General Knowledge

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History

ANCIENT INDIAThe History of India, for the purpose of the study

and to bring out more clearly the forces, trends andinstitutions that have shaped history at any givenpoint in time.

It has been told : “No Thucydides or Herodotuswas born in India, therefore history of Ancient Indiais dark”.

While, we know that India has a very glorious,rich and varied to literature but it fails to present aclear conception of history of Ancient India. It is dueto some of difficulties like — Lack of historicalmaterial, Indifinite chronology, Lack of singlegovernment. Mixture of fact and fiction, ManyEras etc.

In the words of Dr. R. C. Majumdar : ‘‘Theliterary genius of India, so fertile and active in almostall conceivable branches of study, was not appliedto chronicling the records of kings and the rise andfall of states and nations”.

But, they remained preoccupied with relegiousmatters and did not care for the political activities oftheir times.

In spite of all difficulties, there are certainsources, which help in the reconstruction of ancienthistory of India.

There are two sources—Literary andArchaeological.

LITERARY

It can he divided into three groups known as—Brahminical, Buddhist and Jain.

BRAHMINICAL LITERATUREIt has played a very significant role in helping

reconstruct the early history of India and India is agreat store house of Brahminical literature. But thereall are mostly religious in character because the

people of the period were greatly attracted to spiritualmatters.

Vedas : A glimpse of Ancient history-the fourvedas-Rigveda,Yajurveda, Atheraveda and Samvedaare known as the earliest of the Brahminicalliterature. They are of great help in understandingthe political, social and religious aspects of theAryans. Particularly the Rigveda which is regardedas the most ancient of all the vedas.

Connected with the vedas there is another classof literature known as Brahmans, Upnisheds,Vedangas or Upvedas, Sutras etc.

There are texts from different schools which cameinto being and devoted themselves to theunderstanding and study of the different branches ofVedas.

Sutras—These are important Sutras: —Kalpa Sutras — It describes the retuals of the

ancient period.Griha Sutras — It explains the ancient sacrifices,

rites etc.Dharma Sutras—Deal with Dharma or Law.Epics (4 B. C. to 4 A. D.)‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ give us abundant

information about the economic, religious, socialand political conditions of the later Aryans.

Puranas—They are eighteen in numbers andeach of them is divided into the parts. The Puranasare like milestones on the way that lead constructionof the ancient history of India.

The Biographical works—'Harsha-Charita’,‘Vak-Pati’, ‘Prithivi Raj Raso’, ‘Raj Trangani’(History of Kashmir). ‘Kirti Kumudani’ , Kautilya’s‘Arthashastra’, ‘Raghuvansam’ by Kalidas etc.— aregreatly helpful in constructing an authentic accountof ancient period.

Arya Bhatta— Indian achieved a great successand stood first in Astronomy. ‘Surya Siddhanta’ and

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‘Romak Siddhanta’, (by an eminent mathematicianArya Bhatta) are authentic books on Astronomycontribute a lot to historical knowledge.

BUDDHIST LITERATUREThis literature has three branches, known as

‘Jataka’, ‘Pitaka’ and ‘Nikaya’. it consists of threedivisions : (i) Vinay Pitaka (ii) Sutta Pitaka and(iii) Abhidhamma Pitaka. In Pali literature otherbooks like ‘Milind Panha’, ‘Dip Vamsa’ and ‘MahaVamsa’ are also helpful from historical point of view.

‘Anguttra Nikaya’ gives a remarkabledescription of political, social and religiousconditions of the 6th century B. C.

Dr. Winternitz remarked — ‘’The Jatakas wereof inestiable value, not only as regards literatureand art, but also from the point of view the Historyof civilization for the period of the 3rd century B. C.So far about 549 Jataka stories have beenpublished; a vivid picture of the political, social,economic and religious conditions of the people ofthe 2nd or 3rd B. C. can be drawn from the Jatakas”.

JAIN LITERATUREAngas and Upangas are twelve in number and

they impart the valuable teachings of LordMahavira. But the more important from thehistorical point of view is a work-‘ParishisthaParvana’ of hemchandra.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

Archaeological sources can be divided intothree heads—

1. Inscription—These inscriptions are engravedon rocks, stones, iron-pillars, caves etc. Theinscriptions engraved on stones and metals supplyus with an authentic information about history asthey have not been tampered within course of time.

In this regard, Ashoka was the first king whoissued a large number of inscriptions. The mostimportant among them are the ‘Hathingampha’ andthe ‘Kera’ inscription.

2. Coins —Cast coins and Punchmarked coinshave proved to be a great source of authenticinformation on the Indian History.

C. J. Brown has explained about the importanceof coins —

‘‘The coins are of the greatest service as theyhave preserved not only the names and titles of thekings who otherwise have left no other traces, but

also by their aid it is possible to reconstruct thedynasties and to determine the chronology of theruling powers.”

3. Monument —About Architecture, Sculptureand Painting—It has been said —‘Here are princes.’

These monuments are found in the forms ofArchitecture, sculpture and painting, which clearlyshow the cultural development of Ancient India.

FOREIGN SOURCES

1. Herodotus has vividly described the politicalcondition of North-West of India in his famous book—‘Histories’.

“The Indian are by far greater multitude ofall people or men whom we know.”

The historian, who came after Alexander’sinvasion were — Megasthenes, Dyonies andDeimanchos.

CHINESE SOURCES2. Fa-Hien —The first Chinese pilgrim, who

came to India in 399 A. D. He has described thepolitical, economic and religious conditions of Indiaduring the reign of Chandragupta II.

3. Huan-Tsang —Who visited India during thereign of Harsh Vardhana and travelled through thelength and bredth of the country for 18 years.—from616 to 644 A. D. He is known as the ‘Prince ofPilgrims’.

In his famous book, ‘Si yu-ki’ he has given veryvaluable information on the social, economic,religious and political conditions of India.

PRE-HISTORY

As we do not have any source material regardingthe pre-historic age. Pre-historic culture is dividedinto following four stages—

1. Palaeolithic Age, or Old Stone Age : whenfirst tools were made by flaking 1,00,00 B. C. to100,00 B. C.); The life of the people was verybarbarous. They made tools and implements withstone. They lived on hunting and wild fruits. Theyeither lived naked or covered their bodies with theskins of animals or barks of the trees.

Sites — Chittorgarh, Sabarmati bagh I or II,Gonchi, Sihora, Belan Valley etc.

2. Mesolithic Age or Late Stone Age is thetransitional period between Poleolithic and firstappearance of farming; During this period, they

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had started giving a decent burial to the dead ones.The dog had become their tamed animal.

Sites —Tilwara, Bagor, Langhnaj, Bhim Betka,Adamgrah etc.

3. Neolithic Age : Emergence of interpersonalco-operative existence; This change was triggeredby changing economy where man became sedentaryand began adopting agriculture. Thus the fields werecleared and rocks flaked to make hampaxes bygrinding and polishing technique. They had by nowlearnt the use of fire and had began to cook theirfood. They also began to cover their bodies withclothes.

4. Metal Age : Copper Age, Iron Age — In firststage they used copper and bronze for making theirimplements and tools, and made improvement in theirfood and dwellings.

And in the second stage. They learnt the use ofIron, It was the last stage of the pre-historic period.Man progressed a lot during this period.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Indus valley people had remarkable ability andproficiency in other arts like sculpture, craving,pottery and painting.

Area—1299600 sq. km; Sut-Kagendor inMakran Coast was western-extremity to Alamgirpurin the East, from Jammu in the North to the Narmadaestuary; the extreme North most point is Gumla whileHalvano in Surat distt. is Southern most.

Population — 4 racial types —Mediterranean,Proto Australoids, Mongoloid and Alpines.

SITES

Mohan jo-daro —Literary means ‘mound of thedead’ (Larkana Distt. on Indus river of Sindh) —madeof kiln, burnt bricks, and has great bath, Granary,College and Assembly Hall, underground scientificdrainage system, town planning grid like etc.

Harappa—The Harappa civilization(Montgomery Distt; Ravi River) existed between2350 to 1750 B. C. The use of copper by Harappanpeople puts this civilization in Chalcolithic Age.The script of Harappan people was pictographic,which has not been deciphered so far. Worship ofLord Shiva, and Mother Goddess, worship of water,trees, birds, sun-fire—Thus it is obvious that Hindureligion of today owes a lot to Indus Valley

Civilization.Some other important sites of Indus Valley

Civilization —Ropar — PunjabBanwali — HaryanaLothal — GujratAlamgirpur — Western U.P.Surkotado — GujratKot diji — SindRangpur — GujratAlimurad — SindKalibanga — RajasthanSutkagendor — BaluchistanCauses of the Distruction of Indian Valley

Civilization —Floods, climate changes, spread ofdesert in lower Indus Valley, infertility of soil andexternal invasions were the possible causes of thedecline of the Indus Valley Civilization.

VEDIC AGE (1500 to 600 B. C.)

‘Aryan’ word means a linguistic group; camethrough Khyberpass around 1500 B. C.—FromAusteria, Hungary (But not definitly known.) Aryansociety was organised on tribal lines.

Aryan word is derived from ‘An’ meaningforeigner while ‘Arya’ means ‘favourably dispossedtowards new comers’ and later it developed theconnotation of ‘man from nobel descent’.

In the course of their migration the ancient oncelived in Iran hence similarity between literaryheritage.

Zend Avesta and Rig Veda —are similar socio-religious institutions, beliefs and practices.

Caste system—The four fold divisions ofsociety—Brahamans, Kshetriya, Vaishya and Shudrasoccured.

The famous ‘Mahabharata battle’ is attributedto this period.

Difference between Indus Valley and Aryan orVedic cultures : —

I. The civilization of Indus Valley was chieflyurban, The vedic civilization on the contrary wasrural.

II. The Indus Valley people were loving and hadno place for war, whereas the Aryans loved war.

III. Indus Valley people had a great interest inindoor games whereas Aryans were found ofhorseriding.

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In the words of Sir John Marshall (1921)-“The only possible assumption which may

satisfactorily explain the divergent characteristicsof the Indus and Rig-l’edic cultures is that the latterwas unrelated to the former and had an independentorigin”.

‘India offers unity in diversity’

The vastness of this country grows diversity indifferent walks of life.

Climatic diversity and diversity in rainfall aregeographical diversities. Some other diversities are—‘Racial diversity’, ‘Diversity in Religion’, ‘SocialDiversity’, Economic Diversity etc.

But the most remarkable feature of Indian life isunity within diversity. Sir Herbert Rightly hasexplained it very well—

“Beneath the manifold diversity of physical andsocial type language, customs and religion whichstrike the observer in India there can still be discerneda certain under lying uniformity of life from theHimalayas to Cape Comorin’’.

India is a country of peculiar type of cultue anda tasty mixture of different religions. Festivals likeHoli, Diwali, Dushehra and Raksha-Bandhan arecelebrated in a high spirit throughout the country.After the death of a person the cremation of the deadbody, solemnization of marriage, the place of womenin the society — these all customs are same all overthe country.

The great Gods, Vishnu and Shiva are more orless worshiped in all parts of India.

Thus the facts mentioned above establish a strongconception of Indian unity in spite of all thediversities of race, colour, language or religion amongthe people. Some one has told —

‘‘India beyond all doubt. possesses a deepunderlying fundamental unity, for more profoundthat produced either by geographical isolation orby political suzerainty. That unity transcends theinnumerable diversities of colour, language, dressmanners, sects etc.”

THE EPIC PERIOD

There are two epics, the Ramayana and theMahabharata.

The Ramayana is the older of the two. It issupposed to be written by Valmiki.

The Mahabharata is described as encyclopaediaof moral teachings. It deals with the war foughtbetween Kaurvas and Pandavas. Much of it consistsof disconnected stories and the philosophical poemsdisconnected with the main plot. Social and Politicalconditions depicted in the epics can be summed thus(a) Nature worship of vedic period was replaced bythe cult of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva (b) The doctrineof Karma and rebirth was prevalent (c) tribalorganisations were replaced by kingdoms ruled byhereditary kings (d) Villages of vedic Age developedinto towns.

THE AGE OF PURANAS

The Puranas have historical value. The VishnuPurana gives the history of Maurya dynasty and theMatsya Purana the history of Andhara king.

It is generally agreed that the Puranas werecompiled during the Gupta period but composedmuch earlier.

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

The 6th century B. C. was a period of religiousunrest, several sects holding different views on Godand method to achieve salvation arose.

The class pride of the Brahmanas irritated thegoverning class of Kshatriya; they felt that theirsupremacy has been snatched. So, two KshatriyasMahavira and Gautama started the reform movementcalled Jainism and Buddhism.

JAINISM—Vardhman Mahavira is believed tobe the founder of Jain religion though he was the lastof 24 Tirthankaras while we have historical proof oflast two viz Parsva and Mahavira. Mahavira was bornin 540 B.C. in a village near Vaishali, son ofSiddhartha; mother was Trishala, his original namewas Vardhamana and his wife’s name was Yasoda.

At Jrmbhaka on riverbank of Rjupalika in 13thyear Mahavira received enlightment. He died ofstarvation in Pava, Rajgir in 468 B. C.

Essentials of Jainism are :(i) Three virtues—right faith, right knowledge

and right action —are called three jewels of Jainism.(ii) Jainism derives the conception of God as the

creator of the world.(iii) Jainism advocates tender care of life.(iv) Worship of deified saints called Jinas.

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BUDDHISM—Gaulam alias Siddhartha wasborn in 563 B.C. at Lumbinivan; father’s name wasSudhodana; mother’s name was Maya; brought upby Mahaprajapati Gautami; married toBhaddakachchara (Yasodhara) daughter ofSuppabuddha; sired Rahul. Siddharatha left hometo get rid of sufferings. After years of meditation he,one day, got Enlightment under a peapal tree nearGaya and became the ‘Buddha’. He gave his firstsermon at Sarnath. He died in 487 B. C.

His teaching known as Buddhism, lay stresson the four Noble Truths :

1. Existence is suffering.2. Suffering is born of desire and ‘desire

unfulfilled leads to rebirth.3. When desire ceases and that is nirvana.4. The desire can be conquered by purity in

thought deed, and word.The observance of Panch Sheel and the pursuit

of the Noble Eightfold Path.Panch Sheel—The five ethical principles to be

followed by all are-not to kill any living being, notto take what is not given to one, not to lie, not to takeintoxication drinks and not to be unchaste.

The Eightfold Path—It consists of Right views,Right intention, Right speech, Right Action, RightLiving, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and RightConcentration. Buddhism believes in non enjury i.e.non-violence.

DYNASTIES IN INDIAN HISTORYMaurya Dynasty (322 B. C. to 185 B. C.)

Chandragupta Maurya (322 B. C. to 289 B. C.)—Over threw the Nanda rulers of Magadha. Foundedthe Maurya Dynasties with the help of Kautilya, aswell as the first great empire in India. He expelledthe Greeks from the Punjab and Sind, defeatedSeleukos, captured Magadha and included almostthe whole of North India including a large part ofGandhar in his empire. He died or abdicated in 298B. C. at Srawanbelgola on Chandigiri hill.

Ashoka (273 B. C. to 232 B. C.)—Whoabandoned war; Ashoka, the grandson ofChandragupta and son of Bindusara, was a greatemperor, unique in many ways. He waged only onewar and that came to be the turning point in his career.He won that war against Kalinga in 261 B. C. (ModernOrissa), but the terrible slaughter of men filled him

with grief. Ashoka, therefore, abandoned war for everand turned to noble conquests. He became a Buddhistand spread the Budh’s message in India and the wholeof East Asia.

Ashoka’s Dharma — Ashoka’s religion was notBuddism or any other Particular sect. His religionwas a code morals and essence of all religions.

Main characteristics of Ashoka’s Dharma-Emphasis on, ethical ideals, non-violence, religioustoleretion, universalism were the main characteristicsof his religion.

His emperial policy was affected by his religionafter the war of Kalinga. The era of ‘Digvijaya’ wasover and the era of ‘Dharmavijaya’ was begun.

Types of Marriage In Vedic Times

(i) Brahma : Marriage of duly dowered girl to aman of the same class.

(ii) Daiva : In this type of marriage, the fathergives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of hisfee.

(iii) Arsa : In this type of marriage to token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of thedowry.

(iv) Prajapatya : The father gives the girl withoutdowry and without demanding the bride price.

(v) Gandharva : marriage by the consent of thetwo parties, which might be solemnized merely byplighing torth.

(vi) Asura : Asura marriage in which the bridewas bought from her father, was looked upon withdisfavour by all the sacred texts.

(vii) Rakshasa : Rakshasa marriage, or marriageby capture was practised especially by warriors.

(viii) Paishacha : It was the seduction of girlwhile asleep mentally deranged or drunk.

MAGADHA

Causes for Its Rise : Advantageous geographicallocation both at Rajgrih and Patliputra. There weresituated at strategic positions.

Advantageous natural resources such as ironwhich enabled Magadhan rulers to equip themselveswith effective weapons.

The Nandas (344 to 322 B. C.) : MahapadmaNanda usurped the throne and established the Nandadynasty in 344 B. C. He made methodical collectionof taxes. He also built Cannals and carried out

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irrigation projects. The Nandas were fabulously richand enormously powerful.

Alexander’s Invasion : Alexander, was the sonof king Philip, the ruler of Mecedo in Greece. In thecourse of his victories abroad he thought toconquering India. At the head of a large army, hecrossed the river Indus at Ohind in 327 B. C. In thebattle of Hydaspes (Jhelum), ruler of Punjab, Poruswas defeated. When his forces refused to go further.On his way back, he died at Babylon in 323 B. C.

Causes for its (Magadha) Fall : The Mauryanempire began after the death of Ashoka. Hissuccessors failed to control such a vast empire. Theyalso failed to maintain peace and order in the empire,Brahadrath, the last Mauryan ruler was assassinatedby his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra.

Sunga Dynasty : The history of this dynastybegins from 185 B. C. The first king of this dynastywas Pushyamitra Sunga, who killed the last Mauryanking Virhadratha and occupied fought two wars andwon them and conducted two Ashwamedha Yagna inhis regime. It was Pushyamitra Sunga who revived.Hindu religion, instead of Buddism which had thestate patronage of Mauryan.

KUSHAN DYNASTY (20 A. D. to 226 A. D.)

Kanishka (120 A. D. to 160 A. D.) : GandharSchool of Art;

Kanishka was the greatest of All Kushan rulers.A great conqueror and patron of arts and literature.His empire extended from Bihar in the east. Vindhyasin the south and Ujjain in the west to the remoteregions beyond the Pamir passes. EmbracedBuddhism and like Ashoka patronised it. Flourishingart and sculpture of his time is known as Gandharschool of Art, with Indian traditions and greektechniques received royal patronage. Buddhistscholars were in kaniska’s court As-waghosha withNagarjuna Scientist and Philosopher; Charak —Ayurvedic physician.

THE SANGAM AGE

The word Sangam is associated in South IndianHistory with a college or assembly (literary academy)of Tamil scholars held under the royal patronage ofPandyan king at Madurai and hence the age relatedto it known as Sangam age which extends roughlybetween 300 B. C. to 300 A. D.

Three Early KingdomThe land south of the Krishna river was divided-

into three kingdoms — Chola, Pandya and Chera orKerala.

The Pandyas : The Pandyas are first mentionedby Megasthenese who speaks of the Pandyaskingdom being ruled by a women and that ‘sevenyear old mothers’ were found in the Pandyas country.His writings suggest that the Pandyas society waspatriarchal.

The Cholas : The Chola kingdom known asCholamandalam or Coromandal was situatedbetween Pennar and the Velur rivers.

The chief centre of political power of the Cholawas at Uraiyur a place famous for cotton trade.

The Cholas maintained an efficient navy. Oneof the main sources of the wealth of the cholas wastrade in cotton cloth.

The Cheras : The country of the Cheras wassituated to the west and the north of the Pandyakingdom.

The Chera country owed its importance to tradewith the Romans.

The most important king of the Cheras wasSenguttuvan, the Red Chera.

The Sangam Literature

The sangam literature was compiled in circa A.D. 300 to 600. But same of its work are dated back tosecond century A. D. The literature is divided intotwo groups narrative and didactic. The former wascalled melkannaku and later Kilkannaku. Someimportant sangam texts are—Tolkkappiyam,Tolkapiyar, Tirukkural, Silappadikaran etc.

THE GUPTA DYNASTY

Who were the Guptas ?There are four opinions about the Guptas, Ist

Brahmins, IInd Kshatriyas, IIIrd Vaishyas and IVthShudras.

But most of the historian;, believe that Guptaswere kshatriyas.

About the original home of the guptas. Thereare three opinions — (i) Kausamb; (ii) Bengal:(iii) Eastern Uttar Pradesh or Western Magadha.

The third opinion seems to be more reliable.Rise of the Guptas :Chandragupta I : Sri Gupta was the founder of

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the dynasty. Ghatotkach was the second ruler. Afterhim Chandragupta I ascended the throne in 320 A.D. Started the Gupta Era in 320 A. D.

Samudragupta (330 A. D. — 375 A. D.) : He iscalled the Napolean of India for his wide rangingconquests which extended far into the south and thewest. He was a great warrior, an accomplished ruler; amusician (veena player), poet and scholar, all in one.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)(375 A. D.-413 A. D.)

He conquered Malwa, Gujrat and Kathiawar, thuseliminated the rule of foreigners in India. A worthysuccessor to his great father, A strong and vigorousruler. Promoted the moral welfare of his subjects, wastolerant towards all religions. Great patron of arts,literature, science, architecture etc. Fahien, the firstChinese pilgrim, visited India.

The Chief aim of Fahien’s journey was to visitthe holy places associated with the life of the Buddhaand to collect Buddhist literature in India, becausehe was a Buddhist monk. His account is of greathistorical significance, because it furnishes thevaluable information on the political, social andcultural developments of the Gupta period.

The Golden Age of India

The Gupta period (320 A. D.—480 A. D.) isknown as the ‘Golden Age’ of the Indian history.During this period there was so much advancementin every field, social, political, religious, economicand cultural that European writers have compared itwith the Age of Pericles in Greek History and withthat of Queen Elizabeth in British History.

Political unity and Nationalism; An IdealAdministration; Peace and Prosperity; An Ideal life;Revival of Hinduism: Development of Sanskrit;Education; Science; Arts.

These all were fully developed. It has beenrightly said,

“Peace, plenty and power, associated with allpervading moral sense, were integrated with anintellectual and cultural efforescence and to themind of the succeeding generation, it symbolisedthe fulfilment of the highest national aspirations.”

Many great personages like Kalidasa,Aryabhatta, Vrahamihira and Brahmagupta belongedto this age. India has never been governed better,

after the oriental manner, than it was during the reignof Vikramaditya.

VARDHANA DYNASTY (585 A. D.—647 A. D.)

Harsha Vardhana (606 A. D. to 646 A. D.) : Theyounger son of Prabhakar Vardhana who became theruler of Thanesar after the tragic death of his elderbrother Rajya Vardhana. The last great Hindu kingof Northern India, his dominion extended over thewhole of the basin of the Ganges from the Himalayasto the Narmada, besides Malwa, Gujrat andSaurashtra. A great warrior who was not only a liberalpatron of literary merit. A great philanthropist andtolerant towards all religions.

Hiuen Tsang, Chinese pilgrim, visited Indiaduring his time.

l Patron of learning : Harsa composed Sanskritdramas Banabhatta : Harsha Charita, Kadambari.

l Other Scholars : Matanga, Divakara,Jayasena, Bharti-Hari etc.

l Nalanda University : Harsa endeavouredgreatly for the expansion of education. Nalanda wasthe centre of higher education and Harsa patronisedit very liberally. He donated hundreds villages toNalanda to meet its expenses. Students came toNalanda from distant lands like China, Tibet andMongolia. The number of teachers in the universitywas 1510. Shilabhadra was the chancellor of theuniversity. Subject like the Vedas, Grammar,Astronomy, Mathematics, Palmistry, Literature andEthics were taught here in Sanskrit medium. Dr. R. K.Mookerjee has observed :

“Verily Nalanda had the merit of collecting toone centre available authority on every subject onlearning.’’

THE RAJPUTS

The origin of the Rajputs is a matter ofcontroversy. A widely held view is that the Rajputswere the descedents of the various tribes of the foreignsettlers and of ancient kshatriyas who became deeplyinter-mixed with one another in course of time. Theywere known for their high courage, patriotism,loyality, honour, hospitality. The profused Hindufaith and practised caste system. Women wererespected but customs like Jouhar and Sati prevailed.At the head of the state was king. The state wasdivided into estates held by the Jagirdars who were

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