Gender Equality: Basic Education and Lifelong Learning

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Pant, Anita P..Good practices: gender equality in basic education and lifelong learning

through CLCs: experiences from 15 countries/ by Anita P. Pant and the APPEALColleagues, Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and the Pacific Regional Bureau forEducation, 2003.

101 p.

1. BASIC EDUCATION. 2. LIFELONG EDUCATION. 3. GENDER EQUALITY.4. WOMENS EDUCATION. 5. GIRLS EDUCATION. 6. EDUCATIONALDISCRIMINATION. 7. ASIA AND THE PACIFIC. I. Title

370

This report was prepared by Ms. Anita P. Pant with the collaboration of APPEAL Colleagues.

UNESCO 2003

Published by theUNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for EducationP.O. Box 967, Prakanong Post OfficeBangkok 10110. Thailand

Printed in Thailand

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not

imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legalstatus of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers orboundaries.

APL/03/OP/276-500


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C o n t e n t s

Executive Summary 1

Part I: Basic Education and Lifelong Learningfor Gender Equality: An Overview 5

Part II: Review of Good Practices fromthe Asia-Pacific Region 17

Part III: Lessons Learned from Good Practice 89

Part IV: Recommendations 97


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Gender Equality in Basic Education Executive Summar y

The education of women and girls remains a major challengein the Asia-Pacific region, especially in developing countries.More than two-thirds of the out-of-school children and illiterateadults are female. Since the World Conference on Educationfor All (Jomthien, Thailand, 1990), many countries in the regionhave made remarkable efforts to reduce the gender gap existingin regard to access and quality of education. However,delegates at the World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal, 2000)reported that gender discrimination continues to permeateeducation systems.

Thus, gender equality in education has remained a matter of

concern for all countries. To bridge this gap, it is very importantto focus on illiterate women and girls who have been neglectedby the formal school system. This lack of attention has led tonew concepts of lifelong learning or continuing education.

The idea of providing an institutional base for holistic lifelongeducation became operational with the establishment of community learning centres (CLCs). With the mainstreamsystem focusing on formal schooling, non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs), religious institutions and individuals areplaying a pivotal role in the promotion of non-formal educationas a complementary system.

This report reviews the activities carried out by selected CLCsin various countries of the Asia-Pacific region as examples of good practice in the promotion of gender equality in basic andlifelong education. It discusses the lessons learned from theseexamples and offers recommendations for enhancing the CLCsrole in providing education for a more effective impact on

community life. Drawing primarily upon case studies of goodpractice, the report also makes use of relevant informationgathered from a variety of sources.

Part I of the report covers definitions and concepts related toeducation and gender equality. Moreover, it covers the highlightsof the major initiatives taken at the global level in education,with special reference to gender.

A review of innovative approaches to basic education and

lifelong learning is presented in Part II of the report. It gives anoverview of 14 case studies, concentrating on the background,

E x e c u t i v e S u m

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Gender Equality in Basic Educationand Lifelong Learning through CLCs

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major findings and conclusions. It sheds light on thestrategies, achievements and impact of these initiatives topromote gender equality in basic and continuing education,

along with their weaknesses.

Lessons learned from these initiatives are summarized inPart III. There are two categories of lessons oneimportant from a general perspective and the other withspecific relevance to gender. A successful CLC recognizescommunity needs, adopts a participatory approach andmobilizes community resources in a strong partnership withlocal organizations and agencies. Capacity building of the

community is crucial for the sustainability of CLCs.Furthermore, CLCs can be instrumental in promotinggender equality in rural areas, especially in remote areaswithout suitable education facilities for girls and women.Promoting gender equality is an outcome of multi-dimensional factors. Integration of literacy and skillstraining, recognition of womens needs, partnership withwomens organizations and NGOs, raising socialawareness and the representation of women in decision-

making are some key factors, among many.Part IV offers measures to improve the effectiveness of CLCs in the delivery of basic and lifelong education forgender equality. They include:

adopting a gender a mainstreaming strategy for theplanning and management of CLCs;

declaring a commitment to gender equality that isbacked by an adequate budget and resources;

establishing partnerships with local NGOs working withgender equality issues;

developing gender responsive teaching-learningmaterials and adequate indicators to measure genderequality changes;

building the capacity of CLC personnel to promotegender equality;

involving more CLC female teachers and supervisorsin motivating local women;


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Gender Equality in Basic Education Executive Summary

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promoting womens involvement in the decision-making process; increasing womens role as literacyand skill trainers;

developing or strengthening credit and marketingfacilities;

making arrangements for child-care; and

decreasing the household workload of women.


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Basic Education andLifelong Learning for

Gender Equality:

An Overview

A. Definitions and Concepts

B. Overview of Glogal Initiatives in Education

I


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Part I : Gender Equality An Overview

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Basic education is the term used to refer to educationconsidered essential for everyone, ranging from functionalliteracy, primary and secondary education to vocationaleducation and skills training. The main purpose of providing basic education is to equip people with the basicknowledge and skills to enable them to earn a living andimprove the quality of their lives. Basic education is thefoundation for acquiring other life skills and progressivelyraising the levels of knowledge to fulfill individual and socialneeds.

Primary schooling is the principal delivery channel of basiceducation, which must meet the basic learning needs of all children and take into account the culture, needs andopportunities of local communities. Although the mainchannel must be the formal primary education system,non-formal primary education and literacy programmes

are indispensable to supplement and complement thissystem. In addition, instruments and channels of information, communication and social action can be usedto educate people. Basic education also covers earlychildhood care and initial education provided with theinvolvement of families, communities or institutionalprogrammes. Basic education should lead to higherincomes as well as better income distribution, providingpeople with the tools to address major social issues.

Part I

Basic Education and LifelongLearning for Gender Equality:

An Overview

A. Definitions and Concepts

Basiceducation


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Lifelong learning refers to the education that peopleexperience throughout their lives, which may be in the formof formal, non-formal or informal education. It is the kind

of education considered essential for improving the qualityof life. Learning is a lifetime process, beginning with theuniversal experience of socialization within the family.

The key objective of lifelong learning is to enable people toimprove themselves and to keep up with socio-economic,political, scientific and technological change. Variousinstitutions in society, such as public libraries, museumsand temples, play a major role in providing lifelong education

for the people. Lifelong education activities can beorganized in diverse ways through the use of media, suchas radio, television or video, newspapers, conferences andtraining programmes. Nonetheless, such activities haveto be in harmony with the daily lives of learners. Lifelonglearning is usually described in terms of flexibility, diversity,universality and dynamism. For newly literate people,lifelong learning provides opportunities for acquiringadditional skills beyond basic literacy.

Community Learning Centres (CLCs) are places forcommunity-based learning organized and managed by thepeople themselves. These centres are established withthe aim of providing an infrastructure and an institutionalbase for holistic lifelong education. Although the objectivesof CLCs vary from one place to another, their overall goalis to empower individuals and promote communitydevelopment through basic and lifelong education. They

primarily target people with fewer opportunities foreducation, such as out-of-school children, youths, elderlypeople and women. They provide education combinedwith skills training for income generating activities leadingto improved income and quality of life for farmers, artisans,women, youths and other rural poor. Most CLCs arelocated in rural areas, but some centres address theproblems of the urban poor.

Thus, the CLC is an institution that aims at empowerment,social transformation and improvement in the quality of lifethrough literacy, income generating skills and social action.

Lifelong learning

Community LearningCentres


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An effective CLC ensures the direct participation of thetarget group, flexibility and community resourcemobilization. It also allows for leadership to emerge fromthe community itself with the support generated throughstrengthened co-ordination, networking and partnershipwith various local organizations and agencies.

Gender is a concept that deals with the roles andrelationships between women and men. These roles andrelationships are determined by socio-cultural, religious,political and economic factors, not by biology. In otherwords, gender refers to socially constructed roles and

responsibilities assigned to women and men in a givenlocation and the social structures that support them, all of which are subject to change over time.

Gender refers not just to women, but to both women andmen, and to the interaction between them. With thisconcept, it is important to understand the differencesbetween women and men that are externally influenced,as well as the conditions imposed on them based onnaturally given biological differences. Therefore, genderanalysis has to deal with both sexes in relation to eachother, not in isolation. Furthermore, an understanding of gender does not imply that all women are alike. Race,ethnicity, class, caste, nationality, age and social rank areother factors that may cause significant differences amongwomen themselves, and among men as well.

The purpose of looking at gender is not to divide womenand men, causing conflict between them. Rather, it draws

our attention to those issues that have brought aboutunequal relations, and allows us to address these issueswith appropriate measures that will help reduce rather thanperpetuate inequality. Thus, the concept of gender helpsto focus on growth in terms of the equitable distribution of benefits between women and men, equality of powerrelations between them and, most of all, the partnershipbetween them in any field of development.

Gender


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Gender equality is equality between men and women and entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make

choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behaviour, aspirations and needs of women

and men are considered, valued, and favoured equally. It does not mean women and men have to become the same

but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. 1

The emphasis on gender equality and womens

empowerment does not presume a particular model of gender equality for all societies and cultures, but reflects aconcern that women and men have equal opportunities tomake choices. Because of current disparities, the equaltreatment of women and men is insufficient as a strategyfor gender equality. Equal treatment in the context of inequalities can result in the perpetuation of disparities.Because of the current situation of inequality, genderequality cannot be achieved without the empowerment of

women.Womens empowerment and their full participationon the basis of equality in all spheres of society,

including participation in the decision-making process and access to power, are fundamental for the achievement of equality, development and

peace. 2

Promoting the equal participation of women as agents of

change in economic, social and political processes isessential for achieving gender equality. Equal participationinvolves womens equal right to articulate their needs andinterests, as well as their vision of society, and to shapethe decisions that affect their lives, regardless of the culturalcontext.

_________________________

1. ABC of Women Workers Rights and Gender Equality , InternationalLabour Organization (ILO), Geneva, 2000.

2. Beijing Declaration , adopted at the United Nations Fourth WorldConference on Women (Beijing, China, 1995).

Gender equality


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Gender equality can only be achieved through partnershipbetween women and men. Gender equality is an issuethat concerns both women and men, and achieving itinvolves working with men to bring about changes in theirattitudes, behaviour, roles and responsibilities at home, inthe workplace, in the community, and in national andinternational institutions. Achieving gender equality requires changes in institutional practices and socialrelations through which disparities are reinforced andsustained.

Achieving gender equality requires specific measures that

go beyond mere equal treatment of women and men. Suchmeasures must address the policies, laws, procedures,norms, beliefs, practices and attitudes that maintain genderinequality. Women must have the capacity to make choicesabout their own lives. Efforts to achieve equality betweenwomen and men that use a one-size-fits-all approach maynot take into account the discrimination existing in the past.Provisions for equal opportunities may not take into accountthe unique challenges that different individuals and groups

face. That is why equity measures are necessary.Gender equity means fair treatment of women and men.

To ensure fairness, measures must often be available tocompensate for historical and social disadvantages thatprevent women and men from otherwise sharing a levelplaying field. Equity leads to equality. Measures thataddress specific disparities that prevent women from havingthe same status as men will allow both women and mento share equally in the results and benefits of development.One example of such a measure of equity is the provisionof leadership training for women, which addresses theproblem of gender inequality in structures of governance.

Thus policies, programmes and projects of gender equalityaddress the issue of equity while pursuing the goal of equality. Gender equity strategies, however, are used toeventually attain gender equality. Equity is the means andequality is the result.

Gender

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Gender analysis is a tool to diagnose the differencesbetween women and men in regard to their specificactivities, conditions, needs, access to and control over

resources, and ability to receive development benefits andparticipate in decision-making. Gender analysis entails,first and foremost, collecting sex-disaggregated data andgender sensitive information about the populationconcerned. It is the first step in gender-sensitive planningfor promoting gender equality.

Gender analysis is an indispensable tool for bothunderstanding the local context and promoting gender

equality. Local context refers to the recognition thatdevelopment interventions operate within existing social,cultural, economic, environmental, institutional and politicalstructures in any community, country or region. In addition,few communities, countries or regions are homogeneous formal and informal power structures within each reflectsocial, economic and political relationships among thepeople concerned as well as with the outside world. Simplyput, knowledge of the local context is vital for the

understanding of these relationships and their connectionto any programme in terms of needs, impact and results.It identifies the varied roles played by women and men inthe household, community, workplace, political system andeconomy.

Thus gender analysis provides information about:

Differences between women and men and the diversityof their circumstances, social relationships and

consequent status (for example, their class, race,caste, ethnicity, age, culture and ability);

The different perspectives, roles, needs and interestsof women and men in any area, country, region orinstitution;

Relations between women and men pertaining to theiraccess to and control over resources, benefits anddecision-making processes;

The potential differential impact of programme or projectinterventions on women and men; and

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Socio-cultural opportunities and constraints forreducing gender inequalities and promoting moreequal relations between women and men.

In 1995, at the Fourth UN International Conference onWomen held in Beijing, gender mainstreaming wasestablished as the internationally agreed strategy forgovernments and development organizations to promotegender equality and the empowerment of women. Gendermainstreaming is:

the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including

legislation, policies and programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens and mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring

and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is

not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. 3

Gender mainstreaming is founded on the principle thatthere are differences between the conditions, situationsand needs of women and men, and that these differencesneed to be recognized in any kind of planning that leadsto the attainment of development with equality. In practice,gender mainstreaming requires concrete actions explicitlyincluded in policy and project documents backed byhuman and financial resources, and monitored and

reviewed through appropriate indicators of change.In terms of the functioning of an organization, gendermainstreaming broadly means embracing the genderperspective in all administrative and financial activities andprocedures, in particular, decision making. This meansnot only promoting the participation of women in decisionmaking mechanisms but also ensuring that theparticipating women are committed to the promotion of

Gender main-

streaming

_________________________3. ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions (E/1997/100).


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gender equality and equipped with the necessary skills toactively influence policy.

Gender mainstreaming as an organizational strategy relieson the skills, knowledge and commitment of the staff. Inthis regard, appropriate capacity building needs to beincluded in policy documents and backed by financialresources and gender responsive indicators. During thislong process of change in the culture and environment of the organization, efforts need to be sustained and changesadequately monitored.

In addition to the promotion of women in decision-making,

the use of gender analytical information and sexdisaggregated data, advocacy, networking and teamwork are fundamental to gender mainstreaming.

More than 40 years ago, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserted that everyone has a right toeducation. Declaring the goal of basic education for all

for the first time in history an attainable goal, the WorldConference on Education for All (EFA) convened in Jomtien,

Thailand, in April 1990.

Conference delegates affirmed that education is afundamental right for people, both women and men, of allages throughout the world. They recognized theimportance of sound basic education as a foundation forscientific and technological literacy, as well as for self-reliant

development. The Conference further acknowledged that in general thecurrent provision of education is seriously deficient and thateducation must be made more relevant and universallyavailable. Underscoring the importance of universal accessand promoting equity, it affirmed that basic educationshould be provided to all children, youth and adults. Forbasic education to be equitable, all children, youth andadults must be given the opportunity to achieve andmaintain an acceptable level of learning. The most urgentpriority is to ensure access to and improve the quality of

World Conferenceon Educationfor All,

Jomtien,Thailand,1990

B. Overview of Global Initiatives in Education


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education for girls and women, and to remove everyobstacle that hampers their active participation. All genderstereotyping in education should be eliminated.

Thus the EFA Conference concluded by urging the removalof centuries of attitudes and practices keeping girls andwomen from their full participation in the developmentprocess. Stronger partnerships among national, regional,and local education authorities, the development of supportive policies, the mobilization of resources, andincreased international solidarity were essential forremoving these barriers.

The World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, in April2000 made a commitment to achieve the EFA goals andtargets for each citizen in every country. The DakarFramework is a collective commitment to action.Governments have an obligation to ensure that the EFA goals and targets are reached and sustained, mosteffectively through broad-based partnerships withincountries, supported by co-operation with regional andinternational agencies and institutions.

Forum participants reaffirmed the World Declaration onEducation for All, supported by the Universal Declarationof Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of theChild, emphasizing that every child, youth and adult hasthe basic right to benefit from an education that meets hisor her basic learning needs in the best and fullest sense of the term. They also affirmed that education includeslearning to know, to do, to live together and to be.

Forum delegates committed themselves to a number of goals. Those with specific relevance to gender equalityare as follows:

Goal 2: ensuring that by 2015 all children, with specialemphasis on girls, children in difficult circumstancesand ethnic minority children, have access to andcomplete free and compulsory primary education of good quality;

Education Forum, Dakar,

Senegal, 2000


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Goal 4: achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levelsof adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, andequitable access to basic and continuing education

for all adults; andGoal 5: eliminating gender disparities in primary andsecondary education by 2005, and achieving genderequality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuringgirls full and equal access to and achievement in basiceducation of good quality.

To achieve these goals, governments, organizations,agencies, groups and associations represented at the

Forum pledged themselves to develop gender responsivenational action plans 4 and to significantly increase invest-ment in basic education. They promised to implementintegrated strategies for gender equality in education thatrecognize the need for changes in attitudes, values andpractices. In this regard, the countries of Asia and thePacific agreed that:

it is essential to eliminate systemic gender disparities, where they persist, amongst girls and

boys, throughout the educat ion system inenrolment, achievement and completion; in teacher training and career development; in curriculum, and

in learning practices and learning processes. This requires better appreciation of the role of education as an instrument of womens equality and empowerment 5

Education for gender equality must necessarily aim at

transforming gender relations so that men and women canenjoy the same opportunities to reach their potential in allareas of society. More specifically, education for gender

4. To assist national EFA teams to develop gender responsive plans of education, UNESCO Bangkok has developed the documentGuidelines for Preparing Gender Responsive EFA Plans March2002. The guidelines can be download at www.unescobkk.org/ ips/ebooks/subpages/gender.html and hard copies can berequested from [email protected].

5. The Asia and Pacific Regional Framework for Action adopted bythe Asia-Pacific Conference on EFA 2000 Assessment, Bangkok,17-20 January, 2002.

_________________________


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equality is free from gender stereotyping and equips girlsand boys, women and men, with the necessary skills andattitudes that will help them to pursue their potentialregardless of their sex.

These national EFA plans would set out clear strategiesfor overcoming the special barriers facing those currentlyexcluded from educational opportunities, with a clearcommitment to girls education and gender equality.

The United Nations Girls Education Initiative (UNGEI) waslaunched at the World Education Forum in April 2000. It isa 10-year initiative that helps national governments to meettheir commitments to ensure a quality education for girlseverywhere. The UNGEI has five strategic objectives:

To build political and resource commitments to girlseducation;

To end the gender gap in school attendance andcompletion;

To eliminate the gender bias within national educationsystems;

To support girls education in areas affected by orrecovering from armed conflict, natural disasters orexternal shocks; and

To eliminate social and cultural discrimination that limitsthe demand for girls schooling.

The UNGEI supports countrywide changes to eliminateinstitutional and systematic gender disparities and bias.Working with national education systems, it can help todevelop sound policies and to mobilize new resources forgirls education. It brings new attention to participation insecondary school, education during emergencies and alife cycle approach to education that includes the cognitivestimulation of very young children.

It also offers a second chance to adolescent girls whoare pregnant or are mothers, or have never attended orcompleted school. In 54 of the 90 countries where some

UN efforts are taking place, 3 or more UNGEI entities havealready established programmes to further girls education.

United Nations

Girls Education Initiative


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Building new and broader partnerships is essential forsuccess and sustainability, and such partnerships arecentral to the Initiatives work. Thus, the initiative seeks

collaboration from non-governmental organizations(NGOs), the private sector and, of course, fromgovernments.


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Review of Good Practices fromthe Asia-Pacific

Region

A. Background

B. An Overview of Exemplary Practices

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Part II : Review of Good Practices from the Asia-Pacific Region

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Part II

Review of Good Practices fromthe Asia-Pacific Region

A. Background

This section presents an overview of the case studies from

14 countries in the Asia-Pacific region: Bangladesh,Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Iran, Lao PDR, Mongolia,Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand,Uzbekistan and Viet Nam. The case studies representgood practice for promoting gender equality in basiceducation and lifelong learning. Country reports provideinformation on various areas of analysis in order to identifyexamples of good practice with a particular focus ongender equality.

The areas of analysis are (1) area of implementation;(2) target group; (3) resource mobilization; (4) participatoryapproach and partnership with government organizations(GOs), NGOs etc; (5) activities; (6) achievements; (7) impact;and (8) sustainability. These areas were identified at the

Technical Workshop on Basic Education and LifelongLearning for Gender Equality through CLCs, held inJayagiri-Bandung, Indonesia, in March 2001. Thisworkshop was organized by the Asia-Pacific Programmeof Education for All (APPEAL), United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in co-operation with the Indonesian National Commission forUNESCO.

As a follow-up to this technical workshop, the participantsundertook research projects in their respective countries,following the framework and guidelines provided by

APPEAL, with the main objective of identifying examples

of good practice undertaken by CLCs to promote basicand lifelong education.


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Although the specific methodology of the research variedfrom country to country, researchers generally made useof formal questionnaire surveys and focus group

discussions, supplemented by review of the availablesecondary information. Given the varying amounts of information available, the overview indicates somevariations in the depth of analysis used by researchers.

The case studies identify examples of good practice usedin each individual country to provide education tocommunity people resulting in positive changes in theirthinking and behaviour, especially amongst women in the

community. The studies illustrate how CLCs help topromote basic education and lifelong learning for genderequality in the community and what strategies they needto adopt to increase womens participation in educationand community development, strategies undertakenthrough co-operation and partnership with different GOsand NGOs.

In addition, they also reveal the problems and shortcomingsin carrying out literacy and skill learning activities. In viewof the existing problems of gender disparity in education,the case studies assume a special significance becausethey address various crucial aspects of promoting non-formal education, with a particular focus on gender.

The following section highlights the innovative approachesto basic education and lifelong learning used by CLCs in14 different countries in Asia and the Pacific.

B. An Overview of Exemplary Practices


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A. Background

Recognizing the importance of education, particularlywomens education, the government of Bangladesh has

taken several measures in the past few years to increasethe participation of women at all levels of education and toreduce the gender gap through extensive programmes.

Some of the major initiatives included enactment of the Compulsory Primary Education Act of 1990,implementation of the Act in 1993, creation of a separatePrimary and Mass Education Division (PMED) in 1995, theIntegrated Non-formal Education Programme (INFEP)under PMED, the Directorate for Non-formal Education(DNFE) in 1996, and the Food for Education Programmewith special emphasis on girls education. The DNFEintroduced some post-literacy and continuing educationprogrammes.

In addition, NGOs, including Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM),Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC),Proshika, Caritas, Swanirvar Bangladesh and many otherslaunched massive education programmes targeting

primarily women. In order to provide an institutional baseand a structured post-literacy and continuing educationprogramme, in 1992 DAM established a total of 808Ganokendras (CLCs) as an innovative appr oach to basiceducation and lifelong learning for gender equality.

An empirical investigation of this initiative of DAM wasundertaken by describing good practices used by twoCLCs to promote gender equality in basic education and

lifelong learning. Investigators selected Madhukari andMitali CLCs as examples. The former is located in Rajapur

Madhukari and Mitali CLCs

B a n g l a d e s h


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their basic literacy and post-literacy programmes, made asignificant contribution to the increase in the literacy rateof the community (Rajapur [Madhukari CLC area]: from 37

to 45 per cent; Boalmara [Mitali CLC area]: from 20 to 23per cent)]. Thus the role of CLCs was found to be positivein retaining and improving the literacy skills of CLC membersas well as that of the whole community through thedemonstration effect.

Social awareness training emphasizing the importance of education (particularly womens education), theenvironment, sanitation, primary health care, family

planning, leadership, development, gender and other topicswas very much in evidence at both the CLCs. One goodpractice at both CLCs was the dissemination of knowledgefrom the direct beneficiaries of training to all members of the CLC. Comparison between CLC memberhouseholds and non-CLC member households showedthat the number of adults who could write letters was higherfor the former than for the latter, indicating that the CLCswere instrumental in raising awareness of the importance

of education. Researchers also found that non-CLCmember households were much less knowledgeableabout womens rights (ownership, voting, etc.) and differentlegal provisions against violence than were CLC-memberhouseholds.

The investigators identified poultry raising, murali (flute) andcandle making, fisheries, vegetable cultivation and sewingas the areas of skills training conducted by the CLCs forincome generating activities. The CLCs also had supportservices for providing access to credit for members afterreceiving skills training. The skills training activities of theCLCs had a positive impact on the skill development andincomes of poor women as reflected in their greaterinvolvement in economic activities (farming and business)and subsequent improvement in social status. Comparisonbetween before CLCs and after CLCs showed adecrease in the number of women CLC members with thestatus of housewife. Due to their engagement in differentoccupations, the average income of the CLC members


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increased (Madhukari CLC: from Tk. 143 to Tk. 376; MitaliCLC: from Tk. 500 to Tk. 580), improving their status bothinside and outside the family.

The study found that the CLC members were involved indifferent socio-cultural activities, such as debates and essayand sports competitions on different occasions (LiteracyDay, Independence Day etc.). The stories, poems, folk songs and dramas inspired and raised awareness amongthe helpless and destitute women. These programmeswere also a source of recreation for the villagers.

Most of the programmes of the CLCs were found to be

gender-sensitive. In addition, campaign and orientationactivities (community meetings, rallies, parent education,

school programmes, etc.)were organized under aseparate programme forgender sensitization.Gender and developmenttraining addressed theeconomic and social rolesof women, the genderdivision of labour, the roleof men in the empower-ment of women and othersimilar topics. Genderconsciousness was

common among both women and men CLC members,and was more apparent among CLC members than non-members.

The study identified the pressures of domestic work,womens full responsibility for looking after their childrenand the opposition of husbands as the main obstacles towomens participation in CLC activities.

Needs assessment, resource identification (financialresources, site, resource person, programme personnel,etc.) and membership selection emphasized theparticipation of everyone affected by CLC activities.

Strategies


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As the target group basically consisted of poor marginalizedwomen, this strategy ensured their strong participation byrecognizing their needs, desires and voices. The CLCs

played a pivotal role in themobilization of localresources, both humanand natural. The CLCmembers took theinitiative in reclaimingderelict tanks, buildingroads, cultivating the landtaken in mortgage by theCLC, setting up nurseries,and similar activities,offering voluntary labourand even using their ownsavings for these purposes. The CLC savings schemewas used to invest in land and trade.

In all sorts of activities, womens participation was quitehigh, manifesting an enhanced social awareness and

commitment among the women CLC members. BeingCLC members, both women and men learned how to work together and how to participate in development work forthe community. Above all, they learned that both womenand men are partners in the process of development. Allthese were positive steps towards promoting genderequality.

The CLCs maintained a strong network with GOs andNGOs, which were involved in CLC programmes in a varietyof ways. The CLCs served as a platform to provideeducation, health training and financial services by GOsand NGOs, to which CLC members were affiliated as well.

The linkage established by both CLCs with GOs and NGOsshowed that CLC programmes were not operating inisolation.

A comparison of different health indicators (visits to qualifieddoctors, number of mothers receiving help from qualified

doctors during last delivery, contraceptive prevalence rate,immunization rate for mothers and children, expenditure


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on health, nutrition and food as a percentage of totalexpenditure, etc.) for CLC members and non-CLCmembers indicated that the CLCs had made a significant

contribution to the improvement of the health status of poor women through establishing linkages with health andfamily planning services.

Co-operation between the CLC and other institutions

There is a mosque adjacent to Madhukari CLC. Itwas there before the start of the CLC. Initially themembers of the mosque committee were not verymuch in favour of the CLC. However, the CLCgradually succeeded in convincing them of theimportance of promoting literacy among women.Subsequently there was no more tension betweenthe two. The most interesting thing was that somemembers of the mosque committee were on themanagement committee of the CLC. The presidentand vice-president of the mosque committee werethe vice-president and president of the CLCmanagement committee.

The CLC personnel consisted of a managementcommittee, a full-time facilitator or community worker andthe general members. The community worker was alwaysa woman, although other staff were men. At MadhukariCLC, there was a woman treasurer. At least 75 per cent of the general members were marginalized women. Local

people, existing and potential users of the programmes,were consulted in the process of forming the managementcommittee and selecting members.

Despite the strengths of Madhukari and Mitali CLCs in thepromotion of basic education and lifelong learning, someshortcomings were noted. In many cases, training wasineffective in regard to income generating activities. Thebeneficiaries were not using loans for development or

retaining the skills they received from training. One reason,in some cases, was an insufficient amount of credit. In

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addition, they lacked marketing facilities for their productsand a child-care facility for the children of learners.Furthermore, women were inadequately represented on

the management committees.

C. Conclusions

We can draw the following conclusions from the experienceof Madhukari and Mitali CLCs:

Women are keen to learn and enrich their knowledge,if they get the opportunity;

Women take greater interest in CLC activities than men;

CLC training should address the role of men inempowering women;

CLCs should ensure that womens needs arerecognized and that women have a strong voice inCLC activities;

The lack of credit and marketing facilities makes skilltraining less effective;

The lack of a child-care facility restricts womensparticipation in CLC activities; and

The lack of male commitment to share responsibilityfor household chores and looking after their childrenlimits womens participation in CLC activities.


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The Royal Government of Cambodia in its national policyhas given priority to poverty alleviation. Since 1994, it hasbeen paying particular attention to human resourcedevelopment through education and vocational training.

Achieving the EFA goal by 2015, especially amongst thedisadvantaged, including children of ethnic minorities,constitutes one of the national education priorities. Toachieve this goal, the Non-formal Education Departmentof the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, in close

co-operation with local authorities and communities, andwith financial and technical support from UNESCO, hasestablished seven CLCs in six provinces of the country.

A survey of these seven CLCs identified the Chamcar BeiCLC (formerly the Girls and Womens Education Project)as the best example of activities promoting basic educationand lifelong learning for gender equality. Investigatorslooked at this particular CLC in terms of its establishment,programme implementation and achievements.

The Chamcar Bei CLC, located in Kep province, was setup to provide basic education particularly to the illiteratewives and daughters of former Khmer Rouge soldierssettled in the village, and to adolescent girls and women insurrounding villages as well. In addition, a long-term goalof the CLC was to prepare local authorities as well asgovernment partners to help community members develop

Chamcar Bei CLC

C a m b o d i a

A. Background

B. Major Findings

Target group


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their own community by themselves and to facilitate theintegration of former Khmer Rouge soldiers into civilian life.

The activities of the CLC focused on three major areas literacy, skills training and capacity building. Apart fromholding literacy classes, the CLC provided skills training invarious areas including tailoring, weaving, embroidery andfood processing. Childdevelopment training (themajority of learners beingwomen), raising politicalawareness, disseminating

information on CLC-related matters and co-operation with localauthorities in providingassistance to flood victimswere remarkable featuresof the CLCs contributionto the community. TheCLC took the initiative in setting up learning centres for

out-of-school children (as branches of the main villageprimary school) and launching Buddhist fund-raisingceremonies for community development activities (forexample, road construction) in which military personnel,schoolchildren and even monks actively participated. TheCLC also organized a self-help group for women to enablethem to start a savings scheme involving group members.

All these activities were undertaken in response to theneeds of the community. In order to address the varyingproblems of the target group, three sub-committees forwomen, youth and the elderly were set up.

The CLC facilitated the deep involvement of the entirecommunity in its activities related to education andcommunity development. Community members chosetheir own literacy teachers, and there were fewer dropoutsin women teachers classes than in classes taught by men.In some cases, when they came to lessons they found

interesting, women learners requested women teachersto continue teaching even on Sundays. One of the most

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important features of the CLC from the gender equalityperspective was that women constituted half of itsmanagement committee (three out of six members).

Records showed that an earlier management committeehad been chaired by a woman literacy teacher. An advisorycommittee, created at the initial stage, also consisted of three women and two men. Thus the Chamcar Bei CLCrecognized the role of women in management right fromthe beginning.

In response to the great number of illiterate men in thecommunity, the CLC made a point of mandating that men

attend one-third of the classes. Similarly, the CLCrecognized the effectiveness of having men and womentogether in the same class when discussing gender-relatedissues, such as domestic violence, which was verycommon in Cambodian society.

Researchers discovered various remarkable changes in thecommunity resulting from the CLCs activities. Illiteracywas reduced to 10 per cent, and there were positivechanges in the ways children were looked after, in attitudestoward childrens education (more children were attendingfirst grade), in relations between spouses (reflected by asharp decrease in domestic violence), and in forestconservation. Having a better understanding of health and

hygiene measures andacquiring basic legalknowledge, the villagerswere better able to deal

with the related problemsby themselves to a certainextent.

One of the most importantfactors contributing to thesuccess of Chamcar BeiCLC was the problem of land distribution. Thisproblem was solved by

giving each family a plot of land to produce food crops.Because of the literacy activities, the distant relationship

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between the Khmer Rouge soldiers and people in thesurrounding areas was transformed into mutualunderstanding and friendship. Consequently, peace and

safety, regardless of the image of the Khmer Rouge soldiers,were restored in the area.

The impact of Chamcar Bei CLC was not only confined tothe target community.Observing the changesthe Chamcar Bei CLCbrought about in thecommunity, neighbouring

villagers established CLCsfor themselves. Aware of the importance of educating parents as wellas children, these villagersrequested the ChamcarBei CLC to initiate parenteducation activities in theircommunities.

At a later stage the CLC was able to undertake support-raising activities on its own, acquiring financial aid,equipment and technical assistance. It was also able toindependently obtain support from both domestic andinternational organizations, such as the World FoodProgramme and the Provincial Womens Association of Kep.

Observers noted that phasing out this support should occur

gradually, particularly in a situation where the educationlevel of the management committee was low. Even whenthe community takes full responsibility for management,the role of supporting agencies is vital for strengtheningthe CLC. Providing training in management skills,monitoring and evaluation, needs assessment, smallenterprise development, marketing and other areas wouldhelp make the CLC sustainable.


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We can draw the following conclusions from Chamcar Bei

CLC, an example of good practice for promoting basiceducation and lifelong learning for gender equality inCambodia:

Womens voices can be heard and womens problemscan be addressed only when womens participationstarts right from the beginning.

For CLCs to be more effective in promoting genderequality in this context, joint participation of womenand men in gender issues classes is highly desirable.

Capacity building with a gradual phasing out of supportis crucial for sustaining CLCs.

C. Conclusions


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A. Background

Among the five autonomous regions of China, GuangxiZhuang is the most densely populated, with 38 per centof its population consisting of national minorities. Theeconomy is poor and life is often difficult in Guangxi Zhuangdue to its historical background and harsh naturalconditions. To improve the lives of local people, in 1998the Guangxi Provincial Education Bureau in collaborationwith UNESCO launched a community learning programmein three counties Longsheng, Tiandong, and RongshuiMiao. CLCs were set upin three townships in

Longsheng county, twotownships in Tiandongcounty, and two inRongshui Miao county.

In order to assess theperformance of theprogramme, an empiricalstudy was carried out inthese three counties. Theinvestigation revealed thatthe programme hadachieved great success in reducing the gender gap andcould be considered as an example of good practice inpromoting lifelong adult education.

B. Major Findings

Investigators found that the educational activities were

integrated with cultural activities related to nationalcustoms, arts, architecture, history and cuisine. Four forms

Community Learning Programme in Guangxi Zhuang

C h i n a

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of training were used: specialized training, short-termtraining, training via radio and television, and on-site visitsand exchanges.

Vocational training in practical techniques was carried outin various areas with the involvement of many people.These

areas included growingfield crops, raisinglivestock and poultry,a g r o - p r o c e s s i n gtechnology, gardeningand others important for

the village economy.Women participatedactively in the organizationof these activities. Inaddition, illiterate or semi-literate women cadres of the villages after receiving

appropriate training were responsible for conducting literacyclasses in different village homes. Because women play

such an important role in farming, science and technologytraining for demonstration families was conducted toimprove the socio-economic status of women. Womenattended training sessions in science and technology heldon site at high-yield vegetable gardens, fruit orchards,demonstration rice fields, pigpens and fishponds. Peoplereceiving this training also became responsible fortransmitting practical knowledge and skills to othersafterwards. Women were also provided with credit facilities

by township governments and credit co-operatives.

The study revealed that the programme had been wellplanned and carried out effectively giving due considerationto local conditions. Three models for the implementationof the pro-gramme were applied: township, school, andon-site. The township CLCs were set up at cultural andvocational schools at the township level under theadministration of the town-ship government and the

management of the township education department. Theschool CLCs were set up in primary or vocational schools

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at the township level and operated by these schools.Similarly, on-site CLCs made use of instruction andguidance conducted at village demonstration sites such

as orchards, ponds and fields. The county and township education authorities,departments related to agriculture, education, science andtechnology, and the womens federation were involved inimplementing the programme. Moreover, the localgovernment and womens federation collaborated indeveloping project activities, the township vocationalschools participated in training, and the townshipgovernment and co-operatives worked together inproviding credit to programme participants. The countygovernment also offered a preferential policy for women.

The programme demonstrated its flexibility by conductingtraining during the slack season or in the evening.

The study found that the programme made valu-ablecontributions to the lives of the people. The farmers,especially the women, obtained practical vocational skillsand technological knowledge, and applied them to improve

their farming practices. This in turn led to an improvementof womens social position and role in economicdevelopment. In addition, the programme contributed toincreasing the competence of those involved inmanagement.

C. Conclusions

The following conclusions are obvious from the example

of the community learning programme in Guangxi: The integration of educational activities with cultural

activities encourages women to participate;

Science and technology training can form an importantcomponent of a CLCs activities to improve the socio-economic status of farm women; and

On-site instruction and guidance at villagedemonstration sites is a good way to obtain effective

results.


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The conventional school system has not helped much to

improve the economic conditions of the rural people,particularly women. In order to adapt learning activities toactual living conditions, non-formal education is of theutmost importance to enable rural people to improve theirlives. With its education activities as a form of actionresearch for economic and social change, the ShivapurCommunity Learning Centre (CLC) in the state of Maharashtra is engaged in transforming the attitudes andlives of the people, especially women.

A study of the Shivapur CLCs programme for thedevelopment and empowerment of rural women found veryinteresting and useful results, providing an impetus forfurther thought and action related to basic education andlifelong learning for gender equality.

Because education and the empowerment of women aremajor requirements for the transformation of society, theShivapur CLC emphasised womens education. However,this did not mean that the CLC neglected the educationof the men in the community. It was mainly a question of priorities. The CLC focused on serving those between 15and 35 years of age, with the upper age limit waived fordeserving candidates. The trainees were mainly from eightvillages around Shivapur.

Shivapur Community Learning Centre

I n d i a

A. Background

Target group

B. Major Findings


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The programmes of the CLC were prepared in consultationwith teachers, local leaders and, most importantly, womenin varying situations. It was considered particularly

important to understand the viewpoints of men regardingeducation, different roles and the overall status of women.In any programme for womens education and developmentto be conducted in a rural society, the dominant positionof males cannot be ignored. The names of women whodesired to participate in the programme were solicited fromthe members of village councils, co-operative societies,womens groups, headmasters of primary schools andvillage leaders.

The CLC decided to select local women instead of bringingtrainers from urban areas. These women, with recognizedleadership qualities, received intensive training in the skillsand knowledge essentialfor implementing thecurriculum. The group of trainers visited exhibitions,emporia, small production

units and sales units forrural industries.

The curriculum wasessentially a flexibleoffering that could enabledifferent types of learnersto acquire knowledge anddevelop attitudes, habits and values according to theirconditions and life experiences. The CLC did not followany tightly structured curriculum but offered a flexible basketof programmes that could be selected and adjusted fromtime to time according to the needs of learners. Curriculummodules were also kept flexible to suit the pace and abilityof each learner. Schedules were made so as to satisfy theconvenience of the learners. The CLC adjusted itsschedules in the rainy season and in winter in view of thedifficulties of the trainees in commuting. On a fewoccasions, it gave them assignments to be completed athome when their attendance at the centre was not possible(due to the rains and other difficulties).

Approach


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The CLCs activities focused on education for acquiringeconomic skills as well as personality development. Thetrainers used new forms of out-of-school education. They

also recognised that apart from skills for income generation,rural women required other kinds of support to overcometheir feelings of oppression and inferiority. For this purpose,special learning programmes were designed for personalitydevelopment.

The learners were initiallynot aware that there werea large number of skills

related to improving thequality of life. They onlyknew about the traditionalskills of sewing andneedlework, which wereconsidered to bespecifically feminine.However, the centre staff decided to accept their

suggestions and conduct vocational programmes focusingon traditional skills, introducing innovative skill trainingprogrammes at a later date. Four kinds of skill trainingactivities were carried out sewing; embroidery; knittingand the production of rexin articles. The participants alsolearned about the functions of various machines and theiroperation, how to undertake basic maintenance and minorrepairs, and how to manage and store equipment andmaterials.

In addition, the CLC engaged itself in eclectic activitiessuch as health, nutrition, child development, care of theelderly, the legal rights of women, their political participationand socio-economic contribution, public speaking, first aid,sports and the organised celebration of festivals. Solutionsto the problems of womens health and nutrition, child caremethods and constraints imposed on women by traditionalrituals were considered important by the CLC for women

to enjoy full rights as members of their families and citizensof their country. At the same time, such information wasfound essential for men as well in order to remove from

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their minds the conventional ideas and prejudices whichlowered the status of women. The CLC considered itnecessary to keep in touch with the families of the learners.

It acted as a modernising force helping them to overcomesuperstitions and rituals that relegated women to a lowerstatus.

Although the CLC did not charge fees for the courses andalso provided many of the raw materials, the learners hadto bring some materials from which they could preparearticles for personal or family use. Some participants couldnot meet even these expenses. In such cases, the CLC

provided the materials. Apart from financial constraints, the learners were subjectto cultural constraints. Some of the families required theirgirls and women to be back home from the training centreor farm work or any other activity before sunset.It was thusdifficult to organise sports, games and cultural activities inthe evening. Even when the trainees were taken on studytours, the families did notallow them to spendnights away from home.

The length of some of these tours was curtailedas a result. By and large,married women found itsomewhat difficult toconcentrate on theirtraining although theywere keen to acquire allthe skills offered by thecentre. Their householdduties often came in the way. Illness of a family member orother difficulties at home affected their attendance. Somehad to leave the training programme midway through.However, most of the unmarried trainees managed tocomplete the courses selected by them, because theirparents felt that the skills would be an additional

qualification for them when they were to be married. In thechoice of courses, it appeared that the elders in the families

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often pressured the learners. Marriage, change of residence, pregnancy and lack of time to attend the courseregularly resulted in learners dropping out.

Although the programme was publicised in ten villagesaround Shivapur, most of the learners came from eightvillages located no more than six kilometers from Shivapur.Bus service was available for some of them. However,some could not afford the bus fares and often preferred towalk the whole distance. Quite often, learners from theremote villages met together at a given point and walkedto the centre in a group, which they considered a safety

measure.

The following major conclusions can be drawn from theexperience of the Shivapur CLC:

Knowledge of womens problems is essential for theirfamilies, particularly male members, to overcome theirconventional ideas and prejudices, which lower the

status of women.Understanding the financial situation of the learners isvery important for the CLC.

Cultural factors constrain womens fuller participationin CLC activities.

Womens household responsibilities often interfere withtheir learning.

Distance between home and centre has a great

influence on wider participation in CLC activities.

C. Conclusions


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A. Background

The national literacy policy

combined with incomegenerating programmesinitiated in 1974 becamea high priority in mid-1997when Indonesia was hit byeconomic crisis. A seriouseffort got under way toimprove out-of-schooleducation as related to the

informal sector of theeconomy in order tominimize the negativeeffects of the crisis at the grassroots level. As a part of this effort, previously scattered out-of-school skill formationprogrammes were consolidated into Pusat KegiatanBelajar Masyarakat (Community Learning Centres), withthe establishment of the first CLC in 1998.

A study of Dahlia CLC at Mataram, West Nusa Tenggaraprovince, was undertaken to identify examples of goodpractice for promoting basic education and lifelonglearning. Dahlia CLC was among the 27 best CLCs in thecountry, and won second prize in a national contest heldby the Ministry of Education in 2001.

B. Major Findings

Dahlia CLC was established in response to the low levelof womens education, which contributed to a high infantmortality rate, early marriage (sometimes even at 12 years

Dahlia CLC

I n d o n e s i a

Target group


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of age) low purchasing power and low levels of knowledgeabout nutrition resulting in community health problems.Its target group comprised children, school dropouts, poor

women, women of reproductive age, poor families and thedisadvantaged in general.

Researchers found the Dahlia CLC to be responsive tothe learning needs of the community. Its programmescorresponded to the interests and choices of both womenand men learners. These programmes encompassed awide range of activities Kejar Packet A (learningequivalent to primary schooling), Kejar Packet B (learning

equivalent to lower secondary schooling), early childhoodeducation, and incomegenerating activities, suchas embroidery, sewing,a g r o - p r o c e s s i n g ,motorcycle repair andelectronics. The CLC wasdynamic in adapting itself to the changing needs of

the community over time.Before the economiccrisis, both Kejar Packet Aand functional literacyprogrammes already

existed, but later on skills training, especially in areas usefulfor earning a living like raising chickens, food processing,repairing cars, sewing and embroidery, came to theforefront.

The income-generating programme of Dahlia CLC attachedequal importance to credit and marketing in addition toproduction. Because the husbands permission wasnecessary for a woman to receive a loan from the formalbanking system, the Dahlia CLC helped women to form aco-operative that could act as an informal bank, lendingmoney at a low interest rate to members. The communitytook advantage of its location near the Selaparang Airport

to supply salted eggs and other processed foods torestaurants and shops there. The women also overcame

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their shyness and used motorcycles to transport theirproducts, an unusual sight in Indonesia. The centreshandicrafts were sold to tourists at the Senggigi Tourist

Resort. There was also a womens co-operative shopselling daily household necessities.

The Dahlia CLC implemented its activities through closeco-operation with almost all the stakeholders in educationand community development. Ever since its establishment,it had always maintained a close cross-sectoral relationshipwith other organizations and had received funds to supportits activities. Recognizing that only with mutual co-

operation could most of the stakeholders in education bemobilized, the Dahlia CLC made use of the spirit of theIndonesian social system based on gatong-royang (mutualco-operation) as a relevant foundation for implementingout-of-school education programmes.

An important feature of the Dahlia CLC was the involvementof women in management. It harnessed the potential of local women as volunteer tutors, facilitators and trainers,which was consistent with the reality in the community.Women had a more flexible work schedule compared totheir husbands. Furthermore, the majority of learners werealso women. A good administrative system and a highlymotivated management committee were vital to thesuccess of the CLC. Many people were willing to becomevolunteers on a part-time basis, both short-term and long-term, to help develop the CLC to serve their community.One man served as a local resource person after

undergoing training at the CLC. Other members took advantage of the training opportunities provided by theGovernment to increase the skills of those involved in themanagement of out-of-school education programmes.

Researchers found that remarkable changes had occurredamong women after their participation in variousprogrammes organized by the CLC. After receiving skillstraining at the CLC, they were not only able to save moneyby sewing dresses for family use, but also earned in-comefor the household. An unpre-cedented degree of confidence while talking to men, parti-cularly from outside,

Strategies

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was noted among women, which was unusual in thecontext of Indonesia, especially West Nusa Tenggara. Thecredit co-operative increased the self-confidence and

autonomy of women members, bringing decision-makingpower into the hands of women in the community apositive step towards gender equality. After gaining newhorizons through out-of-school education and also income-earning opportunities, women were no longer treated likesecond-class citizens in the family anymore.

Despite all these positive aspects reflecting the success of Dahlia CLC, some weaknesses and problems were in

evidence. Not all community needs were being fully andoptimally served by the CLC, although planning was underway to deal with them in future. The Kejar Packet A andfunctional literacy programmes of the CLC were severelyweakened after the financial crisis in mid-1997. There wasalso a problem in finding a reliable manager who wouldwork voluntarily or with a small honorarium. Additionalfunding to ensure a paid position as manager of the CLCmight be necessary in order to better respond to community

needs.

We can reach the following conclusions based on theexperience of Dahlia CLC in Indonesia:

The CLC should be dynamic enough to respond to thechanging needs of the community over time.

Credit and marketing facilities are key to the successof CLC income generating activities.

Womens role in CLC management should berecognized.

A good administrative system and a highly motivatedmanagement committee are crucial for the success of a CLC.

Weaknesses

C. Conclusions


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Following the establishment of the Literacy MovementOrganization (LMO) in 1979, the literacy rate in Iranmarkedly increased (from 47 per cent in 1976 to 75 percent in 1996), but showed a great disparity between ruraland urban women, which later led to literacy programmestargeted specifically at rural women. A further shift in focustook place when the LMO concentrated its activities onpost-literacy and functional literacy to prevent neo-literaterural women from lapsing into illiteracy. Four CLCs cameinto existence as a UNESCO pilot project to provide

education opportunities in remote, rural areas lacking anyeducational infrastructure. The CLCs were set up in fourvillages, Chalab and Naser in Ham province, and Hemat

Abad and Jihad Abad in Fars province.

A study of innovative approaches to basic education andlifelong learning identified these four CLCs as examples of good practice in promoting gender equality. An in-depthinvestigation focused on the various aspects of theirperformance in the course of launching educationprogrammes for disadvantaged people.

B. Major Findings

Established in poor remote rural areas, Chalab, Naser,Hemat Abad and Jihad Abad CLCs aimed at meeting theeducational and developmental needs of disadvantagedpeople including women, minorities, and other rural poor.

Investigators found that the CLCs were implementing threemain categories of programmes basic literacy, postliteracy and vocational training, which included a variety of

Chalab, Naser, Hemat Abad and Jihad Abad CLCs

I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c o f I r a n

A. Background

Target group and

activities


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subjects, such as religious education, health education,environmental education, animal husbandry, embroidery,sewing, knitting, making toys and weaving carpets. Other

activities conducted by CLCs included counseling services(for example, family planning), providing day-care centresfor learners children, and organizing national and religiousceremonies, study visits, pilgrimage and sightseeing.

The types of literacy and income generating programmeslaunched by the CLCs were identified during assessment

of the educational andvocational needs of the

target group. Communityparticipation, networkingand flexibility characterizedthe strategies employedby the CLCs to conducttheir programmes. All of the activities wereplanned, designed andimplemented using a

participatory approachthrough group meetings

attended by the learners themselves as well asrepresentatives of government organizations (related toagriculture, health, welfare, etc.), the village council chair,the school principal, paramedics and relevant CLC officials.Specifically, learners actively participated in thedevelopment of the curriculum. The CLCs established astrong relationship with different governmental

organizations, such as those related to agriculture andhealth, which offered various education programmes. Inaddition, a network was established with internationalorganizations integrating the CLCs programmes with theirprogrammes. Training modules and class schedules wereflexible in order to respond to learners choices and timeavailable. The CLCs also used local people for teaching.

The study found that the CLCs played a very important

role in providing learning opportunities for women subjectto seclusion in Islamic society. After the establishment of CLCs, a large number of women and girls attended the


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CLC programmes. Examination of the activitiesimplemented by CLCs showed that 79 per cent of theparticipants were women. Men preferred their wives anddaughters to go to the CLC, where women and girls wereexclusively taught by women literacy teachers, particularlyin cases where the village elementary school was for bothboys and girls who were taught by male as well as femaleteachers. Moreover, women and girls could go freely toCLC classes unlike an earlier situation where the classeswere held at rented houses or villagers homes; men didnot allow their wives and daughters to attend thoseclasses.

The study identified various factors hindering womensparticipation in the CLC programmes. These includedresponsibility for very young or handicapped children,preoccupation with house-hold chores, the narrow-mindedness of male family members, illness or disabilityamong women, and nomadic life styles. Similarly, mensparticipation in CLC programmes was restricted by work outside the village and the

lack of interesting classes.

The study found thatseveral perceptiblechanges took place afterthe establishment of theCLCs. Literacy coursesconducted by CLCsincreased the level of

literacy in the community.Positive changes amongwomen participantsincluded a growing awareness of their rights, greaterparticipation in village council meetings and other socialaffairs, a readiness to participate in elections, greaterinvolvement in family decision-making in matters relatedto number of children, childrens education and marriage,increased earnings from selling hand-made garments,

greater self-confidence, and better knowledge of mattersrelated to hygiene and sanitation.

Achieve- ments


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Before the CLCs were set up, the divorce rate was veryhigh, and some men behaved aggressively toward theirwives. Girls had no right to choose their marriage partners.

But after the CLCs were established, these conditionsimproved. Participation in CLC programmes made menaware of womens rights and changed their views of womens education dramatically. Changes in the divisionof labour on the farm, improvement in the relationshipsamong family members and equal treatment of girls andboys in the family were other notable results of the CLCactivities.

Despite the strengths described above, there were alsosome weaknesses noted in various areas of the CLCsprogramme implementation. First, lessons in the field of gender equality were inadequate. Although the numberof books that included gender equality related matters wasrelatively high, their content was not localized to beappropriate for different socio-cultural contexts. Moreover,

men whose attitudes towards women had not changedwere not given adequate attention.

Attitude changes among men

My son did not allow his sister to go to thenearby village to study, but after theestablishment of CLCs he agreed to let her go.

My sister has participated in CLC programmes,and now I consult with her on some issues andapprove her ideas.

My relationship with my family has improved afterparticipating in CLC programmes.

Our relationship with each other has improvedat the village level and even our customs havechanged a little.

I did not allow my wife to go his fathers house,but now I have changed my mind.

Weaknesses


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Second, the vocational programmes had nopredetermined textbooks or curriculum, and consequentlydid not cover gender equality, although they did play an

important role in promoting gender equality throughwomens empowerment.

Finally, there were various factors contributing to theineffectiveness of the CLCs. These included the absenceof day-care centres, poor facilities (lighting, ventilation,furniture) and infrastructure (water, toilets and space), andthe lack of teaching equipment, skilled trainers andrecreational facilities. It was also noted that some of the

learners were forced to leave the vocational coursesbecause they were very poor and could not buy requiredmaterials such as cloth for sewing.

C. Conclusions

The study, which focused on best practices promotingbasic education and lifelong learning for gender equalityin Iran through the interesting experiences of Chalab,

Naser, Hemat Abad and Jihad Abad CLCs, reached thefollowing conclusions:

Holding separate classes for women and men andhaving women literacy teachers are crucial for ensuringwomens participation in CLC activities occurring inconservative Muslim societies.

In such societies, the place where literacy classes areheld affects womens participation.

Poverty adversely affects learning activities andhampers participation.

The CLC is instrumental in reducing violence in thecommunity.

The lack of interesting classes for men hinders theirparticipation.

Gender equality training should target men as well aswomen, particularly those who have negative attitudestowards women.


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between the situations before and after the CLCs begantheir activities.

B. Major Findings

Both Phao and Sabouon CLCs were established in ethniccommunities where gender inequality had long been aproblem. Women in Phao village were not even allowedto give birth in the village. They had to go to the forest fordelivery and stay there until they were allowed to comeback. Participation in religious ceremonies was alsoprohibited. Both CLCs aimed at providing education to

women, and collaborated with villagers, especially women,in planning, implementing and evaluating educationprogrammes. Agriculture, health, and community and adulteducation were the areas the CLCs covered.

The study found that women showed a keen interest inCLC activities and participated actively and continuously.

A comparison of women and mens participation in trainingrevealed that the participation rate for women was higher

than for men. In food processing classes, all participantswere women, and ingender equality sessions81 per cent were women.On the other hand, menoutnumbered women(52.6 per cent) in thepig-raising classes. Theresponses of the CLC

participants before andafter CLC activitiesindicated a twofoldincrease in positiveattitudes toward genderequality in matters related to education, vocational training,income generation, participation in meetings, decision-making within families and child care (before CLCs: 33 percent; after CLCs: 65 per cent). In addition, 18.6 per cent

of those who did not participate in CLC activities agreedthat men have more rights than women, whereas the

Target group and

achievements


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percentage dropped to only 12.5 per cent among the CLCparticipants.

An important achievement of the CLCs was theimprovement in village living conditions. The CLCs wereable to make the villagers understand the importance of education. The villagers learned to love and help eachother. In Phao village the practice of sending women tothe forest to give birth was abandoned. The CLC built ahouse for women to have their babies and provided nursesand equipment to take care of mothers after delivery.

Although the CLCs contributed a great deal to thepromotion of gender equality in education in the targetedcommunities, there were some specific shortcomings thatrequired further attention. These included the weak integration of gender equality content into the curriculum,participation of women in gender stereotyped activities andthe lack of variety in teaching methods.

The study came to the following conclusions:Womens participation in CLC activities is highcompared to mens.

Traditionally women take more interest in preparingand processing food than men.

Gender equality is still considered to be a matter relatedto women only.

CLCs can change even strong taboos long existing insociety.

Ethnic and linguistic minorities are excluded and lack motivation to participate in CLC activities when thelanguage of instruction is Lao.

Weaknesses

C. Conclusions


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A. Background

At first glance, Mongolian women do not seem to faceserious gender discrimination. Unlike elsewhere, the basiceducation standard of women is high, with a 96 per centliteracy rate, greater school attendance (girls constitute70 per cent of those matriculating in higher education)and fewer school dropouts when compared with men.However, there are problems such as poverty amonghouseholds headed by women, a low representation of women in senior government positions and high levels of abortion. Many parentscontinue to withdraw theirchildren from secondaryschool. Even thoughbasic education is free,increasing poverty is likelyto reduce prospects forthe poorest children,leading to greaterinequality in schooling.

At the national level, anational basic educationprogramme, non-formal education programme and nationalprogramme of action for the advancement of womenconstitute the cornerstone of the promotion of genderequality in the field of education. A host of womensorganizations and movements, such as the Womens Brain

Pool, World Vision, Peace Winds Japan, WomensMovement for Community Development and the Gender

Rashaant Bag, Bulgan, Gobi-Altai andUburkhangai CLCs

M o n g o l i a


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Center for Sustainable Development, are involved inaddressing gender issues in the country.

Researchers studied four selected CLCs implementingprogrammes for gender equality in order to describe goodpractice for promoting basic education and lifelong l

Gender Equality: Basic Education and Lifelong Learning

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Transcript of Gender Equality: Basic Education and Lifelong Learning