Scientific Method 1)Observation

2)Hypothesis

3)Experiment

4)Conclusion

What is NOT a chemical Light waves

Sound waves

Heat Waves

Electricity

Magnetic Fields

Physical Change

Chemical Change

Physical

Cutting

Grinding

Chopping

Boiling

Sugar dissolving

NOT REVERSIBLE

Burning

Rusting

Frying

Baking

DensityDensity =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Small density Float

Heavy density Sinkm

D V

Matter

Matter

Mixture

Homogenous

Heterogeneous

Pure substances

Elements

Compounds

Silver

Iron

Aluminum

H2O

H2O2

NaCl

Cookie w/ Raisins

Pulp w/Orange Juice

Air

Seawater

Tea

Chemistry Calculation SkillsSignificant Figures Decimal ABSENT to the

Right

Decimal PRESENT to the

Left

Multiplication & Division

Lowest Sig Fig

Addition & Subtraction

Lowest Decimal

Scientific NotationCalculator Results in Scientific Notation:

2nd Drg SCI FLO

Plug in Scientific Notation 2nd E

Metric Units & SI unitsMetric Units

Meter (m)

Liter 9L)

Gram (g)

Degree (ºC)

Seconds (s)

SI units

Meter (m)

Cubic meter (M3)

Kilogram (Kg)

Kelvin (K)

Second (s)

Metric & SI prefixes & suffixes

Tera T 1012

Giga G 109

Mega M 106

Kilo K 103

Deci d 10-1

Centi c 10-2

Milli m 10-3

Micro 10-6

Nano n 10-9

Pico p 10-12

Energy Q=mCsp▲TQ: Energy (joules)

M: mass (grams)

Csp: Specific Heat (J/gºC)

▲T: Change in Temperature (ºC)

Energy

1cal =4.184J

1kcal=100J

1KJ=1000J

1Cal=1Kal =1000cal

1Cal =4.184J=4184J

Carbohydrates 4calories

kcal/g

Proteins 4calories Kcal/g

Fats 9calories Kcal/g

Heat of Fusion

Heat = Mass * Heat of fusion

80cal/g or 334J/g

Heat of Vaporization

Heat= Mass * Heat of vaporization

540cal/g or 2260J/g

Quantity Metric (SI) U.S Metric-U.S

Length 1km=1000m 1ft=12in 2.54cm=1in

1m=1000mm 1yd=3ft 1m=39.4in

1cm=10mm 1mi=5280ft 1km=0.621mi

Volume 1L=1000mL 1qt=4cups 946ml=1qt

1dL=100mL 1qt=2pt 1L=1.06qt

1mL=1cm3 1gal=4qt 473ml=1qt

1mL=1cc* 1ml=15drops*

5ml=1tsp*

Mass 1kg=1000g 1lb=16oz 15ml=1T(tbsp.)

1g=1000mg 1kg=2.2lb

1mg=1000mcg* 454g=1lb

Time 1h=60min 1h=60min

1mkin=60s 1min=60s

Conversion Factors

Solid Liquid GasEndothermic

Exothermic

Melting Evaporation

sublimation

Deposition

Freezing

Condensation

0ºC

100ºCFreezing &

Heat absorbed

Celsius= (F-32)/1.8

Fahrenheit= (C*1.8)+32

Kelvin= C+ 273 “Absolute zero”

Temperature is a measure of Kinetic Energy.. Hot air Faster & Cold air Slower

AtomProtons: + [1amu]

Electrons: - [0amu]

Neutrons: neutral [1amu]

Atomic mass: P +N

Atomic Weight: Weighted

average of isotopes

Isotopes: elements vary in neutrons

Ions: elements vary in electrons

Periodic Table: How to Read Column: GroupRow: Period

Alkali Metals [group 1]

Alkaline Earth Metals [group 2]

Transition Metals [group 3-12]

Halogens [Group 17]

Noble gases [Group 18]

Metals shiny, good conductors, ductile

Nonmetals NOT

Metalloids Semiconductors

Periodic Table Trends

Ionization & Electronegativity

Atomic Size & metallic

Increase: Left to Right Increase: Bottom to Top

Increase: Right to Left Increase: Top to Bottom

Gamma Rays infraredUltravioletX-rays Radio waves

Visible Light

400nm700nm

Frequency: Higher Wavelength: shorter

Frequency: lowerWavelength: longer

n= 5n= 4

n= 3

n= 2

n= 1

energy

increases

Energy KE=1/2mv2

PE=mgh

Kinetic Energy Motion

(Example Running)

Potential Energy Stored Energy

(Example chemical bonds as in ATP)

Electrical Electrons along a conductor

(Example a electrons moving across a neuron)

Chemical Energy released when bonds are broken

(Example breaking the bonds of glucose or ATP)

Thermal internal energy resulting from the

movement of atoms and molecules within it

(Example: Thyroid not working cold, burning building..)

Mechanical Summation of PE &KE

(Example the heart contraction or

windmill)

1st law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created

nor destroyed, just transferred from one form

to another

Bonding & Nomenclature

Ionic (Type I Binary compounds)

Transfer of Electrons: Metal transfers electrons

to nonmetal

BIG difference in Electronegativity

Example: NaCl (sodium Chloride), KI (Potassium

Iodide)

Ionic (Type II Binary Compounds)

Transition metals vary in oxidation number and

roman numerals indicate the oxidation number

used

Example Iron (III) Oxide (Fe2O3)

Ionic Compounds with polyatomic ions

Ammonium NH4+

Acetate CH3COO-

Cyanide CN-

Hypochlorite ClO-

Clhorite ClO2-

Chlorate ClO3-

Perchlorate ClO4-

Nitrate NO3-

Hydroxide OH-

Phosphate PO43-

Sulfate SO42-

Example: Ammonium Sulfate (NH4SO4)

Covalent

Polar (Binary Type III)

Uneven Sharing of Electrons

Moderate Difference in Electronegativity

Example: H2O (dihydrogen monoxide)

Polar dissolves polar & universal solvent

Covalent nonpolar (Binary Type III)

Even sharing of electrons

Low or no difference in electronegativity

Ex. CO2, (Carbon dioxide), O2

Fats, oils, lipids, gasoline, carbon monoxide

Insoluble in water & other solvents

Hydrogen Bond

Extra-molecular (intermolecular) Between

2 or more molecules

Hydrogen can bond to FON

Water properties: H2O, High BP, High surface tension, High specific

HEAT

Inter- molecular

(between the two) 2Nonmetals1 metal + 1nonmetal

Mono: 1

Di; 2

Tri: 3

Tetra: 4

Penta : 5

Hexa: 6

Hepta: 7

Octo: 8

Classifying Type of Attractions

Ionic Bonding Metal + Nonmetal [Greater than 1.8]

Hydrogen Bonding FON

Dipole- Dipole Polar [0.5-1.8]

DispersianTemporary Dipole Nonpolar [0-0.4]

1. Increase in melting point (ºC)

2. Increase in force of attraction

Diatomic Molecules

H2: HydrogenN2: Nitrogen O2: Oxygen F2: FluorineCl2: ChlorineBr2: Bromine I2: Iodine

Electron Configuration

1s2s3s4s5s6s7s

2p3p4p5p6p7p

3d4d5d6d

4f5f

s: 2p: 6d: 10 f: 14

VSEPR: Geometry

Linear 180ºTrigonal Planar 120º

Bent 120º

Tetrahedral 109º

Trigonal Pyramid 109º

Bent 109º

2 3 4

nonpolarnonpolar nonpolar

polar

polar

polar

Oxidation States

Group 1: 1+ Group 2: 2+ Group 13: 3+

Group 3: 3+ Group 4: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ Group 5: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+Group 6: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ Group 7: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+Group 8: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ Group 9: 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ Group 10: 2+ 3+ 4+ Group 11: 2+ 3+ Group 12: 2+

Group 14: 4-Group 15: 3-Group 16: 2-Group 17: 1-Group 18: Noble gases

Oxidation- Reduction

OILOxidation Is Loss

RIGReduction Is Gain

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure increase at lower altitudes [Less air inside chip bag]Pressure in Bag < Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure decrease at higher altitudes [more air inside chip bag]Pressure in Bag > Atmospheric pressure

Conversians

Moles

÷÷××

Grams Particles(atoms, molecules)

Molar

mass6.022 * 1023

STP1. Grams 22.4L/1mole

2. Liters 1mole/22.4L molar mass

Reaction Types

A + B ABCombination

AB A + BDecomposition

A + BC AC + BSingle Replacement

AB + CD AD + CBDouble Replacement

CxHy + ZO2(g) XCO2 + YH2O + EnergyCombustion

Endothermic & Exothermic

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

1. A gas consist of small particles (atoms or

molecules that move randomly with high

velocities)

2. The attractive forces between the particles of a

gas are usually very small

3. The actual volume occupied by gas molecules is

extremely small compacted with the volume gas

occupies

4. Gas particles are in constant motion moving

rapidly in straight paths

5. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is

proportional to the kelvin temperature

Gases Laws Gay Lussac’s:

𝑷𝟏

𝑻𝟏=𝑷𝟐

𝑻𝟐

Charles:𝑽𝟏

𝑻𝟏=𝑽𝟐

𝑻𝟐

Boyles:P1V1=P2V2

Combined Gas Laws:𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐

𝑻𝟐=

𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐

𝑻𝟐

Avagadros Law: 𝑽𝟏

𝒏𝟏=

𝑽𝟐

𝒏𝟐

Dalton Law: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3

Measurement of Gas

Pressure (P) = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Conversian Factors 1atm=760mmHg=760torr1mmHg=1torr1atm = 1.01325*10^5Pa=101.325kPa1atm=14.7lb/in2

Property Description Units

Pressure (P) The force exerted by a gas against the walls of the container

(atm)(mmHg)(Pa)

Volume(V) The space occupied by a gas

(L) (ml)

Temperature(T) The determining factor of the kinetic energy and rate of motion of gas particles

(ºC) (K)

Amount (n) The quantity of gas present in a container

(g) (n)

Properties that describe gas

Molarity (M) Given: Grams & Molarity Find: Volume

TechniqueGrams molar mass molarity

Given: Volume & Molarity Find: Grams

Technique1. Molarity * Volume = moles

2. Moles molar mass

M = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟

ConcentrationDilution of Solutions C1V1=C2V2

Concentrated

solution

Diluted

Concentration

Concentration of Solution

m/m

V/V

m/V

Mass % = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 * 100

Volume % = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛* 100

Mass/Volume % =

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛* 100

Effect concentrations changes on

Equilibrium Le chateliers principles

Add a reactant Froward reaction rate Products

Remove a reactant Forward reaction rate Reactants

Add a Product Reverse reaction rate Reactants

Remove a product Reverse reaction rate Products

Reactants Products

Osmosis movement of Water

Hypotonic Solution

Lower solute

concentration ,water

flows in to the cell

Hypertonic Solution

Higher solute

concentration, water

flows out of the cell

Isotonic = Equilibrium

.9% NaCl & 5% Glucose

solutions

Solutions

Homogenous Solution

[transparent]

Goes through filters & semi-

permeable membranes

Colloids

Do not separate or settle

Pass through filters NOT

semipermeable membrane

Suspensions

Seen by naked Eye

Trapped by filters & semipermeable

membrane [Heterogeneous]

Solutions: Solvents + SolutesSolutions (Homogeneous Mixtures)

Solvents > Solutes

H2O [universal Solvent

Like dissolves in Like

polar polar

Nonpolar Nonpolar

Solutes & Solvents = solid, Liquid or

Gas

Olive Oil & Vinegar Cannot mix due

to polar and nonpolar properties

Unsaturated

[NOT full capacity]

Saturated

[Full capacity]

Solute dissolves

Solute Recrystallizes

Solvent + Solute Saturated Solution

Solubility Rules

PO43-

Co32-

S2-

NH4+

Na+

K+

NO3-

Li+

All Soluble

C2H3O2-

Cl-Br-I-

SO42- OH-All Soluble

Except Iron (III) Acetate Fe(CaH3O2)3

All SolubleExcept Ag+, Pb2+, Hg+PbCl2, PbBr2 [slightly]

All SolubleExcept Ba2+, Pb2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, CO32-, S2+, PO43-, OH-, Ag+

Only Alkali Metals & NH4+

Only Alkali Metals & NH4+Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+ [slightly]

Solubility Effects of

temperature

on Solubility

Solids

Gases

Increase in Temperature

Increase in Temperature

Increase in Solubility

Decrease in Solubility

NaCl dissolves faster

in boiling water

CO2 escapes warm coke

bottle

ElectrolytesStrong Electrolytes

Disassociatescompletely

Ions only Yes Ionic compound NaCl, KBr, MgCl2, NaNO3, Bases: NaOHAcids: HCl

Weak Electrolytes

Ionizes Partially Mostlymolecules & few ions

Weak HF, H2O,NH3,HC2H3O2

Nonelectrolytes No ionization Molecules only No CarbonCompound, CH3OH, C12,H22O11 C12,H22O11 (s) C12,H22O11 (aq)

H2O

HF (s)

NaCl (s) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

H+(aq) F-

(aq)

H2O

ionization

Recombination

Strong Acids Weak AcidsHydroiodic Acid HIHydrobromic Acid HBrPerchloric Acid HClO4

Sulfuric Acid H2SO4

Nitric Acid HNO3

Hydronium ion H3O+Hydrogen sulfate ion HSO4-Phosphoric acid H3PO4Hydrofluoric acid HFNitrous acid HNO2Acetic acid HC2H3O2Carbonic acid H2CO3Hydrosulfuric acid H2SDihydrogen phosphate H2PO42-Ammonium ion NH4+Hydrocyanic acid HCNBicarbonate ion HCO3-Hydrogen sulfide ion HS-Water H2O

Conjugate Base Acids DONATE loose a hydrogen

Conjugate Acid Base ACCEPTS gain a hydrogen

Water Acids & Bases

H2O

HCO3-

H3O+

H2C03

OH-

CO32-

Acids & BasesAcid + metal H2+ salt

Acid + carbonates/bicarbonate Co2 +H2O + Salt

Acids + Base (Hydroxides) Acid + Base Water + Salt

“Neutralization”

[H3O+] > [OH-] Acidic

[H3O+] = [OH-] neutral

[H3O+] < [OH-] Basic

How to define pH

7 More [Basic]Less [Acidic]

Calculation: [H3O+]=10-ph

1) Whole number Plug in as pH2) NOT whole number & switch to negative 10(-ph)

pH=-log[H3O+]1) Plug in H3O+ number 2) -log (#) 3) Make sure setting scientific notation

BuffersMaintain pH

AcidWeak Base

BaseWeak Acid

Radioactivespontaneously emits small particles of energy called radiation to become more stable

Alpha DecayMass # decrease by 4Atomic # decrease by 2

2 protons & 2 neutrons

emitted as alpha

particles

Beta Decay

Neutrons decreased by 1

Protons increase by 1

Transmutation mass SAME!!

Gamma Decay

Mass number same

Atomic # same

Stable nucleus of same element

Energy is lost to stabilize nucleus

Travel: 2-4cmTisssue depth: .05mmShielding: paper clothingTypical source: Radium 226

Travel: 200-300cm Tisssue depth: 4-5mmShielding: heavy clothing, Lab coats & glovesTypical source: carbon-14

Travel: 200-300cm Tisssue depth: 50cm< or more Shielding: lead thick concreteTypical source: Technetium -99

Electrical Chemistry (I) Current: Ampere (V) Voltage measured: Voltage(R) Resistance: Ohms (P) power: watts

P= V*I

I=V/R