gender and energy.doc

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Genderand EnergyHow isGenderRelevant toSustainablEner

SPECIAL TOPICS RELATING TO ENERGYAND SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

GENDER AND

ENERGY: HOW IS

GENDER RELEVANT

TO SUSTAINABLE

ENERGY POLICIES?

FACTORS PROMOTING GREATERATTENTION TO GENDER AND ENERGY

2.1.1. Women Ae P!"#$%&!&' Im(!$"e)

*' L!$+ o, Ene-' ,o Dee&o(men"

There is no question that energy is a key factor ineconomic and social development. In the past, energypolicies in many developing countries were focusedmainly on urban and industrial development, increasingsupplies of electricity through construction of large,centralised power plants and long-range electricaldistribution lines, and on procuring suicient supplies ofliquid fuels. The needs of rural households, farmers andsmall businesses were generally less of a priority.

Recently, however, a combination of social,environmental, and market pressures have led to thedevelopment of new perspectives on energy policies thatare promoting greater attention to the social dimensionsof energy decision-making, including the disparategender impacts of national energy priorities.

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Genderand Energy:

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Relevant toSustainable

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!ore than " billion people in developing countries,particularly in rural areas, still use traditional fuels, suchas wood, charcoal, and dung for cooking, and lack basicmodern energy services. This lack of energy serviceshinders people#s eorts to move out of poverty andseriously constrains their ability to improve their livingsituations, or even to meet their subsistence needs.

$eople without modern energyservices must spend more of theirtime and physical energy on survivaland, therefore, have feweropportunities to pursue educationaland income-generating activities.Blockage to future prosprity%imited access to energy is aproblem that has a disproportionateeect on women, especially in ruralareas. It is most often women whomust e&pend large amounts of timeand physical eort to supply fuel fortheir households and productiveneeds, using their own labour tocarry heavy loads over increasingly

long distances, at great risk to theirhealth and safety 'see (igure ).*ther health ha+ards arise from thefact that women do most of thecooking. They and their youngchildren are e&posed to largeamounts of smoke and particulatesfrom indoor res and suer from anumber of respiratory diseases.reater attention to the needs andconcerns of women in these areascould help governments promoteoverall development goals likepoverty alleviation, employment,health, and education throughimproved energy policies.

FIGURE 1. RURAL TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES BY MALES AND FEMALES

IN TAN/ANIA

Source: UNDP, 1997.

2.1.2. S%0"!#n!*&e Dee&o(men"

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Re%#e0 Ge!"e So$#!&E%#"'

*ne maor factor in/uencing currentattitudes towards energy is agrowing acceptance of the need for

sustainable development policies.The 00" 12 3onference on4nvironment and 5evelopment ledto international recognition of theneed to balance economic growthwith concerns for social equity andenvironmental protection. 4&tensionof the benets of development to allpeople, men and women, isfundamental to fullment of thesocial equity obectives of sustainable development.

6lthough women#s roles varyaccording to their country, income

level, ethnicity, age and socialstatus, women throughout the worldcontinue to have fewer options andopportunities than men. In manycountries, women face overtinequalities, marginalisation, and

discriminatory practices. In 007,the (ourth 8orld 3onference on8omen, held in 9eiing, emphasisedthe vital role of women in sustainabledevelopment and the need topromote greater overall developmentopportunities for women. 8ithregard to energy, the 9eiing$latform for 6ction called ongovernments to support thedevelopment of equal access forwomen to sustainable and aordable

energy

technologies, including renewableenergy eiciency technologies,through participatory needsassessment, energy planning andpolicy formulation at local andnational levels.

6ttention to social equity concernsrequires energy e&perts to initiatenew types of analyses regarding

needs and priorities of end usersand to accumulate more e&tensivedata on how people actually useenergy. reater understanding of thediering roles of men and women inparticular cultures, in dierentlocales, and at dierent incomelevels, can help enhance theeectiveness of energy proects, anddevelopment programmes as a whole,particularly in rural areas.

2.1.. D#,,e#n- Ro&e0 o, Men !n)

Women A,,e$" T3e# Ene-'

Nee)0 !n) Con$en0

The diering work and social rolesof men

and women are culturallyestablished and vary from place toplace. The term :gender; refersto these socially-dened dierencesbetween men and women, asopposed to fundamental biologicaldierences. ender roles mayalso change as countries andcommunities pursue social andeconomic equity through

development programmes.

4nergy policies and proects bythemselves will not change the rolesof men and women in a particularsociety, but they can be used asentry points for promoting greaterfairness in the allocation ofopportunities and resources. iventhe critical role that women play asenergy managers in developingcountries, greater sensitivity to

gender disparities, and in particularto the concerns of women, couldimprove the eectiveness of energyprogrammes. 6lthough theapplication of gender sensitivity toenergy policies has not thus far beena regular e&ercise, some eorts have

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Genderand Energy:

How isGender


Energy

been made to analysethe impacts of traditional energyusage onthe situation of women. Theseeorts have revealed several crucialaspects of how energy can aect the

lives of women both positively andnegatively.Women Need Energy forHouseholdand Productive Uses

In many areas, women areresponsible for gathering fuelsneeded for performing householdduties. 8idespread reliance on fuelwood and dung increases thescarcity of available biomass

resources, imposing further burdenson women and children, who mustspend more time and energycollecting and carrying fuels. Inmany developing countries, girls areinvolved in traditional women#schores from an early age= long hoursspent collecting fuel and water leavethem little time or opportunity foreducation.

Reduced drudgery for women and

increased access to non-pollutingpower for lighting and otherhousehold and productive purposescan have dramatic eects on theirlevels of education, literacy,nutrition, health and involvement incommunity activities. !oreover, aswomen become more able toparticipate in political and economicaairs, they will be more able toseek their own solutions toeconomic and social problems, withless e&ternal assistance.

Ineicient Use of TraditionalFuelsNegatively Aects HumanHealth

9iomass fuels account for >?percent of all household fuelconsumption in developingcountries, most of it for cooking,which is done primarily by women.

6s a result, women and their young

children are e&posed to high levelsof indoor air pollution. 3ooking resare generally ineicient and producea number of pollutants associatedwith incomplete combustion.$ollutants found in smoke from theseres include particulates, carbonmono&ide, ben+ene, andformaldehyde. In some countrieswhere coal are used as householdfuel, more serious adverse eects onhealth are evident. 4&posure to

these pollutants can lead to acuterespiratory infections, chronicobstructive lung diseases, low birthweights, lung cancer and eyeproblems.

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Womens Time andontri!utionsAre "ften Undervalued

8omen#s work in sustaining theirhouseholds, families andcommunities has generally been

ignored in calculations of economicpolicy because it does not fall within

formal, monetarised marketactivities. 8omen#s income-producing activities are oftenunrecognised as well, because theytake place in the :informal; sector,and are, in many cases, performedon a part-time or irregular basis,often in conunction with householdactivities. 'see ). The lack of valueplaced on women#s time and worktends to makes it diicult toimplement policies designed toreduce their drudgery. (or e&ample,

improved stove programmes in ruralareas in 3hina have been moresuccessful than in India largelybecause of greater income-earningopportunities for women. 8herewomen have few opportunities toearn cash incomes, there is littleincentive to reduce the time andeort they e&pend in collecting fuelby adopting improved stoves'2athan, 00A). This invisibility ofwomen#s labour perpetuates policiesthat reinforce subordinate roles forwomen.

FIGURE 2. MOST OF WOMEN4SWOR5 REMAINS UNPAID6UNRECOGNISED6

AND UNDERVALUED

* SNA (System of NationalAccounts) correspons, in t!is case,

to "or# reco$nise an inclue ino%icial national statistics.

Source: UNDP &D', 199

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Diersifyin$ ner$y +!oices +reatesore -pportunities for ncome/0eneratin$ Actiities

%ack of energy services limitswomen#s productive and community

development activities. %ack of safeand reliable lighting in the eveningmakes it diicult for women topursue educational andentrepreneurial opportunities, or toperform essential child care andcommunity responsibilities. In manycases, women#s informal income-generating activities are energy-intensive 'see Table ), and could bemade more protable if betterenergy choices were available. (ore&ample, when a group of womenfrom Bonara, !e&ico, evaluatedpossible income-generating proectsto support their families, they chosea bakery proect. 9ecause they hadan opportunity to invest in solarovens, they saved time and fuelcosts, and were able to makeenough prots to repay the loans forthe ovens and also pay themselvessalaries 'Btone, 00>).

2.1.7. Women C!n BeIm(o"!n" A-en"0 ,oEn#onmen"!& Po"e$"#on

International concerns about climatechange have focused considerableattention on ways of reducing

emissions of carbon dio&ide causedby burning fuels for energyproduction. 6lthough historicallymost of the increased accumulationof greenhouse gases in theatmosphere has been

caused by industrialised countries,many of the poorest countries arelikely to be most aected by thepotential impacts of climate change,such as drought, desertication,/ooding, and ecosystem disruption.

5epletion of traditional fuel sourcesin some areas, together withsubstantial proected increases inenergy usage in developingcountries, have prompted calls fornew energy models that supportsustainable development,emphasising eiciency, cleanerfuels, and adoption of alternativeenergy technologies that use solar,wind, microhydro, and biomassresources. Bince in many developingcountries women currently play akey role as collectors and managersof traditional fuels, a transition toless polluting fuels and technologiesin these countries will require theactive engagement of women in their

roles as energy providers andconsumers. Cowever, in manycountries, women have beeneectively e&cluded fromparticipation in policy formulation anddecision-making processes due totheir low political and economicstatus.

TABLE 1. SAMPLE ENERGY8INTENSIVE6SMALL8SCALE ENTERPRISES OPERATED BY WOMEN

ENTERPRISE COMMENTS

Beer brewing 25% of fuelwood used in Ouagadougou; main soure ofinome for 5!% of women in sur"e#ed Tan$anian "illage &'g wood& li(re beer

Rie )arboiling &5*2+% of firewood in some dis(ri(s of Banglades,

Tor(illa ma'ing & 'g wood+-! 'g (or(illas

Ba'eries .ood is 25% of bread )rodu(ion os(s in /en#a; 0+% of

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(,ose in Peru1+-0*&-5 'g wood 'g bread

S,ea bu((er)rodu(ion

3+% of as, inome for women in )ar(s of as,

4is, smo'ing !++++ (onnes wood #ear in Mo)(i Mali; &-5*&2 'g wood'gsmo'ed fis,; fuel is !+% of )roessing os(s

Palm oil)roessing

E6(remel# arduous re7uiring lif(ing and mo"ing ,ea"#on(ainers of li7uid; +-!8 'g woodl li(re oil; 55% of inomeof female*,eaded ,ouse,olds in Cameroons s(ud#

9ari 1assa"a)roessing

.omen in 2 Nigerian dis(ri(s earned :&ear ea,; &'gwood! 'g gari

!?% of women in one"illage in Bur'ina 4aso

Po((er# ma'ing Men and women bo(, ,a"e dis(in(i"e roles in differen()roesses

Soa) ma'ing 4uel is ,ig, )eren(age of )rodu(ion

Bcarcity of fuel wood in some areas isbeing caused by land clearing,deforestation, desertication andoveruse. In addition, privatisation ofland has in some cases deprivedwomen of traditional benets fromwhat were previously communally-managed resources available to all.

Eet, for centuries women havemanaged forests and used forestproducts for fuel and fodder, andhave developed knowledge ofsustainable practices that canrepresent an important contributionto eective resource management.

In some places, women have becomestrong advocates for greaterenvironmental protection eort, asin the well-known 3hipko movementin India.

2.1.9. N!"#on!& Ene-' P#o#"#e0A,,e$" Gen)e I00%e0

4nergy policies are related to manyaspects of a country#s economic,social and political situation. (uelchoices, natural resourceavailability, generating capacity,energy delivery systems, andconsumption patterns all haveimpacts on development that are notgenerally analysed.

*verall development planninginvolves comple& questions about

what sorts of economic, social andpolitical changes are desirable, andhow such changes can beaccomplished. The actualconsequences of specic developmentinterventions are diicult to predict,given the many local, national, andinternational conditions in/uencing

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Genderand Energy:

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communities. !oreover, changesgenerally have diering eects onpeople, depending on their incomelevel, class, age, race, and gender.

6lthough most policy-makers view

energy policies as gender-neutral, thefact is that men and women areaected dierently by energy policies

wherever their work roles dier, asis the case in many developingcountries. 3areful attention to thesediering interests is essential forunderstanding energy markets andconsumer needs, for reducing the

negative impacts of current energyconsumption patterns, and forachieving equitable distribution

of energy services. 8hen allstakeholders, including women, areinvolved, the chances of success andof equitable outcomes are likely to beenhanced.

In many countries, internal ande&ternal economic pressures aredriving eorts for increasedliberalisation and competition in theenergy sector. 6 more market-oriented approach to the energysector could tend to promotegreater understanding of consumerneeds for energy services ratherthan simply working to increasesupply. Bince women represent a largepercentage of energy consumers inrural areas in developing countries,understanding how their priorities

might dier from those of men willbe increasingly signicant for thosewho are involved in marketingenergy services. (or e&ample, anevaluation of a biogas programme inIndia showed that even when menand women both indicated time-saving as a positive feature ofsubstituting biogas for fuel wood,there were dierences behind theirinterpretations of the criteria.

8omen saw time-saving in terms ofreduced fuel collection and foodpreparation, which would allowthem more time to be with theirfamilies, whereas men saw time-saving in terms of faster cooking andmore timely availability of meals.There were also dierences in thecriteria of fuel selection. 8omen

valued smoke reduction both for thehealth benets and the decreaseddrudgery of cleaning smoky pots.!en placed a higher value onsavings of fuel and money '5utta, etal.00A).

6lthough attention to women#spriorities as consumers can provideimportant benets, past e&perienceswith liberalisation of the energy

sector indicate that there could besome negative consequences, oftenin the form of increases in energyprices that create particulardiiculties for people living inpoverty. Bince women aredisproportionately aected bypoverty, this negative implicationwould tend to aect more womenthan men.

5EY CONSIDERATIONS FORGENDER8SENSITIVE ENERGY PLANNING

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2.1.. S"!+e3o&)e P!"#$#(!"#onC!n Im(oe Gen)eSen0#"##"' #n Ene-'Po$#e0

In many developing countries, there

is clearly room for improving theeectiveness of the energy sector inmeeting the needs of growingpopulations. There is also a growingawareness that more appropriateprovision of energy services mayrequire a greater understanding ofsocial conditions, in addition totechnical skills. To be successful,sustainable energy planning willrequire involvement of thestakeholders aected by energy

programmesFboth men and women.Top-down approaches to introducingnew technologies in rural areas havegenerally met with limited success.

$lanning processes that involvewidespread participation andconsultation can help all parties tounderstand and address current

constraints aecting energy sectorprogrammes, including those relatedto the status of women. Bince, by

virtue of their traditional roles,women are often the primary usersof fuels and energy appliances, it

makes sense that they should beconsulted concerning theirassessments of energy problems andtheir suggestions for solutions.Cowever, since there are oftencultural and practical constraintslimiting women#s ability toparticipate in consultativeprocesses, special eorts generallyneed to be made if they are to beincluded.

Bome energy proects designed tointroduce new eiciency measuresor renewable technologies indeveloping countries have beenunsuccessful, in part, because theproects and technologies have beendesigned by engineers 'often fromindustrialised countries) with littleor no input

from e&pected users. 6cceptance of

new tech-nologies can be enhancedif users, including women,

participate in the design of energyproects and adaptation of technologies to t local needs,

preferences and priorities.

Bolar cooker proects have beeninitiated in a number of developing

countries, and in many cases womenhave reected them, for quite valid

reasons, despite the fact that theiruse can reduce rewood

consumption and harmful emissions.(or instance, one solar cooker

proect was set up in a wood-scarcearea in Bouth 6frica based on

consultations with the local andtribal authorities, who were all men.

6fter the authorities gave their

agreement, the women were invited

to a meeting to have the proecte&plained. *f those women who

agreed to participate in the proect,about D? percent used themirregularly and about


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o, R%!& E&e$"#,#$!"#on!n) Ene-' A$$e00#*#"'

In certain countries, there are higherpercentages of women than men inrural areas, partly because of

limited employment opportunities inthe formal sector and consequentmigrations by men seeking work inurban areas or industrial +ones.9esides reducing the hardshipsendured by poor rural women,greater energy availability in theserural areas could potentially supportnew areas of economic growth, andpossibly reduce male migrations.Rural electrication poses specialproblems for energy planning,because of long distances fromenergy production plants andconsequent distribution challenges.!ost national eortsto provide access to electricity inrural areas have not been suicientto meet the needs of ruralpopulations. 5ispersed andrelatively low overall energydemand levels in rural areas, plus

lack of nancial resources to pay forgrid e&tension programmes, haverestricted access to electricity formany people. 5ue to the costs ofe&tending transmission lines overlong distances, much of the currentneed for energy services is unlikelyto be met by means of gride&tension within the foreseeablefuture. Cowever, decentralised,small-scale proects promotingenergy eiciency and renewable

energy technologies could helpaddress unmet energy needs, whileat the same time reducing adverseenvironmental impacts.

There is currently very littleinformation available about theactual impacts of electrication on

people living in rural areas, andabout the ways in which men andwomen may be aected dierentlyby electrication programmes.There is some evidence, however,that specically targeted credit

facilities and e&tended nancingarrangements can allow more poorwomen the possibility of access toelectrical services. 8omen#s accessto credit has sometimes beenrestricted by laws or bankingcustoms requiring collateral orcosigners, or because women lackthe skills to comply with bankingprocedures. 4lectricationprogrammes that includeappropriate nancing facilitiesaccessible to poor customers,especially women, would be morebenecial to women thanprogrammes requiring large cashoutlays.

6n emphasis on providing choicesand accessible nancingarrangements would help allowwomen and men themselves todene what they want as energy

consumers, rather than havingoutside e&perts promote newtechnologies as simple technicalsolutions to what are, in fact,comple& social and economicsituations. 8omen in rural areas areparticularly in need of access tocleaner fuels and better cookingequipment, as well as more eicientand less-polluting technologies thatcan support income-producingactivities. !en, however, sometimes

have dierent priorities. *ne studyindicated that since men usuallymake decisions about maore&penses within the household, useof electrical equipment tends tore/ect their priorities. 8hereelectricity within the household waslimited to one light bulb, that tended

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Genderand Energy:

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Energy

to be placed in the living area andnot in the kitchen '8amukonya J5avis, 000).

There are a variety of dierentdecentralised energy technologies

that could serve to complement gride&tension eorts. If women wereencouraged to engage inentrepreneurial activities related toenergy services and technologydistribution, they could play animportant role in disseminatingalternatives that address ruralenergy needs. Bince they would befamiliar with the specic hardshipswomen e&perience due to lack ofenergy services, women

entrepreneurs would be in a goodposition to reach other women ande&plainthe desirability of various energyalternatives. They would probablyneed training, however, in

entrepreneurial and businessmanagement skills. 8omen havesometimes been e&cluded fromtraining programmes as a result oftraditional limitations on their travelaway from home, lack of child care,illiteracy, con/icting responsibilities,or cultural biases.

$roects specically targetedtowards women can potentiallyprovide greater benets for

women, as well as for ruralelectrication eorts. 8ithin theconte&t of energy proects,opportunities for women to gainaccess to technical information andskills training can boost their abilityto engage in productive, income-producing activities. (or e&ample,the Kietnam 8omen#s 1nion hasbeen active in the promotion of solarhome systems in rural areas throughits e&tensive network of millionmembers. !any of the localtechnicians responsible for installingthe solar home systems are women'4verts and Bchulte, 00A). 6notherrural electrication proect in

6yapata, $eru, is run by ademocratic electricity co-operativeof community members. 8omen areactive in this committee and theirin/uence in decision-makingprocesses has been able to ensurethat the end uses favour their needs.(or e&ample, they have installed agrain mill to alleviate one of theirmost laborious tasks, and streetlighting to improve safety '*liveros,00A).

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relative positions of men and womenin dierent societies in order tounderstand specic genderconcerns, and how they can beaddressed.*ne of the keys to mainstreaming is

accumulation of meaningful dataabout how men and women perceivetheir energy and generaldevelopment needs, and whatactions they perceive as mostbenecial. Inadequate data, orassumptions made about women incommunities by planners who arenot familiar with their actuallifestyles, can result in misleadingconclusions and ineectiveinterventions.

athering economic and social datadocumenting variations between thee&periences of men and women canprovide useful information on whichto base broad development policiesas well as particular proects. Buchdisaggregated data is not generallyavailable now. 6ccumulating it canhelp demonstrate e&isting disparitiesbetween men and women at dierentincome levels, and provide the basis

for more targeted interventions.

4valuation and monitoring ofongoing energy programmes andpolicies from a gender perspectivecan focus attention on whichapproaches have been successful

and which have not. 8hereparticular constraints are seen to beaecting women in ways that aredierent from men#s e&periences,this information can be used toimprove future planning.

In the past, many energy proectslooked at the household as the basicunit for non-industrial energyplanning, without taking intoaccount the e&tent to which menand women in certain areas lead

very separate lives with distinctnancial resources andresponsibilities. They also overlookedthe fact that many income-generating activities, especially

those undertaken by women, arebased in the household '3lancy,000). 8omen, who might be theones most interested in acquiringnew energy equipment, might lackthe capital to buy it and be unable toobtain it from husbands who havequite dierent priorities for maorhousehold e&penses. Binceinformation on these dierences isoften not readily available, however,and is sometimes diicult to obtain,

some eort will be needed toaccumulate necessary data.

8omen need opportunities to speakfor themselves about what theywant. (or e&ample, they may notsee ma&imising prot as their

highest priority. In one situationinvolving a bakery proect, the donorwanted the women to run two shiftsa day and double their prots, butthe women refused because of

negative personal and socialconsequences '6nnecke, 000).

!ale community leaders, andperhaps even some women, may beresistant to special consultationprocesses with women that are

directedby outside e&perts. %ocally-basedwomen#s organisations, researchinstitutes, and gender specialistscan assist policy-makers by

gathering and disseminating specicinformation about local practices,problems, and ideas for energysolutions. 4&tension services in ruralareas can serve a similar role,although more female e&tensionagents are likely to be needed in

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order to establish good connectionswith community women. *verall,male energy planners and policy-makers need to be sensitised togender issues so that they canunderstand and support special

measures designed to encouragewomen#s participation in the designand implementation of energypolicies.

2.1.=. T!$+n- P#o#"' I00%e0o, Con$en "o Women

It is important to note that theobect of energy planning is not toadd a special component on women,but to think in a dierent way aboutwhat kinds of proects to undertakein view of local gender issues. Insome cases, however, pursuing thisobective may lead to women-targeted energy initiatives. This isbecause current ways of usingenergy often adversely aect morewomen than men and, in somecases, contribute to limitations onwomen#s engagement in other

activities, as discussed in section"..


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enoyed the benets of grid-basedelectricity. 8hile the maority ofpeople in rural areas in developingcountries currently lack access togrid electricity, there are a range ofoptions available to deliver energy

and electricity services at lower

costs than conventional energysources. These options includerenewable energy basedtechnologies at household,community and district levels.Innovative strategies are required to

focus more on the provision ofenergy services to women andpeople in poverty. (or e&ample, inBouth 6frica, the rural electricationprogramme uses concessionsgranted to private companies as away of e&tending its reach to remoteareas. In 6rgentina, concessions areused to aggregate the market forsmall-scale systems, therebyfacilitating the realisation ofeconomies of scale and reductions intransaction costs per customer. Inthis process, e&clusive market rightsin a specied region are given to asingle supplier, based oncompetitive bidding processes, overa certain period of time underspecic service agreements. !oreanalysis on sustainable policystrategies is detailed in a laterchapter, :Promotin$ nstitutional+!an$e for Sustaina6le ner$y.4

Promotin$ ncome/0eneratin$Actiities

Technology alternatives thatenhance economic activities are thekey to sustainability. There are fewincentives for women to engage inactivities if they do not oer asustainable income base. 9ut therehas been little planning or policyfocus on energy for productive uses

by women.

Bome income-generating proectsinvolve energy itself as a product.(or e&ample, in Bwa+iland and!alawi, biomass briquette pilotproects have involved women inproducing fuel for their own use as

well as for sale. *ther types ofincome-generating activities, suchas food production and processing,require aordable and readily-available energy sources. 9oth typesof activities require a reliable meansof transportation to markets.

5ecentralised approaches to energysupply open up more opportunitiesfor women engaged in income-productive activities. The challengeis to encourage women and theirorganisations to become moreeective entrepreneurs, includingenergy entrepreneurs. Bincewomen#s businesses tend to besmall-scale, labour-intensive andlimited to the informal sector,strategic assistance with skillstraining and access to credit couldhelp small women entrepreneurs

improve or e&pand their businesses.The best entry point for training andsupporting women inentrepreneurial activities is throughalready-organised women#s groupsthat come together for collectiveproductive purposes. *nce trained,individuals can break away topursue separate businessopportunities. It is essential,however, to design proects with thepotential for private sector

development. It is also best to targetpeople already involved in income-generating activities.

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2.1.1>. In$o(o!"#n- Women0Con$en0 In"o Ene-'Po@e$"0

Proble !denti"cation: 8henenergy problems and obectives are

identied by government oicialsand energy planners, is the analysisbased on information supplied onlyby e&perts, or does it take intoaccount inputs from stakeholdersand end users, including communitywomenL 6re all income groupsrepresentedL 3onsultations withwomen#s groups, and accumulationof gender-specic data, can helpidentify problems that mightotherwise not be recognised oraddressed.

Pro#ect $esign: !en and womenmay take dierent approaches toenergy proects because their workis dierent, because they areaected dierently by e&istingcircumstances, and because theye&perience dierent constraints in

termsof access to land, resources, credit,collateral, political in/uence,training, employment opportunities,and education. 6re women, as wellas men, invited to participate in

planning and design processesL Thiscan enhance the overalleectiveness of energy proects andthe fairness of the chosenobectives.

!pleentation: 5o theorganisations involved inimplementing the proect havegender e&perts andMor female staon their teamsL There may bepractical pressures and societalconstraints that limit the ability ofwomen to participate in, or benetfrom, proect activities. In somecases, special eorts may be neededto encourage women#s participation,or to include women in trainingprogrammes and learningopportunities.

%onitoring and Evaluation: 8hodetermines whether or not a proect

is successful, and what criteria dothey use for evaluationL6ssessments should incorporate theviews of participants and end users,both men and women. 3ommunitywomen may have very dierentperspectives than governmentoicials or energy consultants, butmay not have adequateopportunities to e&press their views.In some cases, it might be useful toconduct separate interview sessions,

since women without men presentmight feel free to reveal concernsthey would not e&press in mi&edcompany. .

2.1.11. UNDP In#"#!"#e0 onS%0"!#n!*&e Ene-'

!n) Women

6ccess to sustainable energyservices is an essential condition forachieving the key developmentobectives identied by 125$Geliminating poverty, supportingincome-generating opportunities andsustainable livelihoods, protecting theenvironment, and advancing thestatus of women. In 00A, 125$published ner$y After 'io:

Prospects an +!allen$es, a reviewof progress in implementingsustainable energy policies. Thispublication specically addressesthe relationship between womenand sustainable energy strategiesand concludes that a newsustainable energy paradigm would

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facilitate the inclusion of women#sconcerns in energy decision-making.

!ore recently, 125$ has beenpreparing a orl ner$y

Assessment report that e&pands on

the relationship between energy andsocial issues and highlights thestrategic advantages of using energyas an entry point for improving thestatus of women. This publication isbeing prepared in connection withthe ninth session of the 123ommission on Bustainable5evelopment, which will be held in"?? and which will focus on energy,atmosphere, and transport issues.

In terms of substantive activities,125$#s Initiative for Bustainable4nergy '12IB4) is a corporatepolicy that e&amines the linkagesbetween energy and socio-economicdevelopment. This initiative isdesigned to suggest alternativeapproaches for using energy as aninstrument for achieving establishedhuman development goals, includinggender equality. 12IB4 will assist

and support 125$ country oicesand national governments inimplementing sustainable energyactivities.

125$ as an institution hascommitted itselfto mainstreaming gender concernsand to promoting greater genderequality through its proects andprogrammes. In an eort to increasegeneral awareness about the

relevance of gender issues indevelopment policies,125$ has established a ender in5evelopment $rogramme 'I5$)within the 9ureau for $olicy

5evelopment. This programmefacilitates capacity building forgender mainstreaming in 125$#sassistance programmes. Theemphasis is on requirements forinstitutional change to promote

gender equality as well as potentialapproaches to gender-sensitivedesign.

(ollowing the 9eiing conference,125$ determined that "? percentof all programme nancing shouldbe directed towards women anddevelopment. 125$#s Bustainable4nergy lobal $rogramme hascommitted core resources to promoteenergy as an instrument for socio-economic development, with onefocus being on the linkages betweenwomen and sustainable energypolicies.

125$#s 4nergy and 6tmosphere$rogrammeis currently coordinating a proectentitled :4nergy and 8omenGenerating *pportunities for5evelopment,; in collaboration with

125$ country oices and theRegional 9ureau for 6frica. Thereare four main obectives of the4nergy and 8omen proectG (i) toprovide an analytic framework fordetermining the elements ofsuccessful sustainable energyproects that benet women= (ii) tonetwork with a wide range ofinterested parties in order to shareinformation, and to conduct trainingand advocacy activities= (iii) to

support sustainable energy pilotproects designed to generateincome-earning opportunities forwomen= and

(i)to document lessons learned andimpacts of activities throughmonitoring and evaluation. The

4nergy and 8omen proect will alsoundertake analytic studies onlessons learned from past energy

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proects, and on the role ofmicrocredit schemes in funding useracquisition of new energytechnologies.

The geographical focus of the

4nergy and 8omen proect is on6frica, where large numbers ofpeople lack modern energy servicesand where there is great potentialfor utilising renewable energyresources. The rst of three plannedregional workshops was held in Nune000 in $retoria, Bouth 6frica. Itwas attended by countryrepresentatives from 6ngola,9otswana, %esotho, !alawi,

!o+ambique, 2amibia, Bouth 6frica,Bwa+iland, Oambia, and Oimbabwe.In preparation for the rst regionalworkshop, participating countriesconducted national consultations orsurveys on the particular energysituation in each country, especiallyin relation to women#s developmentneeds and priorities. The obect wasto identify key energy bottlenecks andconstraints, to discuss ways tosupport training and capacity

building on women and sustainableenergy, and to identify recommendedactivities involving women, energysystems and entrepreneurship. Bomeof the common concerns identied inthe country reports are listed below.

%ack of energy services createsparticular hardships for women,especially in rural areas.

4nergy planning processes, policiesand proects generally have not

been gender-sensitive. 2ational energy plans need to

focus more on rural electricationand to be co-ordinated better withother policies, such as those onland use, forestry, and women#sdevelopment needs.

9etter analysis is neededregarding past and current energyproects and policies because, toooften, pilot proects have simply

been discontinued and new onesbegun without consideration oflessons learned from what wastried before.

$articipatory approaches areneeded in energy proectplanning.

4ducation and training of women isneeded to increase their role inenergy plans and proects.

!ore public information isneeded about possible energy

options. 9etter aordability and nancing

arrangements are essential forproect continuity, especially creditfor women.

2.2. CONCLUSIONS

6lthough until recently genderissues were not consideredparticularly relevant to theestablishment of energy policies andprogrammes, it is now apparent thatsocietal pressures for greatergender equality and for more

sustainable and eective energysystems can be mutually reinforcing.4nergy interventions can becomemore eective when they areresponsive to the needs of dierentusers in diering conditions.Reaching this goal will require

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changes in how energy programmesare formulated and imple-mented, inhow energy decisions are made, andin who is involved in making thosedecisions. 6 more participatoryapproach to energy policy decisionswill allow both men and women inaected communities to be engagedin dening energy problems and inimplementing appropriate solutions.9etter data collection and analysisdesigned to re/ect gender concerns isalso essential.

In many cases, however, specialattention should be given to thesituation of women in developingcountries because they are moreaected then men by negativeconsequences of using traditionalenergy sources, particularly byindoor air pollution. 9etter datacollection and analysis designed tore/ect the diering concerns andneeds of men and women isessential in order to eectivelyachieve sustainable developmentobectives.

Bince access to modern energyservices is so critical to theachievement of development goals,

125$ is working to assist developingcountries in choosing energyinvestments that are environ-mentallyresponsible as well as sociallyequitable. 8omen can play an

important role in the adoption of newsustainable energy technologies, butonly if they have the opportunities

and resources necessary to allowthem to participate in theformulation and implementation ofenergy policies.

CASE EAMPLES

1. Be'on) Po@e$" Bo%n)!#e0.

Im(o#n- Gen)e Im(!$"0 o,

V#&&!-e M#$o8H')o S$3eme0.

2!is paper is an e=cerpt from anarticle 6y >iran D!anapalacontri6ute to 424RI6 2ews, ?ol

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To ma&imise benecial impact,energy proects 'particularly thosethat promote renewable,decentralised supplies) need to takegender-dierentiated needs intoaccount. ender is also signicantfor the eicacy of operation andmaintenance '*J!), and for thesustainability of the energy supplyFwhich are both determined by whois involved and trained. %astly,energy, because of its links withdevelopment, necessitates ananalysis of gender within a widermarket conte&t.

The wider analysis of gender bringsout two points. (irst, to achieve amore gender-balanced impact,sustainable energy proects muste&pand their focus from proect-specic benets to broadermultiplier eects, which arise fromproductive activities that generateincome. This can also bridge the:e&clusion gap; between beneciaryand non-beneciary and allowgreater numbers to benet.

Becondly, possibly to a lesser e&tent,this implies that any saving resulting

from the switch to an appropriaterenewable energy alternative 'e.g.,income that used to be spent onother energy sources, such askerosene oil) should be reorientedtoward productive use. This articleargues for a wider perspective onimpacts, e&panding from proect-level impact to a perspectiveemphasising multi-disciplinary,sectoral and institutional links inrenewable energy proects. Buch aperspective will also bring into focuswomen#s involvement in informalsector activities that provide energyservices for productive 'income-generating) end-use activities. Buch

proects can achieve greater positiveimpacts on gender relationships bymoving from a supply focus towardsone of stimulating greaterproductive use of energy 'as againstonly consumptive use, such aslighting).

2!e ner$y Scenario in Sri ;an#a

In Bri %anka, as in many developingcountries, resource constraints

include energy poverty.

3ommunities, particularly ruralones, have little access to reliableenergy sources, e&cept biomassenergy for household use. 8omenare parti-cularly vulnerable toinvisibility by energy planners anddecision-makers as their needsFboth productive and reproductiveFare easily overlooked byassumptions of gender neutrality.

6t a national level, the Bri %ankanenergy scenario is characterised bya high dependence on largehydropower reservoir-basedsupplies. This has increasinglye&posed the national supply system

to power shortfalls brought about bydrought, annual demand growthrates of appro&imately ? percent,and poor decision-making. This:energy crisis;, together withpressures on governmente&penditure and the fact thatpriority is given to the demands forindustrial power, acts as a constrainton any rapid householdelectrication in the short andmedium term. 6lso, phased Btaterural electri-cation schemesFcharacteristically high-cost and low-returnFhave been nanced byforeign bank loans. 8ith currenthousehold electrication gures at

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undertaking the construction ofcivil works= and

operation and maintenance.

The surveys indicate thatparticipation in such activities isgreater by men, and greater bythose men and women who are to be

connected to the new source 'the3hhs), as opposed to the 13hhs.

6verage participation rates ofwomen are lower than those of men,and the disparity in participationbetween 3hhs and 13hhs is greaterfor women than for men '5hanapala007). Reasons for the lowerparticipation by women include thefollowingG institutional problems related to

con/icts associated with the43B, etc.=

leadership and attitudes thatconstrain the involvement ofwomen=

women#s economic role andactivities= and

women#s subsistence orhousehold activities andresponsibilities.

Cowever, the single most signicant

constraint is lack of time 'a reasongiven by 7? percent of all femalerespondents but only A percent ofmale respondents). *therconstraints on partici-pation includemembership of 43B 'listed by moremale than female members, but thisdiers with village characteristics),women#s inability to attend meetingswhich is determined by the meetingplace, the time of the meeting'often, inconveniently at night), and

the meeting#s duration 'womenwanted short, focused meetings andcomplained that men often side-tracked meetings with social andpolitical discussions). 3onstrainingin/uences on participation inoperation and maintenanceactivities include the technical

nature of the proect. Technology isperceived as something :dangerous;that should be under the charge ofmen familiar with it. 8omen and

children are often cited as thosewho need to be :protected; frommicrohydro power, wiring, etc.= thiscan act as a barrier to women takingcontrol of such technology.5emystifying technology, whileemphasising safety, is clearly anarea for attention in such energyproects and should be pursuedthrough training on household enduse and maintenance at thehousehold level.

8hile participation of women indecision-making is advocated byproect facilitators and sta, it isperhaps more in/uenced by localleadership, attitudes, andperceptions of women#s role in

village aairs. (or e&ample, it wasnoted that, although women act aspower house caretakers in two

village schemes, they do so on

behalf of their sons who are theoicial 'trained) caretakers, and whohave devolved their responsibilitiesto their home-based mothers'Tampoe 00A). 8omen#sparticipation is also dependent oneconomic and occupational patterns=women in labour-intensive teacultivating smallholder villages oftencite the lack of time as a constraint onparticipating in such proect activities.

Pro#ect bene"ts

The benets of village microhydroproects are often limited to lighting,although households give priority tokitchens and other domestic uses ofwhich women in connectedhouseholds are the main

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beneciaries. *verall, all households'both 3hhs and 13hhs) emphasisequalitative benets such as qualityof lighting and living standards '"?percent), convenience ' percent),use of TK and radios ' percent),

and ability to work at night '0.7percent). 6lthough both women andmen in 3hhs emphasise convenience,women attach more weight to thisthan men who emphasise generalbenets such as better lighting andliving standards. 9enets such asenhanced safety for children 'whencompared to using /ammable bottlelamps), improvements in children#sschoolwork and increased leisureare cited more often by women thanby men in 3hhs. In unconnectedhouseholds, women are less able tobenet from microhydro than menand children, who are relativelymore mobile and go to neighbours#houses to view TK, etc. Therefore,women from 13hhs benet leastfrom the introduction of microhydropower.

'(oing it )etter* and

')roadening and(ee$ening* #ender Im$act

ender analyses of proect-levelimpacts of village microhydroschemes indicate that renewabletechnologies are not gender-neutraland that benets are vieweddierentlyby gender, according to social rolesand responsibilities. (urther, theimpacts of such proects on all

beneciaries, but particularly onwomen, are limited by constraints inend use. This relates to the limitedaccess to the advantages of theenergy by women in 13hhs asmentioned above. iven thisscenario, what is the way forwardLRecommendations for a :doing it

better; approach, that isimprovements that stay within theproect connes '5hanapala, 007),includeG

. Gender balance in E(S

participation) reater eortsshould be made to integratewomen in 43B, by making thelatter into family-centredorganisations that meet onholidays and at times convenientto all. 5eveloping 43Binstitutional guidelines andprocedures, raising awarenessregarding gender balance, andmaking membership open to allfamily members over D, ratherthan to one designated familyrepresentative only, would allimprove the situation.

". $eystifying icro*ydrotec*nology+ throughhousehold-wide trainingincluding safety practices, andthrough using women indemonstration and trainingactivities.


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schemes, can be deepened andbroadened by pushing impactsbeyond the limits of proect-boundbenets. This requires morelinkages between energy servicesand economic activities, particularly

those of women. 4nd uses should beoriented towards e&isting skills andmarkets, and, in particular, includeinformal sector activities undertakenby women 'e.g., sewing, 6eeiwrapping, incense stick making,cinnamon peeling). 6t the time ofproect implementation, the mainbenet of the energy supply wasusually that e&isting activities wouldbe continued after dark, leading togreater outputs. reater benetswould arise if new mechanisedeconomic activities were stimulated,such as electric sewing, rice milling,carpentry or other workshops. Inorder to achieve more signicantsupport, energy supplying orfacilitating agencies should link withmicrocredit and businessdevelopment organisations, whichpromote activities at the communitylevel.

This emphasis on both improvingproects and e&panding the e&tent oftheir impacts will allow forincreased participation by women inproects and their benets. 9enetswill include increased incomes andsocio-economic empowerment.$roects will enable greater access

to, and awareness of, energy supplyoptions. iven such increase inquantiable benets, such proectswould, in turn, become more likelyto be attractive bankableinvestments, paving the way for a

greater access by communities tolocalised energy supply options.

'eferences

5hanapala, Hiran '007) 0ener'elate mpact of icro!yro2ec!nolo$y at t!e illa$e leel,IT5 - Bri %anka

Tampoe, !oira '00A) ProBect+ompletion 'eport for t!e?illa$e &yro ProBect, draft

version8iayatunga, $riyantha '00>)

Prospects of ne" an rene"a6leener$y sources in Sri ;an#apricin$ an ot!er issues, $aperpresented at %I(4 Beminar,3olombo, Bri %anka, held Nanuary00>

(or more information, as well as afull report of the study described

here, please contactG

Hiran 5hanapalaIT57 %ionel 4dirisinghe !awathaHirulapone, 3olombo 7 Bri %ankaTel. P0@..>7"@0(a& P0@..>7D>>4-mail itsrilanQsri.lanka.net

2. W3' Women A)o(" So&!D'e0?

2!is paper is an e=cerpt from anarticle 6y Cane -#ale6o an ar#&an#ins entitle S!inin$=amples4, "!ic! appeare in t!eUNP Bournal 8ay 9eyond,olume,1 issue , 1997. e are $rateful toUNP for permission to use t!ismaterial.

2raitional Solar Dryin$

Bolar drying has always been anintegral part of the 6frican economy,although it is not counted as part ofthe national energy /ow, becausewomen and rural people are neversurveyed by the planners who aremostly city-dwelling men. Theprocess of solar crop drying

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removes moisture from crops toprevent spoilage and facilitatestorage. Henya still loses


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shows that the private sector may bebetter at introducing solar dryersthan research institutions.

*ne such story began when a(6*M125$ post-harvest programmeat Hawanda Research Btation in1ganda recommended small-scalesolar dryers for long-term storageand house-

hold consumption of fruit andvegetables. Cowever, it soon foundthat rural groups were moreinterested in solar dryers for incomegeneration than for food security.

In 00", the (ruits of the 2ilecompany was formed to e&ploit thiscommercial interest by linking ruralproducers with the market for driedfruit in 4urope. It continued thework of developing and promoting

small-scale dryers with women#sgroups and businesses. (or aninvestment of 1B??, a groupbecame a supplier of the companyand received a simple improvedsolar dryer with instructions for itsuse. 8ithin three years, more thanfty groups had taken up thetechnology. In 007, the companye&ported more than @? tonnes ofdried fruit.

The dried pineapples, bananas, and

mangoes produced by the ruralwomen#s groups are transported toa central collection point inHampala. $roduce is inspected toensure that it meets qualitystandards for colour, aroma, andmoisture content before it is air-freighted to a marketing group inthe 1nited Hingdom.

6n e&ample of such a group is the!atinyani 8omen#s 5evelopment

roup, where eraldine Roberts hasbeen working. The !atinyani8omen#s 5evelopment roup usessolar dryers to dry mangoes. Inthirteen weeks each of the women inthe group earned D,??? Hshs tosupplement their income. (ruit wassold to 2airobi and !ombasa, and

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