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Gender Manual:A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers

and Practitioners

April 2002

Gender Manual:A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and Practitioners

Helen Derbyshire

Social Development Division

DFID

April 2002

About the authorHelen Derbyshire is an independent Gender andSocial Development Consultant. For the past tenyears she has worked with DFID, UK-basedinternational NGOs and their government and civilsociety partner organisations facilitating thedevelopment of gender policies and strategies,designing and providing tailored gender trainingcourses, and evaluating the implementation andimpact of policies and projects designed to promotegender equality and the empowerment of women.

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ContentsIntroductionPurpose and audience 4

How to use the manual 5

Section 1:

Background ideas and concepts 6

Gender equality as a goal 6

What does gender equality mean? 6

Gender mainstreaming as a strategy 7

Outline history of women, gender and development 7

Emerging lessons on mainstreaming gender innational policy frameworks 9

Section 2:

Mainstreaming gender in a nutshell 11

The four key steps of gender mainstreaming 11

Who is responsible for what 11

When to call in specialist help 12

Section 3:

Practical tools and guidelines 13

Step 1:

Sex disaggregated data and gender analyticalInformation 13

What you need to know, and why 13

Outline gender analytical framework: beneficiary groups 14

Outline gender analytical framework: development organisations 16

Gender budgets 18

Step 2:

Influencing the development agenda 20

Gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis 20

Women in decision-making: community level 20

Women in decision-making: national policy processes 22

Working in networks and coalitions 22

Advocacy and lobbying 24

Step 3:

Action to promote gender equality 26

What does gender equality mean? 26

Outline gender equality action framework 26

Gender in logical frameworks 27

Gender-sensitive indicators 28

PIMs marker on removal of gender discrimination 29

Step 4:Organisational capacity building and change 31

“Policy evaporation” 31

Organisational capacity building framework 31

Gender focal staff 33

Gender policies 34

Gender training 35

Management support 38

Section 4:

Information about the GEM website 39

Evaluation Questionnaire 41

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IntroductionPurpose and audience

The aim of UK international development policy is tocontribute to the elimination of world poverty. A keycomponent of the strategy to achieve this is topromote equality for women, particularly for thosewho make up the majority of the billion or morepeople living in abject poverty.

Promotion of gender equality and the empowermentof women is part of the responsibility of all staff. Itis integral to work in all sectors and regions, and atall levels from national policy to community levelprojects.

This gender manual is designed to help non-genderspecialists in recognising and addressing genderissues in their work. The intention is to demystifygender, make the concept and practice of gender“mainstreaming” accessible to a wide audience, andclarify when to call in specialist help. Whilst designedfor DFID staff and partner organisations, the manualshould provide useful information and guidance forstaff from any government or civil societyorganisation striving to recognise and address genderissues in their work. The manual is intended to beenabling rather than prescriptive. It focuses on theprocesses of gender mainstreaming which are similarin all sectoral and regional contexts, and also similar,in some instances, to other processes of socialdevelopment and organisational change. The manualarises from (and is intended to complement) theDFID GEM website. This was developed by a teamof more than twenty experienced gender consultantsin consultation with sector advisory staff andprovides detailed and practical sector-specificinformation, case studies and references. The GEMwebsite is managed by BRIDGE at the Institute ofDevelopment Studies. It is accessible on the internetat http://www.genie.ids.ac.uk/gem/

This gender manual is being distributed as a pilotexercise. We may supplement the manual with sector-specific guides and would value feedback to tailorboth the manual and the sector-specific guides toneeds. Please send comments either on the enclosedevaluation questionnaire, or by email to: [email protected]

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How to use the manualThe manual is divided into four main sections.

Section 1: Background ideas and concepts

This section contains narrative backgroundinformation on:

gender equality as a development goal

gender mainstreaming as a strategy

an outline history of women, gender anddevelopment

emerging lessons on mainstreaming gender innational policy

frameworks.

Refer to this section if:

you want to clarify DFID’s rationale for andcommitment to gender equality

you want to understand why gendermainstreaming has emerged as an internationallyagreed strategy to promote gender equality

you are working in the context of national policyframeworks and want to check emerging lessons.

Section 2: Gender mainstreaming in a nutshell

This section contains a one page summary of:

the four key steps of mainstreaming gender

staff responsibilities/when to get specialist help.


you want a quick summary of gendermainstreaming for your own reference, to pin onyour wall or to pass to colleagues and partners.

Section 3: Practical tools and guidelines

This section contains practical tools and guidanceon the four key steps of gender mainstreaming:

step 1: sex disaggregated data and genderanalytical information

step 2: women as well as men influencing thedevelopment agenda

step 3: action to promote gender equality

step 4: organisational capacity building andchange.


you want guidance on particular aspects andprocesses of gender mainstreaming.

Detailed sector-specific information and casestudies are available through the GEM website.

Section 4:Information about the GEM website

This section contains information on the content ofthe GEM website.

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Gender equality as a goal

The aim of UK international development policy is tocontribute to the elimination of world poverty. Theempowerment of women and the promotion ofgender equality is one of the eight internationallyagreed development goals designed to achieve this.

Millennium Development Goal 3

Goal:

promote gender equality and empower women.

Target:

eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary

education preferably by 2005 and to all levels of

education no later than 2015.

Indicators:

� ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and

tertiary education

� ratio of literate females to males of 15-24 year olds

� share of women in wage employment in the non-

agricultural sector

� proportion of seats held by women in national

parliament.

Research has shown that education for girls is the

single most effective way of reducing poverty. In this

context, the elimination of gender disparity in

education has been selected as the key target to

demonstrate progress towards gender

equality/women’s empowerment. However, education

alone is not enough. Progress towards gender

equality in education is dependent on success in

tackling inequalities in wider aspects of economic,

political, social and cultural life, and this is reflected

in the indicators of progress.

Gender equality is given such high priority because:

� gender equality is essential to poverty elimination.There is a growing and compelling body ofevidence which shows that women not only bearthe brunt of poverty but that women’sempowerment is a central precondition for itselimination. Poverty elimination can only beachieved by addressing the disproportionateburden of poverty, lack of access to education and

health services, and lack of productiveopportunities borne by women

� gender equality is integral to a rights-basedapproach to development. Human rights, definedand upheld by the international community, areuniversal, and based on the equal worth anddignity of all women and men. Internationallyagreed human rights include standards of health,education and the right to a secure livelihood, aswell as civil, political and legal rights.

Everywhere there are significant ways in which men’sand women’s responsibilities, opportunities andinfluence are unequal, although the nature andextent of inequality varies from society to society.Whilst there are instances where men aredisadvantaged in comparison to women, generallywomen and girls have fewer opportunities, lowerstatus and less power and influence than men andboys. Millions of women around the world:

� have to work harder than men to secure theirlivelihoods

� have less control over income and assets

� have a smaller share of opportunities for humandevelopment

� are subject to violence and intimidation

� have a subordinate social position

� are poorly represented in policy- and decision-making.

� Gender inequality represents a huge loss of humanpotential, with costs for men as well as for women.

What does gender equality mean?

Gender equality does not simply or necessarily meanequal numbers of men and women or boys and girlsin all activities, nor does it necessarily mean treatingmen and women or boys and girls exactly the same.

It signifies an aspiration to work towards a society inwhich neither women nor men suffer from poverty inits many forms, and in which women and men areable to live equally fulfilling lives. It meansrecognising that men and women often have differentneeds and priorities, face different constraints, havedifferent aspirations and contribute to developmentin different ways.

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Gender equality and women’s empowerment areinextricably linked. Women will only win equalitywhen they are able to act on their own behalf, with astrong voice to ensure their views are heard andtaken into account. This means recognising the rightof women to define the objectives of development forthemselves.

Gender equality and gender equity

DFID draws an important distinction between

equality of opportunity and equity of outcomes:

equality of opportunity: this means that women

should have equal rights and entitlements to human,

social, economic and cultural development, and an

equal voice in civic and political life

equity of outcomes1: this means that the exercise of

these rights and entitlements leads to outcomes

which are fair and just.

The empowerment of women

The United Nations Development Fund for Women

(UNIFEM) includes the following factors in its

definition of women’s empowerment:

� acquiring understanding of gender relations and

the ways in which these relations can be changed

� developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one’s

ability to secure desired changes and the right to

control one’s own life

� gaining the ability to generate choices and exercise

bargaining power

� developing the ability to organise and influence the

direction of social change to create a more just social

and economic order, nationally and internationally.

An important message is that gender equality and theempowerment of women is achievable. Greatprogress has been made in the 20th century. Womenenjoy greater freedom and more power than ever

before. Progress has been greatest where there hasbeen strong political will; where changes in laws,regulations and policies have been followed throughwith real action; where resources have been devotedto the explicit goal of reducing genderdiscrimination. Progress is not dependent on theincome level of the society: some developingcountries outperform much richer countries in theopportunities they afford women.

Another important message is that achieving genderequality is not a one-off goal. Progress can all tooeasily be eroded. Gender equality needs to beconstantly promoted and actively sustained.

Gender mainstreaming as a strategy

In 1995, at the Fourth UN International Conferenceon Women held in Beijing, “gender mainstreaming”was established as the internationally agreed strategyfor governments and development organisations topromote gender equality. This was in response toconsistent lessons that have emerged from at leasttwenty years of experience of addressing women’sneeds in development work. To understand what“gender mainstreaming” means and why it isimportant, it helps to understand the journey thathas been travelled to reach this point.

Outline history of women, gender anddevelopment

The “welfare” approach

Until the early 1970s, development policies addressedthe needs of poor women’s entirely in the context oftheir role as wives and mothers. Known now as the“welfare” approach, the focus was on mother andchild health, childcare and nutrition. It was assumedthat the benefits of macro economic strategiesoriented towards modernisation and growth wouldtrickle down to the poor, and that poor womenwould benefit as the economic position of theirhusbands improved.

Analytical critique

In 1970, Esther Boserup, a Danish economist,systematically challenged these assumptions. In herbook “Women’s Role in Economic Development”,she concluded that far from women benefiting as


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1 This distinction between process and product – rights and outcomes – is very useful. The terms "gender equality" and "gender equity" are often used inter-changeably and the difference between them can be lost in translation. The term "equality", when used in relation to development outcomes, can all too easilycarry inappropriate connotations of sameness. Clarity concerning use and meaning is important to guard against this.

their husband’s situation improved, women wereincreasingly losing status. Women were becomingassociated with the backward and the traditional,whilst men (with the assistance of economicdevelopment projects, such as the introduction ofcash crops and new agricultural technologies) wereincreasingly associated with the modern and theprogressive.

The “Women in Development” (WID) approach

In the context of a groundswell of research andcampaigning on the situation of women, and the riseof the women’s movement in USA and Europe inparticular, 1975 was declared the UN InternationalYear for Women, and 1976–1985 the UNInternational Women’s Decade. This attracted highlevel attention to women, led to the establishment ofnational women’s organisations and ministries inmany countries, and helped to institutionalise whatbecame known as Women in Development (WID)policies in governments, donor agencies and NGOs.

Responding to the concern that women had been leftout of the processes of economic development, theaim of WID was to integrate women into economicdevelopment. This resulted in newly established WIDofficers, units and ministries developing women’sprojects, which were still separate to mainstreamdevelopment but focusing on women’s productiverole. Typically, this resulted in women’s incomegeneration projects.

Analytical critique

The “gender” approach originated in the early 1980sin academic criticism of WID. Gender analysts,drawing on marxist analysis and feminist activismfelt that WID was not in any way an appropriatesolution to the problems faced by women. Not onlywas WID failing in its own terms (most women’sincome generation projects failed to generatesignificant income), it left the mainstream ofdevelopment untouched, commanded marginalbudgets, treated women identically, and failed tolook systematically at why and how women weredisadvantaged.

Gender analysts made the crucial distinction between“sex” and “gender”. Sex refers to universalbiological differences between women and men, andgender to male and female behavioural norms (whichare learnt, are different in different societies andchange over the course of time). In this context,

gender analysts examine why women in differentcultures are systematically assigned inferior orsecondary roles. They seek to recognise the ways inwhich gender norms (what men and women do,what they have, what they think etc.) are affected by,and reflected in, processes of development andchange. Drawing on feminist activism, genderanalysts explicitly see women as agents of changeand stress the need for women to organise to bringabout change.

Through most of the 1980s, gender analysis wasregarded by gender analysts themselves as demandinga degree of commitment to change in structures ofpower that was unlikely to be found in eithernational or international development agencies.

The gender “efficiency” and gender “empowerment”approaches

By the mid 1990s, however, a “gender” approachhad replaced WID in most governments, donororganisations and NGOs. There remains a lot ofconfusion amongst practitioners themselves aboutthe meaning of “gender” in practice, and many“gender” units in fact continue to operate a largelyWID approach. However, those consciously adoptinga gender approach adapted (and in some people’sview distorted) the ideas of academic gender analyststo address particular needs. Two contrastingapproaches dominated from the late 1980s.

Advocates working within mainstream developmentorganisations drew on gender analysis to bringconcerns with women and gender difference into the“mainstream” of development for the first time.Known now as the gender “efficiency” approach,their strategy was to argue, in the overalldevelopment context of structural adjustmentpolicies, that gender analysis makes good economicsense. That argued that understanding men’s andwomen’s roles and responsibilities as part of theplanning of all development interventions helpstargeting, improves project effectiveness and ensuresthat women, as well as men, can play their part innational development.

Those working within community level women’sprojects drew on what gender analysts (and thewomen’s movement) had to say about women asagents of change. In the overall context of a rise inparticipatory approaches to development, the gender“empowerment” approach meant working withwomen at the community level building


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organisational skills and self-esteem throughparticipation in determining needs and managingchange.

Analytical critique

Evaluations highlighted both strengths andlimitations in “efficiency” and “empowerment”approaches. The “efficiency” approach succeeded toa degree in bringing a concern with women andgender into the mainstream of development, but atthe expense of focusing on what women could do fordevelopment, rather than on what developmentcould do for women. The empowerment approachopened up space for women to determine their ownneeds, but “empowerment” was too oftenmisinterpreted as an end rather than a means. Thiscould result in projects delivering empowerment topoor women, with development practitionersapparently knowing better than poor womenthemselves what their true needs were.

Evaluations of the implementation of gender policiesin mainstream development organisations wererevealing the common problem of “policyevaporation”, as implementation and impact failedto reflect policy commitments. Increasing research onthe gendered nature of development organisationsthemselves demonstrated that developmentorganisations are part of the problem of genderinequality they are supposedly committed toaddressing. Gender inequalities in wider societyaffect who is qualified and available to work;patterns of staffing; training, promotion and careerdevelopment opportunities and many aspects oforganisational culture.

The “mainstreaming gender equality” approach

The term “gender mainstreaming” came intowidespread use with the adoption of the BeijingPlatform for Action (PfA) at the 1995 UNInternational Conference on Women. It represents anattempt by gender advocates to build on thesuccesses of the past and address some of thechallenges. It attempts to combine the strengths ofthe efficiency and empowerment approaches withinthe context of mainstream development.

Mainstreaming gender equality is a commitment toensure that women’s as well as men’s concerns andexperiences are integral to the design,implementation, monitoring and evaluation of alllegislation, policies and programmes so that women

and men benefit equally and inequality is notperpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve genderequality. Gender mainstreaming is integral to alldevelopment decisions and interventions; it concernsthe staffing, procedures and culture of developmentorganisations as well as their programmes; and itforms part of the responsibility of all staff.

Gender mainstreaming does not preclude women-only projects. It shifts their focus from women as atarget group, to gender equality as a goal. It supportswomen-only (or men-only) projects designed asstrategic interventions to address aspects of genderinequality and promote greater equality.

Emerging lessons on mainstreaminggender in national policy frameworks

In the late 1990s and new millennium, the focus ofdonor-supported development has shifted to asignificant degree away from discrete projectinterventions onto processes concerned with thedevelopment and implementation of national policyframeworks for poverty elimination. Evaluationmaterial is beginning to emerge examiningexperiences of mainstreaming gender in the contextof national policy frameworks such as PRSPs(Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers) and SWAPs(Sector Wide Approaches).

Evaluation findings

National policy frameworks potentially provide theideal context for gender mainstreaming, concerned asthey are with mainstream policy development andeffectiveness. They provide a context whereby:

� gender analytical information and sexdisaggregated data on men’s and women’sconcerns and experiences can inform national orsector-wide policy and planning processes

� the importance of gender-aware consultationprocesses, involving civil society and otherstakeholders, is specifically acknowledged

� national policy commitments to gender equalityshould be backed up with budgets, effectiveprocesses of monitoring, and capacity-building

� the long-term time frame of PRSPs and SWAPSacknowledges the complex processes of changeinvolved.

However, the potential of national policy


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frameworks for promoting effective gendermainstreaming is greater than achievements to date.The following problems have been highlighted in allcurrently available evaluations:

� incorporation of gender issues into PRSPs has,thus far, been minimal. Whilst a few haveaddressed gender issues in specific sectors (usuallyhealth and education) with reasonable depth, theoverall coverage is weak and little consistentattention has been paid to gender dimensions ofpoverty reduction

� insufficient documentation of gender disparitiesand gender-disaggregated analysis of poverty is abarrier to recognising and addressing gender issueseffectively

� few PRSPs and I-PRSPs (Interim Poverty StrategyPapers) include specific plans for gender-sensitiveconsultation processes

� action to promote gender equality, when included,is too often vague, and not backed up withappropriate monitoring indicators

� the donor voice in advocating gender equalitygoals is inconsistent (to the frustration of partnerorganisations and staff concerned with equalitiesissues)

� commitments to gender equality at the nationallevel are subject to “policy evaporation”

� equity outcomes are not achieved unless they areexplicitly stated and operationalised through wellthought out procedures.

Emerging lessons on good practice

Good practice lessons echo what is already welldocumented from experiences of mainstreaminggender in projects. These are:

� policy development, as well as monitoring, needsto be informed by context-specific sexdisaggregated data and gender analyticalinformation

� the support of senior officials for gender equalityobjectives is key to effective progress

� sufficient resources need to be allocated forcapacity-building in policy-making, managementand implementation agencies

� there should be a focus on measuring equitableoutcomes to create a framework for gender-sensitive implementation.

Findings particular to mainstreaming gender innational policy frameworks relate to the processes ofpolicy development and monitoring:

� support needs to be directed towards championsof change within the national institutions involvedin the national policy framework process. Pressurefor change needs to come from advocates withingovernment agencies, civil society organisations,political representatives, and donor organisations

� capacity needs to be built within governmentsconcerning participatory approaches of consultingeffectively with women as well as men

� capacity needs to be built within civil societywomen’s organisations, and organisationscampaigning for gender equality, to enable them toengage effectively with national policy processes ofanalysis and lobbying

� there needs to be strengthened co-ordinationbetween government, donor and NGO staff oncommitments to gender equality

� gender advocates need to consider establishingstandards to measure the quality of women’sparticipation in consultation processes

� a strong general policy on gender equality isrequired at national level. National policyframeworks cannot create the conditions to drivechange on their own. International agreements ongender equality help create the conditions for this.


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The four key steps of gendermainstreaming

Step 1: Sex disaggregated data and gender analyticalinformation

Gender analytical research and sex disaggregatedstatistical data (about “beneficiary” groups andabout management and implementationorganisations) is essential to effective gendermainstreaming. Information systems should routinelybe disaggregated by sex; gender analysis (anexamination of women’s as well as men’sexperiences, needs and priorities) should routinely bepart of social and institutional appraisal andmonitoring processes; and gender analytical studiesshould be commissioned to examine particular issuesand address information gaps. This information isnecessary to identify gender difference andinequality; to make the case for taking gender issuesseriously; to design policies and plans that meetwomen’s and men’s needs; to monitor the differentialimpact of policy, project and budget commitments onwomen and men.

Step 2: Women as well as men influencing thedevelopment agenda

Women will only win equality when they are able toact on their own behalf, with a strong voice toensure their views are heard and taken into account.This means promoting the involvement of women aswell as men in decision-making at all levels, andensuring that men and women committed to thepromotion of gender equality are influencingdecision-making. “Gender advocates” withingovernment, civil society and donor organisations aremost effective when they work in collaboration,identifying and developing strategic “entry points”for the promotion of gender equality.

Step 3: Context-specific action to promote genderequality

Gender mainstreaming is a strategy to promotegender equality and the empowerment of women.Action to promote greater equality of influence,opportunity and benefit should be devised on thebasis of context-specific sex disaggregated data andgender analytical information and a clear

understanding of women’s and men’s priorities.Actions need to be explicitly included in policy andproject documents and frameworks, backed up withstaff and budgets, and monitored and reviewedthrough appropriate indicators of change.

Step 4: Organisational capacity building and change

Gender mainstreaming, as an organisational strategyto promote gender equality, depends on the skills,knowledge and commitment of the staff involved inmanagement and implementation. “Evaporation” ofpolicy commitments to gender equality iswidespread. Developing appropriate understanding,commitment and capacity, as well as addressingissues of gender inequality within developmentorganisations themselves, is a long-term process oforganisational change. Appropriate capacity-buildingactivities need to be explicitly included in policy andproject documents and frameworks, backed up withstaff and budgets, and monitored and reviewedthrough appropriate indicators of change.

Who is responsible for what?

The responsibility of all staff

All staff should take responsibility for:

� understanding the different roles, responsibilities,and experiences of women and men in relation tothe issue being addressed

� seeking out opportunities to actively involvewomen as well as men in consultation anddecision-making processes

� acting on women’s as well as men’s priorityconcerns

� seeking out ways to promote benefit for women aswell as men

� being personally informed about gender issues andgender mainstreaming, and seeking out ways ofpromoting this understanding and commitmentamongst colleagues and partner organisations

� being aware of personal attitudes and behaviourand the ways in which these affect communicationwith women and men and understanding ofdevelopment and change.

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Section 2: Mainstreaming gender in a nutshell

When to call in specialist help

� ensuring women’s participation. Poor women, aswell as poor men, should always be in a positionto speak for themselves. It is essential to createand support opportunities to ensure that thishappens. This often means working with femaleplanners, research staff and extension agents, aswell as working with representative women’sorganisations, to enable poor women to expresstheir views in a non-threatening environment andin a way that will influence the developmentagenda.

� gender analytical studies. Good quality genderanalytical information is required for policy-making, planning and monitoring purposes. Someof this may be available from secondary sources.Conducting gender analytical research requireswell-developed social and gender analytical skills,and requires appropriately trained andexperienced staff or consultants.

� promoting gender equality at the community level.Processes of social change designed to promotegreater equality of influence, opportunity andbenefit are complex and long term. The challengeof promoting greater equality between women andmen should not be underestimated, particularly incontexts of considerable inequality. Specialist skillsin participatory negotiated processes of workingwith community groups are essential and “frontline” staff require personal and professionalsupport.

� promoting gender equality within organisations.Processes of organisational change designed topromote equal opportunities within theworkplace, and to develop staff understanding ofand skills in gender mainstreaming, are alsocomplex and long term. This requires staff withcommitment, perseverance and influencing skills,backed up with appropriate resources andsupport. Gender training requires staff orconsultants with skills in adult learning andparticipatory training, in addition to applied andpractical understanding of gender analysis andgender mainstreaming.

Section 2: Mainstreaming gender in a nutshell

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Step 1: Sex disaggregated data andgender analytical information

What you need to know, and why

Sex disaggregated data and gender analyticalinformation is fundamental to gender mainstreaming.

Definitions

Sex disaggregated data

Sex disaggregated data is quantitative statisticalinformation on differences and inequalities betweenwomen and men.

Sex disaggregated data might reveal, for example,quantitative differences between women and men inmorbidity and mortality; differences between girlsand boys in school attendance, retention andachievement; differences between men and women inaccess to and repayment of credit; or differencesbetween men and women in voter registration,participation in elections and election to office.

Gender analytical information

Gender analytical information is qualitativeinformation on gender differences and inequalities.

Gender analysis is about understanding culture, e.g.the patterns and norms of what men and women,boys and girls do and experience in relation to theissue being examined and addressed. Where patternsof gender difference and inequality are revealed insex disaggregated data, gender analysis is the processof examining why the disparities are there, whetherthey are a matter for concern, and how they mightbe addressed.

What you need to know

Beneficiary groups

The precise sex disaggregated data and genderanalytical information needed depends on the sectorand context.

There are a number of “gender analyticalframeworks” designed to provide guidance on thekinds of questions that are likely to be applicable.Other analytical guidelines, such as the sustainablelivelihoods framework, can also be adapted toexamine gender issues. However, no set of analytical

categories caters to the information needs of everysector and situation. Analytical frameworks can bevery helpful but need to be used critically and withcare. They should be used to inspire not to restrictthinking.

The most useful starting point in determininginformation needs is to ask the question:

What do we need to know in order to ensure thatpolicy/project planning/monitoring addresses theneeds of women and men (girls and boys) andbenefits both women and men (girls and boys)?

Sector specialists, even those who know little aboutgender, will be able to brainstorm responses to thisquestion and come up with an initial “genderanalytical framework” of their own. This is a goodpoint to refer to existing analytical frameworks i.e.do they include categories of enquiry that would beuseful in your working context, but which youhaven’t considered?

This manual includes an outline gender analyticalframework to assist this process of brainstorming.See outline gender analytical framework:beneficiaries. For sector-specific guidelines, see theGEM website.

Development policy-making, management andimplementation agencies

In recent years research has drawn attention to theways in which development agencies reflect in theirstructure, procedures and organisational culturegender inequalities found in wider society.Evaluations have also consistently drawn attentionto the “evaporation” of policy commitments togender equality as a result of inadequate proceduresin management and implementation agencies, andlack of commitment, understanding and skillsamongst staff.

The effective management and implementation ofinitiatives to promote gender equality enshrined inplanning and policy documents requires action todevelop staff commitment, understanding and skillsand to promote greater gender equality withindevelopment organisations themselves. The design ofappropriate capacity-building activities requiresanalysis of development organisations at theplanning stage.

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This manual includes an outline gender analyticalframework to assist this process of analysis. Seeoutline gender analytical framework: developmentorganisations.

When and where you collect information and data:

� it is important to draw on existing sexdisaggregated data and gender analyticalinformation

� attention should be focused on ensuring that alldata collection systems (existing and newly createdand including national, local, sectoral, andorganisational systems) are routinely disaggregatedby sex

� gender analysis should be part and parcel of theroutine processes of policy and project appraisaland monitoring. Gender analysis of beneficiarygroups should be integral to social appraisal andmonitoring processes, and gender analysis ofdevelopment organisations integral to institutionalappraisal and monitoring processes

� new gender analytical studies should be conductedor commissioned to address information gaps orto update existing information.

Use of gender analytical information and sexdisaggregated data

The collection of gender analytical information andsex disaggregated data is not an end in itself. It isrequired for certain specific tasks. These are:

� making the case for taking gender issues seriously.Advocates seeking to promote attention to genderequality need relevant, up to date, context-specificinformation on gender differences and inequalitiesand men’s and women’s different priorities andneeds. Advocating gender equality on the basis ofassertion and rhetoric is of limited effectiveness.Sex disaggregated data is particularly powerful foradvocacy purposes, producing clear statisticalevidence of gender difference and inequality.

� Policy and project planning and review. Context-specific gender analytical information and sexdisaggregated data is necessary to:

– ensure that women’s as well as men’sexperiences and priorities inform thedevelopment agenda

– devise appropriate actions to promote greater

equality of influence, opportunity and benefitfor women and men in beneficiary groups

– devise appropriate actions to develop staffcommitment, understanding and skills indevelopment organisations

– monitor the differential impact of policy andproject commitments on women and men andreview activities accordingly.

Outline gender analytical framework:beneficiary groups This outline gender analytical framework is designedto assist brainstorming on gender analyticalinformation needs. It is an amalgamation betweenseveral commonly used gender planning frameworksand sustainable livelihoods analysis. See the GEMwebsite for sector-specific guidelines.


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Category of enquiry Issues to consider

Roles and responsibilities

� what do men/women do?

� where (location/patterns of mobility)

� when (daily and seasonal patterns)?

Assets

� what livelihood assets/ opportunities do

men women have access to?

� what constraints do they face?

Power and decision-making

� what decision-making do men and/or

women participate in?

� what decision-making do men/women

usually control (able to make decisions)?

� what constraints do they face?

Needs, priorities and perspectives

� what are women’s and men’s needs and

priorities?

� what perspectives do they have on

appropriate and sustainable ways of

addressing their needs?

� productive roles (paid work, self-employment, and

subsistence production)

� reproductive roles (domestic work, childcare and care of

the sick and elderly)

� community participation/self-help (voluntary work for the

benefit of the community as a whole)

� community politics (representation/decision-making on

behalf of the community as a whole)

� human assets (e.g. health services, education,

knowledge and skills)

� natural assets (e.g. land, labour)

� social assets (e.g. social networks)

� physical assets (transport, communications)

� financial assets (capital/income, credit)

� household level (e.g. decisions over household

expenditure)

� community level (e.g. decisions on the management of

resources and services)

� local government level

� national government level

� “practical” gender needs (needs arising in the context of

the existing gender roles/assets)

� “strategic” gender needs (i.e. requiring changes to

existing gender roles/assets to create greater equality of

influence, opportunity and benefit e.g. increasing

women’s access to decision-making)

� perspectives on improved services and delivery systems

such as prioritised services; choice of technology;

location, type and cost of services; systems of operation,

management and maintenance etc.

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1.WORK PROGRAMME

Policy and action plans

� gender policies

� attention to gender in all policies

Policy influencing

Human resources

� gender focal staff

� all staff

Gender policies

� is there a gender policy? When was it developed, who was involved

in formulation?

� is it based on context-specific gender analytical information and sex

disaggregated data?

� implementation and monitoring procedures?

All policies

� are gender issues included in other policies? To what extent? Are

the gender aspects based on context-specific gender analytical

information and sex disaggregated data?

� implementation and monitoring procedures?

� impact of mainstream policy (sector restructuring; introduction of

user fees) on women and men

� what is the attitude of senior management staff to gender issues?

Who does the management consult with (internally and externally)

about gender issues?

� who are the formal and informal opinion leaders? Do they take

gender issues seriously?

� which external organisations and people have an influence on the

organisation? Do they take gender issues seriously?

� what are the decision-making bodies? What role do women and

men play in decision-making?

Gender Focal Staff

� is there a designated gender unit/staff member? Since when?

structure/ mandate/resources? What do they do? How effectively?

Perceptions of gender focal staff/perceptions of staff in the rest of

the organisation?


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Outline gender analytical framework:development organisations

The following is a general analytical framework, toassist gender analysis of development organisations.

Questions and areas of enquiry should be adapted asappropriate for the purposes of advocacy,policy/project planning or monitoring andevaluation.


Financial resources

� gender equality initiatives

“on the ground”

� staff capacity-building initiatives

Systems, procedures and tools

2. WORKING CULTURE

Staffing statistics

Men’s and women’s practical needs

All staff

� responsibility for gender equality issues? Training?

Knowledge and skills? Attitudes to gender?

� is sensitivity to gender issues included in job descriptions/ assessed

at interview/monitored at appraisals?

Gender equality initiatives “on the ground” and staff capacity-building

� funding for what activities, to what effect?

� funding for what activities, to what effect?

� is attention to gender issues included in routine systems and

procedures (information systems; appraisal, planning and

monitoring procedures)?

� have staff been issued with guidelines/information/tools on gender

mainstreaming?

� numbers of men and women at each level in the organisation, and

according to role/sector

� interview/recruitment/promotion/training and career development -

sex disaggregated statistics

� wages, i.e. sex disaggregated statistics

� does the organisation create a safe and practical environment for

women and men (consider issues like transport arrangements,

working hours, travel commitments, toilets, childcare

responsibilities)


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Gender budgets

“Gender budgets” or “women’s budgets”2 areanalyses of government budgets to establish thedifferential impact of revenue raising or expenditureon women and men and on different groups ofwomen and men. They are designed to inform publicpolicy debate, and as such are a particularlyimportant lobbying tool in the context of nationalpolicy frameworks

Budgets are the most important governmenteconomic policy instrument. They reflect thespending choices a government has made to achievesocial and economic objectives in the context ofspecified revenue raising activities and predictedrevenue. In order to identify the differential impactof budget expenditures on women and men, threecategories of expenditure are important:

� expenditure specifically targeted to groups ofwomen or men to meet prioritised needs

� expenditure specifically targeted to promote equalopportunities for women and men

� general or mainstream budget expenditure makinggoods and services available to the wholecommunity.

Typically 99% of expenditure falls into the lattercategory and in this context, a budget can appear tobe a gender-neutral instrument of policy. Sexdisaggregated data and gender analytical informationis needed to expose the differential gender impact ofmainstream budget expenditure commitments.

Participants in gender budgeting exercises caninclude government, parliamentarians or civil societyorganisations, or a combination of these. A genderbudget may cover expenditure and/or revenue, and


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Organisational culture

Staff perceptions

Policy and action

� how does information flow in the organisation i.e. formally and

informally? To what extent are women/men included in

communication networks?

� what are the main shared values of the organisation? Do these

relate in any way (explicitly or potentially) to gender equality?

� is decision-making centralised or decentralised? To what extent do

individual staff have “room for manoeuvre”?

� what is the attitude towards male/female staff?

� incidence/perceptions of sexual harassment?

� male and female staff perceptions of “gender” issues at work

� does the organisation have an Equal Opportunities policy or

equivalent directives? What does this policy cover? how has it been

implemented and promoted? To what extent does it affect practice

within the organisation?

2 In the evolution of this process, the initial focus was on auditing government budgets for impact on women and girls. More recently, gender has been used as thecategory of analysis, and the term "gender budgets" is more often used.

may focus on selected sectors or all sectors. Theymight examine past budgets, past actual expenditure,estimated current budget allocations or futurebudgets as projected in medium term expenditureframeworks. They are conducted and used bygovernments to report on what they have done tomeet women’s needs and promote gender equality.More commonly, they are conducted by civil societygroups and provide information for parliamentariansand civil society groups to use in lobbying for greatergender equality.

A number of gender budgeting tools and approacheshave been developed. Choice depends on theavailability of data, the expertise of personnel, andthe links between national budgets and nationalpolicy, as well as practical constraints of time andaccess to computers and software.


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Gender budget tools

Gender-aware policy appraisal: this is the most common approach. It begins with the assumption

that budgets reflect policy. Analysis involves scrutinising the explicit and implicit gender implications

of national and sectoral policies, examining the ways in which priorities and choices are likely to

reduce or increase gender inequality

Gender-disaggregated beneficiary assessments: this is a more participatory approach to policy

analysis i.e. asking actual or potential beneficiaries the extent to which government

policies/programmes match their own priorities

Gender-disaggregated public expenditure incidence analysis: this compares public expenditure for a

given programme with data from household surveys to reveal the distribution of expenditure between

women/men, boys/girls

Gender-disaggregated tax incidence analysis: this examines direct and indirect taxes and user fees to

calculate how much tax is paid by different individuals and households

Gender-disaggregated analysis of the impact of the budget on time use: this examines the relationship

between national budget and the way time is used in households. In particular, it draws attention to

the ways in which the time spent by women in unpaid work is accounted for in policy analysis

Gender-aware medium term economic policy framework: these are attempts to incorporate gender

into the economic models on which medium term economic frameworks are based

Gender-aware budget statement: this is an exercise in government accountability which may use any

of the above tools. It requires a high degree of commitment and co-ordination throughout the public

sector as ministries and departments undertake and publicise an assessment of the gender impact of

their line budgets.

Adapted from Diane Elson (1997) “Tools for gender integration into macro-economic policy” in Link into Gender

and Development, 2, Summer, p.13, cited in Budlender, D and Sharp, R (1998) “How to do a gender-sensitive

budget analysis: contemporary research and practice”, Commonwealth Secretariat and AusAid

Step 2: Influencing the development agenda

Gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis

In order to ensure that women’s as well as men’sneeds, priorities and constraints are recognised andaddressed and influence the development agenda, allprocesses of policy development and project designshould involve:

� participatory consultation with women as well asmen in beneficiary groups

� women as well as men in decision-making at alllevels

� gender equality advocates (men as well as women)devising ways of opening up spaces to ensurewomen’s active involvement in consultation anddecision-making.

This means finding ways to ensure that:

� women’s groups are actively involved inconsultation and decision-making processes

� the range of women’s views and needs isadequately represented. Different women (andmen) have different needs on the basis of class,ethnicity, age and family composition, and otherfactors. Urban, middle class women do notnecessarily accurately represent the views andpriorities of poor, rural women

� the usual processes of stakeholder analysis(drawing up a table of stakeholders; assessing theimportance of each stakeholder and their relativepower and influence; and identifying risks andassumptions that will affect project design)include:

– women and men as separate stakeholder groups

– where appropriate, different stakeholder groupsamongst women (and men)

– clarity regarding stakeholder groups whichinclude both women and men

– consultancy teams, working groups,management teams and implementation teamsinclude women as well as men

– gender equality advocates (in government, civilsociety and donor organisations) work incollaboration, thinking collectively andstrategically about advocacy strategies.

Women in decision-making: community level

Issues to address

Traditionally, women are often excluded fromdecision-making at the community level. A numberof factors combine to bring this about. These includetraditional attitudes concerning the role and status ofwomen, and also aspects of women’s own workburden, knowledge, skills and confidence. Poorwomen’s confidence can be undermined by lessexposure than poor men to the world outside theirimmediate home, and by limited language andliteracy skills. Even when steps have been taken toinclude women in community level decision-making,too often women have been token representatives oncommunity committees with a passive role and fewreal responsibilities. Problems for women can becompounded during negotiations with localauthorities. Community based groups may have beenable to achieve considerable levels of women’sparticipation, but decision-making power may lie athigher levels of the local administration, wherewomen are not so well represented. Communityefforts are often frustrated by bureaucratic delays orunwilling staff at the local/municipal governmentlevel, and women community representatives can beparticularly vulnerable because of their generallylower social status.

Increasing women’s involvement in communitydecision-making

Gender analysis

Before taking action to involve women in communitylevel decision-making, it is important to be fullyaware of existing gender roles, structures andattitudes in relation to decision-making at thecommunity level.

Planning to promote women’s involvement

Action to promote women’s involvement incommunity level decision-making should be devisedon the basis of a clear understanding of existinggender roles, and on the basis of male and femalecommunity members’ perspectives and priorities. On this basis:

� appropriate ways of strengthening women’sinvolvement in decision-making need to bespecified in planning documents, included inimplementation staff TORs (terms of reference)and supported with necessary funding


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� criteria for monitoring and evaluation of women’sparticipation must also be established. Indicatorsof effectiveness should include qualitative as wellas quantitative aspects of participation.

Activities to promote women’s involvement

� Practical measures to promote women’sinvolvement in decision-making include thefollowing:

Community consultation processes

� practical measures are needed to ensure thatproject information reaches women, that they areable to attend meetings and that meetings providea forum in which they can actively participate

� women themselves will often have insights on thebest way to work around male dominated powerstructures

� open discussions involving men and women mayfacilitate women’s participation but specificmeasures may also be needed to overcome thedeference or muting of women’s views in front ofmen

� particularly in large communities, it may benecessary to follow up large meetings with smallerplanning groups, including key womenrepresentatives, where women’s roles,responsibilities, priorities and constraints can beelaborated in more detail

� given the limitations on poor women’s time,considerable outreach work and flexibility isrequired about when and where to meet. Oneapproach has been to arrange meetings in situ at,for example, water supply sites or clinics

� working with existing women’s NGOs orcommunity organisations is a way to involvewomen directly. However, such organisations tendto be monopolised by more affluent women withmore free time, and may exclude poorer sectionsof the community

� women’s organisations are not necessarily“gender-sensitive”, in the sense that they may havelimited understanding of ideas concerning gendermainstreaming and gender equality. It may beuseful to take steps to strengthen the gendersensitivity of CBOs and networks.

Activities to gain the support of men

� early consultation with men, particularlycommunity leaders, and attempts to promotepositive attitudes towards women’s activeparticipation, are important. Where women areinvolved in separate activities or training, thepotential advantages should be explained, and/orcomplementary or parallel activities organised formen

� men’s negative attitudes to women’s increasedinvolvement have often shifted once the benefits tothe community, households, and womenthemselves have been demonstrated.

Promoting women’s active role in community leveldecision-making

� women’s involvement in selecting candidates islikely to result in a higher and more dynamic levelof women’s participation

� the quality of women’s participation incommittees, as well as the quantity, needs to beimproved. For women who are unused toassuming positions of authority, considerablegroundwork may be needed to develop the self-confidence and assertiveness skills necessary fordealing with village authorities. Womenrepresentatives may need special training, inleadership skills, confidence building andcommunication. Similar training should be offeredto men to avoid alienation.

Links with local authorities

Local women’s needs are often addressed mosteffectively by building gender-sensitive partnershipsbetween community representatives and localauthorities. This involves:

� supporting and training communityrepresentatives to negotiate effectively for gender-sensitive services

� training staff in municipal authorities to increasetheir understanding of gender issues, needs andrights, as well as their responsibility for deliveringgender-aware responses

� developing activities to increase information tomarginalised groups, including women, about theservices and resources they can expect, e.g. servicecharters setting out standards of provision.


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Women in decision-making: national policyprocesses

World Bank PRSP gender guidelines specificallypromote the need for gender-sensitive participatoryconsultation processes at the poverty diagnosticstage. However, no mechanism exists either withinthe World Bank, or within most nationalgovernments, to ensure that these guidelines areadhered to and no minimum level of consultation isstipulated in the guidelines. The level of women’sparticipation in national policy consultationprocesses in many countries is currently very low.

It is imperative for gender equality advocates withingovernments, donor organisations and civil societygroups to push for women’s right to participate andto be heard in national policy consultation processes,and for women and gender equality advocates toparticipate in decision-making at all levels.

This means giving consideration to:

� supporting the capacity of civil society groupscommitted to gender equality (women’s groups,men’s groups and mixed groups) to engageeffectively with national policy processes. It isparticularly important to make budget and macro-economic processes accessible

� recognising the strength that diversity amongstwomen’s groups and civil society groups canbring, but balancing this with choices regardingfocused advocacy on women’s rights and genderequality

� developing the capacity of government staff tounderstand gender equality issues and supportgender-aware participatory consultation processes.Linkages between gender advocates andgovernment officials developed during training canassist later lobbying activities

� establishing standards by which the quality ofgender-aware participation can be measured.

Working in networks and coalitions

Networking is fundamental to effective gendermainstreaming. It is professionally ineffective andpersonally undermining for organisations andindividuals seeking to promote gender equality andwomen’s empowerment to work alone. In the contextof developing national policy frameworks, it isessential for gender advocates within governmentand donor organisations to work collaboratively

with each other and with civil society groups.

Types of network

Informal support networks

It is particularly valuable in the early days of tryingto mainstream gender within an organisation, policydevelopment process or project for staff trying topromote attention to gender to form an informalsupport network of like-minded people. Peopleattend as individuals, not as organisationalrepresentatives. The key issue is that members chooseto attend and have a reasonable relationship of trustfrom the outset. These informal networks providemuch needed personal support in what can be a verystressful and marginalised role. They provide asupportive environment to brainstorm ideas, reflecton experiences and recover from disasters!

Formal internal networks and working parties

These are networks recognised and legitimised by theorganisation or organisations involved, with peopleattending in their professional capacity and reportingback. They include gender working parties, genderfocal point networks, and donor gender networks.

Gender working parties

A network formed when there is some degree ofrecognition within an organisation that gender is anissue that needs to be addressed. The aim is toinvolve a range of staff in developing strategies thatwill be effective and relevant to all aspects of theorganisation’s work. Tasks might include co-ordinating the development of a gendermainstreaming policy, with individual membersrepresenting the interests of different departments;developing an appropriate gender training strategy,with individual members responsible for assessingtraining needs in their different departments; and co-ordinating the implementation and monitoring of agender policy.

Focal point networks

Government ministries, in particular, frequentlyappoint/nominate “gender focal staff” to promoteattention to gender in their own sector/department,in pursuance of policy commitments to gendermainstreaming. It is particularly beneficial to formfocal staff networks, usually under the co-ordinationof the national women’s machinery, to link together


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staff trying to promote attention to gender indifferent ministries and departments. These are aforum for developing strategies, building capacityand providing personal and professional support.

Donor gender networks

These bring together staff within donor organisationsresponsible for mainstreaming gender within theirown organisations and programmes, as well assupporting women-specific initiatives. They areimportant to co-ordinate the work of differentdonors and avoid duplication; share experiences onand approaches to mainstreaming gender; shareapproaches to supporting the local women’smovement; and share information about localorganisations and consultants.

Advocacy networks

Gender advocates lobbying developmentorganisations either from the inside or outside topromote attention to gender equality in legislation,policies and programmes are far more effective whenefforts are co-ordinated. In the context of nationalpolicy frameworks, individual staff andorganisations, including donors, have limited poweron their own to influence the agenda. It is essentialfor gender advocates within donor organisations toco-ordinate with gender focal staff withingovernment and with civil society groups to co-ordinate activities, develop strategies and takeadvantage of opportunities.

Internal advocates linking with external networks

An important part of effective advocacy is for focalstaff within government and developmentorganisations to communicate with and gain theconfidence and support of constituents outside theorganisation. Links between gender focal staff andwomen’s organisations, gender equality advocatesand research centres enrich the resources, knowledgeand expertise available internally, broaden the inputand influence of outside organisations, provide moralsupport to internal advocates and can increase theirleverage.

External pressure groups

UNIFEM notes “we have seen time and time againthat effective mainstreaming requires sustainedpressure, over a long period, on governments,bilateral and multilateral agencies, the private sector,the media and other actors by women, women’smovements and their allies. Without an empowered

group of women advocating for and guidinggendersensitive policies and practices, the work ofmainstreaming is prey to the particular skills andinterests of a changing cast of governmental,bilateral, and multilateral personnel who may or maynot have a commitment to or understanding ofgender mainstreaming and equality. Thus UNIFEM’smainstreaming strategy hinges on supporting womento collectively assess their situation, express theirpriorities and concerns, strengthen their public voice,advocate and lobby for policy reform, and developapproaches to substantively influence societaldecision-making.”

Electronic networks

There are a number of gender and developmentemail networks. These can be a useful opportunity toshare information, ideas and experiences, althoughclearly access is restricted to those who have thenecessary hardware, infrastructure and resources.

Tips for network effectiveness

Great expectation can accompany the establishmentof networks, only to find that membership trails off,little is achieved and members cease to meet. Tomaximise effectiveness, networks need to payattention to the following:

� clear thought to membership: this involvesthinking through what each member willcontribute, and what they will gain, as well asfactors concerning the overall coherence andviability of the group

� well thought out need and goal: it is important formembers to reach agreement on a clear purposeand goal. This is motivating and gives a generaldirection to the group

� good leadership: networks work most effectivelywhen members feel actively involved andresponsible. The leader should have a strongcommitment to the network goal, respect for themembers and a facilitative, inclusive style

� good communication with members: this includesregular meetings, the agenda circulated inadvance, and minutes circulated afterwards

� effective and efficient meetings: meetings shouldgive a sense of progress towards the goal, providean opportunity for members’ views to be heardand to reach consensus on decisions


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� clear, realistic and agreed action plan: actions needto be agreed bearing in mind members’ resources,time availability, opportunities, skills, knowledgeand influence

� concrete results: achievement is highly motivating.Modest expectations accompanied by tangibleprogress, are more motivating than ambitiousgoals with no clear strategy for bringing abouttangible change.

Advocacy and Lobbying

Gender advocates

Persuading those in positions of power and authorityto take gender equality and women’s empowermentseriously is key to making progress. This is the roleof “gender advocates” with government, civil societyand donor organisations. Gender advocates can bemen or women, and individuals or organisations.They may undertake this responsibility as part oftheir designated role, or purely on the basis of theirown motivation and choice.

Gender advocates require patience, persistence andcommitment. They need the ability to thinkstrategically and to take advantage of unexpectedopportunities. They need to be able to recover fromsetbacks, be willing to compromise and recognise thesignificance of modest gains and breakthroughs.Promoting gender equality and the empowerment ofwomen is a long-term, complex and difficult task.

Gender advocates face different opportunities andconstraints in different contexts.

Government based advocates

In many cases, advocates operating withingovernment ministries are highly constrained in theirroom for manoeuvre. Razavi (98) description ofgender advocates describes their situation well:“supplicants trying to persuade those not convincedof the intrinsic value of gender equality, in termsleast likely to generate resistance, that gender issuesneed to become a priority”.

Civil society based advocates

Civil society based gender advocates are often freerto express their views than those working withingovernment. However their degree of influence andleverage over government decision-making will

depend on a number of factors:

� the extent to which women’s empowerment andgender equality is accepted as a desirable goal bythe government and in wider society

� the government’s history of addressingwomen/gender issues

� the government’s degree of dependence on civilsociety support (e.g. need for voter support toremain in power)

� government decision-making ideology andprocedures

� the existence and capacity of internal genderadvocates fighting for a similar agenda.

Donor based advocates

The majority of donor organisations have a statedcommitment to the promotion of gender equality (anotable success for gender advocacy). The problemlies in translating this commitment into action. In thecontext of donor-funded projects, the range ofstakeholders involved in planning and design iscomparatively small and the donor organisation isoften in a powerful position to influence the planningagenda. As a consequence, if attention to genderequality is important to the donor, and the staffinvolved in planning have the appropriate knowledgeand skills, then measures to promote gender equalityare likely to be included in the project design. Themost appropriate role for gender advocates in thiscontext is to develop appropriate gendermainstreaming knowledge and skills amongstplanning staff.

In contrast, the development of national policyframeworks is a complex process of negotiationinvolving multiple government, donor and non-government stakeholders. Individual staff andorganisations, including donors, have limited poweron their own to influence the agenda. This provides avery different context for donor based genderadvocates to promote attention to gender equality. Itis essential for gender advocates from donororganisations, ministries, parliament and civil societygroups to work in conjunction identifying strategicentry points for the promotion of gender equality. Itis unsustainable, inappropriate and unnecessary fordonors to promote an agenda of gender equalitysingle-handedly. Donor based advocates should:

� promote, as far as possible, co-ordination between


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donors on gender equality issues

� ensure that staff from different sectors are awareof, and speak in favour of, gender equality policycommitments

� seek out and support (with funding, training andconsultancy support) gender advocates withinpartner ministries. Development assistance canplay a very important legitimising role, supportingthe advocacy work of gender staff

� support civil society advocacy organisations

� participate in gender networks and agree jointstrategies.

Advocacy strategies

Effective advocacy (for individuals or organisations,government, civil society or donor advocates)involves:

� identifying appropriate “entry points”. Thesecould be:

– international, national, sectoral ororganisational policy commitments to genderequality

– new research findings, or analyses of sexdisaggregated data

– the support of key individuals in powerfulpositions

– specific events (elections, internationalconferences, local conferences, issues in theheadlines)

– new initiatives

– reviews of existing initiatives

– research funding

– funding for training

� developing strategic alliances and recognising theneed for compromise

� developing a well argued case for taking genderissues seriously, drawing on appropriate sexdisaggregated data and gender analyticalinformation

� moulding arguments into a shape that fits thegoals, culture and procedures of the targetedorganisation or process

� using a language that is bold and appealing topolicy makers and practitioners, quite different

from the complexity of academic gender analysis

� making clear, well thought through and realisticsuggestions for change. In constrainedcircumstances, suggestions for change may have tobe confined to least worst scenarios and damagecontrol, rather than to a more ambitious concernswith the promotion of gender equality

� anticipating opposing arguments and developingreasonable responses

� recognising the importance of small incrementalsteps towards the long-term goal of genderequality

� revisiting strategies to take account of what hasbeen achieved and learned as well as to assess newopportunities and changing circumstances

� recognising that gains made towards the long-termobjective of gender equality cannot be taken forgranted.

In individual meetings, remember to: be brief, beclear, be accurate, be persuasive, be timely, bepersistent and be grateful!

Linking gender equality and poverty elimination

Gender advocates need to win allies and press theirclaims successfully against rival claimants. In anunsupportive context, the most effective course ofaction is to demonstrate positive spin-offs fromgender mainstreaming, in terms that are compatiblewith the overall policy environment.

The current international policy focus on povertyelimination provides a relevant and conducivecontext for gender mainstreaming. There is agrowing and compelling body of evidence whichshows that women not only bear the brunt ofpoverty but that women’s empowerment is a centralprecondition for its elimination. The undoubted linksbetween the elimination of poverty and thepromotion of gender equality opens up considerablespace for attention to gender issues in all aspects ofmainstream policy-making and planning.

In making links between poverty and gender equality,it is important not to imply that gender inequality iscaused by poverty, or that measures to addresspoverty will automatically address gender inequality.Progress on gender equality is dependent on politicalwill not on the income level of the society. Somedeveloping countries outperform much richercountries in the opportunities they afford women.


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What does gender equality mean?

Gender mainstreaming is a strategy to promote the goalof gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Gender equality does not simply or necessarily meanequal numbers of men and women or boys and girlsin all activities, nor does it necessarily mean treatingmen and women or boys and girls exactly the same.

It signifies an aspiration to work towards a society inwhich neither women nor men suffer from poverty inits many forms, and in which women and men areable to live equally fulfilling lives. It means recognisingthat men and women often have different needs andpriorities, face different constraints, have differentaspirations and contribute to development in differentways. It means recognising the right of women todefine the objectives of development for themselves.

Outline gender equality action framework

Choice of action to promote gender equality shouldbe made on the basis of clear gender analyticalinformation and sex disaggregated data, and on thebasis of women’s own priorities and concerns. It iswholly inappropriate for development organisationsto devise actions to promote gender equality andwomen’s empowerment without having gonethrough these two steps.

This outline gender equality action framework isdesigned to assist in planning discussions. In allsectors and contexts, possible action to promotegender equality broadly falls into the listedcategories. Agreed actions to promote genderequality should be included in policy and planningdocuments, and backed up with staffing, resourcesand indicators of change.


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Step 3: Action to promote gender equality

Type of Action Issues to consider

ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL

Information systems and research

Building the capacity of staff inmanagement, policy-making andimplementation agencies

Promoting gender equality in policy-making, management andimplementation agencies

Solidarity and networking

BENEFICIARY LEVEL

Addressing women’s and men’spractical needs

Promoting equality of access and benefit

Increasing equality in decision-making

Addressing the ideology of genderinequality

� collating and commissioning targeted gender analytical research

� establishing sex disaggregated information systems

� developing staff gender-related skills, knowledge and commitment throughe.g. training workshops, consultancy support, provision of guidelines

� development of procedures to promote equality in recruitment and careerdevelopment

� identifying and addressing gender-related issues in the organisational culture

� activities to link together individuals and groups working for gender equality

� recognising and addressing practical needs/problems identified by andparticular to either women or men e.g. developing domestic labour savingdevices for women

� promoting greater gender equality in relation to resources, services,opportunities and benefits e.g. increasing women’s access to previouslymale dominated employment opportunities

� promoting women’s and men’s equal participation in community leveldecision-making institutions and in community representation

� working with beneficiary groups to reflect on gender norms, traditions andvalues e.g. participatory community workshops on HIV/AIDS

� addressing inappropriate gender stereotypes e.g. reviewing school textbooks for inappropriate gender stereotyping

Gender in logical frameworks

The role of project frameworks/logical frameworks

In the context of projects, the project frameworkagreed between the donor and partnergovernment/civil society organisation is the keydocument for mainstreaming gender. It fulfils manyfunctions:

� it provides a structured framework forparticipatory project design discussions

� it presents in summary form the agreed keyaspects of the project. It is the point at whichDFID “signs off” on a project

� it is an instrument of accountability. The projectmanagement are accountable for delivering whatis specified in the project framework: they are notaccountable for what is not

� it provides the basis for budgeting, marking, andreview/OPR (Out to Purpose Review) processes.

In the context of PRSPs and SWAPS, the donorproject framework is an internal mechanism to agreeand channel funds. It is not an instrument ofaccountability for partner governments. However, itis usual to find a logical framework format used bygovernments to summarise PRSP and SWAPobjectives, activities, indicators and resourcecommitments. This is then the key document formainstreaming gender within policy frameworks. It isthe focus for planning, management, resourceallocation, accountability and review.

When and if to include gender

Policy and project documentation, which is typicallysubstantial, is important for planning, discussion andapproval purposes. However, subsequentmanagement, budgeting and review processes focuson the logical framework summary. Therefore:

� if gender issues are relevant to the policy orproject, explicit references are required in thelogical framework. Inclusion in social andinstitutional annexes or in social and institutionalappraisal sections of the policy/project documentsis not sufficient

� if the policy/project is concerned with making animpact on poor people’s lives, it is hard to imaginecircumstances where gender would not be relevantin some way.

How and where to include gender

The extent to which gender issues are included inlogical frameworks depends on the motivation,influence and knowledge of the people involved indrawing them up. In many situations, staff with themotivation to include gender equality issues lack theinfluence to put this into practice. In this situation, itis important to bear in mind that almost anymention of gender/women in the logical frameworkis better than nothing, and advocacy activities shouldbe geared to this end. This ensures that at least someattention is paid to gender issues in processes ofmanagement, resource allocation, and monitoring,and it opens the door to increasing attention togender issues in review processes.

However, where staff are in a position to addressgender issues more systematically in the logicalframework, it is useful to bear the following pointsin mind.

Target groups

� it should always be clear from the logicalframework who the policy/project is targeting:

– this should be clear from the use of sexdisaggregated indicators

– it should be clear which activities and outputsare targeted to women, which to men and whichto both

– replacing general terms such as “the poor” or“poor farmers” with, where appropriate, “poormen and women” and “poor male and femalefarmers” makes women as well as men clearlyvisible and avoids misunderstanding.

Purpose and goal

the promotion of gender equality (benefit for womenas well as men) should be an aspect of the purposeand goal of all development policies/projectsconcerned with impacting on people’s lives. Thisshould be reflected in Indicators and, where possible,also in the wording of the purpose/goal statement.See “gender-sensitive indicators”

If benefit to men and women is part of the goal andpurpose, specific activities/outputs will be required tobring this about and need to be included in thelogical framework.


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Outputs

it may be useful to have one output specificallyconcerned with targeted activities for women.However, it is important not to ghettoise women’sactivities within one output with a very small claimon resources and no influence on the rest of thepolicy/project. Targeted outputs of this kind shouldcomplement activities to mainstream genderthroughout the policy/project. Benefit for women aswell as men should be considered as an aspect ofeach output

it is principally important to include gender in outputindicators and associated activities. See “gender-sensitive indicators”.

Activities

the promotion of benefit for women as well as menrequires targeted activities, backed up with humanand financial resources. Resource allocation isdirectly linked to the activity line of a logicalframework. See “outline activity framework”

Gender-sensitive indicators

What are they designed to measure?

Gender-sensitive Indicators allow measurement ofbenefit to women and men. Depending on thepolicy/project, this might include:

� the impact/effectiveness of activities targeted toaddress women’s or men’s practical gender needsi.e. new skills, knowledge, resources,opportunities or services in the context of theirexisting gender roles

� the impact/effectiveness of activities designed toincrease gender equality of opportunity, influenceor benefit. e.g. targeted actions to increasewomen’s role in decision-making; opening up newopportunities for women/men in non-traditionalskill areas

� the impact/effectiveness of activities designed todevelop gender awareness and skills amongstpolicy-making, management and implementationstaff

� the impact/effectiveness of activities to promotegreater gender equality within the staffing andorganisational culture of developmentorganisations e.g. the impact of affirmative actionpolicies.

There is no standard or agreed-upon method formeasuring women’s empowerment. Aspects ofempowerment can be reflected in numbers (such asan increase in numbers of women in positions ofpower), but above all, empowerment concernswomen’s perceptions of their own lives andexperiences. To measure qualitative aspects ofempowerment, it is important that it is clearlydefined. Most definitions stress two main areas:

� a personal change in consciousness involving amovement towards control, self-confidence andthe right to make decisions and determine choices

� organisation aimed at social and political change.

The greater the degree of existing gender inequality,the more subtle changes are likely to be. It isimportant in this context for indicators to recognisethe significance of modest gains and breakthroughs.

How do they measure?

Gender-sensitive indicators need to capturequantitative and qualitative aspects of change

Quantitative indicators

Quantitative indicators refer to the numbers andpercentages of women and men or organisationsinvolved in or affected by any particular group oractivity. Quantitative indicators draw on the sexdisaggregated data systems and records that havebeen examined during processes of policy or projectplanning. The availability of quantitative baselinedata means that indicators usually include someelement of target setting. For example:

� women form at least 33% of water committeemembers by the end of Year 2

� at least 50% of network members have developeda gender policy by the end of Year 3

� equality in girls and boys access to primaryeducation by 2005

� 25% increase in number of female police officersby 2005, from a baseline of x%.

Monitoring information should be available throughroutine data systems and records.

Qualitative indicators

Qualitative information refers to perceptions andexperiences. Qualitative information is vitally


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important. It is not enough to know that women areparticipating in an activity: the quality of theirparticipation and experience, whether in communitylevel meetings, primary school classes or as users ofpublic services, is all-important.

Qualitative indicators (as well as quantitativeindicators relating to visible change at thecommunity level) should be developed in conjunctionwith beneficiary groups. In project documents it islegitimate to use in a phrase like “quantitative andqualitative indicators to be developed withbeneficiary groups in first six months of the project”.This creates the space to develop indicators inconjunction with beneficiary groups once they havefully understood the nature of the project. (Whatchanges would they like to see? What will the changelook like? How can it be measured?). This processshould take place using qualitative methods such asfocus group discussions and informal interviews.

It is only possible to set targets for qualitative changeif baseline data is available. This requires baselinesurveys: it is highly unlikely that appropriate baselinedata will be available from secondary sources. Wherebaseline data is available on experiences andperceptions, targets for qualitative change can be set.For example:

� at least 50% of women participating in watercommittees report active involvement inmanagement and decision-making by the end ofYear 2 (from a baseline of 10% at the start of theproject)

� at least 70% of women respond positively toevaluation of police handling of their case intargeted police stations by the end of Year 3 (froma baseline of 5% average at the start of theproject).

Where baseline data is not available, or is not easilyaggregated into numbers and percentages, it isnecessary to resort to general statements ofimprovement. For example:

� significant improvement in staff knowledge, skillsand attitudes on mainstreaming gender equality inparticipating organisations by the end of Year 3(where each organisation starts with markedlydifferent levels)

� significant increase in quantity and improvementin quality of media reporting on gender violence.

Information on qualitative indicators should be

collected through evaluation surveys. Depending onthe indicator, these might be questionnaire surveysreviewing perceptions and experiences of agreedindicators, or participatory methods such as focusgroup discussions and case studies.

PIMs marker on removal of genderdiscrimination

Difference from WID marker

The PIMs (Policy Information Makers) markingsystem is used for DFID internal monitoringprocesses. The “removal of gender discriminationmarker” has replaced a previous WID marker. Thefocus of marking is now on gender equality as anobjective, rather than women as a target group.

Categorising projects

All projects should be categorised as having theremoval of gender discrimination as a:

� principal project objective

� significant project objective, or

� non-targeted.

A principal score should be given to projects wherethe removal of gender discrimination (or thepromotion of gender equality) is the whole purposeof the project, that is, targeted projects working withmen, women, boys or girls wholly designed to tackleelements of gender inequality or discrimination. Forexample, support to legal literacy for women;support to male networks against domestic violence;a programme of staff training and support to developknowledge and skills in mainstreaming genderequality.

A significant score should be given to projects wherethe removal or gender discrimination (or thepromotion of gender equality) is an integral part ofthe purpose of the project, e.g. projects where genderequality is mainstreamed. These include projectsconcerned with promoting equitable access toservices such as health, education and policing;projects concerned with promoting equitable benefitfrom new resources and opportunities.

A non-targeted score should be given to projectswhich fit in neither of the above categories.


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Criteria for eligibility checklist

Categorising projects with a principal score for theremoval of gender discrimination should in mostcircumstances be a fairly clear-cut decision.

Categorising projects with a significant score isslightly more complex. The following officialchecklist is designed to assist.

Categorising policy frameworks

Marking is currently done on the basis of projectframeworks. Given the weak link between the donorproject framework and the focus and development ofpartner government policy frameworks, it is not yetclear how the internal marking system will apply toPRSPs and SWAPS.


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PIMs marker on removal of genderdiscrimination checklist

To achieve a significant score for “removal of

gender discrimination”, projects should meet the

following criteria:

� equality between women and men is explicitly

promoted in activity documentation (i.e. the

project explicitly aims to promote benefit for

women as well as men)

� gender analysis has been carried out eitherseparately or as an integral part of standard

procedures (i.e. gender analytical information

should be included, at least, in the social annex

and the social appraisal section of the project

memorandum)

� gender analysis has been incorporated into

activity design such that the activity meets a

number (at least 4) of the following criteria:

– gender-sensitive strategies and implementation

plans are incorporated and reflected in the

activity budget

– specific means have been designed to help

overcome identified barriers to women’s full

participation in the activity

– specific means have been included to help

ensure equitable control by women and men

over activity output

– gender-sensitive indicators including impact

indicators have been or will be developed for

monitoring and evaluation

– gender skills are used in design and will be

used in monitoring and evaluation

– gender-sensitive consultation is carried out at

all levels and stages (i.e. women as well as

men have participated in project design and

will continue to be involved in

implementation and management)

Step 4: Organisational capacitybuilding/change

“Policy evaporation”

What is policy evaporation?

Since the early 1990s, many governments, donororganisations and NGOs have taken significant stepsto mainstream attention to gender equality in theirwork. Repeatedly and consistently, evaluations ofgender mainstreaming have found that policycommitments to gender equality “evaporate” inplanning and implementation processes, with theresult that impact on women’s and men’s lives is verylimited. The following findings are typical:

� there is a lack of reliable systems and proceduresin place; for example, attention to gender equalityis not systematic in policy-making, planning,implementation and evaluation

� high level commitments made by governments areoften not reflected in sectoral policies

� there is a general lack of understanding on whatmainstreaming entails

� there remains a tendency to view women as asector, and not address gender equality in standardprocesses of sectoral analysis and planning

� gender equality is not systematically included inthe TORs of staff and consultants

� gender-awareness amongst staff is not necessarilyeasily translated in policy and planning initiatives:there is a need for tools

� mainstreaming gender equality is often reduced toa women’s component in projects that has a verysmall claim on resources

� concern for gender equality can be seen asimposed by donor agencies, leading to lip servicefrom partner agencies.

Why does it happen?

The extent to which gender equality policycommitments will be formulated and then effectivelyimplemented depends on the understanding, skillsand commitment of staff in policy-making, planningand implementation roles.

Most development organisations in the north andsouth have not yet built significant staff capacity ingender mainstreaming. As a result, only a small

minority of staff have the level of understanding,skills and commitment to act effectively andconsistently in line with gender equality policycommitments. Far more staff, whilst sympathetic tothe issues, lack confidence, understanding or skills.There is additionally a proportion of staff indevelopment organisations in the north and southhostile to the notion of gender equality. Staffresponsible for promoting attention to gender issuesare frequently under-resourced. Too often, they lackthe time, resources, skills and positioning toundertake their role effectively.

Implications

It is unrealistic to expect that commitments to thepromotion of gender equality, expressed in policyand planning documents, will be effectivelyimplemented without significant resources beingdevoted to developing staff commitment,understanding and skills. This is a long-term processof organisational change with political and technicaldimensions.

Organisational capacity building framework

Activities to develop staff understanding and skills ingender mainstreaming should be developed on thebasis of a clear understanding of existing levels ofknowledge. This assessment should be part of theprocess of institutional appraisal. See outline genderanalytical framework: development organisations.

Staff with designated responsibility formainstreaming gender and building staff capacitywill almost always be necessary. Their “entry points”to capacity-building and opportunities to promoteattention to gender will vary in differentorganisations and plans should allow them a degreeof flexibility.

Capacity-building initiatives should be included inpolicy documents and project plans, backed up withstaffing and resources, and measured withappropriate indicators of change.


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Type of Action Issues to consider

Gender focal staff

(with responsibility for spearheading,

supporting and sustaining gender

mainstreaming in the organisation as

a whole)

Financial resources

Capacity building strategies

� gender policy and action plan

� staff gender training

� internal and external networks

� development of checklists and

guidelines

� commissioning gender research

� developing sex-disaggregated

information systems

� Including gender issues in staff

TORs/interviews/appraisals

� monitoring and reviewing policy

commitments

Political will/management support

Equal opportunities

� clear and agreed TORs

� training in gender mainstreaming and advocacy

� professional support i.e. back-stopping consultancy, networking

Budget allocations for:

� staff capacity-building activities

� gender equality initiatives

Note: Appropriate strategies will vary in different organisations and

contexts. It is important for planning to allow focal staff the flexibility

to take advantage of opportunities, set realistic goals and recognise

that setbacks will occur.

In all contexts, political will and management support is crucial.

Gender staff need to think strategically about ways of promoting,

sustaining and capitalising on this.

Attention needs to be paid to gender equality within the structure,

culture and staffing of development organisations as well as in their

policies, programmes, and procedures.

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Gender focal staff

Evaluations of gender mainstreaming repeatedly andconsistently conclude that effective gendermainstreaming in any context requires staff (notconsultants), variously referred to as gender focalpersons/change agents/gender “entrepreneurs”/genderadvocates, to take responsibility for spearheading,supporting and sustaining gender work. The role ofthese staff is not to take full personal responsibilityfor gender work, but to act as catalysts supportingand promoting gender-related skills and approachesamongst professional colleagues. The evidence isoverwhelming that unless there are staff withdesignated responsibility, responsibility for genderequality all too easily becomes “mainstreamed” outof existence.

The role of gender focal staff

The role of staff with responsibility for promotinggender mainstreaming involves:

� thinking strategically about where efforts andavailable resources should be focused

� identifying and taking advantage of opportunitiesand “entry points” to mainstream gender

� seeking out allies (internally and externally)

� mobilising resources

� providing convincing justifications for therelevance of gender mainstreaming to theorganisation and its activities

� facilitating the development and monitoring ofgender policy and action plans

� developing and monitoring systems andprocedures for mainstreaming gender

� developing and supporting gender mainstreamingskills, knowledge and commitment withprofessional colleagues and partners i.e. throughtraining, guidelines and support.

Common constraints

The effectiveness of gender focal points, particularlythose based in sectoral and regional ministries andproject implementation teams, has often proveddisappointing, at least partly because expectations ofwhat they might achieve can be unrealistically high.Gender focal points commonly face the followingconstraints:

� lack of clarity about their roles and responsibilities

� lack of management support

� no additional time/resources allocated to theirgender focal point role

� women staff members selected as focal points onthe basis of their sex rather than their commitmentto the issues

� relatively junior staff members selected as focalpoints but lacking the authority and seniority toundertake this role effectively. The potential forintroducing change from below in an organisationaccustomed to hierarchical top down forms ofdecision-making is inevitably limited

� huge demands on their personal and professionalinitiative and resilience

� many existing gender analysis methodologies andtraining packages are oriented to datagathering/analysis at the community/project level.A lot of this is not directly relevant to gender focalpoints operating at a policy level.

Promoting effectiveness

Positive focal point experiences, associated withpromoting tangible change and sustainingmomentum, are strongly related to supportivemanagement, scope and resources for developing andimplementing policy and activities, and adequatesupport. Donors have an important role to play infacilitating the effectiveness of gender focal pointsboth in partner organisations and in projectimplementation teams.

� focal point TORs: terms of reference for thegender focal point should be clearly spelt out, and,if appropriate, developed in conjunction withsenior managers and gender focal pointsthemselves. TORs should realistically bear in mindthe time and resources that will be available toindividual focal points, and confirm the role of thegender focal point as a catalyst

� capacity-building: this could include training (ingender mainstreaming and advocacy skills),mentoring, links to professional networks,participation in workshops

� professional and personal support: through back-stopping support and involvement in networks.


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Gender policies

Introduction

An organisational mission statement/policy is auseful starting point for gender mainstreaming. Oncegender equality is being effectively addressed inmainstream policy documents, a specific and separategender mainstreaming policy may no longer benecessary.

Content

A gender mainstreaming policy usually includes:

Background information

problem/situation analysis, focusing on beneficiarygroups. What is the evidence for gender inequality?Why is it a problem? Relate this to your ownorganisational goals. Use appropriate sexdisaggregated data and gender analytical information

what is being done (generally) to address the issue ofgender inequality. Existing/previous government/NGO initiatives and approaches. Focus on:

� achievements

� challenges

� lessons learned

� focus on own organisation

� history in addressing the issue of gender inequality

� current work and responsibilities

� achievements/challenges/lessons learned.

� ways forward.

Policy commitments

� succinct statement of policy rationale (a statementof organisational vision and mission in relation togender equality. Statements of principle and beliefincluding words like “we believe” or “werecognise”). For example:

“We believe that women and girls are over-represented amongst the poor, marginalised andoppressed, as a result of the unequal distribution ofpower and resources between women and men in allsocieties.”

� succinct statement of policy commitments inrelation to specified areas of work (statements ofaction including words like “we will”. It is

possible and quite helpful to use a logicalframework format for this). For example:

“We will provide appropriate training and support toall staff to ensure they have adequate awareness,knowledge and skills with which to concretelyaddress gender issues in their work.”

Strategy

A strategy is an action plan to put policycommitments into practice. In relation to all policycommitments, it is important to specify thefollowing:

� activities

� indicators

� time frame

� designated responsibility

� budget.

Lessons learned

Policy evaporation

All too often, gender mainstreaming policies“evaporate” before implementation, and remainpaper commitments only. Policies must includestrategies/action plans with clear procedures andtargets as well as designated roles and responsibilitiesfor promotion, implementation, and monitoring.These must be based on a clear and realistic analysisand understanding of the organisation/departmentincluding its decision-making structures, incentivesystems, planning routines and history with respectto gender equality.

Focus on process and product

The value of a gender mainstreaming policy lies atleast as much in its formulation as in its existence.The formulation of a mainstreaming policy is agolden opportunity to involve as many staff and,where appropriate, stakeholders external to theorganisation as possible. This process promoteswidespread “ownership” of the policy; enhancesunderstanding and commitment to gender equalityissues; ensures that the policy “fits” with theorganisational culture, structures and procedures;and substantially increases the chance that the policywill be implemented. In this context:


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� gender policies from other similar organisationscan be used for ideas and inspiration, but shouldnever be copied or used as blueprints

� external consultants may have a useful role to playin facilitating a consultation and policydevelopment process, but should never berecruited to write a mainstreaming policy.

Practice what you preach

Gender equality in the workplace, and genderequality in-service delivery, are inextricably linked.Agency credibility in presenting a gender equalitypolicy relating to service delivery is assisted if thepolicy is reflected in or includes measures to promotegender equality in internal staffing and practice.

Gender Training

What is gender training?

In-service gender training emerged in the mid 1980sto “teach” development policy makers, planners andimplementation staff to see and take account of thedifferential impact of development interventions onmen and women. This kind of gender trainingcommonly involves:

� raising participants’ awareness of the different andunequal roles and responsibilities of women andmen in any particular context

� looking at ways that development interventionsaffect, and are affected by, differences andinequalities between women and men

� equipping participants with knowledge and skillsto understand gender differences and inequalitiesin the context of their work, and to plan andimplement policies, programmes and projects topromote gender equality.

It has been, and remains, quite common fordevelopment agencies and governments to developshort (often one or two day) gender-awarenessplanning courses designed to be applicable to all staffwithin the organisation. More recently, manydevelopment agencies are moving away from this“one size fits all” approach to gender training onto amore tailored approach.

“Best practice” in gender training: the context

Gender training is most effective when used as partof a broader strategy for influencing the climate ofopinion within an organisation for promoting genderequitable practice. Equally, the importance attachedto gender training by the organisation as a wholeinfluences how seriously training is taken by courseparticipants. Participants who expect some sort offollow up activity, and whose supervisors supportand promote gender equitable practice, are morelikely to transfer what they have learned to theirworking practice.

Activities complementary to gender training will varywith circumstance. Part of the role of staff withresponsibility for promoting attention to genderequality is to identify appropriate entry points andopportunities. Possibilities might include:

� follow up discussion and feedback workshops

� participatory gender policy development withclear, measurable and achievable objectives

� ensuring staff have back-up access to genderexpertise and to professional support

� inclusion of attention to gender equality issues inpersonnel appraisals

� forming internal gender networks and committees

� working with external advisory/consultativegroups

� establishing earmarked funds for pilot initiatives

� activities to promote management support forgender mainstreaming

� active monitoring of gender policy implementation

“Best practice” in gender training: the content

The GEM website includes information on how togo about planning a tailored gender training courseand suggestions for gender training exercises. It isimportant to bear in mind in all contexts that gendertraining works most effectively when:

It is learner centred

� all training should be based on an analysis of theparticipants and their needs. The morehomogenous the group of participants, the morethe training can be tailored to their specific needs,the more effective it will be


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it uses participatory methods

� effective training uses participatory methods suchas case studies, brainstorming, and problemsolving to allow participants to actively engagewith the subject matter, and learn by doing.Choice of methods will depend on the topic, thegroup, the trainer and practical factors. It isimportant to use country, culturally and sectorallyspecific case material directly relevant to thecircumstances in which participants live and work.The participants’ own policies, projects,experiences, observations and deliberations shouldbe the principal materials for discussion

it introduces skills as well as awareness

� effective training is based on an understanding ofthe participants own job responsibilities, anunderstanding of where they fit in theirorganisational structure and an understanding oftheir organisational systems and procedures. Itshould help participants to identify and discusstheir own opportunities and constraints todevelop a gender equality perspective, andencourage the development (and follow up) ofpersonal action plans

the trainer has credibility with the participants

� the trainer needs to have knowledge,understanding and status appropriate to thegroup. In all circumstances trainers need to adopta non-threatening approach allowing discussionand exploration of different viewpoints. It is oftenbest for external consultants to work with internalgender staff in order to ensure the relevance of thetraining to the organisation

training is followed up

� competence development is a process not an event.Training needs to be followed up with discussionworkshops, more tailored training and/or on-the-job support.

Pitfalls in gender training

The above conclusions on “best practice” in thecontext and content of gender training are wellrehearsed, but all too often gender training fails toreach these standards. Whilst good gender trainingcan promote a more positive climate of opinion tofacilitate gender equitable work, poor gender trainingnot only fails to promote gender equitable practice, itcan provoke a backlash to hard-won progress. It can

promote opposition to participation in any furthergender training and/or an inappropriate sense ofhaving “done gender”. Resistance is part of theterritory of gender training, and will be encounteredby good gender trainers in good gender trainingcourses, as well as by bad gender trainers in badgender training courses. However, gender trainersbear responsibility for predicting and managingresistance constructively, and this requires theirexplicit attention to all of the above points on bestpractice in gender training content. Ineffective gendertraining cannot and should not simply be blamed onresistance.

Too much gender training provokes resistance and/or is ineffectual because:

� it is formulaic

� it is dislocated from the needs of the group

� it says more about the trainer than the trainees: itis “too academic”, it is “too feminist”, itregurgitates what the trainer learnt on a trainingof trainer course.

Commissioning gender training

In commissioning gender training, it is centrallyimportant to be aware of best practice in both thecontext and content of gender training and to ensure,as far as possible, that this is followed. If you arecommissioning gender training, it is quite likely thatyou will also be responsible for promoting gendermainstreaming in others ways. It is essential toconsider ways in which the training will bereinforced and followed up.

In terms of the content of gender training:

work alongside external gender training consultants

� it is preferable for external gender trainingconsultants to work alongside staff responsible forpromoting attention to gender mainstreamingwithin the organisation in order to ensure therelevance of the training to the organisationalculture, structures and procedures, and to ensurethat the training complements and reinforces othermainstreaming initiatives

use a team of trainers rather than an individualtrainer

� training is often conducted most effectively byteams rather than individuals. This is partlybecause gender training can be extremely


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challenging and tiring, and co-facilitators can giveeach other support and feedback. It is alsobecause, in moving from “one size fits all” totraining tailored to the needs of the participants, itis unlikely that one trainer will have all theknowledge and skills required. Co-training is alsoa way of building training capacity.

factors to consider in selecting trainers

� gender trainers have different areas of expertise aswell as different styles and approaches to training,i.e. they do not all do the same job in the sameway. Find out all you can about the approach ofdifferent gender trainers from people who haveexperienced working with them. Think aboutwhat kind of expertise and approach would beappropriate to the needs of your participants, anddiscuss this with potential trainers. It is importantto think about the credibility of the trainer/s withthe group

� it is important for at least one trainer to comefrom the same area and ethnic group as themajority of the participants

� male gender trainers can stop gender being seen asa woman’s issue, and promote the credibility ofgender mainstreaming in mixed and/or largelymale groups

� trainers with highly developed theoreticalunderstanding of gender analysis may be desirablefor highly educated, academic groups and policy-making groups, but less appropriate for groupsmore concerned with practical details of planningand implementation

� trainers with practical and applied experience ofmainstreaming gender in particular sectors may bedesirable for sector-specific groups

� trainers with an overtly radical/feminist approachmay be appropriate to groups already committedto mainstreaming gender equality and/or women’sgroups.

allow time and resources for needs analysis andplanning

training must be tailored to the needs and roles ofthe participants. Trainers must be allowed time andresources to conduct effective needs analysis, and todevelop appropriate and tailored training materials.

Promoting gender training capacity

There has been an enormous increase in demand forgender trainers in the last few years and, with thecurrent increase in attention to gender mainstreamingin accordance with the Beijing Platform for Actioncommitments, this demand is likely to increase stillfurther. In response to demand, there has been aproliferation in many countries of “gender trainers”and “gender training institutes”. Whilst some of thegender training provided in this context is very good,in too many cases gender training capacity is weakand quality poor. It is important for donors tosupport and develop local gender training capacity asmuch as possible.

Quite a lot of training of gender trainer courses havetrained participants in a standard gender training.There is often a case for developing and repeating astandard gender training course within a particularorganisation (for example, when training a largenumber of staff playing a similar role within thesame organisation), and a consequent need to traintrainers in the use of that particular training package.It is important, however, to be quite clear about thepurpose and the limitations of training trainers inone training package. It does not produce trainersable to devise and tailor gender courses to differentinstitutional and participant needs, and trainers usinga standard training package in a setting for which itwas not designed will provide poor quality training.

The move towards tailored gender training is muchmore demanding on trainers. It requires trainers withgender-related knowledge and skills sufficiently wide-ranging to meet the needs of potential courseparticipants, and with the confidence and skillsrequired to assess the learning needs of participantsand develop and conduct training coursesaccordingly.

Effective gender training skills build up with experienceas well as training. Training of effective gender trainersis not a one-off event. Donors can support thedevelopment of effective gender training through:

� tailored training of trainer courses (moving awayfrom the idea of “one size fits all” gendertraining). For example:

� training in gender training for sector basedworkers and consultants, focusing on genderanalysis and gender equitable practice in particularsectors, for example, health work; policing; macroeconomic policy etc.


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� training of gender trainers in advocacy, lobbyingand influencing techniques

� training of gender trainers in institutional analysisand gender equitable practice in the workplace

� training of people with gender expertise/experiencein training skills i.e. needs analysis, courseplanning, choice of methods, participatorymonitoring techniques etc.

� building the gender and training knowledge andskills base of trainers trained in a standard gendertraining package

� training of activists/people active in the women’smovement in gender analysis, through Masterscourses and academic short courses

� facilitating access to/sharing of/publication ofgender training materials.

Management Support

A constant theme in effective gender mainstreamingis the importance of both the commitment andleadership of senior management. Only seniormanagement can properly oversee a cross-cuttingtheme which, by definition, intersects the variousmanagement structures of the organisation. Seniormanagement provides signals about the relativepriority assigned to various issues through makingdemands on staff for analysis, information andupdates on progress. When such demands are notmade, and when staff are not held accountable foraction on issues of equality, there is little incentivefor action.

Equally, senior management support for thosespearheading gender equality work is a key tosuccess. Mainstreaming gender equality is a highlysensitive issue and often meets with staff opposition.The authority and support of senior management isimportant in enabling gender staff to continue in theface of resistance. Gender mainstreaming is oftenpromoted on the basis of considerable trial and errorand experimentation. Management support plays animportant role in providing gender staff with thenecessary space to try out different and at timescontroversial activities.

Demonstrations of management commitment

Senior management can demonstrate commitment by:

� making demands on staff for information, ideas,and progress reports on gender mainstreaming andgender equality

� providing recognition to staff forinnovation/achievement related to gender

� integrating gender equality into speeches andstatements on a range of subjects and notreserving comments on this theme purely forgender/women-specific occasions

� allocating sufficient resources, financial andhuman, for the promotion of gendermainstreaming

� participating in discussions on gender issues i.e.opening workshops, chairing panels, sponsoringdiscussions

� providing moral support

� supporting policy advocacy and dialogue ongender, e.g. raising it in discussions withpoliticians and representatives of developmentorganisations

� promoting measures to develop gender equitywithin organisational structures, procedures andculture.

Promoting management support

Focal points can encourage senior managementsupport through:

� arranging gender training/briefing specifically forsenior management, with a specific focus on policyissues

� involvement of senior management in genderpolicy development, including discussion ofimplementation and monitoring strategies

� ensuring that senior management roles andresponsibilities in relation to the promotion ofgender mainstreaming are clearly spelt out ingender mainstreaming policies

� developing strategic alliances with women’s groupsand advocacy groups outside the organisation

� where management staff are being appointed,lobbying for the inclusion ofunderstanding/commitment to gender equality inTORs, and in assessment procedures.


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This manual is designed to complement the GEMwebsite. This was developed by a team of more thantwenty experienced gender consultants inconsultation with DFID sector advisory staff. Itprovides detailed and practical sector-specificinformation on gender equality and gendermainstreaming and includes case studies, referencesand web links.

The GEM website is managed by BRIDGE at theInstitute of Development Studies. It is accessible onthe internet at http://www.genie.ids.ac.uk/gem/

The GEM website can also be accessed via the DFIDIntranet either under “Resources” on the SocialDevelopment Division site, or via the “Services andProcedures” tab on the left side of the main inSightpage, under “Systems and Tools”.

The main menu of the GEM site is structured intofive main areas:

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Section 4: Information about the GEM website

Theme Sub-topics

Policy

Implementation

People

Sectors

Regions

DFID’s target strategy papers on “Realising human rights for poor

people” and “Poverty elimination and the empowerment of women”

Mainstreaming gender; gender planning frameworks; gender training;

and communications

Information on gender in relation to disability; indigenous people;

older people; violence against women; and men and masculinities

Information on gender in relation to economics; health; education;

conflict and emergencies; rural livelihoods; infrastructure; and

governance

Country gender profile and case studies organised according to four

geographical regions (Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and Latin America

and the Caribbean)

Section 4: Information about the GEM website

Information on sub-topics is structured into relatedthemes, and for each of these:

� a core text which explores the main gender issuesand, where relevant, strategies for action

� tools for incorporating gender into programming

� case studies

� a bibliography and links to other useful internetsites

� facts and figures.

Clicking on “sectors” and then on “health”, forexample, will bring up the following menu.

The GEM site is continuing to evolve. Text isupdated and new topics are regularly added. Wewelcome comments on the existing information aswell as suggestions for additions.

Health theme Core Text Tools Case Studies Bibliography Facts and Figures

Gender and

Health

Health Sector

Reform

Reproductive

Health

Specific Health

Problems

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1. What kind of organisation do you work for?

�� Government �� Bilateral/multilateral donor �� NGO

�� Other: please specify __________________________________________________________________________________

2. Have you received any gender training?

�� Degree level �� Considerable in-service training �� Limited in-service training

�� None �� Other: please specify ______________________________________________________________

3. Did you find the gender manual useful?

Very useful Fairly useful Limited use No use

Background ideas and concepts ��

Gender mainstreaming in a nutshell ��

Step 1: Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information ��

Step 2: Influencing the development agenda ��

Step 3: Action to promote gender equality ��

Step 4: Organisational capacity-building/change ��

4. Which subsections were most useful and why?

5. Which subsections were least useful and why?

Evaluation Questionnaire

Evaluation questionnaire

This gender manual is being distributed as a pilot exercise. We may supplement the manual with sector-specificguides and would value feedback to tailor both the manual and the sector-specific guides to needs. Please send comments either on this evaluation questionnaire, or by email to: [email protected]

41

6. Overall comments and suggestions for improvement

Would additional sector-specific guides be useful? �� Yes �� No

8. If yes, what issues would you like them to address?

Thank you for your comments.

Please return this questionnaire to Sushila Zeitlyn, Social Development Department, DFID, I, Palace Street, London SW1E 5HE.

Evaluation Questionnaire

42

DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The Department for International Development (DFID) is the UK government department responsible for promoting developmentand the reduction of poverty. The government first elected in1997 has increased its commitment to development bystrengthening the department and increasing its budget.

The central focus of the Government’s policy, set out in the1997 White Paper on International Development, is acommitment to the internationally agreed target to halve theproportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015,together with the associated targets including basic health careprovision and universal access to primary education by thesame date. The second White Paper on InternationalDevelopment, published in December 2000, reaffirmed thiscommitment, while focusing specifically on how to manage theprocess of globalisation to benefit poor people.

DFID seeks to work in partnership with governments which arecommitted to the international targets, and seeks to work withbusiness, civil society and the research community to this end.We also work with multilateral institutions including the WorldBank, United Nations agencies and the European Community.

The bulk of our assistance is concentrated on the poorestcountries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. We are alsocontributing to poverty elimination and sustainabledevelopment in middle income countries in Latin America, theCaribbean and elsewhere. DFID is also helping the transitioncountries in central and eastern Europe to try to ensure thatthe process of change brings benefits to all people andparticularly to the poorest.

As well as its headquarters in London and East Kilbride, DFID has offices in many developing countries. In others, DFID works through staff based in British embassiesand high commissions.

DFID’s headquarters are located at:

DFID1 Palace Street London SW1E 5HEUK

and at:

DFIDAbercrombie HouseEaglesham RoadEast KilbrideGlasgow G75 8EAUK

Switchboard: 020 7023 0000 Fax: 020 7023 0016Website: www.dfid.gov.ukemail: [email protected] enquiry point: 0845 3004100 From overseas: +44 1355 84 3132

Front cover image reproduced with permission from The Copy Book – Copyright-free

illustrations for Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, 1995.

04/02 2.5K Produced for DFID Information Department by MGP Chromocraft ISBN: 1 86192 445 3

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