Genetic screen for post-embryonic development in the ... · regulate development, homeostasis,...
Transcript of Genetic screen for post-embryonic development in the ... · regulate development, homeostasis,...
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Geneticscreenforpost-embryonicdevelopmentinthe
zebrafish(Daniorerio):dominantmutationsaffecting
adultform
KatrinHenke*,1,JacobM.Daane*2,M.BrentHawkins*!,ChristopherM.Dooley‡,ElisabethM.
Busch-Nentwich‡§,DerekL.Stemple‡,MatthewP.Harris*,1
*DepartmentofOrthopedicSurgeryResearch,BostonChildren’sHospital;Departmentof
Genetics,HarvardMedicalSchool,Boston,MA02115!DepartmentofOrganismicandEvolutionaryBiology,HarvardUniversity,CambridgeMA,
02138‡WellcomeTrustSangerInstitute,Hinxton,UKCB101SA§DepartmentofMedicine,UniversityofCambridge,Cambridge,UK
1towhomcorrespondenceshouldbesent,[email protected],
2Currentaddress:DepartmentofMarineandEnvironmentalSciences,Northeastern
UniversityMarineScienceCentre,Nahant,MA01908
Genetics: Early Online, published on August 23, 2017 as 10.1534/genetics.117.300187
Copyright 2017.
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Abstract
Large-scaleforwardgeneticscreenshavebeeninstrumentalforidentifyinggenesthat
regulatedevelopment,homeostasis,regeneration,aswellasthemechanismsofdisease.
Thezebrafish,Daniorerio,isanestablishedgeneticanddevelopmentalmodelusedin
geneticscreenstouncovergenesnecessaryforearlydevelopment.However,the
regulationofpost-embryonicdevelopmenthasreceivedlessattentionasthesescreensare
morelaborintensiveandrequireextensiveresources.Thelackofsystematicinterrogation
oflatedevelopmentleaveslargeaspectsofthegeneticregulationofadultformand
physiologyunresolved.Tounderstandthegeneticcontrolofpost-embryonicdevelopment,
weperformedadominantscreenforphenotypesaffectingtheadultzebrafish.Inour
screenweidentified72adultviablemutantsshowingchangesintheshapeoftheskeleton
aswellasdefectsinpigmentation.Forefficientmappingofthesemutantsandmutation
identification,wedevisedanewmappingstrategybasedonidentificationofmutant-
specifichaplotypes.Usingthismethodincombinationwithacandidategeneapproach,we
wereabletoidentifylinkedmutationsfor22outof25mutantsanalyzed.Broadly,our
mutationalanalysissuggeststhattherearekeygenesandpathwaysassociatedwithlate
development.Manyofthesepathwaysaresharedwithhumansandareaffectedinvarious
diseaseconditions,suggestingconstraintinthegeneticpathwaysthatcanleadtochangein
adultform.Takentogethertheseresultsshowthatdominantscreensareafeasibleand
productivemeanstoidentifymutationsthatcanfurtherourunderstandingofgene
functionduringpost-embryonicdevelopmentandindisease.
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Introduction
Theuseofsystematicforwardgeneticscreenshasbeeninstrumentalinuncoveringgenes
andpathwaysinvolvedinamultitudeofdevelopmentalprocesses(e.g.Brenner1974;
Nüsslein-VolhardandWieschaus1980;Mayeretal.1991;Haffter,Granato,etal.1996;
Drieveretal.1996).Thisphenotypedrivenapproachallowsfortheunbiasedanalysisof
genefunctionthroughgenerationofrandommutationsthroughoutthegenomeusing
chemicalsorirradiationasmutagens.
Manygenesthatarefoundtobeessentialforearlydevelopmentandfunctional
alterationsareoftennotcompatiblewithviability.Suchlethalityhindersthestudyofgene
functionduringpostembryonicstages.Theestablishmentoftissuespecificorinducible
knock-outlinescircumventsthisproblemandenablesanalysisintissuesofinterestorat
specifictime-pointsduringdevelopment.However,thesemethodsdonotlendthemselves
tobroadunbiasedscreeningindevelopment,asoftenonlyafewlocicanbefeasiblytested
atanyonetime.Differenttypesofmutationssuchaspartialloss-of-functionordominant
mutationscanhelpinelucidatingfunctionsinlatedevelopmenteveningeneswithkey
rolesinembryogenesis.Dominantmutations,inparticular,canberevealingofthefull
rangeofmolecularanddevelopmentalgenefunctions,asincreasedandnovelactionsofa
genecanresultinunexpectedphenotypes.Thesedominantmutationscanalsoexhibit
dosagedependenteffects,showinggradedphenotypicdifferencesbetweenheterozygous
andhomozygousindividuals.Thus,uniquemutationsapartfromcompleteloss-of-function
allelescanbeinformativeaboutmolecularregulationofgenefunctioninpost-embryonic
development.
Thezebrafishisawell-establishedgeneticmodel.Screenshavefocusedonthe
identificationofgenesimportantforearlydevelopmentalprocesses,withmutantsshowing
recessiveinheritanceofthephenotype(e.g.Haffter,Granato,etal.1996;Drieveretal.
1996).Screensforrecessivemutationsrequirebreedingtheinducedmutationsto
homozygosityandthereforemultiplegenerationsneedtoberaisedbeforeaphenotypeis
visibleintheF3generation.Thus,recessivescreensrequiretheabilitytoraiseandscreena
largenumberoffishinordertoscreenthefunctionofgenesaffectingaspecific
developmentalprocessinsufficientdepth.
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Themajorityoftheidentifiedrecessivemutantsdisplayearlyphenotypesandare
embryonicorlarvallethal.Onlyabout3%ofmutantsidentifiedinthesescreensforearly
larvalphenotypesledtoviableadultswithobservablephenotypes(Haffter,Granato,etal.
1996).Thus,muchofthegeneticregulationoflatedevelopmentremainsundescribed.
Fewscreenshavelookedforgenesaffectinglatedevelopmentandmosthavebeen
restrictedindepthandphenotypicbreadth(Haffter,Odenthal,etal.1996;BauerandGoetz
2001;Fisher,Jagadeeswaran,andHalpern2003;Andreevaetal.2011;Saitoetal.2011).
However,largerscreenslookingspecificallyforgenesnecessaryfornormalpatterningand
growthoftheadultfish,demonstratedthatalargenumberofmutantscouldbeidentified,
supportingthatlatedevelopmentalprocessescanbeinvestigatedbyclassicgenetic
approaches(ZFmodels;www.zf-health.org/zf-models).Incomparison,thelargestofthese
screensfromtheZFmodelsconsortiumscoredabout1000genomesforadulttraits,about
1/6ofthetotalpredictednumberofgenomesanalyzedforlarvalphenotypesinthisscreen
aswellasthenumberofcombinedgenomesscreenedintheearlyzygoticscreens(Haffter,
Granato,etal.1996;Drieveretal.1996).Intriguingly,manyofthemutationsidentified
fromtheseadultscreensaffectgeneswhoseorthologuesareassociatedwithdiseasein
humans(fgfr1a,col1a1a,bmp1a,edar)(Rohneretal.2009;Fisher,Jagadeeswaran,and
Halpern2003;Asharanietal.2012,1;Harrisetal.2008).
Whileisolatingmutantlinesthroughgeneticscreenshasbeenverysuccessful,
identificationofthecausativemutationsunderlyingmutantphenotypeswaspreviously
difficult,limitingthebroadanalysisoflargeclassesofmutantsandpreventingdetailingof
theircognizantgeneticpathways.Theadventofnext-generationsequencingtechniquesin
combinationwithtargetedcaptureandmultiplexingofsampleshasallowedforcost-
effectiveandefficientidentificationofmutations(Bowenetal.2012;Leshchineretal.
2012;Vozetal.2012;Obholzeretal.2012;Henke,Bowen,andHarris2013;Kettleborough
etal.2013;Ryanetal.2013).Thishasopenedthepotentialforanalysisofgenetic
networksregulatingspecificdevelopmentalprocesses,aslinkageandpotentialcausative
mutationscanbequicklydefinedinwholesetsofmutants.
Wesoughttotakeadvantageofthesenewsequencingtechnologiestoexplorethe
utilityofzebrafishgeneticscreenstoinvestigatethegenescontrollingpost-embryonic
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development.Towardsthisend,weinitiatedascreenformutationsaffectingtheformof
theadultzebrafish.Tofacilitatedepthofscreening,wefocusedonmutantswitha
dominanteffectonmorphology.Importantly,unlikemostallelesidentifiedorcreatedusing
genomeeditingtechniques,ourfocusondominantmutationswascenteredontheabilityto
provideinsightintothemolecularactionofageneotherthansimpleloss-of-function
allelesthroughidentificationofpotentialgain-of-functionandneomorphicalleles.Herewe
showthefeasibilityoflarge-scaledominantscreensinzebrafishforpost-embryonic
development,includingmethodstosystematicallyidentifylinkageandcausativemutations
underlyingdominantmutantphenotypes.Resultsfromthisscreendefineimportant
diseasemodelsinthezebrafish.Furthermore,byclusteringanalysisofsimilarphenotypes
weshowenrichmentformutationsaffectingextracellularmatrixformationasaregulator
oflatedevelopment.Importantly,thisscreensetsthestagefortheuseofzebrafishasan
experimentaltooltoinvestigategeneticregulationthroughmodifieranalysisandefficient
identificationofgenenetworksregulatinglatedevelopment.
Methods
Husbandryandmanagementofidentifiedmutantlines
Zebrafish(Daniorerio)wereraisedandmaintainedunderstandardconditions(Nüsslein-
VolhardandDahm2002)incompliancewithinternalregulatoryreviewatBoston
Children’sHospital.MutantlineswerenamedfollowingtherulessetoutbyZFIN,where
‘mh’isthedesignationofthefoundinglab(Harrislab)and‘d’indicatesdominant
inheritanceoftheallele.
Mutagenesisandscreendesign
Toidentifydominantmutationsthataffecttheadultformofthezebrafish,mutationswere
inducedbytreatmentof30wildtypeTübingenmaleswithN-ethyl-N-nitrosourea(ENU)
treatmentfollowinganoptimizedprotocol(Rohneretal.2011).Thesurviving14
mutagenizedmaleswerematedtwiceaweekwithwildtypefemalesandover14.000
progenywereraised.At10-12weekspost-fertilization(wpf)F1fishwereanesthetizedin
0.02%MS-222andscreenedunderadissectingscopeformorphologicalchanges.Potential
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mutantswereisolatedandcrossedtowildtypefish.Similarly,F2progenywerescreenedat
10-12wpf.Crossesre-expressingthephenotypeinroughly50%ofprogenywere
maintainedandfurtheranalyzed.Variedwildtypelines,suchasAB,Tübingenandalbino
mutants,wereusedforoutcrossing.
Next-generationsequencinglibrarypreparationandexomecapture
Exomesequencingwasperformedaspreviouslydescribed(Kettleboroughetal.
2013)withminormodifications.Briefly,1-2μgofDNAfromindividualmutantsandpooled
siblingswasfragmentedtoenabletheconstructionof150bpto200bpinsertlibraries
accordingtostandardIlluminaprotocols.Followinggenomiclibraryconstruction,500ngof
DNAwashybridizedfor24hourstotheAgilentSureSelectZv9.2biotinylatedwholeexome
RNAbaits.Thehybridizationwasthenenrichedwithstreptavidin-coatedbeadsandthe
restoftheRNAbaitsweredigested.LibrarieswereamplifiedandbarcodedthroughPCR
(10cycles)andlibrarieswerepaired-endsequenced(50bp)usingHiSeq2000v4
chemistries.AsthisversionofthezebrafishexomecaptureisbasedontheZv9genome
assembly,genesandexonsannotatedsubsequenttotheZv9releasewerenotbecaptured
bythismethod.
Mappingbyassociationandcandidategeneidentification
Sequencingreadswerealignedtothezebrafishgenome(GRCz10)usingNovoalign
software(http://www.novocraft.com/main/index.php)withdefaultsettingsandincluding
3’-adaptortrimming.PCRduplicateswereremovedusingtheMarkDuplicatescommandin
Picard(http://picard.sourceforge.net/).VariantswerecalledusingSAMtoolsandBCFtools
(Lietal.2009;Li2011).ToidentifySNPsusefulformapping,weusedtheGATK
VariantFiltrationWalker(McKennaetal.2010)toexcludethefollowingvariants:(1)SNPs
lyinginlow-complexityregionsorinterspersedrepeats,classifiedbyRepeatMasker;(2)
SNPslyinginaclusterof>3SNPsper10bp;(3)SNPswithaqualityscore<30;(4)SNPs
witharoot-mean-squaremappingqualityofcoveringreads<40;(5)SNPswithatotalread
depth<20or>100;(6)SNPswithatotalreaddepth<40.Furthermore,SNPswithanallele
frequencyof1wereexcluded.Forexclusionofcommonvariants,SNPspresentinatleast2
readsinsiblingsormutantswereidentifiedfromtheindividualvariantfilesusingacustom
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pythonscript.AfterremovingSNPspresentinthesiblings,themutantchromosomewas
identifiedbycountingtheremainingSNPsperchromosome.
Toidentifycandidatemutations,themutantvariantfilewasfilteredusingGATK
VariantFiltrationWalkertoexcludethefollowingvariants:(1)SNPslyinginaclusterof>3
SNPsper10bp;(2)SNPswithaqualityscore<30;(4)SNPswitharoot-mean-square
mappingqualityofcoveringreads<40;and(5)SNPswithatotalreaddepth<3or>60.In
addition,allSNPsthatwerecalledashavingmorethan1non-referenceallelewere
removed.SNPspresentinatleast2readsinwildtypestrains,siblingsorothermutants
fromthescreenwereexcludedusingacustompythonscript.TheremainingSNPswere
analyzedandannotatedusingtheEnsemblVariantEffectPredictor(McLarenetal.2016).
Thisstringentfilteringprotocol,whileneededtoexcludefalsepositivecalls,canleadtothe
exclusionofrealvariants.Forexample,themostlikelycandidatemutationincol2a1ainthe
dmh28mutantwascomputationallyexcludedasacandidatemutationduetoalowPhred-
scaledqualityscore.WhileweidentifiedacloselylinkedSNPinaneighboringgeneused
fortheinitiallinkageanalysis,reanalysisofvariantsincandidategenesintheregionbyeye
ledtotheidentificationofthemutationincol2a1a.
MappingandcandidategenedatawasvisualizedusingPhenoGram(Wolfeetal.
2013).
Confirmationoflinkage
Toconfirmlinkageofthephenotypetoaspecificcandidatemutation,genomicDNA
fromatleast10heterozygousmutantsand4wildtypesiblingswasSangersequencedto
confirmpresenceorabsenceofthemutationrespectively.Asameasureforlinkage,we
calculatedthelogarithmoftheodds(LOD)scoreforeachtestedvariant.
LODscore=log[probabilitythelocusislinked/probabilitythelocusisunlinked]
probabilitylocusisunlinked=0.5^numberofmeiosisanalyzed
probabilitylocusislinked=1-recombinationfrequency
recombinationfrequency=numberofrecombinants/numberofmeiosisanalyzed
Generally,aLODscoreof3oraboveisconsideredasproofoflinkageoftwoloci.Inour
case,ifnorecombinationeventwasdetectedin10heterozygousmutantsanalyzed(10
meiosis),theLODscorewouldequal3.
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Skeletalstainingandmicrocomputedtomography
Fishwereeuthanizedin22%MS-222andfixedin3.7%formaldehydefor24hours
atroomtemperature.Forstainingofmineralizedtissuesfishweretransferredintoa
0.005%alizarinred/0.5%KOHsolutionovernight.Excessstainwasremovedwithseveral
washesin0.5%KOH.Specimensweretransferredthroughaglycerolseriesinto80%
glycerolforstorage.
Forscanning,fishwerewashedinPBSorwaterfollowingfixationandthenplacedin
sampletubesembeddedin1%agarosetoreducemovementduringscanning.Imageswere
obtainedusingaSkyscan1173(Bruker),240-degreescanwith0.2rotationalstep.X-ray
sourcevoltagesetto70kVandcurrentsetto80μA.Exposuretimewas1500ms.
Resolutionofscanwas7.14micronsperpixel.ImageswereprocessedusingParaview
(http://www.paraview.org/overview/)orAmirasoftwarepackage,version6.0(FEI).
Dataavailability
Spermfromthe25mutantlinesdescribedinthispaperispreservedtosecurethe
lines.Mutantlinesareavailableonrequestfromtheauthor.
FileS1containstotalandmutantspecificSNPcountsforeachchromosomeforthe
23mutantsmappedwiththemethoddescribedinthismanuscript.FileS2contains
numbersofuniquenonsynonymousmutationsperchromosomeforthe23mutants.Alist
ofprimersusedforconfirmationoflinkageisprovidedinTableS1.
RawsequencedatawassubmittedtotheEuropeanNucleotideArchive(ENA)under
studyPRJEB13615(http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena/data/view/PRJEB13615).Accession
numbersforindividualsequencingfilescanbefoundinFileS3.
Customscriptsfordataanalysisareavailablefordownloadfromthelabwebsite
www.fishyskeleton.comoruponrequest.
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Results
ScreenDesign
Tofacilitateabroadsamplingofgeneticvariationthroughoutthezebrafishgenome,we
usedENUmutagenesisandanF1dominantscreendesign(Fig.1A).Wescreened10424
fish,representingasimilarnumberofhaploidgenomes,forphenotypesaffectingadult
form.Weidentified269potentialmutantsaffectingawidediversityoftraits.These
mutantsallshowedspecific,qualitativelydistinctadultphenotypes.Wefocusedrecovery
andisolationtowardsmutantsthatexhibiteddifferencesintheformationandpatterningof
theadultskeleton,includingfinsandscales,aswellaschangesinpigmentation(Table1).
Screeningforchangesinreproductiveability,anotherkeyadulttrait,wasnotpossible,as
reductionoffertilitywouldprecluderecoveryofthemutantlineinanF1screendesign.
Otherauxiliaryphenotypesincludedefectsindevelopmentoftheeyes,representedbya
largenumberoffishexhibitingcloudylenses.Thesewerenotcollectednorincludedinthe
screenresults.
Toconfirmtruemonogenicinheritanceofaphenotype,isolatedF1mutantfounders
wereoutcrossedtowildtypefishandtheF2generationwasscreenedfortheparental
phenotype.Outofthe269potentialmutantsisolatedintheF1generation,135produced
offspring.Inthese135crosses,72showedtheexpectedphenotypein50%oftheoffspring,
suggestingamonogenictrait.Thesemutantsweregroupedinto5majorclassesbasedon
theirmostprominentphenotype.Agroupof23mutantsshowedchangesinthe
developmentoffins;21mutantsarecharacterizedbychangesinstature;thecraniofacial
skeletonwasaffectedin12mutants;4mutantsshowedabroaderchangeinthedermal
skeletonand12mutantsdisplayedchangesinpigmentation(Table1).Aselectgroupof
25mutantsfromtheseclassesweremaintainedformapping,mutationidentificationand
furtherphenotypicanalysis.
Systematicmappingofdominantmutationsfromthescreen
Acandidategeneapproachwasusedtosuccessfullyidentifymutationsintwoofthe
25mutantsisolated,dm1anddmh3(seemutantphenotypessectionbelow).Forlinkage
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analysisandmutationidentificationoftheremaining23mutants,DNAwasisolatedfroma
singlemutantcarrierand3-6wildtypesiblingsforeachmutant(TableS2).Mostprogeny
stemmedfromheterozygousmutantoutcrossestowildtypestrains,for6mutantsprogeny
fromheterozygousmutantincrosseswereanalyzed.Sequencinglibrarieswereprepared
foreachsinglemutantandpooledwildtypesiblings.Thesepoolswereenrichedforcoding
regionsusingexomecapture.PairedendIlluminasequencingwasperformedon8libraries
perlane(fourmutant/siblingpairs),resultingin15-29millionreadspersampleand
averageexomecoverageof23x(TableS2).
Twooverlappingbutdistinctmethodswereusedtoroughmapandrefinepotential
causativemutationsunderlyingthedominantphenotypes.First,tolocalizethegenetic
locationofthemutationinthegenome,thechromosomecarryingmutant-specificSNPs
wasidentified(Figure1B).Second,throughidentificationofuniquenon-synonymous
mutationsinthemutant,candidatemutationspotentiallyunderlyingthemutantphenotype
weredefinedforsubsequentconfirmationoflinkage.
Identificationofmutant-specifichaplotypes:Giventhehighlevelofheterogeneity
ofthezebrafishgenomeevenwithinstrains(Bowenetal.2012;Stickneyetal.2002;
Guryevetal.2006;Bradleyetal.2007;Coeetal.2009),causativemutationsshouldbe
associatedwithdiscernablehaplotypeblocksofvariantsuniquetothemutant.Wedefined
mutant-specifichaplotypessolelybythepresenceofSNPsuniquetothemutant.These
SNPscanbeidentifiedbyexcludingallSNPsseeninthesiblingpoolfromSNPspresentin
themutant(Figure1B).Ifallhaplotypespresentinthecrossanalyzedaresampledand
sequencedtosufficientdepthinthesiblingpool(FigureS1),onlythechromosome
carryingthephenotype-causingmutationshouldhaveSNPsleftafterthisanalysis.
Tothisend,sequencingreadswerealignedtothecurrentassemblyofthezebrafish
genome(GRCz10)andhighqualitySNPswereidentifiedthatshowedatleast20xcoverage
inboththemutantandcorrespondingsiblingpool(seemethodsfordetails).Althoughwe
achievedaverageexomecoverageof23x,onlyabout50%oftheexomeiscoveredbymore
than20readsandthusisusedintheanalysis(TableS2).Thisislikelyduetounequal
captureefficiencyofdifferentexonsandpreferentialsequencingofcertainregions.SNPs
thatwerehomogeneousinboththemutantandsiblingpoolwereexcludedfromthe
analysisasuninformative.Thisresultedintheidentificationofbetween450and7000
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SNPsperchromosome(Figure2A-B,FileS1).Inthemutantsanalyzedhere,removalof
SNPsfoundinthecorrespondingsiblingpoolresultedinreductionoftotalSNPsto
between0and1469SNPsperchromosome.ThehighestnumberofmutantspecificSNPs
onachromosomewithinthegenomevariessignificantlybetweendifferentmutantlines
analyzedandrangesfrom106to1469(FileS1).Thisvariationhighlightsthedifferent
levelsofbackgroundheterogeneityinthecrossesanalyzed.Althoughonewouldexpectno
mutantspecificSNPsforunlinkedchromosomes,mostchromosomesshowedarelatively
lowlevelofmutant-specificSNPs.Forexample,analysisofthesequencedatafordmh35
andthecorrespondingsiblingpoolresultedintheidentificationof1-135mutantspecific
SNPsperchromosomeforunlinkedchromosomes(Figure2A-B).Chromosome20showed
with449SNPsthehighestnumberofmutantspecificSNPsandwassubsequentlyshownto
belinkedtothemutantphenotype,asdescribedbelow.
Totesttheboundsofsampling,for2mutants,dmh15anddmh4,wesequencedtwo
poolsof3siblingstoadepthof20xeach.Inbothcases,theremainingnumbersofmutant
specificSNPsperchromosomeweresignificantlylowerwhencomparedtoothermutants
whereonlyonepoolof3siblingsorapoolof6siblingswassequencedto20xdepth(File
S1,TableS3).Thisismostlikelyduetounequalsequencingofhaplotypespresentinthe
poolaswellasinsufficientsequencingdepthtocoverallhaplotypes.Differencesin
samplingofparentalhaplotypeswereobviouswhenrunningtheanalysiswithonlyoneof
thesiblingpools.Forexample,forthedmh15mutant,chromosome5hasthehighest
numberofmutantspecificSNPswith534whenonlyusingsiblingpool1(TableS3).
However,thechromosomeharboringthehighestnumberofSNPsswitchestochromosome
7with866mutantspecificSNPsifonlythesecondsiblingpoolisusedintheanalysis
(TableS3).BothchromosomesshowalmostnomutantspecificSNPswhenbothsibling
poolsareusedincombination,indicatingthatthehaplotypepresentinthemutantfor
thesetwochromosomeswasonlysampledinoneofthesiblingpools.
InadditiontoasecondsiblingDNApool,wealsosequencedasecondmutant
individualfordmh15.Byrepeatingtheexperimentwithadifferentmutant,wenoticedthat
notallchromosomesshowedthesametrendasseenwiththefirstcomparison(TableS3).
Morespecifically,chromosome4showedanextremelyhighnumberofmutantspecific
SNPsinthesecondmutant,whereasthefirstmutantsequencedhadalmostnomutant-
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specificSNPsonchromosome4.Thisindicatesthatthechromosomalhaplotypeofthe
secondmutantwasinsufficientlysampledinthetwosiblingpools.Itshouldbenotedthat
inthisexamplethechromosomecarryingthephenotype-causingmutation(chromosome
19),didnothaveahighnumberofmutantspecificSNPs.Thissuggeststhatthephenotype-
causingmutationdoesnotliewithinadiscernablehaplotypeinthisspecificexample.
IdentifyingcandidatemutationsthroughfilteringrelatedandcommonSNPs:Since
wholeexomesaresequencedbythismethod,thesequencingdatacanatthesametimebe
usedformappingaswellastheidentificationofpotentialcandidatemutationsaffecting
genefunction.First,allvariantswithatleast3xcoverageareidentifiedinthemutant
(Table2).Thiscoveragewasconsistentlyseenoveronaverage88%oftheexomeinall
sequencinglibraries(TableS2).Duetothehighrateofvariationwithinthezebrafish
genome,thisanalysisresultsinahighnumberofpotentialphenotype-causingmutations.
Torefinethislistofpotentialcandidatemutationsfurther,allSNPsthatarepresentinthe
correspondingwildtypesiblingsareexcluded.Thisreducesthenumberofpotential
candidatemutationssignificantly(Table2).Furthermore,takingadvantageofexisting
sequencingdatafromwildtypestrains(Bowenetal.2012),allwildtypevariantsobserved
inthisdatasetareexcludedaspotentialcandidatemutationsaswell.Inaddition,asalarge
numberofmutantsfromthesamedominantscreenweresequencedandshareacommon
setofbackgroundallelesfromthefounders,weusedthisdatatofurtherrefinepotential
candidatesbyexcludingallvariantsdetectedinwildtypesiblingpoolsormutantswith
phenotypesdifferentfromthemutantunderanalysis.ThiswayoffilteringsharedSNPs
reducesthenumberofnonsynonymousmutationsobservedgenome-widetoasmall
numberthatcanthenbeprioritizedbasedonpotentiallinkage,predictedgenefunction
andthenatureofthemutation(Table2,FileS2).Forthedmh35mutant,ouranalysis
identified41nonsynonymousmutationsgenomewide(Figure2C).Twelveofthese
mutationsarelocatedonchromosome20,thechromosomewiththehighestnumberof
mutantspecificSNPs(Figure2A-B).
ToconfirmlinkageofthephenotypetoaspecificSNP,regionscontainingthevariant
wereamplifiedfromgenomicDNAfromanumberofindividualheterozygousmutantsand
wildtypesiblingsandthenSangersequencedtoassesspresenceofthevariant.Withthis
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approach,wewereabletoidentifycloselylinkedmutationsfor>80%ofthemutants
sequenced(20/23;Table3).In14outofthe20mutants(70%),linkagewasconfirmedto
thechromosomewiththehighestorsecondhighestnumberofmutantspecificSNPsinthe
genome(TableS4).Forseveralmutantsthenumberofmutant-specificSNPsonthelinked
chromosomewasverylow(0-56)(FileS1,TableS3),suggestingthattherewasnota
discernablehaplotypeassociatedwiththemutation.Butevenincaseswhereourmapping
approachdidnotcorrectlypredictthechromosomecontainingthemutation,themost
likelycandidatemutationcouldbepredictedfor6ofthemutantsbyanalyzingthegenome-
widecandidatemutationlistafterfiltering(Table3).Asvariantsfoundinsiblingsare
excludedaspotentialcandidates,thistechniquereliesheavilyontheabilityto
phenotypicallydistinguishmutantsfromwildtypesiblings.Formutantswithincomplete
penetranceitcanbedifficulttoidentifycandidatemutationsifamutantwasimproperly
scoredasawildtypesiblingasbothphenotype-linkedSNPsandthecausativemutationwill
beremovedduringtheanalysis.Therefore,formutantswithweakphenotypesor
incompletepenetranceitmaybehelpfultoreanalyzepotentialvariantswithoutexclusion
ofsiblingSNPs,comparingagainstcommonSNPsfromwildtypesandunrelatedmutants.
Forthreeoutof23mutantsanalyzedbymapping,alinkedchromosomewasnot
identifiedattimeofpublication.Furtheranalysiswillbeneededtoassessifalternative
SNPsidentifiedinouranalysisshowlinkageoriftherewassamplingbiasstemmingfrom
theexomedesign.Regardless,over85%ofmutantsanalyzedweremapped.
Identifiedmutantphenotypesandunderlyinggeneticchanges
Formutantcharacterization,wefirstclusteredmutantsintobroadphenotypicclasses.
Followingthisclustering,wethencomparethesuiteofcandidategenesidentifiedineach
classtoassessaffectedgeneticpathwaysleadingtochangeinform.Here,wedetailhere
fourclassesofmutantscontaining25mutantstotal.Foreachmutantwehaveperformed
linkageanalysisandidentificationofpotentiallycausativemutations.Theremaining
mutantsfromthescreenarenolongeravailableandwerethereforeexcludedfromthe
manuscript.
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Mutantswithvertebraldefects
Agroupof11dominantmutants,identifiedbytheirstature,werekeptforfurtheranalysis.
Thesevertebralmutantsweregroupedintofiveclassesdescribedbelow.
ClassImutants:Fourofthesemutants(dmh13,dmh14,dmh15,dmh29)werecharacterized
byshortstature,withnoapparentlarvalphenotypeat5dayspostfertilization(dpf).
Analysisbymicrocomputedtomography(μCT)revealedstrongdeformationsofthe
vertebrae,especiallyofthehemalandneuralarches(Figure3B-D).Inaddition,wefound
excessiveboneformation,withtheformationofosteophytes,especiallyinthecentrumof
thevertebrae.Interestingly,mappingofthecausativechangeineachofthesemutants
indicatedthatall4mutantscarrymissensemutationsincomponentsofCollagentype1,
changingaconservedglycineinthetriple-helicaldomaintoadifferentaminoacid(Table
3).TheCollagen1proteinconsistsofthreeproteinchains,twoCollagen1a1(Col1a1)and
oneCollagen1a2(Col1a2)chainthatformatriplehelix.Properhelixformationrequiresa
glycineresidueineverythirdpositionofthehelicaldomainoftheprotein.Missense
mutationsintheseglycineresiduesareknowntoactinadominantfashion(Gajko-Galicka
2002).Stemmingfromthewholegenomeduplicationintheteleostcommonancestor,
zebrafishhavetwoparalogsofthecollagen1a1gene,col1a1aandcol1a1b.Boththedmh13
anddmh14mutantscarrymutationsinthecol1a1agene(G1093R;G1144E),whichare
closelylinked.Whilethedmh29mutantsexhibitmutationsinaglycineresidueofthe
col1a1bgene(G1123D),leadingtoaverysimilarphenotype.Theobservedphenotypeof
thesemutationsaresimilartobutmoreseverethanpreviouslyidentifiedcol1a1amutants
(Fisher,Jagadeeswaran,andHalpern2003;Asharanietal.2012).Thedmh15mutants
exhibitthestrongestphenotypeinthegroup,asheterozygousmutantsshowthegreatest
reductioninbodylength(Figure3D).Inthesemutants,wedetectedamutant-specific
nonsynonymousmutationincol1a2(G882D)linkedtothephenotype.Thephenotypic
similarity,takentogetherwiththepredictedfunctionalconsequenceoftheidentified
changes,makesthesemutationsincollagen1themostlikelycandidatesforcausingthe
phenotype.Interestingly,inthisphenotypicclasswewereabletoidentifydominant
mutationsinallcomponentsofCollagenI,expandingourknowledgeaboutphenotypic
consequencesofmutationsincollagen1overthepreviouslypublishedcol1a1aalleles.
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ClassIImutants:Unlikethefirstclassofvertebralmutants,whichprimarily
exhibitedphenotypesarisinglateindevelopment,asecondgroupof4mutants(dmh21,
dmh27,dmh28,dmh30)showedalteredlengthalreadyaslarvaeat5dpf(Figure4B).A
fractionofthemutantprogenyshoweddeformationsofthenotochordat5dpfinaddition
toareductioninlength.Analysisoftheadultspineofthemutantsinthisclassrevealed
mostlynormalvertebralmorphology,withtheexceptionofafewfusedcentra(Figure3E).
Wefoundthatall4mutantsarelinkedtochromosome8.Fortwoofthemutants,dmh27
anddmh28,weidentifiedmissensemutationsinageneencodingacomponentoftypeII
Collagen.Similartocol1a1,zebrafishhavetwocopiesofthecol2a1gene,col2a1aand
col2a1b.Bothdmh27anddmh28werefoundtoharbormutationsincol2a1a.Whilethe
mutationindmh28changesaconservedglycineresiduetoasparticacid(G1141D),similar
tocol1amutantsweidentified,thedmh27alleleleadstoatruncationoftheC-terminalpart
oftheprotein(G1174X)(Table3)thatmayactinadominantnegativemanner.dmh21and
dmh30arelikelyclonalmutationsastheyshowthesamehaplotypepatternsurroundinga
linkedvariantinitpr3onchromosome8.Astheprecisemutationfortheseallelesisnot
known,wemaintaintheirseparatealleledesignation.Itpr3isincloseproximitytocol2a1a.
Thedmh21anddmh30mutantshoweverdonotshowanyobviousnonsynonymousor
splicesitemutationsinthepredictedcol2a1agene.Giventhesimilarityinphenotypeto
dmh27anddmh28,itislikelythatthesetooareallelesofcol2a1aandthatthemutations
areregulatoryorinnotwellannotatedisoformsofthegene.Furtherbiochemicalanalysis
ofCol2a1ainthesealleleswillneedtobecarriedouttotestthepotentialcausativeeffectof
theseunidentifiedmutations.
ClassIIImutants:Thedmh16mutantissuperficiallysimilartothemutantslinkedto
col2a1a,displayingshorteradultbodylengthearlyat5dpfandintheadult(Figure3F;
4C).μCTanalysishoweverrevealedthatthevertebralbodiesinthismutantarehighly
deformed,withcompositevertebraephenotype.Severalvertebraewerefoundtohave2or
morehemi-segments.Fusedvertebraewerealsocommonlynoted(Figure3F).Forthis
mutant,weshowlinkagetoamutationincalymmin(cmn)onchromosome12(Table3).
ThisgenewasdiscoveredinacDNAlibraryscreenthroughitsexpressioninthezebrafish
notochordandisthoughttobeanextracellularmatrixprotein(Cerdàetal.2002).The
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identifiedmutation,M10R,resideswithinthesignalpeptideandcouldpotentiallyinterfere
withproperproteinlocalization.
ClassIVandVmutants:Twofurthermutantsshowdeformationinthespinebeyond
axialshortening.Thedmh31mutant(classIV)seemstobeproportionallynormalinlength
untilrightbeforethecaudalpeduncle,wherethevertebraearehighlydeformedandbend
(Fig.3G).Thisbendinthebodycanalreadybeseenat5dpfasakinkinthenotochord(Fig.
4D).Thedmh31phenotypeshowsstronglinkagetoamissensemutationinamyosin
heavychaingene,myosin,heavypolypeptide2,fastmusclespecific(myhz2).Themyhz2
geneencodesafastmuscle-specificmyosinheavychainandisexpressedinmusclesofthe
posteriorpartofthetrunkat3dpf(Pengetal.2002;Nordetal.2014),coincidingwiththe
positionofthedeformationsofthetrunkseenindmh31mutants(Fig4D).Theidentified
mutationsubstitutesahighlyconservedmethionineinthemyosintail1domainforan
isoleucine(M543I;Table3)andispredictedtobedeleterious.
TheclassVmutant,dmh4,ischaracterizedbyastrongcurvatureinthespine.
Whereastheembryosappeartobeperfectlynormalat5dpf,multiplebendsindorsal,
ventralandlateralorientationcanbedetectedintheadult(Figure3H).Apartfromthe
strongcurvature,thevertebralbodiesseemtobepatternedcorrectlywhenanalyzedby
μCTimaging.Wedididentifyacloselylinkedpredicteddeleteriousmutationinan
uncharacterizedprotein,CU929145.1,withsequencesimilaritytoapredictedmyloid
differentiationmarker-likeprotein2(XP_005174257.1;Table3).Asforgenesinwhichjust
asingleallelewasidentified,furtherexperimentswillbeneededtoshowcausalityofthe
identifiedchange.
Mutationsbroadlyaffectingthedermalskeleton
Fourmutantswereisolatedwithbroaddefectsontheformationand/orpatterningofthe
dermalskeleton.Oneofthehallmarkcharactersthatdifferentiatesthesemutantsfrom
otherclassessuchasfins,whicharealsoconstrainedcomponentsofthedermalskeleton,is
theireffectonscalesand/ordermalbonesoftheskull,suchasthebonecoveringthegills,
theopercle,subopercleandbranchiostegalrays.
Thefirstmutantinthisclass,dmh19,showsaverymildscalephenotype
characterizedbyirregularlysizedandpatternedscales(Fig.5B).Inaddition,themouthis
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positionedslightlymoresuperiorlyinmutantswhencomparedtowildtypesiblings.Our
mappingapproachindicatedlinkagetochromosome8andidentifiedasingleunique
variantonthischromosomeinageneencodingProteinkinaseCzeta(prkcz).Sequencingof
individualmutantcarriersshowedstronglinkagetothischange,howeverthemutationis
predictedtobetolerated.Furtheranalysisoftheregionwillbeneededtoprovecausality
ofthischangeortoidentifyalternativepotentialcandidatemutations.
Thedmh3mutantischaracterizedbyshorteranddeformedfinraysandhasfewer
butlargerscales(Fig.5C).Dmh3homozygousmutantsshowastronglyenhanced
phenotypewithacompletelossofthedermalcomponentofthefinsandcompletelossof
scales(Fig.5D).Duetothesimilaritiesinphenotypeofthedmh3mutanttopreviously
publishedmutantswithdefectsinectodysplasinsignaling(Harrisetal.2008),wechoosea
candidategeneapproachtoidentifypotentialphenotype-causingmutations.Weisolated
cDNAfromheterozygousdmh3mutantsandsequencedthecodingregionofectodysplasin
pathwaygenes.Thisledtotheisolationofalinkedmissensemutationintheectodysplasin
Areceptor(edar)gene,changingaconservedasparticacidinthedeath-domaintoa
tyrosine(D409Y).
Heterozygousdm18mutantsshowcharacteristicdefectsinthefronto-nasalaspect
oftheskullleadingtotheformationofanotchrightbehindthemaxilla(Fig.5E).Thescales
areirregularlysizedandshowchangesinpatternandorientation.Someofthefinrays
appeartobetruncated,whileotherraysinthesamefinappearnormalinsize.These
phenotypesarestronglyenhancedinthehomozygousmutants(Fig.5F).Herethescales
aregenerallysmallerthaninwildtypeandgrowinnoobviouspatternororientation.The
skullshowsextremefronto-nasalshorteninggeneratingaverysmallandroundshape.Ina
largepercentageofmutants,thegillcoverisverysmallandfailstocoverthefullextentof
thegills.Inaddition,thefinraysseemtoconvergedistally.
Thelastmutantinthisgroup,dmh22,showsmildirregularitiesinscalesizeand
patterning,mostlylocatedtowardthefrontofthetrunk(Fig.5G).Thefinsdisplayvarying
degreesofdefects,rangingfromareductioninthenumberofraystodeformedraysand
raysegments.Hereagain,thehomozygousmutantphenotypeismoreextreme.Thescales
inhomozygousdmh22mutantsgrowinallorientationsanddon’thaveanypatternor
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consistentsize(Fig.5H).Thefinphenotypesrangefromcompletelossoffinstoastrong
decreaseinfinrayandraysegmentnumber.
Forboththedmh18anddmh22mutantsavariantlinkedtothephenotypecouldnot
beidentifiedattimeofpublication.
Mutantswithspecificdefectsinfinformation
Fivemutantswerefurtheranalyzedthatshowspecificalterationsinthefinswhen
comparedtotheentireskeleton.Mutantsinthisclasscouldgenerallybegroupedinto2
subclasses:1)mutantswithnormalpatternedbutshorterfinsand2)mutantswith
deformedfins.Nolong-finnedmutantswerefound.
Fromthefirstsubclass,wefurtheranalyzedandsequencedonemutantwith
shorterfins,dmh35.Indmh35boththepairedandmedianfinsarenormallypatternedbut
shorterduetoshorteningofthefinraysegments(Figure6B).Sequencinganalysisof
dmh35revealedamissensemutationinconnexin43(cx43)onchromosome20(Table3).
Connexin43isacomponentofgapjunctionsandmutationsincx43havebeenshown
previouslytocausetheshortfinphenotype(Iovineetal.2005).
Fromthesecondsubclassclassoffinmutantsweanalyzedfourmutantsdmh20,
dmh32,dmh33anddmh34.Here,thepelvicfinsaremostseverelyaffectedinthatthey
showpartialtruncationsoffinraysandgenerallyunequallengthofsegmentswithinafin
(Figure6C,E).Finsingeneralshowbendingoffinraysinvaryingextent.Allfourmutants
inthisclassshowstronglinkagetomissensemutationsinthenotchliganddelta-like4
(dll4)(Table3).Thechangeindmh20mutatesaconservedhistidineatposition190inthe
deltaserrateligand(DSL)domainindll4toanasparagine,whilethemutationsindmh32,
dmh33anddmh34leadtoearlytruncationsoftheprotein,partiallydeletingtheepidermal
growth-factor(EGF)domainsaswellasthepredictedtransmembranedomain.Thesedata
supportpreviousfindingsthathaploinsufficiencyindll4canleadtofindeformationsin
adultzebrafish(Leslieetal.2007).
Pigmentmutants
Theadultpigmentpatternisspecifiedearlyduringpostembryonicdevelopment.The
majorityofpigmentationmutantsweidentifiedexhibitedalteredstripepatterns(Figure
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7),someofwhichcloselyresembledphenotypesidentifiedinpreviousscreens(Haffter,
Odenthal,etal.1996).Twomutants,dmh1anddmh9,displayedfewermelanophore
stripesandwiderinterstriperegions(Fig.7B),resemblingthedominantphenotype
previouslydescribedfortheobelix/jaguarmutantsalteringkcnj13/kir7.1(Iwashitaetal.
2006).Toidentifypotentialcandidatemutationsindmh1,apoolofninehomozygous
mutantswassequencedandallhomozygousmutationsinthegenomewereidentified.
Afterexcludingknownbackgroundvariantsasdescribedbefore,thelistofgeneswas
scannedforpotentialcandidatemutationsrevealingamutationinkcnj13/kir7.1.Similarly,
mappingofdmh9bytheapproachdescribedbeforealsorevealedamissensemutationin
kcnj13/kir7.1thatiscloselylinkedtothephenotype(Table3).Thedmh7anddmh8
mutantswereidentifiedbytheformationofpigmentspotsinsteadofstripes(Fig.7D),
resemblingthephenotypepreviouslydescribedfortheleopardmutant(Watanabeetal.
2006).Herewefoundmissensemutationsinconnexin41.8(cx41.8)(Table3),agap
junctionproteinshowntocausetheleopardphenotypewhenmutated.Thus,these
phenotypesarelikelycausedbythesemutationsandrepresentadditionaldominant
obelix/jaguarorleopardallelesrespectively.
Theotherpigmentationmutant,dmh11,remainsun-mappedaslinkagehasnotyet
beenidentified.Thephenotypeischaracterizedbymildirregularitiesinthemelanophore
stripe,leadingtoawavyappearanceofthestripes(Fig.7E).Similartotheotherpigment
mutants,thismutantshowsadosedependenteffectashomozygotesexhibitastrikingly
enhancedphenotype(Figure7C,F).
Discussion
Geneticapproachestounderstandthedevelopmentalregulationofadultformare
limitedbytheessentialfunctionofmanygenesduringearlydevelopment.Toexpand
forwardgeneticapproachesforinvestigatinglatedevelopment,weshowthatdominant
screensinzebrafishareefficientinidentifyingawidespectrumofmutantsthatretain
viabilityinadults.Tomakefulluseofthesemutantcollections,itisessentialtobeableto
identifytheunderlyingmutationsinafastandefficientmanner.
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Establishinghigh-throughputmappingstrategiestosupportsystematicanalysisof
dominantmutations
Thecurrentstrategyforidentifyingmutationsinzebrafishbymassivelyparallel
sequencingreliesonbulkedsegregantanalysis,inwhichalocuscontainingthemutationis
identifiedduetoretainedhomogeneityafterrecombination(Bowenetal.2012;Leshchiner
etal.2012;Obholzeretal.2012;Vozetal.2012).Asmanydominantmutantsdonothavea
discernablehomozygousphenotypeorarehomozygouslethal,typicallythewildtypelocus
ismappedtodefinealinkedintervalbyhomogeneity(reversemapping)(Smithetal.
2016).Thiscanbeproblematicwhenworkingwithhighlypolymorphic,non-inbred
genomes,likethatofthezebrafish,asthewildtypelocuswilllikelybeheterogeneousand
thusnon-informativeforhomogeneitymapping.Toeliminatetheneedtoperformmultiple
andspecificcrossestoreducethepotentialpitfallsofpolymorphicwildtypeloci,we
devisedanewstrategytofacilitateidentificationofdominantmutations.Ourprotocoluses
identificationofphenotype-associatedhaplotypesratherthenhomogeneity,todefinea
linkedchromosomeincombinationwithgenomewideanalysisofpotentialcandidate
mutations.Thisstrategyisfastandpermitssystematicassessmentoflargenumbersof
mutantswithinphenotypicclasses.
Althoughweuseexomesequencing,thisstrategycaneasilybeappliedtowhole
genomesequencingdata.Thehigherlevelofpolymorphismsinnon-codingregionsmay
bolstertheabilitytoidentifymutantspecifichaplotypesandcouldthereforeincreasethe
accuracyoftheapproach.However,gettingcomparablesequencingdepthcriticalforthis
analysiswillsubstantiallyincreasethecostpermutantanalyzed.Performingadditional
wholegenomesequencingonjustthemutantsamplemaybebeneficialincaseswhere
linkageisdetectedbutviablecandidatemutation(s)remainelusive.Somephenotype-
causingmutationsmayresidewithinanon-codingregionorinageneorexonnotincluded
intheexomecapturedesign,thereforenotrecovered.Sincetheapproachdescribedhere
doesnotdefineasmall,linkedregiononachromosome,thehighlevelofpolymorphismsin
non-codingregionswillleadtotheidentificationofalargenumberofpotentially
phenotype-causingvariantswithhardtopredictfunctionalconsequences.Therefore,
identificationofaphenotype-causingnon-codingmutationwiththisapproachwouldnot
bestraightforwardandwouldrequiresubstantialadditionalanalysis.Othertechniques
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suchasRNASeqmayprovevaluableinthesecircumstances,astheywillidentifyputative
affectedlociforfurtheranalysis.
Usingournewstrategyonasubsetof23mutantsfromourscreen,wefindabiasfor
mutationswithinspecificclassesofgenesandbiologicalmechanismssuggestingconstraint
inthegenesthatcanbealteredwhileretainingviability.
Molecularpathwaysofpost-embryonicdevelopment
ConstraintonGeneFunction
Screensformutationsaffectingpost-embryonicdevelopmentwillbebiasedtowards
geneticchangesthatareconsistentwithviability.Thus,genesthatarenon-essentialare
morelikelytobeidentified.Similarly,theprobabilitytoidentifymutationsthatuncover
haploinsufficiency,orcausedominantnegativeorgain-of-functionchanges,ishigher.Even
giventhemodestsamplingofgenomesdoneinthisstudy,wefoundincertainphenotypes
thatmutationsinparticulargeneswereoverrepresented.Forexample,weidentified4
distinctmutationsofdll4,representingthehighestnumberofalleleswithinonegeneinour
screen.Inthiscase,haploinsufficiencyofallelesincreasedthefrequencyofthisgenebeing
identified,asgenerationofaloss-of-functionalleleismorecommonthangenerationof
gain-of-functionordominantnegativealleles.Butinmostcasesonlyoneortwoalleles
wereidentifiedfordifferentgenessuggestingthatthescreenhasnotreachedsaturation.
Whenweextendthesefindingstopreviousscreens,itisclearthatseveralgene
classes,andspecificgenes,arefoundrepeatedly.Thisisclearforpigmentationmutants
whereadditionaldominantkcnj13/kir7.1/obelixandconnexin41.8/leopardalleleswere
identified.Similarlyinfinanddermalskeletondevelopment,additionalcx43.1/sofand
edar/flsalleleswereidentified.Allthesegeneswereidentifiedasdominantmutationsboth
intheinitialTübingenandZFModelscreens.Thesefrequentlyidentifiedlociprobably
representkeynodesinwhichvariationinformcanarise.
PhenotypicVariabilityandGeneticBackgroundEffects
Notably,nodominantlong-finnedmutantswereobservedinthisscreen,although
thesehavebeenpreviouslyidentifiedasby-productsofrecessivescreens(Haffter,
Odenthal,etal.1996;vanEedenetal.1996).Thissuggeststhateventhoughwescreeneda
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significantnumberofgenomes,thatwehavenotfullysampledpotentialuniquemutations
ingenesthatcanaffectlatedevelopment.Thelackoflong-finnedmutantsinourscreen
couldalsobeattributedtogeneticbackgroundeffects.Formanyofthephenotypeswe
observedsignificantvariabilityinphenotypicstrengthwhenmutantswerecrossedto
differentwildtypestrains.Thissuggeststhatsomegeneticbackgroundsareabletobuffer
effectsofgeneticmutations.
Systematicscreeningandidentifyinggeneticnetworks
Withuseoftargetedcaptureandnext-generationsequencingtechnologiesitisnow
feasibletoidentifycausativemutationsinlargesetsofmutants.Ifsubstantialnumbersof
genomesarescreened,itisnowpossibleinthezebrafishtosystematicallyapproach
identificationofgeneticnetworkssimilartoscreensroutinelyperformedinDrosophila,C.
elegansoryeast.Weidentified21staturemutantsinourscreen.Ofthe10mutantswe
analyzed,sixhadmutationsinfibrilformingcollagens.Fibrilformingcollagenshavelarge
helicaldomainswithconservedglycineresiduesateverythirdposition.Mutationsofanyof
theseresidueswillleadtostructuralchangesoftheproteinthatactinadominantfashion
andthereforerepresentalargenumberoftargetsforthecreationofphenotype-causing
mutations.Whenthesemutantsarecombinedwithseveralmutantspreviouslyidentified
throughtheirrecessivephenotypesuchasbmp1a(Asharanietal.2012),hsp47/serpinh1b
(BhadraandIovine2015)andplod2(Gistelincketal.2016),acomponentofknowngenes
ofthecollagennetwork,includinggenesregulatingcollagenproteinfunctionand
processing,areidentified.Geneticanalysisofsimilarphenotypicclassesofmutantsshould
allowfurtherrefinementofthisnetwork.
ConstraintonIdentifiedAllelesandIdentificationofDiseaseMechanisms
Mutationrecoveryinadultscreensinthezebrafishcouldbereflectiveofabroader
evolutionaryrestrictionofwhichgenescanbealteredandstillareconsistentwithviability.
Thus,apredictionofperformingascreenonpost-embryonicdevelopmentisthatthe
resultswillbebiasedtowardschangesthatalsowouldbefoundunderlyingdiseasestates
inhumans.
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Werecoveredmutantsthathavesimilaroranalogouseffectsinhumanorthologs
thatareknowntobeassociatedwithdisease.Sixteenoutofthe22mutantswithpotential
phenotype-causingmutationsidentifiedfromthe25mutantsanalyzedharbormutationsin
knowndiseasegenes(Table4).Thissupportstheutilityofforwardgeneticscreensin
zebrafishtopredictthegeneticcauseofhumandiseasesincaseswheretheunderlying
genemutationshavenotbeendeduced.Further,thisincreasesthepotentialforgenetic
screeninginzebrafishtouncovermodifiersofgenefunctionthatcanserveasabasisfor
discoveryinmedicine.Thesystematicmappingofdominantmutationsasdescribedhere
willgreatlyfacilitatethisapproach.
Acknowledgements
WewouldliketothankAltheaJames,JasonBestandChristianLawrenceattheBoston
Children’sHospitalaquaticsprogramforhelpwithzebrafishhusbandry.Theauthors
wouldalsoliketothankKristinRadcliffeforhelpwithscreeningfishandmaintaining
mutantlines.ThisprojectwasfundedinpartthroughNIDCRU01DE024434granttoMPH
andgeneroussupportfromtheChildren’sOrthopedicSurgeryFoundation.
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Figure1.ScreenandmappingstrategyA.WildtypemalesweremutagenizedwithENU
toinducerandommutationsinthegenome.Mutagenizedmaleswereoutcrossedto
wildtypefemalesandthesubsequentgeneration(F1)wasscreenedfordominant
mutationsaffectingadultform.Isolatedmutantfounderswereoutcrossedandthe
phenotypeandpenetrancewasassessedintheirprogeny(F2).B.Formappingand
candidatemutationidentification,onemutantandapoolof3-6wildtypesiblingsfromthe
samecrossweresequenced.Sequencedatawasanalyzedinthreesteps:1.AllSNPsinthe
mutantandsiblingpoolwereidentified(blueandredlines;greybarsrepresentindividual
chromosomes);2.Toidentifythechromosomecarryingthemutation(M),mutantspecific
SNPs(bluebars)wereidentifiedbyremovingallSNPspresentinthewildtypesiblings
fromthesetofpreviouslyidentifiedSNPs;3.Candidatemutationsarethenidentifiedby
excludingallbackgroundSNPsfromwildtypestrainsorothermutants/siblingssequenced.
TheremainingSNPsareclassifiedassynonymousornonsynonymousandrankedbytheir
predictedconsequenceongenefunction(deleterious/tolerated).Bluedotsindicate
nonsynonymouschangesonthelinkedchromosome.
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Figure2.Mappingandcandidategeneidentificationindmh35.Toidentifymutant
specifichaplotypes,firstallSNPsinthegenomeareidentified.AfterexclusionofallSNPs
thatarepresentinthesiblingpool,onlymutantspecificSNPsareleft.Thehighestnumber
ofmutantspecificSNPsonachromosomeshouldindicatethechromosomecarryingthe
mutation.A.TheredbarsinthediagramontheleftrepresentSNPsidentifiedinthe
mutantandsiblingpooloneachofthe25chromosomes.Bluebarsinthediagramonthe
rightrepresentmutantspecificSNPsoneachofthe25chromosomes.B.Summaryofthe
numberoftotalandmutantspecificSNPsperchromosome.C.Inasecondstepall
nonsynonymouschangesareidentifiedinthegenome.Bluecirclesindicatemissense
mutations;greencirclesmarknonsensemutations;blackasterisksmarkmutations
predictedtobedeleterious;theredasteriskindicatesthepositionoftheG138Dmissense
mutationinconnexin43,showntobelinkedtothedmh35mutantphenotype.
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Figure3.Mutantswithvertebraldefects.Representativephotographs(left)andμCT
imagesofthevertebralcolumn(right)ofthe5differentsubgroupsofmutantswith
vertebraldefects.A)wildtypezebrafish,regularlypatternedandshapedvertebraeand
vertebralspines.B-D)Heterozygousdmh13,dmh29anddmh15mutantshaveashorter
trunkandshowstronglydeformedvertebralbodiesandspines,withexcessivebone
formation.E)Heterozygousdmh27fisharealsoshorterthanwtfish,butshowmostly
normalpatternedvertebralbodieswiththeexceptionofacoupleoffusedvertebrae.
Vertebralspinesshowslightchangesinangle.F)Inadditiontoashorterbody,
heterozygousdmh16mutantshavestrongdeformationoftheirvertebrae.Inadditionto
fusionofvertebralbodies,somevertebraearesplitupintomultiplehemisegments.G)The
bodyofdmh31mutantsseemstobeproportionallynormaluntiltheregioninfrontofthe
caudalpeduncle.Here,vertebraearestronglydeformedleadingtoabendinthebodyaxis.
H)Strongcurvatureofthespineindorsal,ventralandlateraldirectionleadstoanoverall
shorterbodylengthofthedmh4mutant.Thevertebralbodiesseemtobemostlynormally
patterned.
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Figure4.Larvalphenotypesofmutantswithvertebraldefects.Representative
photographsofwildtype(A)andmutant(B-D)phenotypesat5dpf.Mutantsshowashorter
bodylengthwhencomparedtowildtypelarvae.Afractionofheterozygousdmh28and
dmh31mutants,inadditionshowdeformationsofthenotochord(redarrows).InsetinD
showsadorsalviewofadmh31/+mutantlarvaillustratingthekinkinthetrunkcoinciding
withdeformationsinthenotochord.
Figure5.Mutantswithdefectsofthedermalskeleton.Representativephotographsof
wtandmutants(left),withcloseupsoftheflankstainedwithalizarinredtovisualize
scales(right).Forbettervisualization,tworowsofscalesareoutlinedinred.A)Inwildtype
fish,thescalesaresimilarinsizeandareveryregularlypatterned.B-H)Allmutantsinthis
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classshowdifferencesinsize,patternandsomeeveninorientationofscales.D,F,H)These
differencesareevenmoreobviousinhomozygousmutants.Inaddition,allmutantsshow
changesinthepatterningandlengthoftheirfinraystovaryingdegree.
Figure6.Mutantswithfindeformations.Representativephotographsofmutantswith
wt(A)short(B)anddeformed(C)fins.B)Boththemedianandpairedfinsofdmh35
heterozygousmutantsareshorter.Alizarinredstainedpelvicfinsofwt(D)anddmh33/+
mutant(E)fish.Dmh33heterozygousmutantsshowshorterfinrayswithdeformed
segmentsofunequallength.
Figure7.Pigmentmutants.Representativephotographsofpigmentmutantsontheleft
andaclose-upoftheirflankontheright,highlightingthedifferencesinpigmentation.
Homozygousphenotypesareshownfordmh1(C)anddmh11(F).B)dmh1mutantsare
characterizedbyareducednumberofmelanophorestripesonthefinsandwiderstripeson
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thetrunk.C)Homozygousdmh1mutantshaveonlyasinglexanthoporestripeontheir
trunks.D)Stripesindmh7mutantsaredisruptedandshowaspotlikepattern.E)
Heterozygousdmh11mutantsshowmilddisruptionsofthemelanophorestripes,leadingto
awaveappearance.F)Incontrast,homozygousdmh11mutantsshowastrongreductionin
melanophorenumber,whilemostlymaintainingastripelikepattern
Table 1: Screen Results F1 screen
#fish screened #potential mutants
10424 269
F2 confirmation screen
#successful matings #confirmed mutants
135 72
phenotype #mutants
fin 23
dermal skeleton 4
craniofacial 12
stature 21
pigment 12
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Table 2: Candidate gene identification
SNPs identified in dmh35
genome wide Chromosome 20
coding non-synonymous
coding non-synonymous
# total 159,882 52,562 6,262 1,934
# not present in siblings 7,804 3,138 676 262
# not present in siblings or WT strains 1,345 619 97 41
# not present in siblings, WT strains or other mutants and their siblings
62 41 16 12
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Table 3: Linked variants Mutant allele
#nonsyn genome
# linked chr
location; bp change gene AA change
LOD score
Stature
dmh14 29 3 3:23104458 G/A X col1a1a G1144E 5.41
dmh13 26 2 3:23104092 G/A col1a1a G1093R 3.61
dmh29 303 17 12:3070126 C/T col1a1b G1123D 7.22
dmh15 17/12 1/2 19:41411721 G/A col1a2 G882D 12
dmh27 27 3 8:21181959 G/T col2a1a G1174X 3.91
dmh28 22 6 8:21181691 G/A X col2a1ac G1141D 4.8
dmh21d 66 8 8:21303580 G/A X itpr3 G2135D 8.4
dmh30d 10 5 8:21303580 G/A itpr3 G2135D 1.5
dmh16 17 4 12:13080359 T/G X cmn M10R 5.11
dmh31 9 5 5:31610564 G/A X myhz2 M543I 5.97
dmh4 10 3 24:39229412 T/A X CU929145.1 I156L 3.61
Fin
dmh35 41 12 20:40820378 C/T X cx43 G138D 3.01
dmh20 38 12 20:28348113 C/A X dll4 H190N 8.4
dmh32 28 3 20:28350489 T/A X dll4 C263X 7.22
dmh33 16 5 20:28352804 C/A X dll4 Y449X 6.02
dmh34 32 17 20:28350403 A/T X dll4 R235X 1.5
Dermal skeleton
dmh3a - - 9:56069237 G/T edar D409Y 14.8
dmh19 23 1 8:17607022 A/G X prkcz S113P 5.7
dmh18 49 N/A
dmh22 66 N/A
Pigment
dmh8 23 3 1:46725420 G/T X cx41.8 N63K 4.82
dmh7 35 5 1:46725024 T/A X cx41.8 R195S 4.52
dmh9 25 6 15:40379722 G/A kcnj13 T128M 3.01
dmh1b 102 6 15:40373740 A/T kcnj13 Y325X N/D
dmh11 12 N/A a identified by candidate gene approach; b identified by whole exome sequencing of a homozygous mutant pool; c mutation in col2a1a was filtered out as a candidate due to a low Phred-scaled quality score of 5.46 of the alternative allele ; d mutants are most likely clonal; N/A for these mutants no linkage was found at time of publication; N/D not determined; X linkage to predicted chromosomes was confirmed;
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Table 4: Human disease genes Gene Human disease
col1a1 Caffey disease Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, classic and type VIIA Osteogenesis imperfecta, type I, type II, type III, type IV
col1a2 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, cardiac valvular form and type VIIB Osteogenesis imperfecta, type II, type III, type IV
col2a1 Achondrogenesis, type II or hypochondrogenesis Avascular necrosis of the femoral head Czech dysplasia Epiphyseal dysplasia, multiple, with myopia and deafness Kniest dysplasia Legg-Calve-Perthes disease Osteoarthritis with mild chondrodysplasia Otospondylomegaepiphyseal dysplasia Platyspondylic skeletal dysplasia, Torrance type SED congenita SMED Strudwick type Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, Stanescu type Spondyloperipheral dysplasia Stickler sydrome, type I, nonsyndromic ocular and type IVitreoretinopathy with phalangeal epiphyseal dysplasia
cx43 Atrioventricular septal defect 3 Craniometaphyseal dysplasia, autosomal recessive Erythrokeratodermia variabilis et progressiva Hypoplastic left heart syndrome 1 Oculodentodigital dysplasiaOculodentodigital dysplasia, autosomal recessive Palmoplantar keratoderma with congenital alopecia Syndactyly, type III
dll4 Adams-Oliver syndrome 6
edar Ectodermal dysplasia 10A, hypohidrotic/hair/nail type, autosomal dominant Ectodermal dysplasia 10B, hypohidrotic/hair/tooth type, autosomal recessive
kcnj13/kir7.1 Leber congenital amaurosis 16 Snowflake vitreoretinal degeneration
cx41.8/GJA5 Atrial fibrillation, familial, 11 Atrial standstill, digenic (GJA5/SCN5A)