Megasthenes was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler Selucus Nicator. Ashoka appointed people known as Dhamma Mahatma Important ruler of Satavahana was Gautamiputra Satakarni Kushanas were the earliest rulers to issue gold coins Kanishka was famous Kushana king. He frequently organized Buddhist council.

Ashwagosha, a poet in his court, composed Budhacharitha. Harshavardhana’s court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita in Sanskrit Best known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin. His poet was Ravikirti Silappadikaram was composed by Ilango around 1800 years ago. Another tamil epic Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar Mahmud Gazni raided Somnath temple of Gujarat Gazni’s scholar was Al-Biruni who wrote Kitab-al-Hind Rajaraja 1 is the most powerful chola ruler. Built Thanjavur temple His son was Rajendra 1 Chola bronze statues are the best in the world. Delhi first become the capital under Tomaras

Rajput DynastyTomaras early 12th centuryAnanga Pala 1130-1145Chauhans 1165-1192

Early Turkish RulersQutubddin AibakShamsuddin IltumishRaziyaGhiyasuddin Balban

Khilji DynastyJalaluddin KhiljiAlauddin Khilji

Tughlak DynastyGhiyasuddin TughlakMuhammad TughlakFiroz Shah Tughlak

Sayyed DynastyLodi Dynasty

First Battle of Panipat: Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi 1526 Babar-Humayun-Akbar-Jehangir-Shahjahan-Aurangzeb Abu Fazl wrote Akbar nama and Ain-ikbari Taj Mahal was built in 1643 Battle of Plassey 1757 Robert clive and Sirajudaulah. After nawab’s defeat, Mir

Jafar was installed. Then Mir Qasim and again Mir Jafar Battle of Buxar. British and Mir Qasim 1764 Mysore wars 1767,1780,1790 and 1799. In the last Battle of Srirangapatnam,

Tipu sultan was killed. Battle of Panipat

1st Battle 1526 Babur and Ibrahim Lodi2nd Battle 1556 Akbar and Hemu3rd Battle 1761 Ahmed Shah Durrani and Maratha Empire

Anglo Maratha war1st Anglo Maratha war 1777 (Treaty of Surat and Salbai)2nd Anglo Maratha war 18033rd Anglo Maratha war 1817 Also called pindari wari

Doctrine of Lape by Lord Dalhousie 12 Aug 1765 Robert clive got appointed as the Diwan of Bengal 1917 champaran Bihar, indigo plantation. Abolished Tinkathia system 1918 Kheda Gujarat, People couldn’t pay taxes(Vallabbhai Patel was also

involved) 1918 Ahmedabad for cotton mill workers. Rowlatt Act 1919. It gave govt enormous powers to repress political activities

and allow detention. Anyone can be arrested without trial.On April 13 1919 Jalian wala bagh due to violence of Rowlat Act

Khilafat movement. After 1st world war, Ottoman Turkey was defeated. To defend the Khalifa’s temporary power, Khilafat movement and Non cooperation was started in 1921. Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali

Chauri chaura 1922. Non cooperation was halted because of a police clash Dec 1929 Lahore congress. Demand for purna swaraj March 1930 Gandhiji begins civil disobedience movement by breaking salt law. March 5 1931 Gandhi Irwin Pact. He consented to participate in the round table

conference. Lord Ripon repealed the Vernacular Press Acts. He also tried to bring Indian

Judges at par with English. Criminal procedure amendment bill or Ilbert Bill First Congress President WC Banerjee. Lord Dufferin was the Governor General

when INC was found in 1885.

Servants of Indian Society Gopalkrishna Gokhale

1757 Battle of Plassey1764 Battle of Buxar1773 Regulating act1784 Pitt’s India Act1793 Permanent Settlement1773 Supreme court established1878 Vernacular Press Acts1885 Indian National Congress 28th Dec Bombay Gokal Das Tejpal Sanskrit College1859 Indigo riots. Bengal1891 Indian Factory Act1907 Congress splits in Surat Session1905 Swaraj demand G.K Gokhale Banares1906 Swaraj demand Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta1905 Bengal Partition by Lord Curzon1904 University Act. Reduced the number of Indians in the committee. Lord Curzon1911 Bengal reunification1915 Gandhi received Kaiser-i-Hindi Gold medal for organising Ambulance Corps of the Indians in First World War1917-18 Gandhi’s entry into the politics because of formation of Rowlatt Act committee under Justice Sydney Rowlatt1909 Morley Minto: The introduction of this act is to be seen in the background of a phase of turmoil and militant activities that followed the council of Act of 1892.1919 Montague Chelmsford: Bicameral legislature at the centre1833 Charter act. Law member was added to the Executive council of Governor General. He was entitled to sit and vote in the council of Governor General only when it met for legislative purposes. For the first time, a separation was introduced between Executive and the legislative functions of the Central Government. Another change was that the Presidency Governments were deprived of their independent legislative power.1853 Charter act. Here law member was given the status of full member. At the same time the distinction between the Council fo the Governor General as an Executive and as a legislative body became more marked because of the size of this council for legislative purpose was increased by 6 additional members. 4

represented the 3 presidencies and the Govt of the North Western Province and two were judges. The proposal to add non official members was not accepted.1861 Indian Council Acts: Restored to the Govt of Bombay and Madras the power of legislation and establishment of Legislative councils in other provinces.

1892 Indian Council Acts: It was an amending act. The basic constitutional provisions remained the same as under the act of 1861. Mainly 2 types of changes were introduced.

1. Changes in the composition of legislative bodies.2. Enlargement of functions.

24th April National Panchayati Raj day

Amritsar was called Ramdas pur and was founded by Guru RamDas. Golden Temple was built by 5th Guru Arjun Dev in 1859. 6th guru Hargobind built Akal Takth.

1916 Justice party was formed in Madras. The founders were T.N.Nair, Tyagaraja Chetti and C Natesa Mudaliar.

E V Ramasami Naicker(Periyar) and the Self Respect Movement. He became the hero of Vaikom Satyagraha. He started paper Kudi Arasu.

1920-22 Civil Disobedience Movement1922 Swaraj Party by C.R.Das1906 Muslim League1915 All India Hindu Mahasabha founded by Madan Mohan Malaviya1916 Lucknow pact. Attempt made by congress and league to arrive at a settlement. It was arrangement between leaders and not people.1925 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh1940 Lahore: Two nation theory by Jinnah.1925 Kakori conspiracy. Asfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil , Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahari were hanged.1928 Oct 30 1928 Lala Lajpat Rai died due to beatings in anti Simon commission march.1928 Dec Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad and Rajguru assassinated Saunders at Lahore1931 23rd March Hanging of Bhagat Singh and team1930 Civil Disobedience movement was started by Dandi March1928 Bardoli Satyagraha. Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat

1930 March 12th 1930. Gandhi started Dandhi march1920 First Communist party of India outside India. M.N.Roy in Tashkent1928 Feb. All parties conference to prepare constitution for India

K2 also called Mt. Godwin Austen is in Karakoram RangeImportant tributaries of Ganges are Gomati, Sarayu, Ghaghra and Gandak.Vindhya and Satpura mountains along with Narmada and Tapti rivers form the great dividing line between Northern and Southern IndiaAnaimudi is the highest peak in southern peninsulaMahanadhi is at the eastern end of peninsulaNarmada and Tapti runs from east to west. Others flow from west to east.Alexander came to India through Swat Valley

Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age (before 10,000 BC) in India are1. The Soan valley and the Potwar Plateau on the north west 2. The Siwalik hills on the north India3. Bhimbetka in MP4. Adamgarh hill in Narmada Valley5. Kurnool in AP6. Attirampakkam near Chennai

Middle Stone Age (10,000 BC to 6,000 BC)The remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in MP and some places in Rajasthan , UP and Bihar. An important item was Microlith

New Stone Age or Neolithic Age (6000 BC to 4000 BC)The remains are found in Kashmir Valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in UP and Deccan. Famous sites in south are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in TN and Utnur in AP.

Some Megalithic burial sites in South India are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in AP and Adichchanallur in TN.Mehrgarh: Pre Harappan SiteAmri and Kot Diji: Early Harappan SiteKalibangan: Mature Harappan SiteLothal: Late Harappan Site

Chief male deity of Harappans was Pasupati. He is surrounded by four animals (Elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess.Aryans spoke Sanskrit.Veda is derived from the root word ‘vid’ which means to know. The four Vedas are Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest and it consists of 1028 hymns. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.There was no caste system in early Vedic period. Gods of early vedic period was Indra and Agni. During the late Vedic period, Prajapathi, Vishnu and Rudra became prominent.Jainism and Buddhism flourished in 6th century BC.Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya Caste.

Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. Born in 537 BC. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents, Siddhartha and Trisala.He was married to Yasodha. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained “Kevala Gnana”. Thereafter he was called as Mahavira and Jina. He died at Pava near Rajagriha.

Teaching of MahaviraThree principles known as Triratnas

1. Right faith2. Right knowledge3. Right conduct

Mahavira organized the Sangha to spread his teachings. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the dynasties of South such as Gangas, Kadambas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.

4th century BC: famine in the Ganges Valley: Many monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed their code of conduct. This led to division into Svetambaras and Digambaras.

Jain Councils.

First Jain council was convened in Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, leader of Digambaras, in the beginning of 3rd century BC.2nd council was held in Valabhi in 5th Century AD. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.

Buddhism

Gautama of Siddhartha was born in 567 BC in Lumbini near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. He was married to Yashodhara. Got enlightenment under Bodhi Tree in Gaya. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares. He died at Kusinagara.

His most important disciples were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajathashatru of Magadha accepted his doctrine and became his disciples.

Teaching of Buddha

1. The world is full of suffering2. The cause of suffering is desire3. If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.4. This can be done by eight fold path.

Buddha has two kinds of disciples, monks(Bhikshus) and lay worshippers(Upasikas). Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of his monks. 200 years after Buddha’s death, Asoka embraced Buddhism. He spread Buddhism to West Asia and Ceylon.

Buddhist Councils.

1st council was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa after the death of Buddha. 2nd was held in Vaisali.3rd council was held in Pataliputra under Asoka. The final version of tripitakas was completed in this council. 4th council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council. New school, called Mahayana came into existence during this councila came into existence during this council. The Buddhism preached by Buddha and spread by Ashoka was Hinayana.

Buddhist texts were known as Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They were written in Pali. One of the Buddhist Literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called “Sixteen Mahajanapadas”. Finally in the mid of 6th BC, only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

Cause of decline of Buddhism

1. Revival of Brahmanism and Bhagavatism.2. Pali, the language of the masses was given up from 1st AD.3. Buddhist began to adopt Sanskrit, language of elite4. After birth of Mahayana, practice of idol worships and offering started, which led to the

deterioration.5. Attack of Huns in the 5th and 6th Ad and Turkish in 12th AD destroyed monasteries.

Four major kingdoms in the 6th Century BC

Vatsa: Situated on the banks of Yamuna. Capital was Kausambi near Allahabad. Popular rules was Udayana. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti Kingdom.

Avanti:Capital of Avanti was Ujjain. Most important ruler was Pradyota. He married Vasavadatta, daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism. After his death, kingdom was taken over by the rulers of Magadha.

Kosala:Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenjit was famous ruler. Matimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was conflict with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenjit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After his death, Kosala became part of Magadha.

Magadha:Magadha was the most powerful and prosperous. Iron ore in the hills near Rajgir and Copper and Iron deposits near Gaya. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasathru, its prosperity reached zenith.

Bimbisara (546-494 BC)

He belonged to Haryanka dynasty. 1st matrimonial alliance with Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. Got Kasi as dowry. Then he married Chellana, princess of Licchavi family of Vaisali. 3rd was Khema of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara was contemporary of both Mahavira and Buddha.

Ajatasatru(494-462 BC)

His reign was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. He fortified Pataliputra to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.Initially he was a follower of Jainism and then he embraced Buddhism. He was instrumental in convening the 1st Buddhist council in Rajagriha.His successor was Udayin. He laid the foundation of Pataliputra situated near the banks of Ganges and Son. His successors were weak and later Magadha was captured by Saisunaga. Thus Haryanka dynasty came to an end.

Saisunaga

Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of Magadhan empire. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign 2nd Buddhist council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder of Nanda dynasty.

Nandas

The fame of Magadha reached new heights under Nanda dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda was as powerful ruler. He uprooted Kshatriya dynasties of North and assumed the title ekarat. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by Nandas. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He used oppressive ways to collect the taxes. Taking advantage, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against him. It was during this time that Alexander invaded India.

Perisan invasion

Cyrus the great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire. He captured the Gandhara region.Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus Valley in 518 BC and annexed Punjab and Sindh.Effects of Persian invasion:Kharoshti script became popular in NW India.

Greek Invasion:Alexander’s invasion (327-325 BC)Alexander ascended throne after the death of his father, Philip. He conquered Persia by defeating Darius III. He came to India through Hindukush Mountains. Famous battle of Hydaspes(Jhelum) with Porus. He died in Babylon in 323 BC.

The Mauryan Empire

Literary Sources:

Kautilya’s Arthashastra: The book was written in Sanskrit. Kautilya was contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Also called as “Indian Machiavelli”. Contains 3 parts, 1st deals about the king and his council and the departments of the Govt. The 2nd with civil and criminal law and the final one with diplomacy and the war. Most important literary source for Mauryas.

Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa: It is a drama written in Sanskrit. Although written during Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas.

Megasthene’s Indica: He was the Greek Ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

Archaeological Sources:

Edicts of Asoka: The inscriptions were first deciphered by James Princep in 1838. There were mainly written in Pali and in some places, Prakrit and Brahmi were used. In the NW India, the Asokan Inscriptions were found in Kharoshti Script. There were 14 Major Rock Edicts. The two Kalinga Edicts are found in the newly conquered territory. These edicts of Asoka deal with his Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The 13th Rock Edict gives detail about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII gives summary of his efforts to promote Dhamma within his kingdom.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS

Chandragupta Maurya(322-298 BC)

He was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. At the age of 25, he captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of Nanda dynasty, Dhana Nanda. In 305 BC, he defeated Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander’s General controlling the north western India. A treaty was signed. By this treaty, he ceded the trans Indus territories –namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the King. Megasthenes was sent to Mauryan court as

Greek Ambassador. He embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from his throne in favour of his son Bindusara. He starved himself to death in Sravana Belgola.

Bindusara (298-273 BC)

Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered up to Mysore. Sangam literature also confirms this. He received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian King Antiochus I. Bindusara supported Ajivikas. He appointed his son Asoka as the Governor of Ujjian.

Asoka the Great (273-232 BC)

Most important event was winning Kalinga war in 261 BC. It was described in Rock edit XIII. After the war he embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra who planted there the branch of the original Bodhi tree. He convened the 3rd Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 BC. It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Later Mauryas:

Asoka’s death in 232 BC was followed by the division of Mauryan empire into two parts. The western part was ruled by Kunala, his son, and the eastern part by Dasaratha, one of the grandsons of Asoka. The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sangha.

Mauryan Administration:

Mauryan Empire was a monarchy. But Kautillya also advocated for council of ministers. It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja. There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after day to day administration.

Samharta, the chief of revenue department, was in charge of collection of taxes. Taking of census was regular during Mauryan period. Four provinces of the empire were Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The district administration was under the control of Rajukas, whose

position are similar to collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas. Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his superior officer was Gopa.

POST MAURYAN INDIA

SUNGAS

The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander in chief under the Mauryas. The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time. However, he succeeded in regaining the lost territories. He was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. Buddhist sources refer to him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But he patronised Buddhist arts.

After his death, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of Kanva dynasty. The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years and after their fall, the history of Magadha was blank until the establishment of Gupta Dynasty.

SATAVAHANAS

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas. They were also known as the Andhras. The puranas and the inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas. The Nasik and the Nanagarh inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Simuka(Founder)Krishna(extended kingdom to Nashik)Sri Satakarni(Conquered western Malwa and Berar)

The 17th King was Hala who was famous for his book, Gathasaptasati, also called SattaSai written in Prakrit.

Greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements in Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri. He patronized Brahmanism.

Gautamiputra SatakarniVasishtaputra Pulamayi

The last great ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Economic Conditions:

The silver coins were called Karshapanas. The greatest port was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were also important.

FOREIGN INVASION OF NORTH INDIA

Bactrians: Demetrius Greek Ruler of Bactria invaded Punjab and Afghanistan and occupied them. His two commanders were Appolodotus and Menander. Appolodotus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain. Menander made attempts to capture Pataliputra, but was stopped by Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.

Menander known as Milinda. His capital was Sakala(Sialkot). Buddhist monk, Nagasena compiled the work Milindapanho(In Pali) called as Questions of Milinda.

Greek Ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.

Sakas:

The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers.

Founder of the Saka rule in India : Maues(1st BC). His son was Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of Vikrama Era.

KUSHANAS:

The Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original home was Central Asia. They made their home in Gandhara region. The founder of Kushanas was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I. He occupied Kabul Valley and issued coins in his name. His son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered as far as Mathura. He was a devotee of Lord Shiva.

Kanishka (78-120 AD)

Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. He was the founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 AD. His capital was Purushupura or Peshawar. Mathura was an important city in his empire.

Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. His coins exhibits the image of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. In the age of Kanishka, the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue.

Asvagosha was the author of Buddhacharitha. The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him.

Gandhara Art: The home of the Gandhara art is the territory in and around Peshawar. The real patrons of this school of art were Sakas and Kushanas, particularly Kanishka.

Mathura School of Art: It flourished in the 1st century AD.

Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushanas:

KanishkaHuvishka. Last important ruler was Vasudeva.

SANGAM AGE

According to Tamil legends, there existed 3 Sangams (Academy of Tamil Poets) popularly called Muchchangam. 1st Sangam was held at Madurai. 2nd Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, but all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. 3rd Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran.

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkannakku and the two epcis- Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.

Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the literatures.

Ettutogai(Eight Anthologies)

Pattuppattu(10 Idylls) Pathinenikilkannakku(18 works dealing with ethics and morals)

The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathikaram written by Elango Adikal and Manimegalai written by Sittali Sattanar also provides valuable information on Sangam polity and society.

Political History

The Tamil country was ruled by 3 dynasties namely the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas.

Cheras

They ruled over modern parts of Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and important seaports were Tondi and Musuri. They had the Palmyra flowers as their garland. The Pugular inscription of the 1st century AD refers to the 3 generation of Chera rulers. Padiruppattu also provides information on Chera kings. Perum Sorry Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers.

Senguttuvan belonged to the 2nd century AD. His younger brother was Elango Adikal, the author of Silappathikaram. His expedition to Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs. He introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. He was contemporary of Gajabhagu II of Srilanka.

Cholas

The Chola kingdom extended from modern Tiruchi district to the south of AP. Their capital was first at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his early life and military conquest. In the battle of Venni, he defeated the mighty confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and 11 minor chieftains. Vahaipparandalai was another important battle.

Pandyas

They ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai. The earliest kings were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran. They were two Neduncheliyans. The 1st one was called Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan. He was responsible for execution of Kovalam for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. The other was called Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra(He who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam)

Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes socio-economic conditions of the pandyas. The last famous Pandyan was Uggira Peruvaludhi. They declined due to the invasion of Kalabhras.

Royal emblem of Pandyas: Carp

Royal emblem of Cheras: Bow

Royal emblem of Cholas: Tiger

Sangam Society

Tolkappiyam refers to the 5 fold divisions of the lands

1. Kurinji – Hilly tracks- Chief deity was Murugan – Chief occupation was hunting and honey collection.

2. Mullai – Pastoral- Chief deity Mayon(Vishnu) –Chief occupation cattle rearing and dairy3. Marudam – Agricultural-Chief deity Indra – Chief occupation agriculture4. Neydal – Coastal – Chief deity Varunan- Fishing and Salt manufacturing5. Palai – Desert – Chief deity Korravi – robbery

Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.

Arasar Ruling Class

Anthanars Sangam polity and religion

Vanigars Trade and Commerce

Vellalas Agriculturist.

Position of women

Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished during Sangam period. Karpu or chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was common practice. Sati was also prevalent.

Economy

The port of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trace, as big ships came here. Other ports were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

GUPTA EMPIRE

Sources of information: Literary, epigraphical and numismatic sources. Puranas and contemporary works like Devichandragupta and Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta provides information regarding the rise of Gupta Empire. Chinese traveller Fahien, who visited during reign of Chandragupta II also left valuable resources.

Inscriptions : Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription (Chandragupta I) and the Allahabad Pillar inscription (Samudrgupta). Allahabad inscriptions is written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes Samudragupta’s accession, his military campaigns, his relationship with other rulers and his poetic side.

Chandragupta I (320-330 AD)

The founder of Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. They were called Maharajas. The next ruler was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja. He married a Licchavi princess, Kumaradevi. The Mehrauli inscriptions mentions his conquests. He is considered to be the father of Gupta era.

Samudragupta (330-380 AD)

Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention about him. Dakshinapatha expedition: Against South Indian rulers. He issues gold coins with the legend, restorer of the Asvamedha. He was called Indian Napoleon. He was also called Kaviraja. His poet was Harisena. He was also the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.

Chandragupta II (380-415 AD)

Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta Vikramaditya. His greatest military achievement was his war against the Saka satraps of western Indian. Rudrasimha III the last ruler of Saka satarap was defeated and killed. He assumed the title of Sakari, meaning the destroyer of Sakas. He also called himself Vikramaditya. Ujjain soon become important to them.

Fahien’s visit

Fahien visited during the reign of Chandragupta II. His primary interest was religion. Because of the high level of cultural progress that happened during this time, it was called golden age.

Successors of Chandragupta II

Chandragupta IIKumaragupta. He laid the foundation of Nalanda University. At the end of his reign, Pushyamitras defeated the Guptas. A branch of Huns from Central Asia made attempts to cross the Hindukush and invade India. But it was his successor Skandagupta who really faced Hun Invasion. He fought successfully against the Huns and saved his empire.

Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavites. The great Jain council of Valabhi was held during this period. Both the Nagaras and Dravidian styles of arts evolved during Gupta age. Delhi Iron Pillar is also from Gupta period. Their paintings can be seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior.

The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by navratnas. Kalidasa is also among them. Sudraka was also a poet of that time and his book Mricchakatika is rich in humour and pathos. Panchathanthra stories were composed by Vishnu Sharma during Gupta period. The Buddhist author Amarasimha compiled Amarakosa.

Aryabhata wrote Aryabhatiya in AD 499. He first declared that earth was spherical in shape. Varahamihira composed Pancha Sidhantika ,the five astronomical systems. He also wrote Brihadsamhita and Brihadjataka in Sanskrit. In the field of medicine, Vagbhata (author of Ashtangasamagraha) lived during this period.

HARSHAVARDHANA (606-647 AD)

The decline of the Gupta empire was followed by a period of political disorder. It was only in the 7th century AD that Harshavardhana succeeded in establishing a large kingdom in north India. Harshacharita written by Bana and the travel accounts of Hieun Tsang are great sources. Besides these two, the drams written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika also provide good information. Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscriptions are also good sources. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.

Early Life of Harsha

The founder of the family was Pushyabhuti. They were the feudatories of the Guptas. They called themselves Vardhanas. After Hun invasions, they became independent. The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi. After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhana came to throne. But he was treacherously murdered by Sasanka. Harsha now succeeded his brother.

Harsha’s military conquest

In his 1st expedition, he drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. His most important military campaign was against Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. The inscriptions of Hiuen Tsang and inscriptions of Pulakesin II describe this. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by him, who after this, assumed the title of Paramesvara.

Harsha and Buddhism

In his earlier life, he was a Saiva but later he became Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana sect. He prohibited animal food in his kingdom.

Kanauj Assembly

Harsha organised a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour Hiuen Tsang . Violence broke out there and there were acts of arson. There was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. Soon, it was brought under control.

Allahabad Conference aka Prayag conference

The archive of Harsha was known as Nilopitu. The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period. In short, there was a sharp economic decline as compared to the economy of the Gupta period. Bana also wrote Kadambari. Other literary figures were Matanga Divakara and Barthrihari, who was the poet, philosopher and grammarian.

Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda: Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. Founded by Kumaragupta I.

SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS –I

Pallavas