GENEALOGY AND DNA - Ontario Genealogical Society · SOME RELEVANT DEFINITIONS • DNA =...
Transcript of GENEALOGY AND DNA - Ontario Genealogical Society · SOME RELEVANT DEFINITIONS • DNA =...
DR . MARGAR E T ANN W I L K I N SON P R O F E S S O R , F A C U L T Y O F L A W
W E S T E R N U N I V E R S I T Y WITHTHANKSTOLAWSTUDENTAVERYLEE,WHOSERESEARCHCONTRIBUTIONWASSUPPORTED
BYTHESOCIALSCIENCESANDHUMANITIESCOUNCILGRANTHELDBYMISTRALEGOUDREAU(OTTAWA)ANDMARGARETANNWILKINSON(WESTERN)
GENEALOGYANDDNA
LondonGenealogicalSocietySaturdayOctober14,2017.
CLANMACKENZIESOCIETYOFCANADA
• Currentwebsite(hPp://www.clanmackenziecanada.ca)informaYon:
“TheSociety…inrecentyearshasestablishedaDNAProjecttohelpmembersfindcloserelaYonshipswithothersofthesamenameandmatchingDNAresults.”
SOMERELEVANTDEFINITIONS
• DNA=“deoxyribonucleicacidmoleculethatencodesgeneNc informaNonoforganismsandisoPenreferredto astheblueprintoflife”
• DNAprofile=“aseriesof26numbersrepresenNngthe numberofDNArepeatsofspecificsequencesat13 locaNonsortestregions.DuetothevariaNoninthe differentlocaNons[onthegene]acollecNveprofileis generatedwhichishighlydiscriminaNngbetween individuals.”(asusedintheworldwideelectronicdatabasesystemforcriminallawenforcementknownasCODIS[COmbinedDNAIndexSystem])
(DefiniYonstakenfromtheGlossaryprovidedbytheRCMPathPp://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/nddb-bndg/gloss-eng.htm)
HOWUSEFULISAUTOSOMALDNAMATCHING?
1stdegreerelaYves(parents,children,siblings)shareabout50%ofyourDNA:highlyaccuratetestscanbeperformedForeachdegreeofremovaladerthat,theexpectedaccuracyiscutinhalf(3rddegreerelaYves–1stcousinsorgreat-grandparents–will,onaverage,onlymatchwithyourDNA12.5%oftheYme)becauseautosomalDNAinheritanceaderthe1stdegreerelaYonshipoccursrandomly!TheDNAmatchingcanconfirmarelaYonship–especiallyfor1stdegreeanduptothe2nddegree(eggrandparentstoyou).However,beyondthe1stdegree,itcannotdisprovearelaYonship.
WHENDOESLAWINTERSECTWITHGENEALOGY?
When,asagenealogist,youaskeitherofthefollowingtwoquesYons:1. WhocontrolsaccesstotheinformaYon
thatyouareseekingaboutafamilyorindividual?
2. WhocontrolstheinformaYonaboutafamilytreethatyoupulltogether?
HOWISDNAREGULATEDINTERMSOFGENEALOGY?
ThereisspecificlawinCanadagoverningtheuseofDNA—butonly(1) inthecriminalcontext
seeDNAIden)fica)onAct,SC(StatutesofCanada)1998,c37
and(2) toprohibitrequiringgeneYctesYngasacondiYonforenteringintoor
conYnuingacontractwithanindividualorprovidinggoodsorservicestoanindividual(amendingboththefederalCanadaLabourCodeandCanadianHumanRightsAct,butaffecYngnoprovinciallegislaYon).
seeGene)cNon-Discrimina)onAct,SC2017,c3.
Neitheroftheseenactmentsisrelevanttogenealogy.
SO,DOESANYLAWGOVERNDNAINAWAYTHATINTERSECTSWITHGENEALOGY?
Doesanylawgovernwhen,asagenealogist,youaskeitherofthefollowingtwoquesYons:1. DoesthelawgivecontroloveraccesstoDNA
informaYonthatyouareseekingaboutafamilyorindividualtoanyoneotherthanyou,asagenealogist?
2. DoesthelawgivecontroloverDNAinformaYonaboutindividualsyouwanttoputintoagenealogythatyoupulltogethertoanyoneotherthanyou,asagenealogist?
INGENERAL,THEREISLAWTHATGOVERNSWHEN,ASAGENEALOGIST,YOUASKEITHEROFTHEFOLLOWINGTWOQUESTIONS:
1. DoesthelawgivecontroloveraccesstoDNAinformaYonthatyouareseekingaboutafamilyorindividualtoanyoneotherthanyou,asagenealogist?
2. Doesthelawgivecontroltoanyoneotherthanyou,asagenealogist,overDNAinformaYonyoupulltogetheraboutindividualsandthatyouwanttodisseminateaspartofyourgenealogicaloutput?
STARTINGWITHACCESSINGANOTHER’SDNAASAGENEALOGIST…
Doesanylawgovernwhen,asagenealogist,youask:1. Doesthelawgivecontroloveraccessto
DNAinformaYonthatyouareseekingaboutafamilyorindividualtoanyoneotherthanyou,asagenealogist?
IFTHEREISNOSPECIFICLEGISLATIONREGULATINGDNAINTHECONTEXTOFGENEALOGY,ISTHEREANY
RELEVANTLAW?
• Privacylaw• AccesslegislaNon• PersonaldataprotecNonlegislaNon• Contractlaw
NoneoftheseareasoflawexplicitlyreferstoDNAbutanyorallmayinvolvedingoverninginformaYonaboutanindividual’sDNAinthecontextofgenealogy.
ISTHE1982CHARTEROFRIGHTSANDFREEDOMSPARTOFOURCONSTITUTIONINVOLVEDWHENDEALINGWITHDNA?
1stcaveat:
TherightscontainedwithintheCharteronlyrelatetoprotecYonofCanadiansfromgovernmentacYon,notrelaYonshipsbetweenprivateparYes(ie.,notbetweenindividualsandindividualsorindividualsandbusinesses)…
2ndcaveat:• WhiletheCharters.2(b)specificallyenshrines“freedomofexpression”–andthisrighthasbeenjudiciallyinterpretedtoincluderightstoaccessinformaYon–
• AndthoughclearlycertainprivacyinterestsareinvolvedinsomeCharterprotecYons: s.7.Everyonehastherighttolife,
libertyandsecurityofthepersonandtherightnottobedeprivedthereofexceptinaccordancewiththeprinciplesoffundamentaljusYce.
s.8.Everyonehastherighttobesecureagainstunreasonablesearchorseizure;
“privacy,” perse,doesnotappearintheCharter…
HOWEVER,WITHOUTDOUBT,GOVERNMENTSANDTHECOURTSARETAKINGPRIVACYINTERESTSSERIOUSLY:
AndinRvPlant(3SupremeCourtReports281),considerings.8oftheCharter,andprotecYonfromgovernmentintervenYon,theSupremeCourtsaid,in1993:
“Infosteringtheunderlyingvaluesofdignity,integrityandautonomy,itisfitngthats.8oftheChartershouldseektoprotectabiographicalcoreofpersonalinformaYonwhichindividualsinafreeanddemocraYcsocietywouldwishtomaintainandcontrolfromdisseminaYontothestate.ThiswouldincludeinformaYonwhichtendstorevealinYmatedetailsofthelifestyleandpersonalchoicesoftheindividual.”
NONETHELESS,“PRIVACY”PROTECTION(PROTECTIONOFTHESTATEOFBEINGLEFTALONE)IS,INCANADA,
BESTDEVELOPEDINQUEBEC
QuebechasaprovincialstatuteenYtledthe
QuebecCharterofRightsandFreedoms– whichhasbeenrecognizedbytheSupremeCourtasconsYtuYonalwithinthatprovince(seeAubryvEdiIonsVice-Versa[1998]1SCR591).
Itstates:s.4Everypersonhasarighttothesafeguardofhisdignity,honourand
reputaYon
s.5Everypersonhasarighttorespectforhisprivatelife
s.9Everypersonhasarighttonon-disclosureofconfidenYal informaYon
FORTHERESTOFCANADA
TheSupremeCourthasstatedsomeYmeago(2002)inLavignevCanada:
“...thePrivacyAct[whichis,technically,apersonaldataprotecYonstatute]hasbeencharacterizedbythisCourtas‘quasi-consYtuYonal’becauseoftheroleprivacyplaysinthepreservaYonofafreeanddemocraYcsociety”
DNAANDPERSONALDATAPROTECTIONLEGISLATION
YouraccesstoinformaYonaboutothersheldbyorganizaYonsinCanadaisincreasinglylimitedasgenealogistsbecause…
• Since1977wehavehadincreasingPERSONALDATAPROTECTIONlegislaYoninthiscountry–beginninginthepublicsector…
• Especiallysince2004,virtuallyallprivatesectororganizaYonsinCanadahavealsobecomesubjecttopersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon
• Andthereisevenmorerecentjointpublic-privatelegislaYonintheHEALTHSECTORinalmosteveryprovince&territory…
HOWDOESTHISAFFECTGENEALOGYWORK?
• GovernmentandprivatesourceswillrefusetogiveinformaYonaboutpeoplelivingorrecentlydeceasedtoanyoneworkingongenealogy…
• IfyouareworkingonagenealogyformoneyinOntario,youyourselfwillhavetocomplywiththefederalprivatesectorpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon(PIPEDA)inyourownhandlingofinformaYonyoucollectfromanysourceaboutpersonswhoarealiveorrecentlydeceased…
WHYDOESAGENEALOGISTWORKINGONFAMILYHISTORIESASAHOBBY,NOTHAVETOWORRYABOUTHERORHISHANDLINGOF
INFORMATIONABOUTLIVINGORRECENTLYDEADPEOPLE?
• PIPEDAs.4(2)Thispartdoesnotapplyto(b)anyindividualinrespectofinformaIonthattheindividualcollects,usesordisclosesFORPERSONALorDOMESTICPURPOSESanddoesnotcollect,useordiscloseforanyotherpurpose
• PIPEDAs.4(2)Thispartdoesnotapplyto(c)anyorganizaIoninrespectofpersonalinformaIonthattheorganizaIoncollects,usesordisclosesFORJOURNALISTIC,ARTISTICorLITERARYPURPOSESanddoesnotcollect,useordiscloseforanyotherpurpose.
WHYDOESPERSONALDATAPROTECTIONAFFECTGENEALOGY?
• UnderpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon,onlyinformaYonaboutyouisyourdata–informaYonaboutothermembersofyourfamilyistheirdata.
• UnderpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon,thegeneralprincipleisthatiforganizaYonsholddataaboutotherpeople,includingthemembersofyourfamily,organizaYonsmustNOTreleaseittoyou.
• If,ontheotherhand,organizaYonsholdinformaYonaboutyou,thoseorganizaYonsmustreleaseittoyou.
PersonalDataProtecYonEvoluYoninCanada
Privacy as a human rights concept
Ensuring transportability of data between countries
Europe- Early 1980’s
OECD Guidelines 1984
European Data Directive 1995- in force 1998 -no European company can ship data to a non-complying country
CANADA
Public Sector - covered, to varying degrees, between 1978 and 2008 (paired with Access legislation: must release on request unless exception)
Private Sector -Quebec from1993; later, Alta and BC - federal PIPEDA (2001 & more in 2004) covers other 7 provinces & territories
Health Sector - Nfld PIPEDA OK - NB) “ - Ontario “ - NS “ - Alta Not PIPEDA OK – need to comply - Sask “ with PIPEDA & - Man “ provincial or - PEI “ territorial - Yukon “ - NWT “ (BC, Que & Nunavut no special health sector)
BUTALLPERSONALDATAPROTECTION(PDP)STATUTESINCANADAHAVEACOMMONFRAMEWORK:
AllPDPstatutesgovernallrecordsheldbyanorganizaYonthatcontainpersonallyidenYfiableinformaYon–intermsof:• CollecNon• Use• DisseminaNon• Disposal
Thewhole“lifecycle”ofpersonallyidenYfiableinformaYon,suchasDNA,inthehandsofanorganizaYonsubjecttothislaw,isaffectedbypersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon…
WOULDDNAINFORMATIONBECLASSIFIEDASHEALTHINFORMATIONANDBEUNDERTHE
HEALTHSECTORPDPSTATUTES?• No,itisnottheinformaYonthatisclassifiedinordertoestablishwhetherthehealthsectorpdpstatutesapply,itisthetypeoforganizaYontowhichthelegislaYonappliesthatwillestablishwhetherthehealthsectorpdplegislaYonappliesorwhetheritistheprivateorpublicsectorpdplegislaYonthatdoes…
• HealthsectorpdplegislaYonappliestoorganizaYonsdefinedasbeingwithinthatsector:inOntario,thequesYoniswhethertheorganizaYonfallswithinthedefiniYonof“healthcarecustodian”underPHIPA…
• Inanyevent,strictlyspeaking,DNAorothergeneYcinformaYonisNOThealthinformaYon–itisinformaYonderivedfromgeneYctesYng:itisinformaYonaboutanindividual.
SINCEEACHISLEGISLATEDBYADIFFERENTELECTEDBODY,EACHSTATUTEISUNIQUE,DETAILSVARY--
Forexample,intheprivatesectorlegisla)onknownasPIPEDA:“personalinformaIon”meansanyinformaIonaboutan
idenIfiableindividual,butdoesnotincludethename,ItleorbusinessaddressortelephonenumberofanyemployeeofanorganizaIon• However,thisparIcularlegislaIonwillnotaffectinformaIon
youaregatheringaboutindividualswhohavebeendeadmorethan20years…
• OrinformaIongatheredfromrecordsmadeover100yearsagoButeachstatuteinCanadadiffersindetails…thoughDNAinforma)onwouldbeconsideredpersonalunderanyofthem…
HOWLONGMUSTORGANIZATIONSKEEPPERSONALLYIDENTIFIABLEINFORMATIONCONFIDENTIAL?
§ FederalPrivacyAct§ OntarioFOIPPA&MFOIPPA§ Alberta,Saskatchewan§ BriYshColumbia,NovaScoYa,PEI
§ Manitoba§ NewBrunswick§ Privatesector(egPIPEDA)
• Healthsector,eg.PHIANfld
• 20yearsaderdeath–andthentheinformaYonfallsoutoftheAct
• 30yearsaderdeath,outofAct• 25yearsaderdeath,accessible• 20yearsaderdeath,accessible• 10yearsaderdeath,accessible• 20yearsaderdeathorifdocumentisover100accessible
• Maydisclose20yrsa_erindividual’sdeath,or,ifshorter,100yearsa_errecordmade
• PHIA-120yearsa_errecordcreatedor50yearsa_erdeath
PIPEDA,FORTHEPRIVATESECTOR,HASNOPROVISIONFORACCESSONBEHALFOFADEADINDIVIDUAL,EVENTHOUGH
PROTECTIONCANLASTLONGERTHANLIFE:
• ThereisnoaccesslegislaYon,soaderpersonaldataprotecYonceasestoapply,thereisnoaccesstoaperson’sinformaYonbyanyonerequiredbylaw–butnoristheinformaYonnecessarilytobetreatedinanyparYcularwaybyanorganizaYongovernedbyPIPEDA–soitcouldbereleased,attheorganizaYon’sopYon
• Clause4.9ofSchedule1toPIPEDAprovidesfortheprinciplethatanindividualmustbeabletoaccessherorhisownpersonaldataheldbybusinessescoveredbyPIPEDA–butthereisnoprovisionforaccesstotheinformaYonaboutthatindividualaderdeathineithertheScheduleortheActitself,sees.8.
ACCESSINGINFORMATION:
HOSPITALRECORDS
HealthisaprovincialmaPerconsYtuYonally;RelevantlegislaYonincludes-
• PublicHospitalsActs• ProvincialHealthInformaYonActs(wherepassed)• PIPEDA(exceptwhereprovinciallegislaYonhasbeendeemedequivalent)
• ProvincialorterritorialpublicsectorpersonaldataprotecYonandaccesslegislaYonwherenospecifichealthinformaYonlegislaYonhasbeenpassed
And,everwherethereisnoapplicablestatutes,therecanbeCommonLawprecedents(exceptinQuebec).
AFTERTHETIMEOFPROTECTIONHASEXPIREDPUBLICSECTORORGANIZATIONSDIFFERFROMPRIVATE:
• GovernmentsourceswillgiveinformaYonaboutidenYfiableindividualstootherindividualswhorequestit…becausepublicsectororganizaYonsaresubjecttothe“flip-side”ofpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYon---whichisAccesslegislaYon---
AccesslegislaYonrequiresthatanyinformaYonheldbygovernmentNOTexplicitlyrequiredtobewithheldbegiventoanyonewhorequestsit…
• NoprivatesectororganizaYonissubjecttoAccesslegislaYon…so,whileitcangiveinformaYonaboutindividualstootherindividuals,itdoesnothavetoandseldomwillbother…
ORGANIZATIONSGOVERNEDBYPDPANDDNA
• AllorganizaYonsgovernedbyPDPlegislaYon,includingcommercialgenealogists(governedunderPIPEDA),mustobtainpersonalinformaYonfromthepersonstowhomtheinformaYonrelates,withtheirconsent–thiswouldincludecollecYngDNAonlyfromthepersonwhoseDNAitis.
• “Hobby”genealogistsdonothavetoadheretothislegislaYonandarefreetocollect,use,anddisseminateDNAinformaYonaboutthemselvesandothersiftheyacquireit.
WHATABOUTENTITIESLIKEANCESTRYDNA,FAMILYTREEDNAOR23ANDME?
• IfthesecompaniesoperatewithinCanada,theywillbesubjecttoCanadianlaws–butnotmanyofthemdo…
• ManyoperateinjurisdicYonswithoutany,oranystrong,personaldataprotecYonlegislaYon(ie,theUnitedStates)
• Whatisthevalueofanon-Canadiancompany’s“privacypolicies”?“Whatevertheprivacypoliciesofanygivencompanymaysay,youhavenowayofknowingwhetherthey’rebeingadheredtoorwhatmayhappentoyoursampleascompaniesareboughtandsoldinthefuture.”
(PatrickCain,“PrivacyriskslurkinDNAtests,expertswarn”GlobalNews15August2016)
CANYOUCONTRACTFORYOURDNAINFORMATIONTOBEUSEDINWAYSNOTCONTEMPLATEDBYCANADA’SPDPLAWS?
• ThelegislaYoninQuebec,AlbertaandBriYshColumbiaisexplicitthatnoorganizaYonorindividualcancontractoutoftheirlegislaYveprovisionsforpersonaldataprotecYon;
• PIPEDA,inthesituaYonsandjurisdicYonswhereitappliestoprivatesectororganizaYons,doesexplicitlycontemplateindividualsbeingabletocontractoutoftheirrightsunderthestatute(Principle4.3.8)
• Thereisa1982SupremeCourtdecision(ONHumanRightsComm’nvEtobicoke)thatholdsthereisaclassofenactmentswhere,eventhoughcontracYngoutisnotexpresslyforbidden,publicpolicydictatesthatcontracYngoutisnotallowed–thismaywellapplytoallthepersonaldataprotecYonstatutesthataresilentoncontracYngout…Thisyear’s2017SupremeCourtdecisioninDouezvFacebook,whichdidnotallowacontractualprovisionthatprivacyclassacYoninvolvingCanadianshadtobebroughtinCaliforniatostand,wouldindicatethattheSupremeCourtviewsprivacyquesYonstoliewithinthispublicpolicyareawherecontractscanbeoverriddenbyCanadiancourts.
THANKYOU!(SEE ADDED S L I D E S D EA L ING W I TH MATTER S RA I S ED DUR ING
QUES T IONS )
ABOUTTHECANADIANCENSUS
• ThecensusistradiYonallytakenevery5years…
• ItisconductedundertheauthorityoftheSta)s)csAct,RevisedStatutesofCanada1985,cS-19.
• TheGovernmentofCanadareleasesaggregatedatafromeachcensuspubliclyandinarelaYvelyYmelyway–butthisaggregatedatadoesnotallowanyindividualpersonwhorespondedtothecensustobeidenYfied.
• UndersecYon18.1asitnowappears,individualinformaYonprovidedbythosewhorespondedtothosecensusconductedbetween1910and2005willbemadepubliclyavailable92yearsadereachcensuswasconducted(s18.1(1))–ontheotherhand,forthe2006censusandallthoseaPerward,theinformaYonabouteachindividualwillbemadeavailableader92yearsonlyifthatindividualconsentedtothatrelease92yearslaterattheYmeoffillingoutthecensus(s18.1(2)).
• AllinformaYonaboutindividualsthatisreleasedundereithers18.1(1)ors18.1(2),willbeplacedwithLibraryandArchivesCanada(sees18.1(3)).
BUTTHEREISINFORMATIONPEOPLEHAVEALWAYSBEENABLETOGET–ANDARESTILLABLETOGET–FROMGOVERNMENT,
ABOUTOTHERS–WHY?
PublicsectorpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYonandotherlawsspecificallyexemptfromcoveragevariousrecordsthathavetradiYonallybeenpubliclyavailable.
Forexample,youraccesstobirthanddeathregistraYons,thathavealwaysbeenpubliclyavailabletoanyone,isunaffectedbythepassageofallthisnewlawsince1977…butwhetheryoucanaccessinformaYonabouttherecordswhichliebehindtheregistraYonsisadifferentmaPerandhasbeenthesubjectofaseriesofdecisionsinOntario,forexample…asweshallseeinamoment…
INDISPUTESABOUTACCESSINVOLVINGPERSONALINFORMATION,SOMETIMESADJUDICATORSLOOKATTHE
RECORDSASAWHOLE…
• NovaScoYaFOIPOPReportofReviewOfficerFI-09-52January2012• Africvilledescendent(areaofHalifax)askedHalifaxRegionalMunicipalityforinformaYonaboutlandsanddeedsinthenamesofrelaYvesheldbetween1940and1969andforinformaYonabouttheAfricvilleexpropriaYonwhichtookplace
• Thegovernmenttriedblockaccessclaiming:• solicitor-clientprivilege-whichwasrejected;or• PersonaldataprotecYonfortherelaYves–whichwasalsorejectedbecausetherelaYvesweredeceasedmorethan20yearssonopersonaldataprotecYonbar
• DescendentwasabletoaccesstheinformaYonrequested.
INDIVIDUALDECISIONSONEACHRECORDINPO-3060,BASEDONTHEINFORMATIONINIT–NOTDECISIONSONCLASSESOF
DOCUMENTS…
Ministrytodisclose• OntheStatementofMarriageunderexaminaYon• Witnesses’signaturesandaddresses
• Onatleastoneofthe4DeathCerYficatesunderexaminaYon-• Datesofbirthandplaceofbirth• Placeofdeath• Spouses’lastnames• Usualresidencesofthedeceased
MinistryNOTtodisclose
• Onatleastoneofthe4DeathCerYficatesunderexaminaYon-• Names,relaYonshiptothedeceased,signatureandaddressoftheinformants
WHATAREPUBLICISNOTALWAYSCLEAR–FORINSTANCE,CEMETERIESARENOTNECESSARILYOPENTOTHEPUBLIC:
PIPEDAmiYgatesagainstpublicaccesstocemeteriesownedbyprivateoperatorsandchurches(Toronto’sMountPleasant,London’sSt.Peter’s)becauseofinformaYonaboutlivingorrecentlydeadindividualsonthestonesandmarkers…
PublicsectorpersonaldataprotecYonlegislaYonwouldsimilarlytendtorestrictaccesstomunicipalcemeteries…
• CemeterieslegislaYoninsomeprovincesstatesthatcemeteriesaretobepubliclyaccessible(Saskatchewanand,incertainhours,BC)–butnotallprovinceshavethislaw
• Ontario’sCemeteriesActisnolongerinforce:andthemuchawaitedFuneral,BurialandCremaYonServicesAct,2002,(inforcesinceJuly1,2012)doesnotexplicitlyprovideforarightofpublicaccesstocemeteries…
WHATWOULDHAPPENINACHALLENGEUNDERPIPEDA?
s.5(3)(c)ofOntario’snewlyinforceFuneral,BurialandCremaIonServicesActcreatesadutyfortheoperatorofacemeterytoensurethat “everypersonhasreasonableaccesstoalotor
scaPeringgroundatanyYmeexceptasprohibitedbythecemeteryby-laws.”
ARegulaYontothenewAct(OntarioRegulaYon30/11),ins.110,requiresacemeteryoperatortomaintainaregisteravailableforinspecYonbythepublicwiththesameinformaYoninitaswasrequiredundertheoldOntarioCemeteriesAct.
ThenewActhasaconfidenYalityprovision(s.106)requiringpersonswhoobtaininformaYonthroughtheirpowersorduYesundertheActorregulaYonstopreservesecrecy.
YOUMAYBEINTERESTEDINTHEFOLLOWINGLAWMASTERSTHESESIHAVESUPERVISED:
AllrecentWesternthesesanddissertaYonsareavailableelectronicallythroughScholarship@Western,inthedatabaselocatedat:hPp://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/
• AlisonWong(2017)–“ImplemenNngCanada’sDataExclusivityObligaNonsandProtecNngPersonalInformaNoninClinicalTrials”
• PatriciaGoodman(2012)--“ElectronicHealthRecordRegulaNoninCanada:WhatthePaNentExperienceRevealsaboutthePursuitofLegislaNveHarmonizaNon”