaneousyandto seekdecsvebattesw thoutfearthatthe
Rob ert s E s s ays p 217
3On t h e w hoe t roop sd dn o t d res s a k e n mos t arme sun t t h e a t ers e v en t ee n th
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asashof thesamecoorto markthemoutfromtheenemyNotsurprs ngy there
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confusonof batteFor thentroductonofunforms seeC Nordmann "LArmee
s u ed o s e auXV e s e c e "Re v u e d un ord 541972 133-47e s p p 137 LAn dre
M c he e Te e re t t o rg an s a t on d e arme e monarch qu e P ars 1906 pp 339-42
andG ParkerTheArmyof FandersandtheSpanshRoad 1567-1659 The
Logstcsof SpanshVctoryandDefeatn theLowCountres WarsCambrdge
1972 pp 164-65
4On thereorganzatonof theDutcharmybyPrnceMaurceand hs cousn
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dschenKregswesenunterPrnz MortzvonOranen" BXdragenenMedede ngen
betreffendedeGeschedensderNederanden86 1971 161-77andM D Fed
"Mdde-CassSocetyand theRseof M taryProfessona sm TheDutchArmy
1589-1609" ArmedForcesandSocety 1 August1975 419-42Bothauthorsstress
thata thoughcass ca precedentswerecoseystudedby theNassaucousns
e s pe c ay ou ts t an dn g su cc e ss e s k e t he b a t t e of C ann ae n 216B C t h e rre e -
vancetom tarycondtons ntheNetherandswasaso carefu yevauated
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M t aryRe v ou t on"197
nexperencedtroopswoudrunaway nterrorGustavusAdophus
ofSwedenv ctoroftheBretenfedandconquerorof Germany
certany putthesenewstrategcconceptsntoeffectaccordngto
Roberts hewasthefrst
Athrd componentofthem taryrevoutontheorywasa"pro-
dgous ncrease nthescae ofwarfaren Europe"between1560
and1660The newstrategy Robertspo ntedoutrequredfar more
troopsfortS successfuexecutonan artcuatedforceoffve armes
operatngsmutaneousyaccordngtoa compexpan woudneedto
bevastymorenumerousthanas ngearmyundertheo dorder
F ourt h and f n a y t h sp rodg ou sn ume rc an c re a se d ramat c ay
accentuatedthe mpactofwaronsocety Thegreaterdestructve-
ness thegreatereconomccostsand thegreateradmn stratve
chaengeof theaugmentedarmesmadewar moreofa burdenand
more of ap rob e mf ort h e c v an p opu at on an d t h e rru e rs t han
everbefore
Thesefourassertonsformthekerne ofthem taryrevouton
theory Therewasof coursea greatdeamorethedeveopmentof
m t ary e du ca t on an dm t ary ac ad eme s 5t h e art c u a t on of p os -
tve" awsofwar"6 theemergenceofanenormous teratureon
warandwarstudes7 andsoonbut thefouressenta ngredents
ofthetheoryweretactcsstrategyarmys ze andovera mpact
Havetheseassertonsbeenmodf ed nanywayby recentresearch?
n t h e f rs t p a c e t h a sb e come c e art hat t h e c ho c e of t h e y ear
1560asthestartngpo ntofthem taryrevoutonwasunfortunate
ManyofthedeveopmentsdescrbedbyRobertsaso characterzed
warfare nRenassancetay professona standngarmes reguary
musteredorganzed ntosma untsof standardsze wthunform
armamentandsometmesunformdress quarteredsometmesn
speca yconstructedbarracks weremantanedbymany taan
states nthef fteenthcenturyMachave soft-quoted beaboutthe
5Th e re w e re af e w c en t ers of n s t ruc t on k e t h e a cad emam t ars of John of
Nass au a t S e g en 1617-23 an d c ou rs es of obv ou sm t aryu t t y su ch a smat he mat -
csandfencng wereaddedtothecurrcuaof anumberofco egesandschoos but
henoneremembersthecentra paceofwar nseventeenth-centurysocety theack
ofmoreforma educaton nm tarymatters ssomewhatsurprsng
6Robertshascommentedonthepro feratonn theseventeenthcenturyofstudes
on t h e " aw of w ar" E s say sp p 216-17 t h e b as c p rn c p e s h owe v er are ady
affectedtheconductofwars ntheMdd eAges seeM H KeenTheLawsof War
ntheLcte Mdde AgesLondonandToronto1965
7 n En g an d aon e b et w ee n 1470an d 1642a t o t aof a t e a st 164E n g sh an d 460
f ore gn b ook sw asp u b sh e d S e e MJ D C oc k e AB b og raphy of M t aryB ooks
u p t o1642L on don 1900re p rn t e d 1957an dH J We bb E zab e t han M t ary
S c e n ce Th e B ooks an d t h e P rac t c e M ad s on Ws 1965
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198Geoffrey Parker
campagnsofthecondotterthattheywere"commencedwthout
fearcontnuedwthoutdangerandconcudedw thoutoss"was
unfaranduntrueThearm esofRenassanceta ywereeffcentand
effectve andtheFrenchGermanSwss andSpansh nvadershad
toadoptthemethodsofthecondotter bothn attackanddefense
beforetheycoud makereaheadwayaganstthemTo aremarkabe
degree aswesha seethecharacterofearymodernEuropean
warfare evendowntots vocabuary camedrectfromRenassance
t a y 8
Theres nodoubthoweverthatMaurceof Nassauandhs cousn
W am-L ou smade s ome mportan t t ac t c a n n ov at ons n t h e
armyoftheDutchRepubc Theyreducedthesze ofther tactca
untsand ncreasedsgnf cantythenumberofoffcersandunder-
offcerstheyncreasedthenumberof musketeersandarque-
busers the"shot" neachunt andtheyntroducedthec assca
technqueof the"countermarch"wherebysuccessveranksof
musketeersadvancedf redand retredtoreoad nsequence The
astwascertany newbut unt thentroductonofa moreaccurate
musketwhch couda sobesw ftyre oadedthecountermarchwas
of mt e dp rac t c av au e 9M ore ov e rM au rc e s o th e rt ac t c a n n o-
vatons descnbedbyRobertsdervedat eastsomeofther "rev-
outonary"characterfroma ratherunfar portraya ofthe"pre-
revoutonary"warfareoftheear ersxteenthcenturyTheSpansh
army n p art c u arw h c h Rob ert s u se d a s af o t o t h e t ac t c a
re formsof M au rc e of Nas s auw as af orce of mpres s v e m t ary
effcencyBy the1560sSpansh nfantryonactve servcewas
normay madeupofsma unformcompanesofbetween120and
150men grouped ntotercosor regmentsofbetween1200and
1500 men10 TheSpansh nfantrynormay contanedaheavy
8On t h e n f u e n ce of t h e t a an w arsu p on E urope sm t aryh s t ory s e e P P e r
n as c m en to e a c r s m t ar e t a a n a 2 d e d T ur n 1 95 2 a nd M E M a e t t
MercenaresandTher Masters WarfarenRenassanceta y London 1974 esp
chaps7and9 Thepontsatwh chtheEuropean"m taryrevouton"tendedto
f oow t a an p re c ed e nt s are n d c a t ed s e ra t m n t h e n ot e s b e ow s e e n 20f ort h e
ngustc nhertance
9Thecountermarchwasdevsedby W am-LousofNassau andad agram
showngwhatwasnvoved wassenttoCountMaurceonDecember8 1594seea
f a csm e of t h s on p 6of JB Ks t s c omme n tary t oJd e Gh eyn Th e E x e rc s e of
Armesfacsm eed NewYork1974 Fedhas camed thatthecountermarch
turnedanarmy nto"aunt ofcontnuousproducton"andthesod ersnto somesort
ofassemby-ne workersandthatths consttuteda maortactca mprovementn
theory ths strue butas notedabove npractcetherewereseroustechnca
mt at on s s e e F e dn 4ab ov e Th s mport an t an dn t ere st n g art c e w ask n dy
broughttomy attentonby P D Lagomarsnoof DartmouthCo ege
t s ncorrecttosaythat"a Spansharmyof12 000menwoud havefourunts"
Rob ert sM t aryRe v ou t on p 7 A t h ough Rob ert s omt te d t h sp a s sag e f romt h e
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"M t aryRe v ou t on 199
concentratonofshot twasthedukeof Avawhop oneeredthe
ntroductonofmusketeers ntoeverycompany nthe 550sand n
the1570stherewereateasttwocompaneswhch consstedsoey
ofshot neverytercoon actveservce1 ThroughouttheSpansh
army as e s e w he re t h e b a s c t a ct c a an d admn s t ra t v e un t w as
t h e compan yme n w ere ra s e d t ran e d an dp ad n c ompan e sn o t
nregmentsandnotas ndvduas AthoughtheSpansharmyhad
n o arg e rf ormat a c t c au n t s k e t he b rg ad es o rb a t ta on s of t he
Swedsharmy twasSpansh practcetogroupanumberofexper-
encedcompanestogetherforspeca assgnmentstoforma task
forceknownasan escuadronwh chmghtnumberanywherebe-
tween600and 3000 mendependngonthetaskto beperformed12
Thsf exbe nformaarrangementforthe nfantryprovedhghy
s a t s fa c to ryTh e Sp an sh c av ary t oow as mpre s s v e n ac t on t
comprsedmany companesof ghthorseeachnumberngbetween
60and100 troopers someofthem ancersandsomeof them
mountedgunmenarcabucerosa cabao nbatte asatGemboux
n 1578t h e r n t erv en t on w asd e c s v e a t o t h e rt me s t he yp o c e d
thecountrysdew thruthesseffcencyDressedn turbans kethe
Turksh ghthorsewhosetactcstheysuccessfuy emuatedthe
Spanshcavarywasas fearedandas formdabeas thetercos
Span smorepermanentarmes wereasod stngushedbya
s oph s t c a te d p anopy of m t ary n s t tu t on s and an c ary s erv c e s
ntheNetherandsandLombardy at eastafter1570therewasa
speca m tarytreasury aneaborateandautonomousherarchyof
u d c a c ourt s aw e -d ev e op ed sy s te mof me d c a c are w t h a
p e rmane n t m t ary t e a ch n gh o sp ta mob e f e d - su rge ryun t s an d
resdentdoctors neveryregmentanda networkofchapans
underachapan-generacoverngtheentrearmy13 Some fnota
re v s ed e d t on of h s p ape rh e s t ov ere st mat ed t h e s z e of t h e S pan sh un t s on
ac t v e s erv c e E s s ays p p 59-6062 t n ow appe ars t h at t he Sw e d sh army as od d
n o t h av e re gmen t s of un forms ze Nordman n p 137n 23an d t h at t he re w asn o
f x e d ra t o of pk e t o sh o t n t h e armyof Gu s tav usAd oph us t a d e pe n de d on t h e
avaab tyofweaponsatthetme ofrecrutment
"Take eg thepeacetmemusterofthefourSpansh tereosn theNetherands
hedon May12 1571therewerefftycompanes anaverageoftwevepertereo
and7509 menan averageof150 mennneof themoffcers-percompany Ofthe
7509 men596 9percentweremusketeersand1577 arquebusmen atota of30
p e rce n t sh o t Re a c on sumarad e o s s od ado s q u e s e p agaron e g ao 547f o
99b s E s tad oArc h v oG en e ra Sman ca s
12Theeseuadronwasasoa commontactcaunt ntheDutcharmy eonomne
s e e JW Wn H e t Krg swe zen n d e n t d v an p rn sM au rt sU t rec h t 1934 p 424
F ort he Sw e d sh e q u v ae nt s e e AAb e rg Th e Swe d sh Army f romLu t ze n t o
Narva" nSwedensAgeofGreatness 1632-1718 edM Roberts London1972
p 2 8 2
13Parkerpp 167-72andthesourcestherequoted tseemsthatSpanand
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200Geoffrey Parker
ofths admnstratvesuperstructurewasasoto befoundattached
tothepermanentSpanshforcesn NapesandS c y Sxteenth-
c e nt u ry Sp an a s oh ad ac omp e x t ran n g s c he me f or t sme n n t h e
w ord s of an e n v ousE n g sh ob s e rv e rof 1590 "Th e rord er s
wheretheWarresarepresentto suppe therRegmentsbeng n
ActonwththeGarr sonsoutofhs domnonsandprovnce s
b e fore t he yd s odg e b e s < n os s u ppy t h e rp ac e raw me n asw e
tearmethemBythesemeanshetranesh sbesonosandfurnseth
h sA rme sw t h t ran e d S ou d e rs 14F romat e a s t t he 530s
S p an sh re cru t sw e re s e n t n t a yn o t t o t h e front n e b u t t o t he
garrsonsof tayor NorthAfrca wherethey earnedtherudments
of armsd r an d c omb at d s c p n e f oray e arort w ob e fore e avn g
foractveservce Therp aceswerethentakenbyanothergenera-
t on of re c ru t s 15t w as an e xt reme y e f f c e n t sys t em an d t h e p s
t o e x p an t h e remarkab e m t ary c a b e rre p ut a t on an d t rac k
re cord of t he t e rc o s t w as t he y af t e ra w h orou t ed t h e "n ew
mode"Swedsharmyat Nordngen n1634
Lestthsshoud seem kespeca peadngfroma starry-eyed
studentofSpanshh storyonecoud pontequa yeffectveytothe
AustranHabsburgswho ntroducedmuchthesamesystemforther
permanentarmeson theCroatanandHungaranborderwththe
Ottomanempredur ngthe1570s 16And feventhatwerenot
enough therearethem taryorganzatonsofFranceEngand and
theta anstatesdurngtheffteenthcenturya deveopedperma-
nentstandngarm eswhchwereh ghytra nedseasonedngarr -
sonsbeforetheywenttothefront capabeoff ghtng n near
f ormat ons a sw e a sn c oumnsors q u are s o rg an zed n t o sma
s e f - con tan e d t a ct c a u n t s an d c ont ro e d by a sp e c a m t ary
Swedenwerefaraheadofthef ed ntheprovs onofre gouscarefor thertroops
TherewereevenJesutprestsaboardtheDunkrkpr vateersafter1623 seeE
H ambye LAumon ere d e af S o tt e d e F an d re auXV e s e c e L ouv an 1967 an d
everysoder aboardtheSpanshArmadaof1588receveda eadenmeda onwth the
Vrgn on t severa ofthesehavebeenfoundbynautca archaeoogsts excavatng
theArmadawrecksoff reand TheSwedsharmy nGermanyhadan"eccesastca
consstory"underana moner-genera andeverysoder wasssuedw thaLutheran
prayerbook Nordmann p 136
14Rog erW amsTh e Works of S r Rog erW amse d J X Ev an sOx f ord
1972 p 15 S e e th e c onf rmat on of S rF ranc sB ac on n 1624t h at t h e g re a t S ec ret
o f t h e P owe rof Sp an e w b e f oun d rat h ert o c on s s t n a V e te ran e Army su ch
asvponseveraOccasonsandPretensonstheyhaueeuerhadon foot nonepartor
otherofChrstendom nowbythespaceof amost sxscoreyearesthan nthe
strengthoftheDomnons andProunces"CertaneMsc e anyWorksLondon
16 2 9 q u o te d n W a ms p c x
15P arke rpp 32-35
16G ERot h en burgTh e A t s t ran M t aryB orde rn C roa t a 1522-1747U rb ana
1960 chaps3-5 andE Heschmann DeAnfangedesstehendenHeeres n
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M t c zryRe vou t on "201
admn s t ra t on 17Th e smp e f act s t h a t w h ere ve ra s t u a t on of
permanentorsempermanentwarexsted whethertheHundred
Y e arsWarof t h e a t e rMdd e Ag e s ort he Th rt yY e arsWarof t h e
seventeenthcentury onefnds notsurprsngy standngarmes
greaterprofessonasm amongthetroops mprovementsn m tary
organzatonandcertantactca nnovatons GustavusAdophusn
the1620sand MaurceofNassau nthe1 590swereforcedto
overhauther armesdramatca ybecauseofthedsastrousdefeats
whchther predecessorshadsufferedn theprecedngyears For
nsp ra t on t s t ru e t h e y tu rne dn p art t o c a s s c a w rt e rs k e
F ron t n us V e ge t u s an dA e an bu t k e o t he rru e rs t h e y a s o
turnedtoothermoresuccessfu m tarypracttonersespeca yto
t h e g en e ra s of S p an Th ree of t h e b e st E n g sh m t arywrt e rs of
t h e re gn of E zab et h -W amGarrardH umphre yB arw c k an d
rRog e rW ams-h ad a s e rv e dn t h e S p an sh Armyof F an de rs
forseverayearsandhed up tspractcesasexampesto others18
Th e w ar n t h e L ow Count re sw as a s e mn aryn w h c h many of t h e
greatcommandersoftheGermanThrtyYears WarandtheEng sh
C v Warw ere f orme d 19t sn o a c c d e nt t h at a arg e p art of t he
m taryvocabuaryofnorthernEuropeshoudhavecomefrom
Spansh20
17RA Ne wh a MM st e randRe v e w AProb e mof En g sh M t aryAdmn s t ra-
on 1420-1440C ambrdg e M as s 1940 PC on t amn e Gu erre e t a t e t s oc e t e a a
f n dumoy e n age E t u d es s u re s arme e sd u rod e F ranc e 1337-1494P ars an dTh e
H agu e 1972 C T Aman d S o c e ty at WarTh e E x p ere n c e of Eng an d an d
F ran c e d urn g t h e un dre dY earsWarE dn bu rgh 1973 an dM ae t t n 8ab ov e
18Garrardservedn theBurgundanreg mentofthebarondeChevreux nthe
NetherandsforfourteenyearsW amsservedn theSpanshtercoofJu an
Romerofrom1574unt 1578Barwck mentonshs Spanshservcebutdoesnot
n d c a te h ow on g t a s te dA t h re e p u t t he re x p e re nc e t og ood u s e n t h e r
wrtngs seeWebbpp 44-50Therewas ofcoursea vgorousdebatethroughout
mostofthes xteenthcenturybetweenthe"Ancents"whobe evedthatGreeceand
Rome h adp rovd ed e x e mp ars t ob e c op e dn a sphe res s av e re g on an d "Mod -
erns"ther opponentsofwhomthethreewrtersaboveareexampes Seeaso
H ah w eg n 4ab ove
19S e e FRe d c h Th e G e rman M t arw En te rprs e ran dH sWorkf orc e 2 v o s
We sb ad e n 1964 1157-62f ore x amp es
20S rRog e rW ams s t re s se d t he p on t t ore ade rs of h sD s c ou rs e of Warre
1590 "Somew condemndemeeformystrangenamesoffortfcatons theyought
topardonmefor mypart knowenoothernamesthanareg venbythestrangers
b e cau se t h ere are f ew e orn one a t a n ou ran gu ag e "Works p 41 n t h e
Netherands SmonStevns manuaoffortf caton Stercktebouwng Leden1594
c arre d f ore gn m t ary t e rms n t h e margn w t h an e x p an at on n t h e t e xt w h e a
popuaraccountoftheDutchRevotEmanue vanMeterensH storyoftheLow
C oun t re sTh e H agu e 1612 c ont an ed a sp e c a g o s s ary of f ore gn m t aryw ord s
Vreemdekrghs-vocabuen" neverymodernarmymanyof thecurrentoffcers
t t e s " c ap t an " " s e rg e an t " e t c an d s ome of t h os e n ow obs o e t e e g "ref or-
mado"an offcerwhos temporar yw thoutaunt tocommandappeartohave
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202Geoffrey Parker
TheDutchhowever dd makead stnctvecontrbutonofther
ownMaurceof Nassauandhs cousnwereconvncedoftheneed
forstandardzatonand unformty nther forces n1599they
securedfundsfromtheStates-Genera toequptheentre fed army
of t h e rep u b c w t h w e ap on s of t h e s ame s ze an d c ab e r A t ab ou t
t h e s ame t me C oun t John of Nass au b eg an w ork on an e w
me th od of m t ary t ran n g t h e u s tra te dmanu a H e an ay ze d e a ch
ofthedfferentmovementsrequredto manpuatetheprnc pa
nfantryweaponsgaveeachofthema number andprepareda
seresofcorrespondngdrawngs toshowwhatwasrequred There
wereffteendrawngsforthep ketwenty-fveforthearquebus and
thrty-twoforthemusketn 1606-7thewhoeschemewasre-
castnowtherewerethrty-twopostonsfor thepkeandforty-
twoforeachofthefrearms-andasequenceofnumberedpctures
wasengravedandpub shedunderCountJohnssupervson Jacob
deGheynsWapenhandenghevanroers musquettenendespes-
s e n Armsd r w t h arq ue b us mu sk e t andpk e Amst e rd am1607
Thebookwentrapdy throughnumerousedt onsn Dutch French
GermanEng sh evenDanshtherewerepratedandp agarzed
versonsthereweremanysubsequentattemptstoproducerva
manuasof whchthebestwereJohanJakobvonWa hausens
Kregskunstzu Fuszof1615 HenryHexhamsPrnc pesof theArt
M t are of 1637an dJe an d e L o s te n e au sM are sc h ad e b a t a e of
1647 Thesuddenpopuartyofthenewgenreofm tarytextbook
sexpa nedbythetactca changesofthes xteenthcentury The
evoutonfrommono thc massedpkeformatonstoartcu ated
combnatonsofpke andshotwh chmadeamore eaborateherar-
chyofranksnecessaryp acedan ncreasngburdenonthe unor
offcersandunderoffcersTheybecamethecruca nksbetween
thearmycommandersandthesma tactcaun tstheyhadto
c ont ro d s c p n e an dd r t h e rmen t w as t o an sw e rt he rn e e ds
thatdeGheynandtherestproducedtherdr booksThes tuaton
d e p c te dn ap c t u re of a c omp any of t h e Amst e rd amm t a n 1625
p an t ed byW van d en V ac k ert mu s t h ave b e e n f ary t yp c a t h e
captan sshownstandngwth deGheynsWapenhandengheactu-
c ome f romSpan or t ay t oF ranc e t h e Ne th e rand s an dEn g an d s e e JH e rb on
Eementsespagnosen waon etdanse frantasdes ancensPays-Bas Lege
1961 t s e e ms k e y h owe v er t h at man y of t he s e m t ary t e rmsc ame f rs t t o
S p an sh f rom t a an J Te rn g e n L o s t a an smos e n e sp an od e sd e af ormac on
d e d o m a ha st a p r nc p o s d e s g c X V A ms te rd am 1 9 4 3 T he re s n o f u
an ay s s of t h e S pan sh w ord s o an e d t oF e msh an dD ut c h at h ough t h ere s a
sketchyntroductonbyC F A vanDam "DeSpaansewoordenn hetNeder-
and s ch e " n B und e a ang e bod en a an P rof D rC G N d e V ooy sGron n g en
1940 pp 86-103
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"M t aryRe v ou t on 203
a y o p enn fr onto fhm try ng toworko utwhat t o d o nextThe
Dutchmaynothave nventedthe"revouton" ntactcs butthey
cert a ny v ent ed theb es twa y o fcop ngwth s omeo f t s e ffe c ts 2
Theres thusroomfordoubtconcernngthenovetyof thetactcs
andthestandngarmes ntroducedbyPrnce MaurceandK ng
Gustavus There s aso some queston about the orgna ty of
Gustavussstrategy Agan Robertsstartswth adamagngcrt que
ofthepractce ofsxteenth-centurygeneras "Thester tyofwar-
f a re nEur o pe nthe tmeo f PrnceM aur ce s the a c cur a te
measure of the strategc th nkng of the age" And n another
passage"Strategcth nkngw theredaway wareternazed t-
s e f 2 2Nowthe cruc a nfuence o nthe ev o uto no f s tr a teg c
thnkng nthes xteenthcenturywastheappearanceof anentre y
newty peo fd efens v efo r tfc a t o nthe tr ac e t a enne a c r cut
o f owthck wa s p unctua t ed b y qua dr a t er a b a s t o ns n the
courseofthef fteenthcentury tbecameobvousthatthe mprove-
ment s n g unfound ng a nd a r t e ry had r ender ed thehg h thnwa s
o ftheMd d eA g e s qut end efens b e A b r efc a nno nad efr omthe
"bombards"broughtthemcrashngdown Thereasonwhythe
kng d omo fG r a na d a fe t o theChr s t a ns s o e a s y nthe1 4 8 0s
when tha d r e s s ted s ucc e ss fuy fo r s ev encentur e s a y n thefa ct
thatFerd nand a nd s a b e awer e a b e t o b rng a tr a no famo s t1 80
segegunsaganstthe Moorshstronghods23The Engsh posses-
sons nFrancewere kewsereconquered nthe 1430sand1440s
a rg e y b y Ch ar e s V s a rt e ry a t C a st o n n 1 4 53 t he b g g u n s
e v enwona b a t t eThe nt a tv e nwa rfar enoway w ththe
aggressor and notsurprsngy by1500everymaorEuropeanstate
possesseda powerfu art eryparkforuseaganst tsneghborsor
21V an d en V ac k ert sp an t n g of C apt an B u rgh sm t ac omp an yh ang s k e
RembrandtsmorefamouspctureofthecompanyofCaptanHansBannngCocq
d o ne n1 6 4 2n theRks museumAms terd am Ther e s a r ep ro d uct o no fthep o rto n
whchcear yshowsdeGheynsbookonp 37ofK stscommentaryto deGheyn
Ks t e s t ab s hes b ey ond a d oub t thenfuence o fJoha n o fN a ss a uo nthe
compostonoftheWapenhande nghepp 14-1S andhedescrbesthemeasures
takenn1599 tostandardzearmament ntheDutcharmyFor a ttemore nforma-
t o no nthefr s tEng s hed t o no fd eGheyn s e eAnna E C Smon "A Pr es entfo r
a Prnce " nTenStud e s n Ang o -Dut chRe a t o ns ed J A v a nDor s tenLed en
an dL on d on 1974pp S 1-71
2 2Ro ber ts M ta ry Rev o uto np 7 a nd Ess a ys p 2 0 2
2 3M A La der o Que s ad a Ca s t a y a co nqus ta d e r eno d eG r ana da Va a d o d
1 9 67 p 1 2 7 Fo r a g ener a a s s e ss mento fthemp o r ta nce o f a r t e ry to Euro pe s e e
C M Cp o a G uns a nd Sa s ntheEa ry Pha se o fEur o pe a nExpa ns on 1 4 00 - 17 0 0
London 1965 However thedemseof theod-stye castesdd notoccurovernght
nmany a re a s wher e a r t e ry coud no t e a s y b eb r oug ht n med eva fo rtfc a t o ns
r e ta ned therv a ue Se eH MCo v n " Cas t e s a nd G ov ernmentn Tudo rEng a nd "
E n g sh H s t orc aRe v e w 831968 225-34
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204GeofJex Pbrhe
ag an st t s d s s d e n t sub e c ts M t ary arc h t ec t sn t ay w h ere s e g e
warfarewasmostcommonwerethefrst toexpermentwthnew
technquesoffortf catonwhchm ghtwthstandshe ngand Pro-
fessorJohnHae hastracedtheevoutonofthebaston defensen
t ay f romab ou t 1450 w h en t mad e t s f rs t ap p earanc e u n t t h e
1520 sw h e n t w asf u y f e dg e d t w as ad e v e opme nt w h c h
"revo utonzedthedefensve-offensvepatternofwarfare be-
causetsoonbecamecear thatatownprotectedbythetrave
ta ensecoud notbecapturedby thetradtona methodsofbattery
andassaut thadto beencrcedand starved ntosurrender24
TheFrenchm tarywrterFourquevauxdecaredn 1548thattowns
whosefortfcatonsweremorethanthrtyyearsodz thats whch
werebut beforetheageof bastonshardy deservedtobeca ed
f o rt f c a t on s a t a We mu st c on fe s se " e c h oe d S rRog e rW-
ams "A e x and e rC ae sar S c p o an dH an b a t ob e t h e w ort h es t
nd famoustwarrersthateuerwerenotwthstandngassureyour
s e f e t h eyw ou dn e ue rh aue c onqu ere dC oun tre s s o
e a s e h ad t he yb e en f ort f e d a sG e rman e F ran ce an d t he L ow
Countros wthothers hauebeensncetherda es"25Therewas
thereforea scrambeamongthegreatpowerstobu dthenew
"m race"defenseswhereverthereexsteda rskof attack n
Lombardy nHungary ntheLowCountres aongthesouth
coastofEngand andesewhere
As thappened theseareaswerea argepa ns"contnenta
sands" tousethe anguageofFernandBraudewhereafewgreat
townsdomnatedthecountrysdeWhoevercontro edthetowns
contro edthecountrysde andthereforen a theseareaswar
becameastruggeforstronghodsa seresofprotractedseges
Batteswereoftenrreevantn theseareasuness theyhepedto
d e te rmn e t he ou t come of a s e g e E v e n t ot av c t ery on t h e f e d dd
notnecessary compethewe -defendedtownsto surrenderthey
c ou d c ont n u e t ores s t a s d d S t Qu en t n af te rt h e f amousb a t t e n
1557 orasthetownsof Hoand andZeaandweretodo after1572
etherunt theywerestarvednto submssonor unt theenemy
gaveupthroughexhauston26Naturay sncethetrace taenne
24J R H ae "Th e E aryD e v e opmen t of t he B a s t on An t a an C h ron oogy c
1450- c 1534" n E u rop e n t h e L a t erMdd e Ag es e dH ae J R LH gh f e d an d
B Smae yL on d on 1965pp 466-94
25G D c k n s on e d Th e "n s tru ct on s s u r1e f a t d e ag u e rre "of Rawmondd e
Ba c care d e P av e S e u rd e F ourq ue v au x L on don ? 1954 p 85 an dW amsp 33
26Parker pp7-11 andnn theretoThe samewastrueformanyofthewarsof the
Mdde AgesTheHundredYearsWarwas accordngto arecentstudy charac-
t e rzedmore by s e g es t h an by any ot h erf ormof mart a e x erc s e "A mand p 7
s e e a s op p 6-9 104-22
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"M t aryRe v ou t on 205
wasntroducedn thoseareasmost keyto befoughtoverand
sncemostof thefghtngof thesxteenthcenturydd nfacttake
p ac e t he re t s t ru e t o s ayw t h Rob e rt s t h at mos t g en e ra s k e
MaurceofNassau "hadnoambt onwhatevertof ghtbattes"
Thsprovesony thattheyhadasQundgraspofstrategcrea tes
Butwheneverwarshappenedtooccurn areaswherethetrace
ta ennewasabsent-n taybefore1529 ncentraFrancedurng
t h e re g ou sw ars n t h e B rt sh s e s o r n G e rman y t he n b att e s
werebothfrequentandmportantPava n1525 Muhbergn 1547
v ryn 1590an d s o on t w as e v en p o s s b e n su c h are a s t o
operateaconscousVernchtungsstratege27 twasa sotruethat
wherebastonswereabsentandbattesmorefrequent cavarywas
morepromnentonEuropessteppefronterfor exampew ththe
cossacksandstradots ordurngthec v warsn Germanyand
Engand wththefurouschargesofPappenhem PrnceRupert
an dC romwe s ronsd e s B u t ev e n n t h e se t h e at e rs of c on f c t
battesweresedom decsve" nthesensethattheybroughtthe
wartoan mmedateendNethertheBretenfed norLutzennor
WttstocknorJankow-fourresoundngvctoresforthe "new-
mode"SwedsharmytermnatedtheThrtyYears WarThetwo
battesofthewarwhch camenearesttoachevng "tota"vctory
wereas thappened wonbySpansh"o d-stye"forcestheWhte
M oun t an n 1620an dNordn g en n 1634
Thegeneras oftheseventeenthcentury ketherpredecessors
werecompe edtorespectthedctatesofm tarygeographyWhen
n1632the mpera armyunderWaenstenretreatedntotheA te
Veste aspeca ypreparedstronghodnearNuremburgGustavus
Ad ophu sw as c omp e e d t o e x pe n d ag rea t d e aof t me me n an d
mone yn t ryn g t o s t arve t h emou t An d n t h e e ndh e f a e d n
France Vauband gentyerecteda chanofmoderndefensesa
aroundthesenstve andexposedfrontersofthecountryCoehoorn
dd thesamen theUntedProvncesThesefortfcatonsof theater
27Seethepo cyofS rHumphreyG bertcommanderofQueenEzabethsforces
n reand n1579and aveteranoftheLowCountresWars "Hefurthertookeths
ordernfrngeabe thatwhensoeverhemadeany ostyng or nrode ntotheenemes
C oun t re yh e k e dmann e w oman an d c h d an d spo e dw as t ed an dburn ed by
t h e g round e a t h at h e mgh t e avyn gn ot h n gof t he e n e mes n s af fe t e w h c h h e
ou dp o s s b e w ast e o rc on sume Th e k n gof t h emby t h e sw ord e w as t h e
waeto k themenneofwarrebyfamne whobyf ghtoftentymessavedthem
sevesfromthednteof thesworde" ThomasChurchyard Genera Rehearsa of
Warre sL on d on 1579S q u ot e dn J T John s on d e o ogy Re as on an d t h e Lmt a -
t o s a of WarRe g o s an d S ec u arC onc e pt s 1200-1740P rn c e ton NJ 19751pp
14142Johnsonpontsoutthatths san earyapp catonofthecounterrevouton-
arze do c trn e t h at f re vou t on are sv e amon g t he p e op e k e f sh n w ate rt h e w ay
tok t h e f sh s t od ryu p t h e w ate r"
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206Geoffrey Potrker
seventeenthcentury vaststar-shapedcompexeswhch keptthe
b e s egn g art e ry out of ran ge of t sp rey c ont n u ed t ob e of
strategc mportanceunt the1860s Wherevertheyexstedthey
madebattesrre evantandthereforeunusua Throughoutmodern
tmeas ntheMdd eAges m tarygeographyshapedstrategy28
Theres thussomedoubtaboutthesgnfcanceofboththe
tactcaand thestrategcaspectsofRobertss m taryrevouton
Buttheres absouteynodoubtabout tsthrd consttuentthe
growthnarmys ze Between1530and1710therewasa ten-fod
ncreasebothn thetotanumbersofarmedforcespadby themaor
Europeanstatesandn thetotanumbersnvoved nthemaor
Europeanbattes Tabe demonstratesthe nfaton narmes-
TABLE
NCREASEDN MLTARYMANPOWER1470-1710
SpanshDutch
OateMonarchyRepubcFranceEngandSwedenRussa
1 47 0S 2 00 00 4 0 00 0 25 0 00
1 550S 1 50 000 5 0000 2 0 0
1 59 0 S 20 0 0 00 2 0 0 00 8 0 0 00 3 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0
1 6 30 S 3 00 0 0 0 5 0 0 00 1 5 0 0 00 4 5 0 00 3 5 0 0 0
1 65 0S 0 00 00 0 00 00 7 00 00 7 00 00
1 6 70 S 7 0 00 0 1 1 0 00 0 1 20 0 0 0 6 3 0 00 1 3 0 0 00
1 7 00 S 5 0 00 0 1 00 0 0 0 4 00 0 0 0 8 7 00 0 1 00 0 0 0 1 70 0 0 0
SOURC ES -F orf gu re s on Sp an L ad e roQu e sad ap 159 Rark e rTh e Armyof F t d e * sp 6 an dHKame n
Th e Warof S u rce s s o t t S p 1 17 -1715L n d on 1969pp 59-60 f ormet rpo t an Span t n y F ort he
D u tc h Re pu b c F J GTe n Raa an dF d e B a sH e t S t aa t sc h e e g er 156$ -17956v > s B red a1911-18 v o
1 passm ForFranceaContamne Gwerre etatetsocetepp 313-18F LotRecherchess r/evseffectfsdes
urn 1e S f ran co s e s d s g t rres zX t a s au x g e rresd e re g zon 1494-156 P ars 96 p p 135-XX An dre pp
271-328an dH \t et h v e rL c S e c e d e L ou ts XV P ars 1962 p 6XF orEn g an dC GC ru c k shan k
E z ab e t hsA rn qy Oxford 1966 p a ssm C F rt h romw e sAre 1y on don 1962 pp 34-35an dRE
S c ou e r Th f Arme s o t > u e en An n e Ox ford 1966 c h ap 3F orSw e t e n N1Robe rts T e E aryV as as A
H s t ory of Sw e de n 1523-1611C ambrdg e 1968 pp 399A04an dNord a an n pp 133A7F orRu s s aNe w
C zambrX e M od e rn H s t oryC ambrdge 1964 5577R B e an sWaran d t h e B rt h of t he Nat on -S t at e Journ a
of t c on omc H s t ory 33 173 203-1p rov t e s s ome f u rth e rf gu re sn t h e s z e of v arous n at t na arme s
fr om A D t O A L 5 99 p 2 1
28M t aryg e ograph y a s o af f ec t edm t ary t h e ory t s t ru e t hat L ond ono V ad e s
EscaanteandtheotherSpanshwrtersof theperodwhodeat wthwar sadvery
tteaboutbattes butthswas becauseafter1559Span foughtveryfewwars n
whchbatteswerenecessary At easttwoofthewars nwhchshe wasengaged
w e re t t e more t han e x te n de dgu er a a c t on sn n e w Gac a an d n C h e t s
thereforenosurprseto fndthatthefrst Europeanmanua ofguer awarfarewas
wrttenbya SpanardBernardodeVargasMachuca whohadfoughtongyears n
C h e H sM c ad e a sn d a s of 1599d e s crb e d un g e w arfare w t h op era t ona
un t s of t we n ty ort h rt yme n und e ra c aud o e ade rw h ok n ew n ot on yh ow t o
eadandhowtof ghtbutaso howtocuresoresandwoundsnf cteddeepnthe
f ore s t mos t of h s re med e s n v ov ed t h e u s e of t ob acc o a s ap an k e r w h c h
vegetabeseedstotakeon themarchtosowoverthewnterandharvest nthe
sprng andsoon Thend ansofCh eneverfoughtbattes VargasMachuca
observed becausetheyhad earnedfromb tterexperencethattheyaways ostthem
Foranaccountofthesm arguer awar onthenorthernfronterofSpansh
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"M t u ryRe v ou t on 207
w h c h w asp ara e e d n n av e s an d t he rs e n c ombat an t s s ob v -
ouswhenonecomparesbattes kePava 1525and Neuwpoort
1600 w t h 10000c omb atan ts on e t h e rsd e an d ab a tt e k e
D e nan 1710w t h 100000men p e rsd e
f however wecanacceptRobertss assertonaboutm tary
manp owe rg rowt h w e c an no t ap ror a c ce p t h s e x p anat on of t t
cannotstem ashethoughtfromthetactca andstrategc nnova-
tonsofMaurce ofNassauandGustavusAdophus frst because
thesemodf catonswerenotsonew second andmoremportant
becausetherapdand sustanedgrowth narmys zepredatedthem
TheEmperorChares Vhad55 000menatthes egeofMetz n
1552 ongbeforeMaurcewasborn andtheSpanshArmyof
Fandersareadynumbered86o000men n1574 whentheprncewas
on y sx y e ars od Th ere w e re n f ac t c e rtan o t h e rt ac t c a c h ang e s
whchcearedthewayfor the"prodgous ncrease narmys ze
F ormos t of t h e Mdd e Ag es t h e p rnc p a armn an ym t ary
forcewastheheavycavary madeupoffu yarmedknghtson
horseback threehundredweghtofmountedmetaap ecemovng at
speedTheknghtswerecumsy expensve andscarcebutthey
w e re c ap ab e of w n n n ggre a t v c t ore sAn t o c h 1098 B ouvn e s
1214an dRoo sbe k e 1382f ore x amp e Th e re w e re a s oh ow-
verd sastrousdefeatsespeca y nthefourteenthandffteenth
centures whentwas dscoveredthata heavycavarychargecoud
reguarybe stoppede therbyvo eysofarrowsorby aforestof
pkes Latert wasfoundthatpkemencoudbeusedoffensveyto
chargeothergroupsofpkemen oncethemountedknghtshadbeen
mpaedandd sposedof Thevctoresof theSwss nfantryaganst
CharestheRashofBurgundyn the1470swrotetheesson arge
andn theta anwarsthe nfantrycomponent neveryarmy
b e came s te adymore n ume rou s an dmore d e c sv e C h are sV s
armyn 1494c omprs e d abou t 18000men h af of t h emc av ary
F ran c s s armyn 1525c omprs ed s ome 30000men on e-f f th of
themcavaryThe numberof horsemenhaddecreasedbothabso-
u t e y an d re a t v e y 29Th s sh f t n e mph as s f romh orse t of o o t w as
c ruc a f orarmy s ze Wh ere as t h e re w as a mt t o t h e n umbe rof
knghtswhocoud managetoequpthemsevesandtherhorses
readyforacharge therewasnoneto thenumberof ordnarymen
Amerc a s e e PW Powe S od e rs n d an s and S ? e rTh e Nort h wardAdv anc e of
Ner12Spans1550-1600 Berkeey 1969
29L o t c t e dn t ab e n pp 21 56E v e n w he re c av ary c ont n u e d t op ay a
d e c s v e ro e n b att e s a sn t h e F re n ch re g ou sw ars t s c h ara ct e rand c ompo s t on
aswe as tstactcs wereentreyd fferentfromthoseoftheffteenth-century
g e nd arme re S e e R Pu ddu E s e rc t e monarc h e n azon a n e s e c o XV -XV
F ore n ce 1975 pp 35-36
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208Geoffrey Parker
w h oc ou db e e n s t e d an d s s u ed ap k e sw ord an dh e me t A
pk e man s b a s c e q u pme n t c os t t t e more t han h sw ag e s f ora
weekand nsomecaseseventhspa trysumcoud bededucted
f romt h e s od e rsp ay
Thankstothetrumphofthep kemen therefore tbecame
p o ss b e f org ov e rn men t s t o rec ru t arm an d t ran an un mt e d
numberof menTheroadto unrestranedm taryncreaseay wde
op en B u t t on y ay op en Th e re w asn ot h n gn a t h sw h c h
actveycompe edanarmyto augment tsnumbers ndeed over
fftyyearsweretopassbetweenthefna defeatofChares theRash
n 1477an d t he f rs t maor n c re a se n army s ze n t h e 1530s an
ncreasenecesstatedbythevastnumberofmenrequredto starve
outatowndefendedby thetraceta esne Afterths perodof
growthcamefourdecadesofstagnaton therewasnofurther
ncrease narmys zeunt the1580sNo governmentcouddreamof
brngng argerconcentratonsof troopsntoacton forthesmp e
reasonthatnonepossessedtheorganzatonnecessarytomob ze
payand suppysucha forceBythem ddeof thesxteenth
c e nt u ry t h ere w e re on y t e n c t e s n a of E u rop e w t h ap opu at on
nexcessof60000 Beforethepromse oftheSwss achevement
c ou db e f uy re a ze d b e f ore t h e t hre sh od of me d e v a army s ze
coudbecrossed therehadto bemportantchanges nthefnanca
andadmnstratveresourcesoftheEuropeanstates30
Thegrowthofm tarymanpowerdependednoton yon nterna
f a ct o rs k e t a ct c s b u t a s o on an umberof e x t rn s c f a ct o rs t o ta y
unreatedtotheartofwar tsef Perhapsfourcanbe dentfedas
c rt c a n t h e f rs t p a c e t h e re c e aryh ad t ob e g ov ern me n ts
c apab e of org an zn g an c ont ro n g arg e f orc e s t s n t ere st n g t o
notethatthemaorwavesofadm nstratvereformn western
Europen the1530sand1580sandat theendoftheseventeenth
centuryconcdedw thmaor phasesof ncrease narmys ze31On
theonehandthegrowthofa bureaucracywasnecessarytocreate
argerarmes ontheother twasnecessarytocontro themThe
rapdnumerca expansonof theearyseventeenthcenturyforced
somedecentrazaton governmentsusedentrepreneurstorasether
30B e an c t e d n t ab e 1n ad van ce d a sm arargume nt bu t f a e d t op rovd e
c onvn c n g e vd e nc e S e e t h e t e n gd s c u s s on of B ean s art c e byD Rn gros e an d
R Roeh n Jc rrn a c f E c onomc H s t ory 331973 222-31
31J V c e nsV v e s "E st ruc t ura admn s t ra t v a e s ta t a e n o s s g o sXV yXV " n
Xe congres nternatona desssenceshstorques Rapports vo 4 Stockhom
1960pp 1-241 AA Th omp son "Th e Armad a an dAdmn s t ra t ve Re f orm"
En g sh H s t orc aRe e n z821967 698-725G N C ark Th e S e v en t ee n th C e nt u ry
2d e d Ox ford 1961 c h ap s 6 7 an dJA M arav a E s tad omode rnayme n t ad ad
K s oc a 2 v o s M ad r d 1 9 7 2 p a s s m e s p 2 5 1 3- 85
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"M t aryRe v ou t on 209
s od e rs S s a o rs an d n t h e c as e of t h e M ed t e rran ean s t at e s t h e r
ga eyfeets thasbeenestmatedthatbetween1631and1634 there
weresome300m taryenterprsersras ngtroopsn Germanya oneS
rangngfromAbrechtvonWa enstendukeof Fredandand mpe-
ra commander-n-chefwhora sedentrearmes undercontractto
mn org e nt ry f romSw t zeran d an d t he Ty ro w h ora s ed sn g e
companesorevensnge squadrons twasthesamestory nmost
areasofEuropeSeven ncountres keSpanSwheretroopras ng
hadbeena eaousyguardedroya monopoyn thesxteenthcen-
t u ry 32H ow ev e r t s mport an t t on o te t h atS n a E u rop eS on y
O verCromwe managedto emuatethegenerasofRomeor the
c on d ot t e rof t ay an dw res t p o t c a p owe rf romh s c v an
empoyersEsewhere fweexcepttheOttomanemprewth ts
anssares governmentsawaysmantaneda coseren onther
commandersandkepttherarmes underconstantsurveance War
departmentspro ferated neverycountry squeezngout m tary
entrepreneursandothermdd emenandestabshnga drect nkwth
everysoder nthearmy Detaedrecordsofthetroopsbegantobe
keptsothattheon ysurvv nghstorca traceforhundredsof
thousandsofmen neary moderntmes sther armypaysheets33
Thenumerca expansonof armeswasa sodependentoncertan
eementarytechnoogca mprovements nordertosuppy 50000
me n an d c ampf o ow ers on t h e march t h ad t ob e p o ss b e t o
concentrateenoughovenstoproduce50000 oavesofbreadaday
enoughwater wne andbeerhadtobe concentratedforthema to
drnk andtherehadtobeenoughcartsandhorsestocarryther
baggage whchmght amounttohafa tonpermantand enough
tents bedsor sheterstoaccommodateat easttheoffcers34Ony
nthe atersxteenthcenturydd tbecomepossbeto meetthese
baschumanneedson agrandscae Anothereementarytechnoog-
ca frontertobecrossedconcernedroads twasnotpossb eto
moveargeconcentratonsoftroopsatspeedbeforetheseventeenth
centurybecausetherewerenoroadsoutsde taywh chwere
32Th e c a s s c a c cou nt of t h e organ za t on of w arbym t arymdd e me n s Re d c h
n 19ab ove F orm t ary c on tra ct n g n sx t e en t h- c en t ury Sp an s e e A A
Th omp son Waran dAdmn s t ra t s v e D e eon t on Th e M t arxGv e rnme nt of Sp atn n
t he R e g r o f P h p " L o n do n n p r es s
33Forsomeusesto whchthesecopousm taryrecordscanbe putsee forthe
sxteenthcenturyParkern 3above fortheeghteenthcenturyA Corvsers
LArmee f ranf a s e d e a f n duXU e s e c e au mn s t e re de C h o s e u L e S od a t 2
v o s P ars 1964 an d f ort h e n n et e en t h ce n tu ryE L e RoyL ad u re an dP
Dumont "QuanttatveandCartographca Expotatonof FrenchM taryArchves
1819-1826 D aed a e s 100 S p rn g1971 397-441
34F ors ome e x amp e sf romt he Armyof F an de rs s e e P arke rc h ap s 2 3
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210Ceofyrey Parker
c apab e of c arryng a arge army t s su ppy t ran an d t s art e ryn
thesxteenthcenturyevenona routeusedreguaryby troops ke
the"SpanshRoad"fromLombardytoLuxemburg twasneces-
sarytobu dnewcauseways nthemountansandacrossmarshes
andto constructspeca brdgesoverrversand streamsforevery
m taryexpedton-onceeverytwoyearsonanaverage-because
afterthetroopshadpassed everythngwasa owedtoreverttots
formerstate35Ony nthe aterseventeenthcenturyd dgovern-
mentsseetheneedand possessthemeans toconstructand
mantanpermanentm taryhghwaysCharesX ofSwedenand
LousX VofFrance edthewaydurngthe1680s ntheeghteenth
c e nt u ry ro ad s e ve n b e gan t ob e u s ed a s a v e h c e f ormp e ra sm as
theyhadoncebeenbytheRomanChneseandncaemp resw th
Genera Wadesnetworkofm taryroadsa doutma ny between
1726and1767 totametheScottshhghands
However fora thsoneneededmoneyandherewe cometo
t w oo th e ran dp e rh apsmore mportan t e x t rn s c mt s t om t ary
grow t h F rs t t h e re h ad t ob e a c e rt an e v e of w e at h n s o c e ty
beforeheavyandproongedm taryexpendturecoud besupported
s e con d t h ere h ad t ob e w ays of mob zn g t h at we at h t w ou d
seemthatbetween1450and1600thepopuaton ofEuropeamost
o u b e d an d n s ome area s t more t h an d ou b e d an d t h ere s t t e
doubtthatoverthesameperod therewasanotabe ncrease nthe
totaweath ofEuropeAfterabout1660bothpopuatonandweath
begantoncreaseagan Thsnewprospertywastappedeverywhere
bytaxaton ether ndrectythroughexcsedutesuponconsumer
g o ods ord re c t y by av are t y of e v e s on an d c ap t a an dv e ry
rarey ncomeGovernmentrevenuesncreasedeverywherenthe
sxteenthcenturyde vngeverdeepernto thepocketsandpursesof
thetaxpayersHoweverSnogovernmentcoudpayfora proonged
waroutofcurrenttaxatonthe ncomewhchsuffcedfora
peacetmeestab shmentcoud nnoway proveequatotheunpre-
dctabebut nevtabyheavyexpensesofa maorcampagn The
statethereforehadtospreadthecostsofeachwar overanumberof
p e ac e fu y e ars e t h erby s avn gu pn an t c p at on a s Qu ee n
E zab e t h ddb e fore she d e c d e d t omak e w aron Span n 1585or
35b d c h ap 3 H owe v er f orare mn d ert h at ro ad sw e re n o t t h e on ybrak e on
m t ar y m ob t y s e e J M o t U n P r ob e me o p er at o nn e d u X V e s e c e u st re
p arun c as re g on a Rv e b tu 1ord 53 1971269-90M ot argue s t h at u n t 1700
a t e a s t t a c t c s d c t at e d t hat arme s on ac t ve s e rv c e h ad t omarc h a s a sn g e
f ormat on w h c h mgh t b e 50000s t ron gNo e x s t n g ro adn e t work c ou d c op e w t h
ahorde kethatand mostotthetroopshadtop oughtherwaythroughtreesand
scrubust ketherpredecessors near ercentures
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" M t u r x R e u t on 2 1 1
-
byspendng nadvancethencomeoffutureyearswththea dof
oansfrombankersandmerchantsWth asma armyths mghtnot
besucha greatprobemFranceappearstohavef nancedher
t a an w ars f rom1494un t 1529w t h f e w e f fe c ts 36b u t n t h e
sxteenthcenturytheprobemwasverydfferentbecause apart
fromthegrowthnnumbersandthegreaterduratonofwars whch
of c ours e n c rea s ed t h e ov era c o st t h ere w as a s o t h e "p rc e
re vou t on "w h c h me ant t h at t c o s t f armore t op u t a s od e r n t o
t h e f e d n 1600t h an t h adn 1500Th sf a c t n at u ra y dd n o t
escapethenotceofcontemporares " fcomparsonweremade
b e tw e en t h e p res e nt c o s t t oH sM ae s ty Ph p 1of t h e t roop sw ho
serven hsarm esandnaves andthecostofthoseoftheEmperor
C h are sV Lh S f ath e rA t w b e f oun d t h at f oran e qu an umberof
menthreetmes asmuchmoneys necessarytodayasusedtobe
sp en t t he n "37Wrt te n n 1596 t h sw as f an y th n g an un d e re s t -
matebut twas ndsputabethateachwarcostmorethanthe
precedngone andthatforSpan nvovedn somany ong-endurng
c onf c t s t h e p rog re s s on w asp art c u ary a armn g s e e f g 1
154748_
155259_
_
157275
_t
159s98
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
FG 1 Av erage an n ua c o st of S p an sf ore gn w ars n m on sof f orn s Th e
s ourc e f ort h sf gu re s P ark e rTh e Aren s of F /1E 1C JTSTpp 134n 2 287
FortunateyforHabsburgmpera sm theSpanshcrownwasabe
t od raw on are a t v e y e f f c e nt f n an c a sy s t emw h c h e n ab e d t t o
borrowor"antc pate"therevenuesofup totenyears nadvance
andby brutatreatmentof ts enders tokeepthenterestratedown
t o7p e rce n t ore s sB u t e v en t h sd d n o t p roduc e a t h e mon e y
requredforwars andmanyofthetroopswereeftunpad some-
36P Contamne Sonsommatonetdemandem taresenFranceetenAngeterre
X e -XV e s e c e s "p ap erd e v e re d a t t h e S es t a S et t manad S t ud o s t t u to
n t ern azon ae d S t oraE c on omc a P ra to M ay 31974 pp 26-27
37EstebandebarranSpanshsecretaryofwar memorandumdatedDecember15
1596Add t on aM an us c rp t 28*373 f o s 129-30B rt sh Mu s e um L ond on my
transaton
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212Geoffrey Parker
tmesformonthsandsometmesevenforyears Asa resut Spans
s od e rs re gu arymu t n e d f ort h e rp ay an dmu t n yb ec ame amos t
n n s t tu t on of m t ary f e 38H owe v er t w as an n s t t u t on shared
wthotherarmes TheDutcharmywasperodca yparayzedby
mu t n e sn t h e 1580s a sw a s t he P arame n tary armydu rn g t h e
E n g sh C v Ware sp ec a y n 1644an d 1647 M anyun t s of t h e
Sw ed sh armyn Ge rman ymu t n e dn 1633 d s sp a t n g t he p re st g e
wonbythevctores oftheBretenfedandLutzenandaga n n
1635encouragngtheGermanProtestantsto makepeacewththe
HabsburgsThe factthatthesecondmutnywasca edan"a tera-
ton" thetermnvarab yusedbytheSpansh mutneerstodescrbe
theractvt es betrayedtheparentageofthepractce39The peren-
na probemfortheSwedsh theSpanshand ndeedeverygov-
ernmentn wartmewasmoney nthewordsofan Engsh advser
totheDutchRepubcdurng therwarw thSpan "Thematterof
g rea t es t d f f c u t y n w ar s n p roport on n g t he c h arg e of t h e
warresandthenombersofthesoud erstobemaynteynedw ththe
contrbuconsandmeanesofthecountreys"40t wasabovea ese
t h e f n an c are s ou rc e s of a s t a te w h c h h e dd ow n t he s ze of t s
armedforces ftoomanytroopswereengaged or ftheywere
engagedfortoo ongmut nyandbankruptcyresuted41
t wastheDutchwhofrstperfectedtechnquesof warfnance
capabeofsustanng anenormousarmyamost ndefntey Thecost
of t h e warw t h Sp an f rom1621un t 1648s te ady n c re a se d f rom
an av erag e of 13m on f orn s n t h e 1620s t o an av erag e of 19
m on n t h e 1640s b u t t he re w asn o t a sn g e mu t n y orf n anc a
c rs s On t h e c on t rary n an e me rg e nc y t h e D u tc h Re pu b c c ou d
3#G Parker "MutnyandDscontentntheSpansh ArmyofF anders 1572-
1607"Pastand Pre*ent58 1972 38-52
39F ort h e mut n e s of t h e P arame nt ary arme sd u rn g t he 1640s s e e F rt h c t e dn
t ab e n c ha ps 1 2 1 4 J S M o r r M ut n y a nd D s c on te nt n E ng s h P r ov n c a
Armes1645-1647"PastandPresent56 1972 49-74ForSwedsh mutnesdur ng
the1630sseeR tstatserenAxeOxensternasstrfteroc hBrev?ax ng fcrraavde-
n n g en S t oc k hom 1894v o 8 n o s 169170 244293-95e t t e rs of Ox e ns t e rnat o
f e d c omman de rsM arc h 6Apr 22an dM ay 15 1633an dpp 682-83me moran -
dumsentbyOxensternatotheSwedshrad May13 1633 aboutthe"con-
f o ed e ra t o of t h e army an d S en are a t d e n n g e n S t oc k hom 1893v o 6 n o s 145
146 and149 ettersofMarsha JohanBanerto Oxensterna October29and 30and
November5 1635aboutthe"a teraton"organzedanded by"dersamptchen
offcerenvondergantzenarmee"Therewereofcourse?numerousmutnes by
Swedshtroopsbeforethereformsof-GustavusAdophusseeRobertsTheEary
V a s as p 258an dNordmann p 135
40Th omasWk e s D e c ara t on "Juy 22 1587 n C orresp on d en t e an Rob e rt
D u d ey graaf v an L fg c e s te re d H B ru gman s3 v o s U t re c ht 19312 402
41Onthef nanca organzatonoftheEuropeanstatesdurng thsperod seethe
brefsurveyofG Parker TheEnergenceofModernF nancenE rope1500-1730
L on d on 1974pp 38-67
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"M t aryRe v ou t on 2 13
ra s e a o an of 1m on f orn s a t on y 3 p e rc e nt n t w od ays 42Th e
keytoths effortessfnanca powerwas npart7theenormous
weathofAmsterdam whchby1650 wastheundsputedcommer-
c a an d f n anc a c ap t aof E u rop e b u t t w as e qu ay t h e good f at h
oftheDutchgovernmentwhcha wayspad nterestandrepad
c ap t aon t me Th s c ombn at on e n ab e d t h e D ut c h t ora s e an
armyandgoon fghtng whateverthecostunt theygottherown
waysomethngnoprevous governmenthadbeenabetodo 43 t
wasnot ongbeforeothersfo owedSoonaftertheaccessonof
W amof Orang e n 1689"D u t c h f n an c e"w as ad opt e dn En -
gand Thefoundatonof theBankofEngand Paramentsguaran-
teeofa governmentoans andtheorganzatonofa sophstcated
mone ymark e t n L on don mad e t p o s s b e f oraB rt sh armyof
unprecedentedsze- 90000men -tof ghtoverseasforyears whe
nFrancethecredtnetworkofSamueBernardandotherSwss
bankersfnancedLous X Vs aterwars
Thanksto a thesemprovementsby thefrstdecadeofthe
eghteenthcenturythemaor warsofEuropenvovedsome400 000-
me n on e ac h sd e an dmaorb at t e sn v ov e d u p t o10000044 t
thereforecomesassomethngofasurprse tofnd thatthemaor
confctsofthe1760s and1780snvoved nomore thattherewasno
furthergrowthn armysze unt theFrenchRevoutonarywars n
theeghteenthcentury as nthef fteenth tseemsthatthem tary
powerofthevarousEuropeanstateshadreachedathreshod
F u rt h ere c onomc p o t c a t e ch n oog ca an d f n anc a ad van ce s
woudbe requredbeforeths newthreshodcoud becrossedn the
1790s
However therevouton nm tarymanpowerbetween1530and
1710w as e x t re me ymportan t t c e rt an yh ad a t h e sgn f c ant
consequenceswhchRobertsattrbutedtot tmadewar mpnge
moreuponsocety t ncreasedtheauthortyofthestateparty at
42"Raadvanstaat"bundes1499 1500"Stadtvanooroghe" Agemeen
R k s arc h e f Th e H agu e t h e o an of 1664w asn ot e d byV B arb ou rC ap t a sm n
Amsterdamn theSeventeenthCentury Batmore 1950 p 81
43Contemporareswereawareofths "n thewarsofEuropetheseastfourscore
yearsandupwards wefndthattheEstatesoftheUntedProvnceshavepad
therarmes betterthananyotherprnceor stateths makesthemercenarysoder
runtother servceandcapactesthemto makegreateves na veryshorttme"
S rJame sTu rn e rP a a sA rmat aL on d on 1687 p 198
44n F ran c e t w ou d s e e mt hat on e man n sx w as c a e d t o t h e c o orsd u rn g t h e
w arof t he S p an sh suc c es s on C orv s e r1 65Th e c a c u a t on of "m t aryp art c p a -
tonratos" before1700 sextremeyhazardous sncenethertheexactsze ofthe
armedforcesnorthe totapopuaton sknownwthany certantyandthere sa so
theprobemof"foregn"troopsservng n"natona" armes Forthesereasons the
f g u re sp res e nt e d byB ean t ab e 1n p 2 11 are u nc onvn c n g
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214 GeoffreyParker
t h e e xp e ns e of t h e c t ze n t a c c en t ua t ed s o c a mob t y an d t
undoubtedyretardedtheeconomcdeveopmentofmostpartc-
p ant s a t h ou gh t s t mu at e d t hat of manyn e u tra s 45 n ad d t on t
certan yhepedto precptatethenumerousconfrontatonsbetween
governmentsandthegovernedwhcharecommonyreferredtoas
the"generacrs s"oftheseventeenthcentury0 T4e"prodgous
n c re a se n t h e s c a e of w arf are " aon e mert s t h e t t e of "m t ary
evouton" whchRobertsbestowedupont twentyyearsago
thasbeensuggestedthatthehaf- feofmaor hstorca theores
s roughytenyearsand thefatesofTrevor-Ropers"genera
crss "E tons"Tudorrevouton" andPorshnevs"popuar uprs-
n g s" s e e mt ob eart h s ou t B y t h s s t an dardRob e rt s s "m t ary
revouton"has astedwe Hthertouncha enged eventhsex-
tendedexamnatonhas faed todentthebascthess thescaeof
warfare neary modernEuropewasrevoutonzed andths had
mportantandwde-rangngconsequencesOnecanony concude
bywsh ngthetheoryandts authormanymoreyearsof und-
mn she dh s t orc a f e
45SeeG Parker "TheCostsoftheDutchRevot" nWarand Economc
D e s e opme nt e dJ MW n t er C ambrdg e 1975 pp 49-71