General English Material

7/23/2019 General English Material

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Compiled by:

Langlang Handayani

Amin Suyitno

Stephani Diah Pamelasari


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Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material forMathematics and Natural Sciences Students


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BASIC GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY

SUBJECTS, VERBS, AND OBJECTS

Almost all English sentences contain a subject (S) and a verb (V). The verb may or may not be followed by an

object (O).

VERBS

Verbs that are not followed by an object are called intransitive verbs.Common intransitive verbs: agree,

fly, arrive, come, cry, exist, go, happen, live, occur, rise, sleep, stay, walk.

Birds fly

(noun) (verb)

The baby cried

(noun) (verb)

Verbs that are followed by an object are called transitive verbs. Common transitive verbs: build, cut, find,

like, make, need, send, use, want.

The student uses a microscope

(noun) (verbs) (noun)

The professor needed some teaching aids

(noun) (verb) (noun)

Some verbs can be either intransitive or transitive.

Intransitive: A student studies.

Transitive: A student studies books.

SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS

The subjects and objects of verbs are nouns (or pronouns). Examples of nouns:person, place, thing, John,

Asia, pen, information, appearance, amusement, the scientist, heart, bone, tissue, energy, thermometer,matter, solid, liquid, number, shape, cylinder, sphere.

The Scientist Bone Thermometer Liquid

Sphere Cylinder


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PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

COMMON PREPOSITIONS:

about before despite Of to

above behind down Off toward(s)

across below during On under

after beneath for Out until

against beside from Over up

along besides in Since upon

Among between into Through with

around beyond like Throughout within

at by near Till without

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

An important element of English sentences is the prepositional phrase. It consists of a preposition (PREP)

and its object (O). The object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun.

The student studies in the library.

S V PREP O of PREP

In most English sentences, place comes before time.

We went to the laboratoryin the afternoon.

Sometimes a prepositional phrase comes at the beginningof a sentence.

In the afternoon, we went to the laboratory.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives describe nouns. In grammar, we say that adjectives modify nouns. The word modifymeans change

a little. Adjectives give a little different meaning to a noun: intelligent student, lazy student, good student.

Examples of adjectives: young, old, rich, poor, beautiful, brown, French, modern.

Andy measured the length ofyoungsprouts.


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An adjective is neither singular nor plural. A finals is neveradded to an adjective.

I saw some beautifulspictures.INCORRECT

ADVERBS

Adverbsmodify verbs. Often they answer the question How?.

How does he walk? Answer: quickly.

Adverbsare often formed by addingly to an adjective.

Adjective: quick

Adverb: quickly

Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives, i.e., to give information about adjectives.

I am extremely happy.

Adverbs are also used to express time of frequency. Examples: tomorrow, today, yesterday, soon, never,

usually, always, yet.

Ann will come tomorrow.

Some adverbs may occur in the middle of a sentence. Midsentence adverbs have usual position;

they:(1)come in front of simple present and simple past verbs (except be).

Ann always comes on time.

(2) follow be (simple present and simple past).

Ann is always on time.

(3)come between a helping verb and a main verb.

Ann has always comeon time.

In question, a midsentence adverb comes directly after the subject.

Does she always come on time?

COMMON MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS

Ever, always, usually, often, frequently, generally, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever,

never, not ever, already, finally, just, probably.

The word well can be either an adverb or an adjective.

(a) Don writes well. Well= an adverb meaning in a good manner. It describes how Don writes.

(b)Mary was sick, but now she is well. Well = an adjective meaning healthy, not sick. It follows the verb

be and describes the subject she; i.e., Mary is a well person, not sick person.


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After the linking verb feel, either good or well may be used. However, well usually refers specifically to

health, whereas goodcan refer to ones physical and/or emotions condition.

I feel good I feel well

THE VERB BE

A sentence with be as the main verb has three basic patterns:

1. be + noun John isa student.

2. be + an adjective John isintelligent

3. be + a prepositional phrase John wasat the library.

Beis also used as an auxiliary verb in progressive verb tenses and in the passive.

Mary is writing a letter. is = auxiliary; writing = main verb.

TENSE FORMS OF BE

Simple present Simple past Present Perfect

I am I was I have been

Singular You are You were You have been

He, she, it is He, she, it was He, she, it has been

Plural We, you, they are We, you, they were We, you, they have been

LINKING VERBS

Other verbs like be that may be followed immediately by an adjective are called linking verbs.An adjective

following a linking verb describes the subject of a sentence.

Common verbs that may be followed by an adjective: feel, look, smell, sound, taste, appear, seem, become

(and get, turn, grow when they mean become).

COMPARE:

1. The man looks angry. an adjective (angry) follows look. The adjective describes the subject (the

man). Look has the meaning of appear.2. The man looked at me angrily. An adverb (angrily) follows look at. The adverb describes the action

of the verb. Look at has the meaning of regard, watch.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

A pronoun is used in place of a noun. It refers to a noun. The noun it refers to is called the antecedent.

I read the book. Itwas good. (The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book.)

Mary said, I drink tea. (The pronoun I refers to the speaker, whose name is Mary.)


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SINGULAR PLURAL

SUBJECT PRONOUNS I We

You You

He, she, it They

OBJECT PRONOUNS Me Us

You You

Her, him, it Them

POSESIVE PRONOUNS mine Ours

Your Yours

Hers, his Theirs

POSESIVE ADJECTIVES My name Our names

Your name Your names

Her, his, its name Their names

Possessive nouns require apostrophes; e.g., That book is Marys. Possessive pronouns do NOT

take apostrophes.

That book is hers, and those books are theirs.

CONTRACTIONS

IN SPEAKING: In everyday spoken English, certain forms of be and auxiliary verbs are usually contracted with

pronouns, nouns and question words.

IN WRITING:

(1) In written English, contractions with pronouns are common in informal writing, but not generally

acceptable in formal writing.

(2)Contractions with nouns and question words are, for the most part, rarely used in writing. A few of

these contractions may be found in quoted dialogue in stories or in very informal writing, such as a

chatty letter to a good friend, but most of them are rarely if ever writing.

Im reading a book with pronouns

Wheres Sally? with question word

The studentsve finished thetest. with noun


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QUESTIONS

FORMS OF YES/NO AND INFORMATION QUESTIONS:

A yes/no question: a question that may be answered by yes or no.

Does she live in Semarang? Answer: Yes, she does. OR No, she doesnt.

An information question: a question that asks for information by using a question word.

Where does she live? Answer: In Semarang.

If the verb is in the simple present, use does (with he, she, it) or do (with I, you, we, they) in the question. If

the verb is simple past, use did. Notice: The main verb in the question is in its simple form; there is no final

s or ed.

She lives there. Does she live there? OR Where does she live?They lived there. Did they live there? OR Where did they live?

If the verb has an auxiliary (a helping verb: do, does, did, have, can, will, etc), the same auxiliary is used in

the question. There is no change in the form of the main verb.

They have lived there. Have they lived there? OR Where have they lived?

If the verb has more than one auxiliary, only the first auxiliary precedes the subject.

He will be living there. Where will he be living? OR Will he be living there?

If the question word is the subject, do not change the verb. Do not use does, do or did.

John lives there. Who lives there?

Be in the simple present (am, is, are) and simple past (were, was)precedes the subject when be is in the

main verb.

They arethere. Are they there? OR Where are they?

QUESTION WORDS

QUESTION WORDS QUESTION ANSWER

WHEN When did you arrive? Yesterday When is used to ask questions about

time.

WHERE Where is she? At home Where is used to ask question about

place

WHY Whydid he leave early? Because hes ill Why is used to ask question about

reason

HOW How does he drive? Carefully How generally asks about manner

How muchmoney does it cost? Ten dollars How is also used with much and many.


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How many people came? Fifteen

How old are you?

How cold is it?

How soon can you get here?

How fast were you driving?

Twelve

Ten below zero

In ten minutes

50 km/h

Howis also used with adjectives and

adverbs

How long has he been here?

How often do you write home?

How far is it to Bandung from

here?

Two years

Every week

50 km

How long asks about length of time

How oftenasks about frequency

How far asks about distance.

WHO Who can answer that question?

Who came to visit you?

I can

Ann and Tom

Who is used as the subject of a question.

It refers to people.

WHOM Who(m) did you see?

Who(m) are you visiting?Who(m)should I talk to?

To whom should I talk? (formal)

I saw Tio

My relativesThe secretary

Whom is used as the object of a verb or

preposition. In spoken English, whom israrely used; whois used instead. Whom is

used only in formal questions. Note:

whom, not whois used if preceded by a

preposition.

WHOSE Whose book did you borrow?

Whose key is this?

(Whose is this?)

Fins

Its mine

Whose asks questions aboutpossession?

WHAT What made you angry?

What went wrong?

His rudeness.

Everything.

What is used as the subject of a question.

It refers to things.

What do you need?

Whatdid Ali buy?

What did he talk about?

About whatdid he talk? (formal)

I need a pencil.

A book.

His vacation.

What is also used as an object.

What kind of soup is that?

What kind of shoes did he buy?

Its bean soup.

Sandals.

What kindof asks about the particular

variety or type of something.

What did you do last night?

What is Mary doin?

I studied.

Reading a book.

What + a form of do is used to ask

questions about activities.

What countries did you visit?

What time did she come?What colour is his hair?

Italy and Spain.

Seven oclock.Dark brown.

What may accompany a noun.

What is Ed like?

What is the weather like?

Hes friendly.

Hot and humid.

What + belike asks for a general

description of qualities.

What does Ed look like?

What does her house look like?

Hes tall.

Its a two-story

red brick house.

What + look likeasks for a physical

description.

WHICH I have two pens.

Which pen do you want?

Which one do you want?

Which do you want?

The blue one

Which is used instead of whatwhen a

question concerns choosing from a

definite, known quantity or group.


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Which book should I buy? That one.

Which countriesdid he visit?

What countries did he visit?

Which class are you in?

What class are you in?

Peru and Chile.

This class.

In some cases, there is little difference in

meaning between whichand whatwhen

they accompany a noun.

NEGATIVE QUESTIONS

In a yes/no question in which the verb is negative, usually a contraction (e.g., does + not = doesnt) is used.

Doesnt she live in the dormitory?

Does she not live in the dormitory? (very formal, usually not used in everyday

speech)

Negative questions are used to indicate the speakers idea (i.e., what s/he believes is or is not true) or

attitude (e.g., surprise, shock, annoyance, anger).

Bob returns to his dorm room after his nine oclock class. Dick, his roommate, is

there. Bob is surprised. Bob says: what are you doing here? Arent you supposed to

be in class now?

Bob believes that Dick is supposed to be in class now. Expected answer: Yes.

The teacher is talking to Jim about a test he failed. The teacher is surprised that Jim

failed the test because he usually does very well. The teacher says: What

happened? Didnt you study?

The teacher believes that Jim did not study. Expected answer: No.

TAG QUESTIONS

A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. Speakers use tag question chiefly to make

sure their information is correct or to seek agreement.

Jack can come, cant he?

Fred cant come, can he?

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + NEGATIVE TAG AFFIRMATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

Mary is here, isnt she? Yes, she is.

You like tes, dont you Yes, I do.

They have left, havent they? Yes, they have.

NEGATIVE SENTENCE + AFFIRMATIVE TAGNEGATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

Mary isnt here, is he? No, she isnt.

You dont like tea, do you? No, I dont.


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They havent left, have they? No, they havent.

The tag pronoun for this/that = it. The tag pronoun for these/those = they.

This/Thatis your book, isnt it?

These/Those are yours, arent they?

In sentences with there + be, there is used in the tag.

There is a meeting tonight, isnt there?

Personal pronouns are used to refer to indefinite pronouns. They is usually used in a tag to refer to

everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody.

Everything is okay, isnt it?Everyone took the test, didnt they?

Sentences with negative words take affirmative tags.

Nothing is wrong, is it?

Nobody called on the phone, did they?

Youvenever been there, haveyou?

Am I not? is formal English. Arent I? is common in spoken English.

I am supposed to be here, am I not?I am supposed to be here, arent I?

NEGATIVES

USING NOTAND OTHER NEGATIVE WORDS

Not expresses a negative idea.

AFFIRMATIVEThe earth is round. NEGATIVEThe earth is not flat.

Not immediately follows an auxiliary verb or be. (Note: If there is more than one auxiliary, not comes

immediately after the first auxiliary; I will not be going there).

Do or does is used with notto make a simple present verb (except be) negative.

Did is used with not to make a simple past verb (except be) negative.

AUX + NOT + MAIN VERB

I will not go there I was not there I did not go there

I have not gone there I do not go there

I am not going there He does not go there


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CONTRACTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS WITH NOT

are not = arent do not = dont must not = mustnt

cannot = cant has not = hasnt should not = shouldnt

could not = couldnt have not = havent was not = wasnt

did not = didnt had not = hadnt were not = werent

does not = doesnt is not = isnt would not = wouldnt

In addition to not, the following are negative adverbs:

Never, rarely, seldom, hardly (ever), scarcely (ever), barely (ever).

I never go there. I have hardly ever gone there.

Noalso expresses a negative idea.

There is nochalk in the drawer.

COMPARE: NOT vs NO

Not is used to make a verb negative. I do not have any money.

No is used as an adjective in front of a noun.I have no money.

AVOIDING DOUBLE NEGATIVES

Double negative is a confusing and grammatically incorrect sentence that contains two negatives in the

same clause. One clause should contain only one negative.

I dont have no money. INCORRECTI dont have any money.CORRECT

I have no money.CORRECT

NOTE: Negative in two different clauses in the same sentence cause no problem. For example: I dont

know why he isnt here.

BEGINNING A SENTENCE WITH A NEGATIVE WORD

When a negative word begins a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted (i.e., question word order is

used). Beginning a sentence with a negative word is relatively uncommon in everyday usage, but is used

when the speaker/writer wishes to emphasize the negative element of the sentence.

Never will I do that again.

Rarely have I eaten better food.

Hardly ever does he come to class on time.


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ARTICLES

BASIC ARTICLE USAGE

1. USINGA or : GENERIC NOUNS

A speaker uses generic nouns to make generalizations. A generic noun represents a whole

class of things; it is not a specific, real, concrete thing but rather a symbol of a whole group.

No article () is used to make generalizations with plural count nouns and uncountable

nouns.

A banana is yellow. SINGULAR COUNT NOUN

Banana are yellow. PLURAL COUNT NOUN

Fruit is good for you.NONCOUNT NOUN

Usually a/anis used with a singular generic count noun.

A window is made of glass. A doctor heals sick people. Parents must give a child love. Abox has six sides. An apple can be red, green, or yellow.

2. USINGA or SOME: INDEFINITE NOUNS

Some is often used with indefinite plural count nouns and indefinite uncountable nouns. In addition to

some, a speaker might use two, a few, several, a lot of, etc., with plural non-count nouns, or a little, a

lot of, etc., with non-plural count nouns.

I ate a banana. SINGULAR COUNT NOUN

I ate some banana. PLURAL COUNT NOUN

I ate some fruit. NONCOUNT NOUN

3.

USING THE: DEFINITE NOUNSA noun is definite when both the speaker and the listener are thinking about the same specific thing.

Theis used with both singular and plural count nouns and with uncountable nouns.

Thank you for the banana. SINGULAR COUNT NOUN. The speaker uses the

because the listener knows which banana the speaker is talking about, i.e., that

particular banana which the listener gave to the speaker.

Thank you for the bananas.PLURAL COUNT NOUN

Thank you for the fruit.NONCOUNT NOUN

The is sometimes used with a singular generic count noun (not a plural generic count noun, not a

generic uncountable noun). Generic the is commonly used with, in particular:

1. Species of animals: The whale is the largest mammal on earth. The elephant is the largest land

mammal.

2. Inventions: Who invented the telephone? the wheel? the refrigerator? the airplane?

The computerwill play an increasingly large role in all of our lives.

3. Musical instrument: Id like to learn to play the piano. Do you play the guitar.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

Use the when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking about the same specific

thing or person you are talking about.


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The sun is bright today.

Please hand this book to the teacher.

Please open the door.

Jack is in the kitchen.

Use the for the second mention of an indefinite noun.

Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse.

The mouse ran into a hole. The hole was very small.

first mention: some dogs, a cat, a mouse, a hole.

second mention: the dogs, the cat, the mouse, the hole.

The is not used for the second mention of a generic noun. COMPARE:

What colour is a banana (generic noun)? A banana (generic noun) is yellow.Tom offered me a banana (indefinite noun) or an apple. I chose the banana (definite

noun).

Do not use the with a plural count noun (e.g., apples) or an uncountable noun (e.g., gold) when you are

making a generalization.

The apples are my favorite fruit. incorrect

Apples are my favorite fruit. correct

The gold is a metal. incorrect

Gold is a metal. correct

Do not use a singular count noun (e.g., car) without: 1. an article ( a/an or the); OR 2. this/that; OR 3. a

possessive pronoun.

I drove car. incorrect

I drove a car. correct

I drove the car. correct

I drove that car. correct

I drove his car. correct


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AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH VERB TENSES

THE SIMPLE TENSES

TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING

SIMPLE PRESENT It snows in Alaska.

I watch television every

day

In general, the simple

present expresses events

or situations that exist

always, usually,

habitually; they exist now,

have existed in the past,

and probably will exist in

the future.

SIMPLE PAST It snowed yesterday.

I watched television last

night.

At one particular time in

the past, this happened. It

began and ended in the

past.

SIMPLE FUTURE It will snow tomorrow.

I will watch televisiontonight.

At one particular time in

the future, this will

happen.

THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES

Form: be + ing (present participle).

Meaning: The progressive tenses give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. The

tenses say that an action begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action.


PRESENT PROGRESSIVE He is sleeping right now. He went to sleep at 10.00

tonight. It is now 11.00

and he is still asleep. His

sleep began in the past, is

in progress at the present

time, and probably will

continue.

X X

X

X

XXXXXXXXXXXXX


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PAST PROGRESSIVE He was sleeping when I

arrived

He went to sleep at 10.00

last night. I arrived at

11.00. He was still asleep.

His sleep began before

and was in progress at a

particular time in the past.

It probably continued.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE He will be sleeping when

we arrive.

He will go to sleep at

10.00 tomorrow night. We

will arrive at 11.00. The

action of sleeping will

begin before we arrive

and it will be in progress

at a particular time in the

future. Probably his sleep

will continue.

THE PERFECT TENSES

Form: have +past participle

Meaning: The perfect tenses all give the idea that one thing happens beforeanother time or event.


PRESENT PERFECT

X1 = eat X2 = now

I havealready eaten. Ifinished eating sometime

before now. The exact

time is not important.

PAST PERFECT

X1 = eat X2 = arrive

I had already eatenwhen

they arrived.

First I finished eating.

Later they arrived. My

eating was completely

finished before another

time in the past.

X1 X2

X1 X2

X X

X X


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FUTURE PERFECT

X1 = eat X2 = arrive

I will already have eaten

when they arrive.

First I will finish eating.

Later they will arrive. My

eating will be completely

finished before another

time in the future.

THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

Form: have + been + -ing (present participle)

Meaning: The perfect progressive tenses give the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up

to, until another time or event. The tenses are used to express the durationof the first event.


PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

X1 - X2 = 2 hours

I havebeen studying for

two hours.

Event in progress:

studying. When? Before

now, up to now.

How long? For two hours.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

X1 - X2 = 2 hours

I had been studying for

two hours before my

friend came.

Event in progress:


another event in the past.


FUTURE PERFECT

X1 - X2 = 2 hours

I will have been studying

for two hours by the time

you arrive.

Event in progress:


another event in the

future.


X1 X2

X1 X2

X1 X2

X1 X2


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PASSIVE VOICE

PASSIVE VOICE FOR ALL TENSES RULES

The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. Third form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice.

Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.

Present Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am/is/are

Active voice:

He sings a song.

He does not sing a song.Does he sing asong?

Passive voice:

A song issung by him.

A song is not sung by him.Isa song sung by him?

Present Continuous Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am being/is being/are being

Active voice:

I am writing a letter

I am not writing a letter.

Am I writing a letter?

Passive voice:

A letter is beingwritten by me.

A letter is not beingwritten by me.

Isa letterbeingwritten by me?

Present Perfect Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: has been/have been

Active voice:

She has finished his work

She has not finished her work.

Has she finished her work?

Passive voice:

Her work has beenfinished by her.

Her work has not beenfinished by her.

Hasher work beenfinished by her?

Past Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was/were

Active voice:

I killed a snake

I did not kill a snake.

Did I kill a snake?

Passive voice:

A snake waskilled by me.

A snake was not killed by me.

Wasa snake killed by me?


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Past Continuous Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was being/were being

Active voice:

He was driving a car.

He was not driving a car.

Was he driving a car?

Passive voice:

A car was beingdriven by him.

A car was not beingdriven by him.

Wasa carbeingdriven by him?

Past Perfect Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: had been

Active voice:

They had completed the assignment.

They had not completed the

assignment.

Had they completed the assignment?

Passive voice:

The assignment had beencompleted by them.

The assignment had not beencomplete by

them.

Hadthe assignment beencompleted by them?

Future Simple Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will be

Active voice:She will buy a car.

She will not buy a car.

Will she buy a car?

Passive voice:A car will bebought by her.

A car will not bebought by her.

Will a car bebought by her?

Future Perfect Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will have been

Active voice:

You will have started the job.You will have not started the job.

Will you have started the job?

Passive voice:

The job will have been started by you.The job will not have beenstarted by you.

Will the job have beenstarted by you?

Note:The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice.

1. Present perfect continuous tense

2. Past perfect continuous tense

3. Future continuous tense

4. Future perfect continuous tense

5. Sentence having Intransitive verbs


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PASSIVE VOICE FOR PRESENT/FUTURE MODALS CAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT

TO

Passive voice for Present/Future ModalsCAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT TO

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: be

Active voice: CAN

She can play a violin.

She cannot play a violin.

Can she play a violin?

Passive voice: CAN BE

A violin can be played by her.

A violin cannot be played by her.

Can a violin be played by her?

Active voice: MAY

I may buy the computer.

I may not buy the computer.

May I buy the computer?

Passive voice: MAY BE

The computer may be bought by me.

The computer may not be bought by me.

May the computer be bought by me?

Active voice: MIGHT

Guests might play chess.

Guests might not play chess.

Passive voice: MIGHT BE

Chess might be played by guests.

Chess might not be played guests.

Active voice: SHOULD

Students should study all lessons.

Students should not study all lessons.

Should students study all lessons?

Passive voice: SHOULD BE

All lessons should be studied by students.All lessons should not be studied by

students.

Should all lessons be studied by students?

Active voice: MUST

You must learn the test-taking strategies.

You must not learn the test-taking

strategies.

Passive voice: MUST BE

Test-taking strategies must be learnt by

you.

Test-taking strategies must not be learned

by you.

Active voice: OUGHT TO

They ought to take the examination.

Passive voice: OUGHT TO BE

The examination ought to be taken by

them.


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Passive voice for Present/Future Modals

MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, MUST HAVE, OUGHT HAVE TO

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: been

Active voice: MAY HAVE

You may have availed the opportunity.

You may not have availed the opportunity.

Passive voice: MAY HAVE BEEN

The opportunity may have been availed by

you.

The opportunity may not have been availed

by you.

Active voice: MIGHT HAVE

He might have eaten meal.

He might not have eaten meal.

Passive voice: MIGHT HAVE BEEN

Meal might have been eaten by him.

Meal might not have been eaten by him.

Active voice: SHOULD HAVE

You should have studied the book.

You should not have studied the book.

Passive voice: SHOULD HAVE BEEN

The book should have been studied by you.

The book should have not been studied by

you.

Active voice: MUST HAVE

He must have started job.

He must not have started job.

Passive voice: MUST HAVE BEEN

Job must have been started by you.

Job must not have been started by you.

Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE

You ought to have helped him.

Passive voice: OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN

He ought to have been helped by you

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

SUMMARY OF BASIC VERB FORM USAGE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

MEANING OF THE

IFCLAUSE

VERB FORM IN THE

IFCLAUSE

VERB FORM IN THE

RESULT CLAUSE

True in the

present/future

Simple present Simple Present If I have enough

time, I write to my

parents every week.

If I have enough

time tomorrow, I

will write to my

parents

Untrue in the Simple past Would + simple form If I had enough time

now, I would write


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present/future to my parents. (In

truth, I do not have

enough time, so I

will not write to

them.)

Untrue in the past Past perfect would have + past

participle

If I had enough time,

I would have written

to my parents

yesterday. (In truth, I

did not have enough

time, so I did not

write to them.)

TRUE IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE

a. If I dont eat breakfast, I always get

hungry during class.

b. Water freezes (will freeze) if the

temperature goes below 32oF.

In (a): The simple present is used in the

result clause to express a habitual activity or

situation.

In (b): Either the simple present or the

simple future is used in the result clause to

express an established, predictable fact.

c. If I dont eat breakfast tomorrow

morning, I will get hungry during class.

d. If the weather is nice tomorrow, we will

go on a picnic.

In (c) and (d): The simple future is used in

the result clause when the sentence

concerns a particular activity or situation in

the future.

Note: The simple present, not the simple

future, is used in the if clause.

UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PRESENT/FUTURE

e. If I taughtthis class, I wouldnt give tests.

f. If he werehere right now, he wouldhelp

In (e): In truth, I dont teach this class.

In (f): In truth, he is not here right now.


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us.

g. If I were you, I would accept their

invitation.

In (g): In truth, I am not you.

Note: Were is used for both singular and

plural subjects. Was (with I, he, she, it) issometimes used in very informal speech but

is not generally considered grammatically

acceptable.

UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PAST

h. If you had told me about the problem, I

would have helped you.

i. If they had studied, they would havepast

the exam.

j. If I hadnt slipped on the ice, I wouldnt

have broken my arm.

In (h): In truth, you did not tell me about it.

In (i): In truth, they did not study. They

failed the exam.

In (j): In truth, I slipped on the ice. I broke

my arm.

Note: The auxiliary verbs are almost always

contracted in speech. If youd told me, I

wouldve helped you (or: Idve helped

you).

USING PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS

a. TRUE: It is raining right now, so I will not go for a walk.

CONDITIONAL: If it were not raining right now, I would go for a walk.

b. TRUE: I am not livingin Chile, I am not working ata bank.

CONDITIONAL: If I were livingin Chile, I would be workingat a bank.

c. TRUE: It was rainingyesterday afternoon, so I did not gofor a walk.

CONDITIONAL: If it had not been raining, I would have gonefor a walk.

d. TRUE: I was not livingin Chile last year. I was not workingat a bank.

CONDITIONAL: If I had been living in Chile last year, I would have been working at a

bank.

Note: Even in conditional sentences, progressive verb forms are used in progressive


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situations. (See 3-5 for a discussion of progressive verbs.)

USING MIXED TIME IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

e. TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.

CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.

(past) (present)

f. TRUE: He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.

CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test.

(present) (past)

Note: Frequently the time in the if clause and the time in the result clause are

different: one clause may be in the present and the other in the past.

USING COULD, MIGHT, AND SHOULD

a. If I were a bird, I could fly home

b. If I could sing as well as you, I would join

the opera.

c. If Id had enough money, I could have

gone to Florida for vacation.

In (a): could fly = would be able to fly

In (b): could sing = were able to sing

In (c): could have gone = would have been

able to go

d. If I dont get a scholarship, I might get a

job instead of going to graduate school next

fall.

e. If you were a better student, you might

get better grades.

f. If you had told me about your problem, I

might have been able to help you.

In (d): I might get = maybe I will get

In (e): you might get = maybe you would get

In (f): I might have been = maybe I wouldhave been.

g. If John should call, tell him Ill be back

around five.

h. If there should be another world war, the

continued existence of the human race

In (g): If John should call indicates a little

more uncertainty or doubt than If John calls,

but the meaning of the two is basically the

same.


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would be in jeopardy. In (h): If there should be indicates more

uncertainty or doubt than If there were.

OMITTING IF

a. Were I you, I wouldnt do that.

b. Had I known about it, I would have told

you.

c. Should anyone call, please take a

massage.

With were, had(past perfect), and should,

sometimes ifis omitted and the subject and

verb are inverted.

In (a): Were I you = If I were you

In (b): Had I known = If I had known

In (c): Should anyone call = If anyone should

call

IMPLIED CONDITIONS

d. I would have gone with you, but I had to

study. (Implied condition: if I hadnt had

to study).

e. I never would have succeeded without

your help. (Implied condition: if you

hadnt helped me).

Often the ifclause is implied, not stated.

Conditional verbs are still used in the result

clause.

f. She ran; otherwise, she should have

missed her bus.

Conditional verbs are frequently used

following otherwise. In (f), the implied if

clause is: If she had not run


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READING SKILLS

USING DICTIONARY

OWNING TWO GOOD DICTIONARIES

1. A paper back dictionary you can carry with you

2. A desk-sized, hardcover edition which should be kept in the room where you study

FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY

1. Using Guide Wordsto Find a Word more Quickly: the pair of words at the top of each dictionary page. The

first guide Wordtells what the first word is on the page. The second guide word tells what the last word

is on the page. All of the words on the page fall alphabetically between the two guide words

2. Finding a Word You cant spell:

a. Hint 1: If you are not sure about the vowels in a word, you will simply have to experiment. Vowels

often sound the same. So try an i in place of an a, an i in place of an e, and so on.

b. There are groups of letters or letter combinations that often sound alike. If your word isnt spelled with

one of the letters in a pair or group, it might be spelled with another in the same pair or group. See p.

11 (Reff. 4).

LEARNING FROM A DICTIONARY ENTRY

There are six common parts of dictionary word entries:

1. Spelling and syllables

2. Pronunciation Symbols and Accent Marks

3. Parts of speech

4. Irregular spellings

5. Definitions

6. Synonyms

Ad. 1: SPELLING & SYLLABLES

The dictionary first gives the correct spelling and syllable breakdown of a word. Do not separate the words

into syllables. Each syllable is a separate sound, and each sound includes a vowel.

Ad. 2: PRONUNCIATION SYMBOLS AND ACCENT MARKS

The Pronunciation symbols tell the sounds of consonants and vowels in a word. Use the pronunciation key

to know how to pronounce the vowel sounds. See p. 14 (Reff. 4).

Accent mark shows which syllable has the stronger stress. The syllables without an accent mark are

unstresses.


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Example: in.sult

Ad. 3: PARTS OF SPEECHEvery word in the dictionary is either a noun, a verb, an adjective, or another part of speech. In dictionary

entries, the part of speech are shown by letters in italics. For example, in the entry for insult, the

abbreviations v and n tell us that insult is both a verb and a noun.

Ad. 4: IRREGULAR SPELLINGS

When other forms of a word are spelled in an irregular way, those forms are shown.

Ad. 5: DEFINITIONS

Words often have more than one meaning. When they do, their definitions may be numbered in thedictionary. You can tell which definition of a word fits a given sentence by the meaning of the sentence.

Ad. 6: SYNONYMS

A synonym is a word whose meaning is similar to that of another word. For example, two synonyms for the

wordfast are quick and speedy.

VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT

THE CONTEXT

The words surrounding the unfamiliar word which provides clues to each words meaning.

Using context clues to understand new words will help you in a few important ways:

1. It will save you time when reading

2. It will improve your understanding of what you read because you will know more of the words

3. It will expand your vocabulary

TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES

There are four common types of context clues:

1. Examples

2. Synonyms

3. Antonyms

4. General Sense of the Sentence or passage

Ad. 1: EXAMPLES

Examples of an unknown word may reveal the words meaning.


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Examples may be introduced with such signal words asfor example, for instance, including and such as.

Example:

In our house, hangers have various functions. For instance, in addition toholding clothing, they scratch

backs and hold up plants in the garden.

Definition offunctions:

a. shapes b. problems c. uses

Ad. 2: SYNONYMS

Synonyms are words that mean the same, or almost the same, as the unknown word. The synonyms are

often set off by commas, dashes, orparentheses. Also, they may be introduced by the words OR and THAT

IS. A synonym may also appear anywhere in a sentence as a restatement of the meaning of the unknown

word.Example:

With the temperature so cold this winter, the supply of natural gas for heating could be depleted, or used

up, by spring.

Ad. 3: ANTONYMS

Antonyms are words and phrases that mean the opposite of a word are also useful context clues.

Antonyms are often signaled by words and phrases such as however, but, yet, on the other hand and in

contrast.

Example:Some teachers are too lenient they have no rules in class and no real goals. Id rather have a strict

teacher who took class seriously.

Definition of lenient:

a. hard b. easygoing c. busy

Ad. 4: GENERAL SENSE OF THE SENTENCE OR PASSAGE

Sometimes you can find a new words meaning through the other ideas in a passage. Asking yourself

questions about the passage may help.

Example:

The owners mutedthe noises in their restaurant by installing special ceiling tiles and dividers between the

booths. (Hint: What would restaurant owners probably want to do about noise?)


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MAIN IDEAS

The most helpful reading skill is the ability to find an author's main idea.

UNDERSTANDING THE MAIN IDEA

The main idea is the central point of a passagea general idea

It appears in a sentence called the topic sentence. The rest of the paragraph consists of specific details in

the form of examples, reasons, facts, and other supporting evidence that support and explain the main

idea.

Under the main idea fits all the other material of the paragraph.

READING:As a rule, most of my dreams at night are pleasant ones. Recently, though, I had a really bad dream. I was in an

alley dressed in light summer clothing. Coming out of the darkness at the end of the alley were hundreds of

large gray rats. They razor-sharp teeth glistened with saliva, and their eyes glowed red with a cold fury. I

turned to run away, but attacking in the other direction were a dozen pit bulls. And these particular pit bulls

were foaming at the mouth; they all had rabies. Just my luck, I muttered, and did my best to wake up as

quickly as possible.

GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS

To improve your skill at finding main ideas, it will be helpful to practice separating general from

specific ideas.

General ideas are broad and specific ideas are narrower

General ideas include many specific ideas

Example: temperature units is the general idea and Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are the specific

ideas

Physics is the general idea and mechanics, heat, sound are specific ideas

MOVING FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

Ideas can be arranged in order of how general or specific they are

Example: meal is more general than lunch (lunch is one kind of meal) and lunch is more general than

sandwich (sandwich is one type of lunch)

. Rock concert .. Performance . Concert (put 1, 2 and 3)

TOPICS

The topic is the subject that a selection (e.g a paragraph) is about. It is a general term that can usually be

expressed in a few words.

Recognizing the topic of a selection can help you find the main idea.


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To find the topic of a selection, ask this simple question:

In general, who or what is the selection about?

Does this subject include much more than what the passage is about? (If so, the subject is too broad to

be the topic)

Is there important information in the passage that isnt covered by the subject? (If so, th e subject is too

narrow to be the topic)

READING:

Getting rid of garbage is an enormous problem in the United States. We must deal with over a billion pounds

of garbage every day. That number is equal to about six to seven pounds of solid waste per person. A large

amount of garbage is burned, but that creates air pollution. Ravines and swampy areas have been used for

dumping garbage, but such locations near cities are fast being used up.

The topic of the paragraph:

a. The worlds garbage problem

b. Getting rid of garbage in the US

c. US dumping grounds

TOPIC SENTENCES

The topic sentence is the sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph.

Once you have found the topic, you should ask yourself the question: What is the authors main pointabout the topic?

To become skilled at finding main ideas, it can be helpful to distinguish between a passages topic, main

idea and supporting details.

The topic will be the subject the items are about.

The main idea will be the author's main point about the topic.

The supporting details will be specific ideas that help explain the main idea.

Note that in longer selections made up of many paragraphs, such as articles or text book chapters, there is

an overall main idea called the central point.

CONCLUSION

In order to recognize the main idea of a passage as expressed in its topic sentence, there are two activities can

be done:

1. recognizing general-specific relationships

2. distinguishing the topic of a paragraph from subjects that are too broad or too narrow


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LOCATIONS OF MAIN IDEAS

It was already known that most of the main idea is in the first sentence of the paragraph. But, the main idea

may also appear elsewhere in the paragraph as well.

TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST IN A PARAGRAPH

Authors often begin a paragraph with the main idea. The rest of the paragraph then supports the main

idea with details.

Topic sentence

Supporting details

Supporting details

Supporting details

TOPIC SENTENCE WITHIN A PARAGRAPH

The topic sentence often follows one or more introductory sentences. These opening sentences may catch

the readers interest, relate the main idea to a previous paragraph, or give background for the main idea.

Introductory details

Topic sentence

Supporting details

Supporting detailsSupporting details

It is fairly common for the topic sentence to appear in the second or third sentence of the paragraph. But

the topic sentence may appear at times anywhere within a paragraph.

TOPIC SENTENCE AT THE END OF A PARAGRAPH

When the topic sentence comes at the end of a paragraph, the previous sentences build up to

the main idea.

Supporting details

Supporting details

Supporting details

Topic sentence


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TWO TOPIC SENTENCES: FIRST AND LAST

When there are two topic sentences in a paragraph, they are often at the beginning and the end. In such

cases, the author has chosen to introduce the main idea at the start of the paragraph and then emphasize

it by restating it in other words at the end.

Topic sentence

Supporting details

Supporting details

Supporting details

Topic sentence

TOPIC SENTENCE IMPLIEDSometimes a paragraph will lack a topic sentence, but that does not mean it lacks a main idea. The author

may have decided to let details of the selection suggest the main idea.

Supporting details

Supporting details

Supporting details

Supporting details

SUPPORTING DETAILS

Supporting details (SD) are reasons, examples, steps, or other kinds of factual evidence that explain main

ideas.

SD usually help to contrast them with details that do not support that main ideas.

SD develop a main idea (tell us more about the main idea) by proving it with reasons, byillustrating it orby

explaining it.

To decide whether a sentence does or does not support a main idea, ask the following questions:

Does this sentence give details that make the main idea clear? If the sentence clarifies the main idea, it is

a supporting detail.

Does it introduce a totally new point? If the sentence introduces a new point, it does not support the

main idea.

Example:

There are several steps to previewing a textbook chapter

a.

First of all, note carefully the title-it tells you the topic of the entire chapter.


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b. Then read the first and last paragraphs, which often summarize the main ideas of the chapter.

c. Previewing, however, is not the way to read fiction.

In order to clearly understand the main idea in a selection, you need to carefully read the supporting details.If you read attentively, you are not likely to misinterpret what the author is saying. Your understanding will

also be strengthened by noting the relationship of the main idea and its supporting details.

There are two levels of supporting details: major and minor

Major supporting details: the separate, primary points that support the main idea

Minor supporting details: provide more information about the major details. They clarify the major details by

illustrating them.

Two helpful ways to find major details:

1.

Find an opening phrase: several kinds of, a few causes, two advantages, several characteristics, among theresults, four steps, three factors, etc.

2. Find addition words, such asfirst, second, next, first of all, in addition, finally, moreover, another, also, last

of all, etc.

TRANSITIONS

Transitions are words and phrases that show the connections between ideas.

A transition bridges the gap from one idea to the other. It carries the reader across from one thought toanother.

Two helpful points to keep in mind about transitions:

1. Certain words within a group mean very much about the same thing . Authors often use different

transitions simply for the sake of variety.

For example: also and moreoverboth mean in addition.

2. In some cases, the same word can serve as two different types of transitions, depending on how it is

used.

For example:

The wordfirst may be an addition word, as in the following sentence:

My brother has some strange kitchen habits. First, he loves to cook with the radio on full blast. Moreover,

First may also be used to signal a time sequence, as in this sentence:

Our English class had several interruptions this morning. First, the radiator began squeaking. Then,


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There are a number of ways in which transitions connect ideas and show relationships. The major types of

transitions:

1. Words that show addition

2.

Words that show time3. Words that show contrast

4. Words that show comparison

5. Words that show illustration

6. Words that show cause and effect

WORDS THAT SHOW ADDITION

Addition words tell us that one or more ideas continue in the same line of thought as a previous idea. They

introduce ideas that addto what has already been mentioned.

Example:1. Paperback books take up less shelf space than hardcover books. They are less expensive.

2. Paperback books take up less shelf space than hardcover books. They are also less expensive.

WORDS THAT SHOW TIME

The transitions showing time indicate time relationships. They tell the reader when something happened

in relation to something else.

Time words: first, next, often, before, during, after, when, then, now

Example:

I begin my Things To Do list by writing down everything I need to do the next day. Then I label each itemA (very important), B (important), or C (not important).

WORDS THAT SHOW CONTRAST

Contrast words show that two things differin one or more ways.

Some common contrast words: but, however, yet, in contrast, instead, still, on the other hand, even

though, although.

Example:

The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, butthe summers are hot and humid.

WORDS THAT SHOW COMPARISON

The comparison words signal that the author is pointing out a similarity between two subjects. The words

tell us that the second subject is likethe first one in some way.

Common comparison words: like, as, just like, just as, likewise, similarly, in like manner, in the same way,

as well, as if, equally.

Example: Parents today often dislike the music their children listen to, just as their own parents disliked

the Beatles or the Rolling Stones.


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WORDS THAT SHOW ILLUSTRATION

Illustration words point out that one or more examples will be used to explain a given idea. They tell us

that a specific detail is being provided as an example.

Common illustration words:

For example, for instance, to illustrate, once, such as, including

Example:

Uncle Arthur has several annoying habits, such as flicking cigar ashes onto the tablecloth and picking his

teeth with a fork.

WORDS THAT SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause and effect words show that the author is discussing the reason or reasons why something

happened. One event caused another to happen.Common cause-and-effect words: because, since, reason, the result was, if then, so, therefore, thus, as a

result.

USING A VARIETY OF TRANSITIONS

COMMON TRANSITIONS AND THEIR MEANINGS

Transition Word Meaning

and In addition

also In addition

moreover In addition

furthermore In addition

but However

yet However

On the other hand However

nevertheless However

So As a result

Therefore As a result

Thus As a result

Consequently As a result

PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

To help readers understand their main ideas, authors try to present supporting details in a clearly organized

way. Details might be arranged in any of several common patterns. Sometimes authors may build a paragraph

or longer passage entirely on one pattern; more often, the patterns are mixed. By recognizing the patterns,

you will be better able to make sense of what you read.

Five basic patterns of organizations:

1.

Time order


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2. List of Items

3. Comparisons and/or Contrast

4. Cause and Effect

5.

Definition and Example

The transitions used by each pattern:

Pattern Transitions Used

Time order Words that show time (then, next, after, )

List of items Words that show addition (also, another, moreover, )

Comparison and/or

contrast

Words that show comparison or contrast (like, just as,

however, in contrast, )

Cause and effect Words that show cause and effect (because, as a result,

since,)

Definition and example Words that show illustration (for example, to illustrate, )

TIME ORDER

Time order can be divided into two types: a series of events or stages and a series of steps (directions).

1. Stages in a process are organized in the order in which they happen according to time order. (See p.

170)

2. Directions use time order to explain a series of steps towards a specific goal. (See p. 172)

LIST OF ITEMS

A list of items refers to a series of details, such as reasons or examples that support a point. The items

have no time order, so they are listed in the order the author prefers.

COMPARISONS AND/OR CONTRAST

The comparison and/or contrast pattern shows how two things are alike or how they are different, or

both. When things are compared, their similarities are pointed out; when they are contrasted, their

differences are discussed.

Cause and Effect

Cause-effect paragraphs answer such questions as What are the causes of an event? or What are the

effectsof an event?. They dont just tell whathappened; they explain whyas well.

Example: (See p. 180)

DEFINITION AND EXAMPLE

If a word or term is likely to be new to readers, the author may include a definition. Then, to make sure

that definition is clear, the author may explain it with one or more examples.

Example: (See p. 184)

TOPIC SENTENCES AND PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

A paragraphs topic sentence often suggests its pattern of organization.


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For example, the topic sentence of there are four initial stages in the life of a newborn baby kangaroo, called a

joey.

This sentence strongly suggests that the paragraph will go on to list those four stages. Even before reading the

paragraph, you can expect that it will be organized according to time order (a series of steps).

INFERENCES

Making inferences or drawing conclusions isdiscovering the ideas that are not stated directly.

An inference is a reasonable guess or logical conclusion that we make based on the evidence presented.

Example:See the passage about an authors bad dream and p. 200.

READING:

As a rule, most of my dreams at night are pleasant ones. Recently, though, I had a really bad dream. I was in an

alley dressed in light summer clothing. Coming out of the darkness at the end of the alley were hundreds of

large gray rats. Their razor-sharp teeth glistened with saliva, and their eyes glowed red with a cold fury. I

turned to run away, but attacking in the other direction were a dozen pit bulls. And these particular pit bulls

were foaming at the mouth; they all had rabies. Just my luck, I muttered, and did my best to wake up as

quickly as possible.

Which one of the following inferences is most soundly supported by the evidence in the passage?

1. This was the worst dream the author ever had.

2. The author did not sleep the rest of the night.

3. The author hates animals.

4. The author had a dramatic dream.

In our everyday reading, we make logical leaps from the information given directly on the page to ideas that

are not stated directly. To draw such inferences, we use all the clues provided: by the writer,

by our own experience, and

by logic.


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LANGUAGE FOR DISCUSSIONPRESENTER & AUDIENCE

STARTING

Good morning/afternoon/evening, ladies and gentlemen.

Shall we begin.

Lets get started then.

There are three/several/a number of points Id like to make.

I would like to begin by .

INTRODUCTION OF TOPIC

I intend to talk about X

I would like to tell you what I have learned about X

My paper is concerned with X

The seminar paper that I am presenting is on X

My topic is X

METHOD OF PRESENTATION

I intend to divide this talk into parts: A, B, C and D

The way I am going to present my paper is by grouping A and B together and then giving

several examples.I propose to present my paper in several stages: firstly, a review of A, then an attack on B, and

finally an analysis of C.

STATING THE CONTENT OF THE PAPER

Well, to start at part A,

OK then, lets go back to start with my first point.

Right then. To begin with .


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CONNECTING THE PARTS OF THE PAPER

Well, thats all I want to say about A. Shall we turn now to part B.

Unfortunately because of the shortage of time, I will have to leave part A there and go on to B.

Perhaps we can come back to talk about part Aa little more later on, but for now Ill have to

stress on with part B.

CONCLUDING / SUMMARIZING

Finally,

In conclusion,

So, as you can see, my research is about these areas .

The final point I wish to make is .

To sum up then, .

Briefly, the main points that have been made are .

INVITING QUESTIONS

Ill be happy to answer any questions now.

If you have any questions, Ill try my best to answer them.

Please feel free to ask me any questions.

Do you have any questions or comments?

ASKING FOR AN OPINION

Whats your opinion of .

Whats your position / view on .


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GIVING AN OPINION

I believe/think/feel that .

In my opinion/view .

BRINGING IN ANOTHER SPEAKER

Id like to call on Mr/Mrs L to present her views on .

Allow me to give the floor to Ms G

AGREEING

I agree entirely/completely.

I think we are in agreement on that.

AGREEING PARTIALLY

I would intend to agree with you on that.

I agree with you on the whole, but

DISAGREEING TACTFULLY

I agree up to a point, but To a certain extent I agree with you, but .

DISAGREEING

Im sorry, but I really cant agree with you on that.

With all due respect, I must disagree.

INTERRUPTING

If I may just interrupt you for a moment, Id like to .

I dont want to interrupt, but .


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TAKING THE FLOOR

I wonder if I might comment on that last point?

Could/may I come in at this point?

CORRECTING MISUNDERSTANDINGS

Im afraid there seems to have been a slight misunderstanding.

Perhaps I should make that clearer by saying .

ASKING FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Could you be a little more specific/precise?Im sorry, but could you explain in a little more detail?

EVADING THE ISSUE

Thats a very interesting/complex question and .

Im afraid Im not in a position to comment on that just yet.

MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSALS AND SUGGESTIONS

I recommend/propose/suggest that

I wonder if we shouldnt think about .

PERSUADING

Have you taken into account.?

Wouldnt you agree that ?

EMPHASIZINGI particularly want to emphasize/stress/highlight the fact that

We mustnt underestimate/underrate the importance of .

OFFERRING A COMPROMISE

We are prepared to , on condition that .

We would be willing to .., provided that .


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Mathematics VocabularyAddition Minus SubtractionSums Equal Greater than (>)

Less than (


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References

Azar, Betty Schrampfer. 1999. Understanding and Using English Grammar. New York: Longman.

Daswani, C.J. dan Daswani, T.C., 1997.A Rapid Course in English Language. Malaysia: Synergy Books

International.

Depdiknas. 2004. Ungkapan-ungkapan Bahasa Inggris untuk Tujuan Pembelajaran

IALF. 1994. Language for Discussion. Bahan Pelatihan EAP.

Langan, John and Bill Broderick. 1993. Ten Steps to Building College Reading Skills (Second Edition). New

Jersey:Townsend Press, Inc.

General English Material

Documents

Transcript of General English Material