Genetics The science that relates to the study of genes and the patterns of heredity.
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Transcript of Genetics The science that relates to the study of genes and the patterns of heredity.
HeredityA puppy gets its traits from its parents just as we get ours from our parents, but just how are traits inherited?
KARYOTYPE
Each human has 46 chromosomes located in their body cells nucleus of the cell (diploid cells)These are divided into 23 chromosomes- a baby inherits one chromosome from each parent from each pair of chromosomes
A piece of DNA on a chromosome is called a gene. Genes also come in pairs. They determine many of the characteristics of a
baby.
Alleles, are variations of a gene, and they usually come in pairs. Alleles determine the appearance of our characteristicsThere are at least two alleles for every characteristicIf the two alleles are the same then it is said to be homozygous for that geneIf they are different then they are heterozygous
Gregor MendelGregor Mendel is known as
the father of geneticsHe was born in Austria in
1822He grew up on a farm and
learned a lot about flowers and trees
When he was 21 yrs old he joined a monastery and
became a monk. As a monk he taught science and performed scientific experiments
• Mendel spent most of his time and energy performing experiments with pea plants
• He was very curious as to how offspring inherited their traits
• He used pea plants in his experiments because peas had many desirable traits that made them easy to work with
• Peas were a good choice because • They grow quickly• They come in many varieties with
easy to observe traits: round, wrinkled, yellow, green, smooth bumpy, tall, short
• Some cross pollinate, others self-pollinate
• Self –pollination was important because Mendel was able to grow true- breeding plants for his experiments
GREGOR MENDEL USED PEAS FOR HIS EXPERIMENTs- WHY?
• Mendel noticed that one trait was always present in the first generation and the other one seemed to disappear
• He called the trait that appeared the dominant trait and the trait that seemed to fade away the recessive trait
• To find out what might have happened to the recessive trait, Mendel decided to perform another set of experiments
P stands for the parents of the first generation (purple flower crossed with white flower)
F1 stands for the offspring of the a self of the purebred cross above.
F2 stands for the offspring when an F1 flower is self-fertilized were crossed.
• Brown eyes is a dominant trait, so we would write the genotype for brown eyes as BB, Bb
• Blue eyes is a recessive trait. The only way to show a recessive trait is to have a genotype with two recessive alleles, such as bb
Alleles
• An allele is a variation of a gene:
BB, Bb, CC, Cc, cc, DD, EE, ee
Some alleles are dominant and some alleles are recessive. Dominant alleles are represented by
capital letters in genetics, and recessive alleles are represented by lower case letters
Genotype and Phenotype
• Genotype is the combination of alleles that code for a specific trait
DD for example could be the genotype for having dimples.
• Phenotype is the physical appearance that the genotype codes for.
• Dimples is a phenotype. What is a phenotype that you have?
PHENOTYPES
Your adorable smile, the shape and color of your eyes, and your hair texture are just a few examples of phenotypes
We know that genes determine our smile, but what about personality? Yes, some of our personality is hereditary, but part of it is also a result of the environment we are exposed to as a child
Nature vs. Nurture
Homozygous and Heterozygous Genotypes
• Homozygous genotypes with either all dominant alleles or all recessive alleles (think: the same)
• DD, dd, cc, CC, EE, ee, FF, gg, GG, dd, DD
• Heterozygous genotypes have at least one dominant allele and one recessive allele
• (think: different)• Dd, Ff, Gg, Ee, Ee, Cc,
Gg, Rr...
Punnett Squares predict the possible genotypes of offspring in a particular cross using the genotypes of the
parents
A brown furred rabbit (Bb) mates with a white furred rabbit (bb). What is the probability that they
will have dark-furred offspring?
Answer:
• Approximately 50% of their offspring will be dark-furred, with a heterozygous (Bb) genotype.
• What percent would likely have the recessive phenotype of white fur?
• To show the recessive trait, the offspring must have inherited two recessive alleles (bb), one from each parent. They also have a 50% chance of having white furred bunnies…..
Punnett Square Problem
• Two brown furred rabbits with the genotypes Bb mate and produce ¼ offspring that are light furred with the genotype bb. How is this possible?
Answer
• The ¼ offspring received one recessive allele from each parent giving them a recessive trait
Incomplete DominanceAn inheritance pattern where neither allele is dominant, but instead the phenotype of the offspring is in between both homozygous genotypes
In this case, the R allele codes for a red color, so the more of this of this protein, the more red the petal color
Codominance
• An inheritance pattern where neither allele is dominant, but rather they share dominance, and thus, the offspring will have traits of both alleles if it inherits one of each
Human blood type is determined by codominanceThere are three alleles for blood type. We inherit two from our parents.IA and IB share dominance and i is recessiveSee chart to the side….A person with alleles A and B is neither A or B blood type, but rather, blood type AB.A person must have two i alleles to have blood type O because O blood type is a recessive trait.
Type A and B individuals can be either homozygous (IA,IA, or IB, IB), or heterozygous (IA i, or IB i)
A person must have two i alleles to have blood type O
• A woman with blood type A and a man with type B blood could potentially have offspring with which of the following blood types?
Multiple Genes
• Some traits, such as hair, eye and skin color are determined by multiple genes, giving a wide variety in the colors produced
Environmental Influences
• Some genes can remain unexpressed until something in the environment influences it
• For example, some people have a gene for developing lung cancer that may not be expressed unless the person is exposed to the chemicals in tobacco
• The Himalayan rabbit has a gene for fur color that produces dark fur, but it is only activated at cooler temperatures, which is why the cooler body parts, like ears and nose are black.
EYE COLOR
• Different eye colors are produced because of the different amounts and patterns of pigments in the iris (colored part of the eye), which is determined by one’s genetic make up
• The DNA inherited from one’s parents determines what color eyes they will have
• Right now there are three known gene pairs that control eye color, and at least two are incompletely dominant
• The bey 2 gene on chromosome 15 has a brown and blue allele
• On chromosome 15 the bey 1 gene contains the central brown gene
• On chromosome pair 19, the gey gene contains a blue allele and a green allele
Yes, if both are heterozygous for brown eyes and the child inherits a recessive allele from
each parent. There is 25% chance…
A green allele is dominant to a blue alleleAnd brown allele is dominant to both a blue and a
green alleleFor the bey 2 gene if a person has a brown allele then
they will have brown eyesIn the gey gene the green allele is dominant to the blue
alleles but still recessive to brownA person will have green eyes if they have a green
allele on chromosome 19 and all or some blue alleles Blue eyes is produced by having only recessive genesSo for a blue eyed person all four alleles have to be
blue
• If two parents have a blue and a brown gene, there eyes are brown, but they can have a blue eyed child if the child inherits a blue gene from each parent
• If the child inherits one blue gene and one brown gene the child will have brown eyes, because brown is dominant to blue
What are the causes of heterochromia?
• Disease or injury to that affects the health of the melanocytes (cells in the eyes that produce eye colors)
• Wardenburg Syndrome- A mutation in certain genes that causes melanocytes to get lost on their way to where they are supposed to go
• Chimarism (very rare!)- when two fertilized eggs fuse to form one egg, each with a different set of DNA
Genetic DisordersA genetic disorder is one that is caused by abnormalities
in the genes or chromosomesWhile some diseases, such as cancer, are caused by
genetic abnormalities in some cells, a “genetic disease” is one that is present in all cells and has been present since conception
When something goes wrong with the chromosomes in processing a new human being, the code cannot be read properly and the child’s brain and body may not develop properly. When a problem results from this genetic mistake, we call is a genetic disorder.
Karyotype A karyotype is a picture
of all the chromosomes in a cell
A normal human karyotype has 46 chromosomes, 22 are identical pairs
The other two are the sex chromosomes.
Is this the karyotype of a male or a female individual?
Turner’s Syndrome XOOccurs 1 in every 2000These women have only
45 chromosomes; they are missing an x chromosome
They are genetically female, but do not mature sexually during puberty and are infertile
They have a short stature 98% of these fetuses die
before birth
Trisomy X
• A condition where a female has an extra copy of an X chromosome, typically inherited from the mother
• It is a random event• Typically diagnosed
later in life, if ever
Trisomy X (XXX)• Sometimes there are no
symptoms and symptoms vary a lot between individuals
• Possible symptoms:• Tall stature• Speech and language
delays• Delayed motor skills• Below average
intelligence
• Occurs 1 in 1000 births• These women are fertile
and capable of having normal (XX) and (XY) children
Super Male XYYThese are males with an
extra Y chromosomeThey tend to be taller
than averageMore prone to acneUsually have a low mental
IQUsed to be thought that
these men were more likely to end up in prison, but no study was able to back this claim
Klinefelter’s Syndrome XXY• A chromosomal condition that affects a male’s
sexual development• Most males with this have an extra copy of the X
chromosome in each cell• Because the testicles of these males do not form
normally, affected males may have low levels of the hormone, testosterone, beginning during puberty
• A lack of this hormone can cause breast development, reduced facial and body hair, and the inability to father children (infertility)
Down SyndromeThis individual has an extra # 21
chromosome, instead of two copies, they have three
The extra chromosome causes physical differences in appearance as well as learning challenges
About half of these individuals have heart defects
These children did not used to live very long due to heart defects and other ailments, but today they are able to live in to adulthood, thanks to advances in medicine
Amniocentesis
A medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of genetic risk factors, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is extracted from the amnion or the amniotic sac around the fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities
A commonly used test to detect Down Syndrome- has a 99% accuracy rate
Amniocentesis is a risky procedure which can result in harm to the baby
if it is not performed correctly and carefully
Chorionic Villus Sampling• Another diagnostic test to help detect genetic
abnormalities, such as Down Syndrome• Done early in pregnancy (around tenth week)• 1 in 100 chance of miscarriage• Chorionic villi are tiny finger-shaped growths
in the placenta• The DNA in the villus projections are the same
as in the baby’s cells, so in this test, samples of the chorionic villus cells are taken for a biopsy for the chromosomes to be studied
Multiple Sclerosis
• This is a chronic inflammatory disease of the immune system
• Two genes have been found to increase a person’s risk for MS, and they are found in the immune system
• The person’s immune system begins to attack the fatty covering around the axon of a nerve cell, called a myelin sheath, this interrupts the electrical signals necessary in the relaying of impulses from one nerve cell to another
In patients with multiple sclerosis, the axon’s myelin sheath is destroyed by the person’s own immune system
Albinism
An albino is a person or animal who lacks the pigment, melanin, the protein that gives skin, eyes, and hair color. This is due to a recessive inheritance pattern.These people are prone to vision problems and sun burning because of the lack of melanin.
Albinos inherited a recessive allele one from each parent. This recessive gene causes the individual to have no melanin production, and so their skin, hair, and eyes lack
pigmentation (color)
Sickle Cell Anemia-one bad copy of a gene for this disease and the person is a carrier, two bad copies and the person is affected with the disease
One out of 500 African Americans has sickle cell anemia
This disease is caused by a mutation in the alleles for a gene that carries instructions for how the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells should look like
The error causes the protein to come out with the wrong shape
It causes red blood cells to collapse and into sickle shapes that are hard and sticky
Sickle Cell Can Cause Clots in Arteries and Veins
Sickle cells do not carry oxygen as well as normal red blood cells and they sometimes get stuck in the blood vessels causing a clot
It can cause chronic anemia and pain
Anemia means the blood is low in oxygen
Two cures: bone marrow transplant or hydroxyure drug
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is a fatal genetic lung disease caused by a defect in the CFTR gene
This gene makes a protein that controls the movement of salt and water in and out of your cells
This gene does not work right and results in a thick, sticky mucus in lungs and salty sweat
With better treatment, people with CF are living longer-may live into their 30’s
A child must carry two abnormal copies of the CFTR gene, one from each parent to have the disease. If the child has
one copy, he or she is a carrier
If the problem lies on a sex chromosome, we call it a sex-linked
disease or disorder• Hemophilia and Color Blindness are two sex-
linked recessive disorders we will discuss in this class. For both, the problem lies on the X chromosome with a recessive inheritance pattern.
Color blindness is a Sex -linked recessive disorder
This condition is more common in males than in females because the problem lies on the X chromosome (we’ll do pedigree charts on this)
Humans have three color receptors, if one or more are faulty or missing, a person will not see all the colors
Red/green colorblindness is the most common
Hemophilia
• An X linked chromosomal disorder in which a person does not clot blood well
• With hemophilia a person lacks the gene for proper blood clotting.
Pedigree Charts show the patterns of inheritance among families; it is a tool used by geneticists to help council patients who are worried that they might pass down a
faulty gene to their children
Cri du Chat
• A rare genetic disorder which results from the deletion of or loss of a significant portion of the genetic information of the arms of the chromosome #5
• Infants with this disorder have a distinctive high pitched cry which sounds like a cat
• The disorder is also characterized by mental retardation, delayed development, small head size, distinctive facial features, low birth weight, and weak muscle tone
Gene TherapyGene therapy is a technique for correcting defective
genes responsible for disease developmentSeveral approaches are used:A normal gene can be inserted into a nonspecific
location in the genome to replace a nonfunctional gene (using a carrier, vector, to deliver the gene)
An abnormal gene can be repaired through selective reverse mutation
The regulation of a gene (degree to where it is turned on or off) can be altered
Gene therapy is still a new area in science and is considered to be in experimental stages
How Does Gene Therapy work?In most gene therapy cases, a normal gene is inserted
into the genome to replace an abnormal geneA carrier molecule such as a vector is used to deliver
the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cellCurrently the most common vector is a virus that has
been genetically altered to carry human DNAViruses have evolved a way to encapsulate and deliver
their genes in to human cells to cause disease, so scientists have tried to take advantage of this capability and manipulate the virus by removing disease causing genes and replacing it with therapeutic ones.