Gateway Biology Content Review. Characteristics of Living Things Reproduce Grow Develop Need...

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Biology Content ReviewBiology Content Review

Characteristics of Living ThingsCharacteristics of Living Things

ReproduceReproduce GrowGrow DevelopDevelop Need food/require energyNeed food/require energy Made of cellsMade of cells Respond to their environmentRespond to their environment Adapt to their environmentAdapt to their environment

Cells and HeredityCells and Heredity

Cell TheoryCell Theory All living things are made of cells.All living things are made of cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and The cell is the basic unit of structure and

function.function. All cells come from pre-existing cells.All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Organelles and Cell PartsOrganelles and Cell Parts

Cell MembraneCell Membrane (Plasma membrane) (Plasma membrane)– SurroundsSurrounds cell cell– Selective barrierSelective barrier– Controls what substances enter and exit the Controls what substances enter and exit the

cellcell


CytoplasmCytoplasm– Jelly-like material that fills the cellJelly-like material that fills the cell


RibosomesRibosomes: : – Site of Site of proteinprotein synthesissynthesis (where (where proteinsproteins are are

made)made)


Golgi ApparatusGolgi Apparatus– Prepare proteins that will leave the animal cell Prepare proteins that will leave the animal cell

or be placed in the plasma membraneor be placed in the plasma membrane– ““Post Office” of the cellPost Office” of the cell


MitochondriaMitochondria– PowerhousePowerhouse of the cell of the cell– Site of cellular Site of cellular respirationrespiration which produces which produces

ATP from sugars (glucose)ATP from sugars (glucose)

Organelles and Cell PartsOrganelles and Cell Parts LysosomeLysosome

– DigestDigest macromolecules macromolecules– Single celled organisms—eating, digest foodSingle celled organisms—eating, digest food– Digest/recycle old organelles; “stomach of the Digest/recycle old organelles; “stomach of the

cell”cell”– Immune systemImmune system


CentrosomeCentrosome– Produce microtubules during Produce microtubules during cellcell division. division.

Microtubules Microtubules control the movement of control the movement of chromosomes.chromosomes.


Rough Endoplasmic ReticulumRough Endoplasmic Reticulum– Transport of materials such as proteinsTransport of materials such as proteins– Ribosomes attachedRibosomes attached– Production of proteins occurs on Production of proteins occurs on

ribosomesribosomes


Smooth Endoplasmic ReticulumSmooth Endoplasmic Reticulum– Transport of materials such as proteinsTransport of materials such as proteins– No ribosomes attachedNo ribosomes attached


NucleusNucleus– Stores/protects DNAStores/protects DNA


Nuclear EnvelopeNuclear Envelope– Membrane that surrounds the nucleusMembrane that surrounds the nucleus


NucleolusNucleolus– Found in the nucleusFound in the nucleus– Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which

forms ribosomesforms ribosomes


DNADNA– Deoxyribonucleic AcidDeoxyribonucleic Acid– Contains genes/hereditary informationContains genes/hereditary information– Determines structure of proteinsDetermines structure of proteins


ChloroplastChloroplast– Site of photosynthesis, which stores the Site of photosynthesis, which stores the

sun’s energy in sugars (glucose)sun’s energy in sugars (glucose)– Found in plantsFound in plants


VacuoleVacuole– StorageStorage– Waste, nutrients, water, ionsWaste, nutrients, water, ions


Cell WallCell Wall– Supports and protects plant cells, bacteria, Supports and protects plant cells, bacteria,

fungi, some protistsfungi, some protists– Allows cell to exist in hypotonic Allows cell to exist in hypotonic

environmentenvironment


Cilia and FlagellaCilia and Flagella– MovementMovement (locomotion) (locomotion)


Microfilaments and MicrotubulesMicrofilaments and Microtubules– StructuralStructural components, “skeleton” of the cell components, “skeleton” of the cell

Cellular ClassificationCellular Classification

Unicellular OrganismsUnicellular Organisms– Single celledSingle celled– Bacteria, archaea, some protists (euglena, Bacteria, archaea, some protists (euglena,

paramecium, amoeba)paramecium, amoeba)

Multicellular OrganismsMulticellular Organisms– More than one cellMore than one cell– Plants, animals, fungi, some protistsPlants, animals, fungi, some protists


EukaryoteEukaryote– Nucleus presentNucleus present– Single or multi-celledSingle or multi-celled– Membrane bound organellesMembrane bound organelles– Plants, Animals, Fungi, ProtistsPlants, Animals, Fungi, Protists

ProkaryoteProkaryote– No nucleusNo nucleus– No membrane bound organellesNo membrane bound organelles– Single celledSingle celled– ““Primitive”Primitive”– Bacteria, ArchaeaBacteria, Archaea


PlantPlant– EukaryoticEukaryotic– Cell wall (cellulose)Cell wall (cellulose)– Vacuole, chloroplastVacuole, chloroplast– No lysosome, no centriolesNo lysosome, no centrioles

AnimalAnimal– EukaryoticEukaryotic– Lysosomes, centriolesLysosomes, centrioles– No cell wall, no vacuole, no chloroplastNo cell wall, no vacuole, no chloroplast

Prokaryote

Cells

Eukaryote

Plant AnimalFungi Protists Bacteria Archaea

PracticePractice

Which of the kingdoms contain only Which of the kingdoms contain only multicellular organisms? multicellular organisms? – Plant, AnimalPlant, Animal

Which of the kingdoms contain only single-Which of the kingdoms contain only single-celled organisms? celled organisms? – Bacteria, ArchaeaBacteria, Archaea

Which of the kingdoms contain both single-Which of the kingdoms contain both single-celled and multicellular organisms? celled and multicellular organisms? – Fungi, ProtistFungi, Protist

PracticePractice: Decide whether each of the following is : Decide whether each of the following is unicellular unicellular or multicellularor multicellular, , prokaryotic or eukaryoticprokaryotic or eukaryotic; and state the ; and state the

kingdomkingdom to which belongs. to which belongs.

Human Human – M/E/AnimalM/E/Animal

Cat Cat – M/E/AnimalM/E/Animal

Bacteria Bacteria – U/P/BacteriaU/P/Bacteria

Oak Tree Oak Tree – M/E/PlantM/E/Plant

Goldfish Goldfish – M/E/AnimalM/E/Animal



Euglena Euglena – U/E/ProtistU/E/Protist

Mushroom Mushroom – M/E/FungiM/E/Fungi

Fly Fly – M/E/AnimalM/E/Animal

Snake Snake – M/E/AnimalM/E/Animal

Paramecium Paramecium – U/E/ProtistU/E/Protist



Daffodil Daffodil – M/E/PlantM/E/Plant

Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria – U/E/ProtistU/E/Protist

Virus Virus – NoneNone

Kelp Kelp – M/E/ProtistM/E/Protist

HomeostasisHomeostasis Maintaining a Maintaining a constantconstant and and stablestable environment environment

inside of an organisminside of an organism ExamplesExamples

– Breathe in oxygenBreathe in oxygen– Breathe out carbon dioxideBreathe out carbon dioxide– Eat FoodEat Food

EnergyEnergy Building BlocksBuilding Blocks

– Eliminate WasteEliminate Waste– Maintain TemperatureMaintain Temperature– Blood pHBlood pH– Blood sugar Blood sugar

How does each of the following organs, How does each of the following organs, systems, or responses function in maintaining systems, or responses function in maintaining

homeostasis?homeostasis?

– Kidneys Kidneys – Cardiovascular System Cardiovascular System – ShiveringShivering– SweatingSweating– SunningSunning– Buffers in our bloodBuffers in our blood– Roots on a plantRoots on a plant– Leaves on a plantLeaves on a plant– Digestive SystemDigestive System– MitochondriaMitochondria– LysosomeLysosome– StomachStomach

Cellular TransportCellular Transport Materials Transported into a cell:Materials Transported into a cell:

– NutrientsNutrients– WaterWater– Sugar (carbohydrates)Sugar (carbohydrates)– IonsIons– Amino AcidsAmino Acids– FatsFats– OxygenOxygen

Materials Transported out of a cell:Materials Transported out of a cell:– WasteWaste– Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide– ProteinsProteins– SugarSugar– HormonesHormones

Methods of Transport Across a Methods of Transport Across a Cell MembraneCell Membrane

Active TransportActive Transport– Requires Requires EnergyEnergy (ATP) (ATP)– Uses Transport ProteinUses Transport Protein


Passive TransportPassive Transport– Does Does notnot require energy require energy– Particles move from Particles move from highhigh concentration to concentration to lowlow

concentration.concentration.– Works to reach equilibriumWorks to reach equilibrium


Passive TransportPassive Transport– DiffusionDiffusion

Movement of Movement of particlesparticles through the through the membrane down a concentration membrane down a concentration gradientgradient

http://www.indiana.edu/~phys215/lecture/lecnotes/diff.html

http://www.indiana.edu/~phys215/lecture/lecnotes/diff.html


Passive TransportPassive Transport

– OsmosisOsmosisMovement of Movement of waterwater through a semi- through a semi-

permeable membrane from an area of permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.low water concentration.


Passive TransportPassive Transport– Facilitated DiffusionFacilitated Diffusion

Movement of particles through a cell membrane by Movement of particles through a cell membrane by means of a transport protein.means of a transport protein.

Down the concentration gradientDown the concentration gradient Does NOT require energy.Does NOT require energy.


OsmosisOsmosis– Movement of Movement of waterwater– Water makes up about 70% of the cell and is Water makes up about 70% of the cell and is

required for transport of food, nutrients, and required for transport of food, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.waste throughout the body.

– Water moves from a Water moves from a hypotonichypotonic solution to a solution to a hypertonichypertonic solution. solution.


OsmosisOsmosis– These are relative terms used to compare two These are relative terms used to compare two

solutionssolutions Hypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentrationHypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentration Hypertonic Solution: Greater solute concentrationHypertonic Solution: Greater solute concentration Isotonic Solution: Equal solute concentrationIsotonic Solution: Equal solute concentration


OsmosisOsmosis– Animal Cells need to be surrounded by an Animal Cells need to be surrounded by an

isotonicisotonic solution solution Animal cells in a hypotonic solution gain water and Animal cells in a hypotonic solution gain water and

will will swellswell and and burstburst Animal cells in a hypertonic solution lose water and Animal cells in a hypertonic solution lose water and

will will shrivelshrivel


OsmosisOsmosis


OsmosisOsmosis– Plant Cells need to be surrounded by a Plant Cells need to be surrounded by a

hypotonic solution.hypotonic solution. Plant cells in an isotonic solution become Plant cells in an isotonic solution become flaccid/ flaccid/

limplimp Plant cells in a hypertonic solution lose water Plant cells in a hypertonic solution lose water

undergo undergo plasmolysisplasmolysis


EndocytosisEndocytosis– ““Cell Cell eatingeating””– A cell takes in macromolecules or other A cell takes in macromolecules or other

substances when regions of the plasma substances when regions of the plasma membrane surround the substance, pinch off, membrane surround the substance, pinch off, and form a vesicle within the cell.and form a vesicle within the cell.


ExocytosisExocytosis– A cell secretes macromolecules –waste, A cell secretes macromolecules –waste,

hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.

Methods of Transport Across a Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane- PRACTICECell Membrane- PRACTICE

1. An animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution; 1. An animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution; what will happen to the cell? what will happen to the cell? – Lose water, shrivelLose water, shrivel

2. A plant cell contains a solute concentration of 2. A plant cell contains a solute concentration of 0.5M; in what direction will water move if the cell is 0.5M; in what direction will water move if the cell is placed inplaced in a 0.2M solution? a 0.2M solution? – Into the cellInto the cell

3. What term best describes the process by which a 3. What term best describes the process by which a drop of food coloring over time spreads out uniformly drop of food coloring over time spreads out uniformly through a beaker of water? through a beaker of water? – diffusiondiffusion

Methods of Transport Across a Methods of Transport Across a Cell Membrane- PRACTICECell Membrane- PRACTICE

4.4. In the diagram, what will be the In the diagram, what will be the direction of net water movement direction of net water movement across the semi-permeable across the semi-permeable membrane? membrane?

To the leftTo the left

7.5M NaCl 5.7M NaCl

Cell DivisionCell Division

MitosisMitosis– GrowthGrowth and and RepairRepair– SomaticSomatic (body) cells (body) cells– Daughter cells:Daughter cells:

TwoTwo produced produced Diploid (2n)Diploid (2n) IdenticalIdentical to the parent to the parent

Cell DivisionCell Division

Interphase Prophase

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Steps of MitosisSteps of Mitosis– ProphaseProphase

Chromatin coiled to form discrete chromosomesChromatin coiled to form discrete chromosomes Nucleoli disappearNucleoli disappear Form mitotic spindle, lengthen microtubulesForm mitotic spindle, lengthen microtubules Nuclear membrane breaks downNuclear membrane breaks down Microtubules attach to chromosomes Microtubules attach to chromosomes

Steps of MitosisSteps of Mitosis

– MetaphaseMetaphase Chromosomes line up at Chromosomes line up at middlemiddle of cell of cell

Steps of MitosisSteps of Mitosis

– AnaphaseAnaphase Microtubules shortenMicrotubules shorten Chromatids Chromatids separateseparate, are pulled toward opposite , are pulled toward opposite

sides of the cellsides of the cell

Steps of MitosisSteps of MitosisTelophaseTelophase Daughter nuclei form at either sideDaughter nuclei form at either side Chromatin becomes less tightly coiledChromatin becomes less tightly coiled Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) occurs during Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) occurs during

telophase.telophase.

MeiosisMeiosis

SexualSexual reproduction (Why is meiosis reproduction (Why is meiosis required for sexual reproduction?)required for sexual reproduction?)

Form Form gametesgametes (sperm and egg) (sperm and egg) Daughter cellsDaughter cells

– FourFour produced (two nuclear divisions) produced (two nuclear divisions)– HaploidHaploid (n, cuts the number of chromosomes in (n, cuts the number of chromosomes in

halfhalf))– Different from parent and unique from each Different from parent and unique from each

otherother

MeiosisMeiosis

StepsSteps– Prophase IProphase I– Metaphase IMetaphase I– Anaphase IAnaphase I– Telophase ITelophase I– Prophase IIProphase II– Metaphase IIMetaphase II– Anaphase IIAnaphase II– Telophase IITelophase II

MeiosisMeiosis

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis:Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis:

Energy/ Matter TransformationsEnergy/ Matter Transformations

MacromoleculesMacromolecules– Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic

acids are all organic macromolecules. acids are all organic macromolecules. – Organic Molecules are composed primarily Organic Molecules are composed primarily

of carbon and are the building blocks of all of carbon and are the building blocks of all living organisms.living organisms.

MacromoleculesMacromolecules

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates GlucoseGlucose

– Required to produce ATP through cellular Required to produce ATP through cellular respirationrespiration

GlycogenGlycogen– Polymer of Polymer of glucoseglucose– Short term energy storage for Short term energy storage for animalsanimals– Stored in the liver and musclesStored in the liver and muscles

StarchStarch– Polymer of Polymer of glucoseglucose– Short term energy storage for Short term energy storage for plantsplants (example: potato) (example: potato)– Stored in the rootsStored in the roots

CelluloseCellulose– Polymer of Polymer of glucoseglucose– StructuralStructural– Cell walls in Cell walls in plantsplants

LipidsLipids EnergyEnergy storage storage Fats—animalsFats—animals Oils—plantsOils—plants Padding and Insulation, cell membranesPadding and Insulation, cell membranes

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

DNADNA Structure- double helixStructure- double helix

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids DNA ReplicationDNA Replication

– SemiSemi-conservative-conservative– Double Helix unwinds, and each strand Double Helix unwinds, and each strand

separatesseparates– Each strand used as template to construct new Each strand used as template to construct new

complementary strandcomplementary strand– Occurs before Mitosis and MeiosisOccurs before Mitosis and Meiosis


DNA Determines structure of proteinsDNA Determines structure of proteins– Each group of three bases codes for a single Each group of three bases codes for a single

aminoamino acidacid– Proteins assembled through process of Proteins assembled through process of

transcriptiontranscription and and translationtranslation


DNA determines structure of proteinsDNA determines structure of proteins– Each group of three bases codes for a single Each group of three bases codes for a single

aminoamino acidacid– Proteins assembled through process of Proteins assembled through process of

transcriptiontranscription and and translationtranslation


RNARNA Single strandedSingle stranded Ribonucleic Acid (contains ribose rather than Ribonucleic Acid (contains ribose rather than

deoxyribose).deoxyribose). Four bases—Adenine, Four bases—Adenine, UracilUracil, Guanine, , Guanine,

Cytosine (Uracil replaces Thymine)Cytosine (Uracil replaces Thymine) Three typesThree types

– rRNA—forms the ribosomesrRNA—forms the ribosomes– tRNA—transports amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomestRNA—transports amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes– mRNA—carries information for protein structure from DNA to mRNA—carries information for protein structure from DNA to

a ribosomea ribosome

ProteinsProteins

Composed of amino acidsComposed of amino acids UsesUses

– EnzymesEnzymes– MuscleMuscle– HairHair– NailsNails– MicrotubulesMicrotubules

ProteinsProteins

ProteinsProteins

Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis TranscriptionTranscription

– CopiesCopies information from DNA to mRNA information from DNA to mRNA– mRNA then transported from DNA to a mRNA then transported from DNA to a

ribosomeribosome Eukaryotes—mRNA leaves nucleus to find ribosomeEukaryotes—mRNA leaves nucleus to find ribosome Prokaryotes—no nucleus, transcription and Prokaryotes—no nucleus, transcription and

translation can occur simultaneouslytranslation can occur simultaneously

– mRNA attaches to ribosomemRNA attaches to ribosome

ProteinsProteins

Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis TranslationTranslation

– Information in mRNA used to construct specific Information in mRNA used to construct specific sequence of amino acidssequence of amino acids

– Information is Information is translatedtranslated from language of from language of nucleotides to the language of amino acidsnucleotides to the language of amino acids

– tRNAtRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes where carries amino acids to ribosomes where they are linked together.they are linked together.

ProteinsProteins

Practice: Practice:

The substances in your body that are needed in The substances in your body that are needed in order to grow and maintain life come from the order to grow and maintain life come from the nutrients in food. There are 6 classes of nutrients nutrients in food. There are 6 classes of nutrients in food- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, in food- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals. Of these, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Of these, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the major sources of energy proteins, and fats are the major sources of energy for the body. Analyze and evaluate the sample for the body. Analyze and evaluate the sample daily diet of a 16 year old male. Be sure to include daily diet of a 16 year old male. Be sure to include the following in your evaluation:the following in your evaluation:– Total calories ingestedTotal calories ingested– Percent of calories contributed by each of the nutrientsPercent of calories contributed by each of the nutrients– Compliance with the RDI standards set by the USDA.Compliance with the RDI standards set by the USDA.

Respiration and PhotosynthesisRespiration and Photosynthesis

RespirationRespiration– Process of using energy from sugar (glucose) to Process of using energy from sugar (glucose) to

produce produce ATPATP– CC66HH1212OO66 +6O +6O2 2 6CO 6CO2 2 + 6H+ 6H22O + 38ATPO + 38ATP– Occurs in Occurs in mitochondriamitochondria– Occurs in both Occurs in both animalsanimals and and plantsplants– ATP provides energy to do work in the cellATP provides energy to do work in the cell– When ATP is used, it is converted to When ATP is used, it is converted to ADPADP; respiration ; respiration

then uses energy in sugars to convert ADP back to ATP then uses energy in sugars to convert ADP back to ATP by adding a phosphate.by adding a phosphate.


PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis– Process of using energy from the sun to Process of using energy from the sun to

produce produce sugarssugars (glucose) (glucose)

– 6CO6CO22 + 6H+ 6H22O + Light Energy O + Light Energy C C66HH1212OO66 +6O +6O22

– Occurs in Occurs in chloroplastchloroplast of plants and some algae of plants and some algae


How are photosynthesis and respiration How are photosynthesis and respiration related?related?

The products of respiration are the The products of respiration are the reactants of photosynthesis; the reactants of photosynthesis; the products of photosynthesis are the products of photosynthesis are the reactants of respiration.reactants of respiration.


Where and how are excess sugars stored in Where and how are excess sugars stored in plants?plants?

Excess sugars are stored as starch in the Excess sugars are stored as starch in the roots. Starch is a polymer of glucose.roots. Starch is a polymer of glucose.


Where and how are excess sugars stored Where and how are excess sugars stored in animals?in animals?

Excess sugars are stored as glycogen in Excess sugars are stored as glycogen in the liver of animals. Glycogen is a the liver of animals. Glycogen is a polymer of glucose.polymer of glucose.


Construct a food chain that traces the flow of Construct a food chain that traces the flow of energy from the sun, to your lunch, through energy from the sun, to your lunch, through you, and to the muscles that make your arm you, and to the muscles that make your arm move. move.

Sun Sun grass grass cow cow hamburger hamburger personperson

In a person, hamburger is broken down/ In a person, hamburger is broken down/ digested; sugars move to mitochondria in digested; sugars move to mitochondria in muscle, yield muscle, yield ATP through cellular ATP through cellular respiration. ATP makes muscles move.respiration. ATP makes muscles move.

Genetics/ DNAGenetics/ DNA

Heredity and Mendelian GeneticsHeredity and Mendelian Genetics– Genetics: The study of Genetics: The study of heredityheredity (the passing of (the passing of

traits from parents to offspring)traits from parents to offspring)– Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics.Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics.– DNA: Consists of many DNA: Consists of many genesgenes– Gene: Stretch of DNA that codes for a given Gene: Stretch of DNA that codes for a given

traittrait..– Allele: Alternate Allele: Alternate versionversion of a gene of a gene


Dominant and Recessive TraitsDominant and Recessive Traits Dominant AlleleDominant Allele

– Gene that is fully expressed.Gene that is fully expressed.– MasksMasks/ “speaks louder than” a recessive allele./ “speaks louder than” a recessive allele.

Recessive AlleleRecessive Allele– Masked/not expressed if dominant allele is Masked/not expressed if dominant allele is

present.present.– Only expressed if dominant allele is Only expressed if dominant allele is absentabsent..


GenotypeGenotype The The geneticgenetic makeup of an organism makeup of an organism

– Homozygous: having two of the Homozygous: having two of the samesame allele allele– Heterozygous: having two Heterozygous: having two differentdifferent alleles. alleles.– Homozygous Dominant: having two Homozygous Dominant: having two dominantdominant

allelesalleles– Homozygous Recessive: having two Homozygous Recessive: having two recessiverecessive

allelesalleles– Heterozygous: having one of each alleleHeterozygous: having one of each allele


PhenotypePhenotype The The phphysical and ysical and phphysiological traits of an ysiological traits of an

organismorganism How the genes are How the genes are expressedexpressed What you would see in a What you would see in a phphotographotograph

ExampleExample: :

In peas, Y is a dominant allele that instructs In peas, Y is a dominant allele that instructs for yellow seeds; y is a recessive allele that for yellow seeds; y is a recessive allele that produces green seeds. Given the following produces green seeds. Given the following genotypes, fill in the term that best genotypes, fill in the term that best describes each, and then indicate what the describes each, and then indicate what the phenotype of the organism will be.phenotype of the organism will be.

DNA/ GeneticsDNA/ Genetics

A Punnett Square can be used to predict the A Punnett Square can be used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring produced by a given genetic cross.produced by a given genetic cross.

GenerationsGenerations– Parental (P): The organisms involved in the Parental (P): The organisms involved in the initialinitial cross cross– First Filial (F1): The offspring of the First Filial (F1): The offspring of the ParentalParental

GenerationGeneration– Second Filial (F2): The offspring of the First Second Filial (F2): The offspring of the First FilialFilial

GenerationGeneration

Example:Example: A chicken and a rooster mate. The chicken has A chicken and a rooster mate. The chicken has

white feathers and the rooster has brown feathers. white feathers and the rooster has brown feathers. Brown is dominant, and white is recessive. Brown is dominant, and white is recessive. Assuming the rooster is heterozygous, predict the Assuming the rooster is heterozygous, predict the frequency of each genotype and phenotype in frequency of each genotype and phenotype in their offspring.their offspring.

What is the cellular process that determines which alleles an offspring will receive from their parents? Meiosis

PracticePractice:: 1. A plant that is homozygous dominant for 1. A plant that is homozygous dominant for

height is crossed with a plant that is height is crossed with a plant that is homozygous recessive. (T = tall; t = short). homozygous recessive. (T = tall; t = short). Use a Punnett Square to predict the Use a Punnett Square to predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F1 genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F1 generation.generation.

Practice:Practice:

2. Using question number 1, what would be 2. Using question number 1, what would be the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of a the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of a cross of two F1 individuals?cross of two F1 individuals?


Determining SexDetermining Sex Human male: Human male: XYXY Human female: Human female: XXXX Which parent determines the sex of a Which parent determines the sex of a

human offspring? human offspring? FatherFather What is the probability of having a boy? A What is the probability of having a boy? A

girl? girl? 50%/50%50%/50%


Sex linked traitsSex linked traits Carried on the X chromosomeCarried on the X chromosome Example: hemophilia, color blindness.Example: hemophilia, color blindness. Disorders occur more often in males than Disorders occur more often in males than

females. Why? females. Why? Males have one X Males have one X chromosome, so if one is defective, they chromosome, so if one is defective, they do not have a backup copy as do do not have a backup copy as do females.females.


MutationMutation A change in the base sequence of DNA.A change in the base sequence of DNA. A change in DNA can lead to a change in A change in DNA can lead to a change in

the protein coded for by that gene.the protein coded for by that gene. A change in the protein structure can A change in the protein structure can

lead to certain disorders, for example, lead to certain disorders, for example, sickle cell anemia.sickle cell anemia.

The 6 KingdomsThe 6 Kingdoms

Bacteria and ArchaeaBacteria and Archaea SingleSingle Celled, prokaryote Celled, prokaryote Cell wallCell wall Live in damp places or in waterLive in damp places or in water Asexual reproduction—binary fissionAsexual reproduction—binary fission Decomposers Decomposers (breaks down organic material)(breaks down organic material) Nitrogen fixation (rhizobium)Nitrogen fixation (rhizobium) Parasites (tuberculosis, cholera, strep-throat)Parasites (tuberculosis, cholera, strep-throat) Symbiotic relationships (humans)Symbiotic relationships (humans)

The 6 KingdomsThe 6 KingdomsComplete the chart comparing bacteria and viruses:


ProtistaProtista Eukaryotes Eukaryotes (has a nucleus)(has a nucleus) Single CelledSingle Celled

– EuglenaEuglena– DiatomsDiatoms– DinoflagellatesDinoflagellates– CiliatesCiliates– FlagellatesFlagellates– Sacrodina (amoeba)Sacrodina (amoeba)– Sporozoa (malaria)Sporozoa (malaria)

Multi-celledMulti-celled– KelpKelp– SeaweedSeaweed


PlantsPlants Multicellular, eukaryoticMulticellular, eukaryotic Examples:Examples:


AnimalsAnimals Multicelled, eukaryoticMulticelled, eukaryotic Examples:Examples:


FungiFungi Multicelled or single celled; eukaryoticMulticelled or single celled; eukaryotic Examples:Examples:


PlantsPlants Photosynthetic AutotrophsPhotosynthetic Autotrophs How are plant cells different from animal How are plant cells different from animal

cells? cells? Plant cells have a cell wall and vacuole; Plant cells have a cell wall and vacuole;

Plant cells do not have centrioles and Plant cells do not have centrioles and lysosomes.lysosomes.


Major parts of a plantMajor parts of a plant– RootsRoots

absorb water and nutrients from the absorb water and nutrients from the soilsoil.. Store excess sugars (in the form of Store excess sugars (in the form of starchstarch))

– StemStem connects roots to the rest of the plantconnects roots to the rest of the plant

– LeavesLeaves site of site of photosynthesisphotosynthesis


PlantsPlants Transport in a plantTransport in a plant

– Xylem: transports water and nutrients from the Xylem: transports water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plantroots to the rest of the plant

– Phloem: transports products of photosynthesis Phloem: transports products of photosynthesis to the rest of the plant.to the rest of the plant.

What environmental factors might affect a What environmental factors might affect a plant? plant? – Water supply, light, pH, acid rain, pollutantsWater supply, light, pH, acid rain, pollutants

EcologyEcology

BiomeBiome A major biological community that occurs A major biological community that occurs

over a over a largelarge areaarea of land. of land. Determined primarily by precipitationDetermined primarily by precipitation Affected by elevation, latitude, soil type, Affected by elevation, latitude, soil type,

geographical features.geographical features.

Terrestrial BiomesTerrestrial Biomes


Tropical Rain ForestTropical Rain Forest Rain: 200-450 cm (80-180 in) per year (A Rain: 200-450 cm (80-180 in) per year (A

lotlot of rain) of rain) Rich in number of species (many different Rich in number of species (many different

types of organisms)types of organisms) Central America, South America, Africa, Central America, South America, Africa,

AsiaAsia Examples of Animals and Plants: Examples of Animals and Plants: tree tree

frog, monkeys, birds, green canopyfrog, monkeys, birds, green canopy


DesertDesert Rain: fewer than 25 cm (10 in) per year Rain: fewer than 25 cm (10 in) per year

(Very little rain)(Very little rain) Sparse vegetationSparse vegetation May be warm or coldMay be warm or cold Examples of Animals and Plants: Examples of Animals and Plants:

Cactus, snakes, lizards, nocturnal Cactus, snakes, lizards, nocturnal animalsanimals


SavannaSavanna Rain: 90-150 cm (35-60 in) per yearRain: 90-150 cm (35-60 in) per year Prevalent in Africa.Prevalent in Africa. Dry grasslandDry grassland Widely spaced trees; animals active Widely spaced trees; animals active

during rainy seasonduring rainy season Examples of Animals and Plants: Examples of Animals and Plants:

giraffes, zebras, grassesgiraffes, zebras, grasses


Temperate Deciduous ForestTemperate Deciduous Forest Rain: 75-250 cm (30-100 in) Rain: 75-250 cm (30-100 in) Mild Climate, plentiful rainMild Climate, plentiful rain Deciduous trees shed leaves in fallDeciduous trees shed leaves in fall Warm summer, cold winterWarm summer, cold winter Mammals hibernate in winter, birds migrateMammals hibernate in winter, birds migrate Eastern US, Southeastern Canada, Europe, Eastern US, Southeastern Canada, Europe,

AsiaAsia Examples of Animals and Plants: Bears, Examples of Animals and Plants: Bears,

Deer, Oak TreesDeer, Oak Trees


Temperate GrasslandsTemperate Grasslands Halfway between equator and polesHalfway between equator and poles Interior of North America, Eurasia, Interior of North America, Eurasia,

South AmericaSouth America Fertile soil, used for agricultureFertile soil, used for agriculture Examples of Animals and Plants: Examples of Animals and Plants:

Grazing animals (Bison), grasses, field Grazing animals (Bison), grasses, field micemice


Coniferous ForestConiferous Forest Cone bearing trees: pine, spruce, fir, hemlockCone bearing trees: pine, spruce, fir, hemlock Pacific Northwest (temperate rain forests)Pacific Northwest (temperate rain forests) Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)

– Cold and wetCold and wet– Winters long and cold; precipitation in summerWinters long and cold; precipitation in summer– Coniferous forests (spruce and fir)Coniferous forests (spruce and fir)– Large mammals: elk, moose, deer, wolves, bears, Large mammals: elk, moose, deer, wolves, bears,

lynx, wolverineslynx, wolverines


TundraTundra Between taiga and polesBetween taiga and poles 20% of Earth’s surface20% of Earth’s surface Rain: less than 25 cm (10 in)Rain: less than 25 cm (10 in) Permafrost 1m deep (3ft)Permafrost 1m deep (3ft) Examples of animals: foxes, lemmings, owls, Examples of animals: foxes, lemmings, owls,

cariboucaribou Alpine TundraAlpine Tundra Found at high latitudesFound at high latitudes High winds and cold temperaturesHigh winds and cold temperatures

Aquatic BiomesAquatic Biomes

Freshwater CommunitiesFreshwater Communities Standing bodies of waterStanding bodies of water

– lakes, pondslakes, ponds Moving bodies of waterMoving bodies of water

– streams, riversstreams, rivers WetlandsWetlands

– Swamp, marsh, bogSwamp, marsh, bog ~2% of Earth’s surface~2% of Earth’s surface Plants, fishes, arthropods, mollusks, Plants, fishes, arthropods, mollusks,

microscopic organismsmicroscopic organisms

Aquatic BiomesAquatic Biomes

Marine Communities (salt water)Marine Communities (salt water) 75% Earth’s surface covered by ocean75% Earth’s surface covered by ocean Average depth 3km (1.9mi)Average depth 3km (1.9mi) Mostly dark, coldMostly dark, cold Photosynthetic organisms mostly towards Photosynthetic organisms mostly towards

surfacesurface Heterotrophic organisms throughoutHeterotrophic organisms throughout Fish, plankton (algae, diatoms, bacteria).Fish, plankton (algae, diatoms, bacteria).

Flow of Energy Through an Flow of Energy Through an EcosystemEcosystem

In order to live, organisms must obtain In order to live, organisms must obtain energy and nutrientsenergy and nutrients– HeterotrophsHeterotrophs

Obtain energy and nutrients from the Obtain energy and nutrients from the foodfood they they eateat

– AutotrophsAutotrophs Obtain energy from the Obtain energy from the sunsun Obtain nutrients from the soil.Obtain nutrients from the soil.


ProducerProducer– Uses energy from the sun and carbon from the Uses energy from the sun and carbon from the

environment to environment to makemake its its ownown food. food.– ““Bottom of the food chain”Bottom of the food chain”– Why are producers necessary in any Why are producers necessary in any

ecosystem? ecosystem? Make energy from the sun Make energy from the sun available/usable for heterotrophs.available/usable for heterotrophs.


ConsumerConsumer– Obtains energy through Obtains energy through eating other eating other

organismsorganisms Herbivore: eats only Herbivore: eats only plantsplants Carnivore: eats only Carnivore: eats only animalsanimals Omnivore: eats both Omnivore: eats both plantsplants and and animalsanimals

– Primary consumer: eats producersPrimary consumer: eats producers– Secondary consumer: eats the consumers that Secondary consumer: eats the consumers that

eat the producerseat the producers


ConsumerConsumer Means of obtaining nutritionMeans of obtaining nutrition

– PredationPredation Ecological interaction in which one organism Ecological interaction in which one organism

(predator) feeds on another living (predator) feeds on another living organism(prey).organism(prey).

Predator may or may not kill the prey.Predator may or may not kill the prey.– ScavengingScavenging

An animal ingests dead plants, animals, or both.An animal ingests dead plants, animals, or both. Vultures, termites, beetlesVultures, termites, beetles


ConsumerConsumer Means of obtaining nutritionMeans of obtaining nutrition

– Decomposer (Decomposer (SaprophytesSaprophytes)) Breakdown (absorb nutrients from) non-living Breakdown (absorb nutrients from) non-living

– Organic material—corpses, plants, waste of living Organic material—corpses, plants, waste of living organisms—and convert them to inorganic forms.organisms—and convert them to inorganic forms. Bacteria, fungiBacteria, fungi Why are decomposers necessary in any Why are decomposers necessary in any

ecosystem? ecosystem? Recycle nutrients.Recycle nutrients.


Food ChainFood Chain LinearLinear pathway of energy transport through an pathway of energy transport through an

ecosystemecosystem algaealgaekrillkrillcodcodsealsealkiller whalekiller whalebacteriabacteria Producers always come first in the food chain.Producers always come first in the food chain. Decomposers always come last in the food chain; Decomposers always come last in the food chain;

they will break down dead organisms and allow they will break down dead organisms and allow nutrients to be recycled.nutrients to be recycled.

Arrows indicate the Arrows indicate the directiondirection in which in which energyenergy flows through the ecosystem. flows through the ecosystem.

Bacteria/Decomposers


Food WebFood Web A A networknetwork of interconnected food chains in of interconnected food chains in

an ecosysteman ecosystem Producers are at the beginning.Producers are at the beginning. Decomposers are at the end.Decomposers are at the end. Arrows indicate the Arrows indicate the directiondirection in which in which

energy flows through the ecosystem. energy flows through the ecosystem.

PracticePractice::

1. Draw a food chain with at least five 1. Draw a food chain with at least five organisms. Label all organisms as being a organisms. Label all organisms as being a producer, a consumer, or a decomposer. producer, a consumer, or a decomposer. Make sure arrows are drawn to show how Make sure arrows are drawn to show how the energy is transferred.the energy is transferred.

PracticePractice::

2. How does a food chain prove the Law of 2. How does a food chain prove the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy?Conservation of Matter and Energy?

The energy is not disappearing but is The energy is not disappearing but is being transferred from one organism to being transferred from one organism to another.another.

SymbiosisSymbiosis

““LivingLiving TogetherTogether”” Ecological interaction in which two or more Ecological interaction in which two or more

species live together in a close, long-term species live together in a close, long-term association.association.

SymbiosisSymbiosis MutualismMutualism

– BothBoth partnerspartners benefitbenefit– Ants and aphidsAnts and aphids

Aphids supply sugars to ants; ants protect aphids Aphids supply sugars to ants; ants protect aphids from insect predatorsfrom insect predators

SymbiosisSymbiosis

CommensalismCommensalism– One species One species benefitsbenefits, the other is , the other is neitherneither

harmed nor helpedharmed nor helped– Birds and bisonBirds and bison– Birds feed on insects flushed out of grass by Birds feed on insects flushed out of grass by

grazing bisongrazing bison– Barnacles and whalesBarnacles and whales

SymbiosisSymbiosis

ParasitismParasitism– One species (the parasite) One species (the parasite) benefitsbenefits; the other ; the other

(the host) is (the host) is harmedharmed..– One organism feeds on and usually lives on or One organism feeds on and usually lives on or

in another.in another.– Bacterial infection of animalsBacterial infection of animals– Fungus infects treesFungus infects trees– MalariaMalaria

PracticePractice

Cycles of MatterCycles of Matter

Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle Carbon is the key ingredient in all living Carbon is the key ingredient in all living

organismsorganisms Processes involved: Processes involved: biologicalbiological (example: (example:

photosynthesis), photosynthesis), geochemicalgeochemical (example: (example: release of COrelease of CO22 by volcanoes), by volcanoes), human human

activityactivity (example: burning of fossil fuels) (example: burning of fossil fuels)


Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle All organisms require nitrogen to build All organisms require nitrogen to build

proteinsproteins Forms of nitrogen: NForms of nitrogen: N22 in in atmosphereatmosphere; NH; NH33, ,

NONO33--, NO, NO22

-- in in wasteswastes; nitrate from fertilizers; nitrate from fertilizers Some bacteria convert NSome bacteria convert N22 into NH into NH33 during during

nitrogen fixation.nitrogen fixation. Some bacteria convert nitrates into NSome bacteria convert nitrates into N22 during during

denitrificationdenitrification..


Water CycleWater Cycle All organisms require water to survive.All organisms require water to survive. Processes: evaporation, transpiration, Processes: evaporation, transpiration,

condensation, precipitation, seepage, runoffcondensation, precipitation, seepage, runoff

Important Ecological TermsImportant Ecological Terms

Abiotic factorsAbiotic factors– NonlivingNonliving chemical or physical factors in the chemical or physical factors in the

environment.environment.– Examples: Air, soil, water, windExamples: Air, soil, water, wind

Biotic factorsBiotic factors– LivingLiving organisms in the environment. organisms in the environment.– Examples: Plants, animals, fungi, Examples: Plants, animals, fungi,

microorganismsmicroorganisms


EcosystemEcosystem– All living and nonliving things in a given areaAll living and nonliving things in a given area

CommunityCommunity– All living organisms that inhabit a given area.All living organisms that inhabit a given area.– A group of populationsA group of populations

PopulationPopulation– A group of individuals belonging to the same A group of individuals belonging to the same

species that live together in the same areaspecies that live together in the same area


CompetitionCompetition– Two or more organisms require the same Two or more organisms require the same

resource that is in limited supply.resource that is in limited supply.– Food, shelter, light, water, matesFood, shelter, light, water, mates– The strongest organism will win the The strongest organism will win the

competition and will be more likely to live competition and will be more likely to live and pass its genes on to the next generation and pass its genes on to the next generation (natural selection).(natural selection).


HabitatHabitat– Place or environment in which populations Place or environment in which populations

livelive

NicheNiche– Role of a species in an ecosystemRole of a species in an ecosystem– Relationships, activities, resources usedRelationships, activities, resources used


SuccessionSuccession– The series of predictable changes that occurs in a The series of predictable changes that occurs in a

community over timecommunity over time– Primary succession occurs on a surface where no Primary succession occurs on a surface where no

soil exists. Example: bare rock, areas covered by soil exists. Example: bare rock, areas covered by volcanic ashvolcanic ash

– Secondary succession occurs in an area where a Secondary succession occurs in an area where a disturbances changes an existing community disturbances changes an existing community without destroying the soil. Example: plowed land, without destroying the soil. Example: plowed land, area burned by wildfirearea burned by wildfire

Adaptation and Natural SelectionAdaptation and Natural Selection

Natural SelectionNatural Selection– Idea first stated by Idea first stated by Charles DarwinCharles Darwin– ““Survival of the Survival of the fittestfittest””– Organisms that are best Organisms that are best adaptedadapted to their environment to their environment

are more likely to live long enough to produce offspring are more likely to live long enough to produce offspring and pass their traits on to the next generation.and pass their traits on to the next generation.

– In terms of evolution and natural selection, the number In terms of evolution and natural selection, the number one goal of any organism is to pass its one goal of any organism is to pass its genesgenes on to the on to the next generation through the production of next generation through the production of offspringoffspring..


Selective BreedingSelective Breeding– Organisms with Organisms with desireddesired traits are chosen to traits are chosen to

mate so that their offspring also possess mate so that their offspring also possess desired traits.desired traits.

– Examples: Examples: Pedigree dogs and catsPedigree dogs and cats


AdaptationAdaptation– Characteristic of an organism that helps it to Characteristic of an organism that helps it to

better survive in a given environment.better survive in a given environment.– Types of adaptation:Types of adaptation:

Structural: characteristics of an organism’s anatomy. Structural: characteristics of an organism’s anatomy. (wings on a bird)(wings on a bird)

Physiological: characteristics relating to internal body Physiological: characteristics relating to internal body processes. (antibiotic resistance)processes. (antibiotic resistance)

Behavioral: how an organism acts and responds to Behavioral: how an organism acts and responds to its environment (bird migration)its environment (bird migration)


List three additional examples of List three additional examples of adaptations and state the type of adaptation:adaptations and state the type of adaptation:– Webbed feet of a duck (structural)Webbed feet of a duck (structural)– ““Ink” from an squid Ink” from an squid

(physiological/behavioral)(physiological/behavioral)– Gills on a fish (structural/physiological)Gills on a fish (structural/physiological)


EvolutionEvolution– Change in groups of organisms over a long Change in groups of organisms over a long

period of timeperiod of time


EvolutionEvolution– Evidence for evolutionary changesEvidence for evolutionary changes

Fossils (The deeper the fossil, the older it is)Fossils (The deeper the fossil, the older it is) Comparative anatomy and the study of homologous Comparative anatomy and the study of homologous

structures (Example: human arm, dolphin fin, bat wing, dog structures (Example: human arm, dolphin fin, bat wing, dog foreleg)foreleg)

Comparative Biochemistry (The fewer the differences in Comparative Biochemistry (The fewer the differences in DNA, the closer the organisms are related)DNA, the closer the organisms are related)

Comparative Embryology (Example: all vertebrates have Comparative Embryology (Example: all vertebrates have gill slits, tail, and notochord in early development)gill slits, tail, and notochord in early development)

Direct evidence (Example: bacteria can quickly become Direct evidence (Example: bacteria can quickly become resistant to antibiotics)resistant to antibiotics)

Practice:Practice:

Classify the following adaptations as Classify the following adaptations as behavioral, structural, or physiological. behavioral, structural, or physiological. Discuss the reason(s) for your choices.Discuss the reason(s) for your choices.– Bees build a hive-Bees build a hive- behavioral behavioral– Young ducklings follow their mother- Young ducklings follow their mother-

behavioralbehavioral– A woodpecker’s beak is pointed and sharpA woodpecker’s beak is pointed and sharp- -

structuralstructural– Flat shape of a leaf- Flat shape of a leaf- structuralstructural

Human Systems and Basic Life Human Systems and Basic Life FunctionsFunctions

Biology ExercisesBiology Exercises

Answer the following questions in Answer the following questions in paragraph form. Your answers will not paragraph form. Your answers will not necessarily be essays; they are short necessarily be essays; they are short practice questions and may require one practice questions and may require one to three paragraphs. Answer on a to three paragraphs. Answer on a separate piece of paper; feel free to give separate piece of paper; feel free to give me a copy of your work so I can look me a copy of your work so I can look over it and give you feedback.over it and give you feedback.


1. Compare and contrast a plant cell and 1. Compare and contrast a plant cell and an animal cell.an animal cell.


2. Compare and contrast prokaryotes 2. Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.and eukaryotes.


3. A plant is watered with highly 3. A plant is watered with highly concentrated salt water. Even though concentrated salt water. Even though the plant is given plenty of water it soon the plant is given plenty of water it soon begins to wilt. Explain why the plant is begins to wilt. Explain why the plant is wilting.wilting.


4. A plant and an insect are placed in an 4. A plant and an insect are placed in an air-tight container; fresh oxygen is not air-tight container; fresh oxygen is not allowed to enter the container. After allowed to enter the container. After about a week the plant died. A day later about a week the plant died. A day later the insect died. If the insect had a the insect died. If the insect had a sufficient amount of food and water, sufficient amount of food and water, explain why the insect died.explain why the insect died.


5. In terms of the carbon cycle, explain 5. In terms of the carbon cycle, explain how a carbon atom of one of your cells how a carbon atom of one of your cells could have at one time been in George could have at one time been in George Washington’s body. Draw a food chain Washington’s body. Draw a food chain or food web to illustrate your point.or food web to illustrate your point.


6. Explain how a molecule of water in 6. Explain how a molecule of water in your body could, at one time, have been your body could, at one time, have been located in a tree in your backyard. Use located in a tree in your backyard. Use scientific terminology to explain the path scientific terminology to explain the path the water molecule followed from the the water molecule followed from the tree to your body.tree to your body.


7. An animal cell is only capable of 7. An animal cell is only capable of cellular respiration; a plant cell is capable cellular respiration; a plant cell is capable of both cellular respiration and of both cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Why do both organisms photosynthesis. Why do both organisms require cellular respiration? Why does require cellular respiration? Why does only the plant cell require photosynthesis?only the plant cell require photosynthesis?

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