General Knowledge

The Buddha:

• The Buddha also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.• His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.• His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynastry) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.• Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13years and had a son named Rahula.• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.• Left his palace at 29 in search of truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunication) and wandered for 6 years.• Attained ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakrapracartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.• Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

Buddhist Councils:

• First Council: At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the Chairmanship of Mehakassaapa (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas-Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka.• Second Council: At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka).Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.• Third Council: At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka) In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.• Fourth council: At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka, Vice-Chairman was Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.Buddist Literature: In Pali language.Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discipline in the Buddhist monasteries.Sutta Pitaka: Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion

Jainism

• Jainism founded by Rishabha. • There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas. First was Rishabhnath (Emblem: Bull).• The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras.• The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in kundagram (Distt Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.• His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan.• His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali.• Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.• Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.• At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.• In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya).• From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.• At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.• Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it. 

 Social and Cultural Uprising

Brahmo Samaj: • Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. • Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage.• He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education, because he thought it would keep the country in darkness.• Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshap Chandra Sen.

Arya Samaj:• Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.• His motto was ‘Go back to the vedas’ & ‘India for the Indians’. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage.• Dayanand’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya.

Ramakrishna Mission:• Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 – 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans.• Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.• Irish woman Margaret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it.

Young Bengal Movement: • Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta.• He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported women’s education and their rights.

Veda Samaj:• Veda Samaj called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.• He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu.

Dharma Sabha:• Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.• Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even to girls.

Lokahitawadi: • Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female education for the upliftment of women.• As a votary of national self-reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.

Servants of India Society: • Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.• It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal.

Radhaswami Movement:• Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj.

• The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Guru’s supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsangis).

Theosophical Society:• Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.• Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col.M.S. Olcott of the US Army joined her.• In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).• Annie Besant was elected its president in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916.

Governor Generals of India

Lord William Bentinck (1828 – 1835): • Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).• Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After the recommendations of Macaulay).• Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.• Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 – 1836): Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).Lord Auckland (1836 – 1842): The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)

Lord Dalhousie (1848 – 1856): • Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).• Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).• Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).• Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made communication easier.• Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.• Made Shimla the summer capital.

• Started Engineering College at Roorkee.• Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.• In 1854, “Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.• Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).

Viceroys Of India

Lord Canning (1856 – 1862):• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.• Mutiny took place in his time.• On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.• Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.• The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.• Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.

Lord Elgin (1862 – 1863)

Lord Lawrence (1864 – 1869):• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.• High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.• Expanded canal works and railways.• Created the Indian Forest department.

Lord Mayo (1869 – 1872): • Started the process of financial decentralization in India.• Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.• For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.• Organised the Statistical Survey of India.• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876):

Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880):• Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.• Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser – I – Hind’.

• Arms Act(1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884):• Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.• Repeated the Vernacular Press Act (1882)• Passed the local self – government Act (1882)• Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission’s recommendations).• The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.• Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.

Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888):• Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894):• II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.• Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.• Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed.• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin II (1894 – 1899):• Great famine of 1896 – 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1899 – 1905):• Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased.• Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces 1, Bengal (proper), 2.East Bengal & Assam.• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province.• The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province(NWFP).• Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore India’s cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established.• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a gold standard.• Extended railways to a great extent.

Lord Minto (1905 – 1910): • There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.• The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley – Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910 – 1916):• Held a durbar in dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.• Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).• A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (Dec 23, 1912).• Gandhiji came back to India from S.Africa (1915).• Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921): • August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people.• The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague – Chelmsford reforms) was passed.• Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).• Non – Cooperation Movement.• An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.• A Women’s university was founded at Poona in 1916.• Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.Lord Reading (1921 – 1926):• Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.• Suppressed non-cooperation movement.• Prince of Wales visited India in Nov.1921.• Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.• Ahmedabad session of 1921.• Formation of Swaraj Party.• Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.• Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N.Roy.• Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.• Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.• Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931):• Simon Commission visited India in 1928.• Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.• Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).

• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).• First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.• Gandhi – Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn.• Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willington (1931 – 1936):• Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan 1932.• Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division.• Third Round Table conference in 1932.• Poona Pact was signed.• Government of India Act (1935) was passed.

Lord Linlithgow (1936 – 1944):• Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as ‘Deliverance Say’ (22 December)• Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.• Outbreak of World War II in 1939.• Cripps Mission in 1942.• Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944 – 1947):• Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed.• Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt. was appointed under Nehru.• First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (Mar.1947 – Aug.1947):• Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.• Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.• Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947.

• Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of free India).

 

Newspaper Journals 

Newspaper/Journal Founder/EditorBengal Gazette(1780) (India’s first newspaper) J.K.HikkiKesari B.G.TilakMaharatta B.G.TilakSudharak G.K.GokhaleAmrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal GhoshVande Mataram Aurobindo GhoshNative Opinion V.N.MandalikKavivachan Sudha Bhartendu HarishchandraRast Goftar (First newspaper in Gujarati) Dadabhai NaorojiNew India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra PalStatesman Robert KnightHindu Vir Raghavacharya and G.S.AiyarSandhya B.B.UpadhyayaVichar Lahiri Krishnashastri ChiplunkarHindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra VidyasagarYugantar Bhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar GhoshBombay Chronicle Firoze Shah MehtaHindustan M.M.MalviyaMooknayak B.R.Ambedkar

Comrade Mohammed AliTahzib-ul-Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed KhanAl-Hilal Abdul Kalam AzadAl-Balagh Abdul Kalam AzadIndependent Motilal NehruPunjabi Lala Lajpat RaiNew India (Daily) Annie BesantCommonweal Annie Besant

Pratap Ganesh Shankar VidyarthiEssays in Indian Economics M.G.RanadeSamvad Kaumudi (Bengali) Ram Mohan RoyMirat-ul-Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)Indian Mirror Devendra Nath TagoreNav Jeevan M.K.GandhiYoung India M.K.GandhiHarijan M.K.GandhiPrabudha Bharat Swami VivekanandaUdbodhana Swami VivekanandaIndian Socialist Shyamji Krishna VermaTalwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath ChattopadhyayaFree Hindustan (in Vancouver) Tarak Nath DasHindustan Times K.M.PannikarKranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate

 

National Activities Part I

 

 The Indian National Congress: • Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.• First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).

Partition of Bengal:• By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.• The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.• A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.

Swadeshi Movement (1905):

• Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale.• Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

Formation of Muslim League (1906):• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.

 

Demand for Swaraj:• In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people.

Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):• The INC split into two groups – The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

 

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.• Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party (1913):• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna. • HQ was at San Francisco.

 

Home Rule Movement (1916):• Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916).• Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire.• Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.

Lucknow Pact (1916):• Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims.• Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country).

National Activities Part II

 

 August Declaration (1917): • After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This came to be called the August Declaration.

 

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):• This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.• Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):• People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.• General O’ Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.• As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.• Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this.• Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.• On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer when the later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

 

Khilafat Movement (1920):• Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War.• Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.

Non-cooperation Movement (1920):• It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.• Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920. 

Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):• A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.• This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.

Simon Commission (1927):• Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.• Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.• The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.

 

Lahore Session (1929):• On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.• On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.

Revolutionary Activities:• The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.• In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag

of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).• In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).• In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of “India Office” in London.• In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).• In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.• Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.• In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.• Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.• In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.

National Activities Part III 

 Dandi March (1930):• Also called the Salt Satyagraha.• Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law.• He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930.• He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.

First Round Table conference (1930):• It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.• Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and

some others were there. 

Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):• Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.• The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.• In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.• The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast. 

Second Round Table Conference (1931):• Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.• However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.

The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):• Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.• Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes.• Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.

Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):• After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere.• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.• Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).• In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased. 

Third Round Table Conference (1932):• Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

Demand For Pakistan:• In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation.• Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923.• Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.• Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.

The Cripps Mission – 1942:• In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia.• The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.• He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war.• Rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely upon future promises.• Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.

 

National Activities Part IV 

 The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:• Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.• The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’.• On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested.• The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country.• The movement was however crushed.

 

The Indian National Army:Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh.• S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.• Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.

 

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander) will visit India.• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.• On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested.• Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.

 

Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.

 

Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.• Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the

British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

 

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):• The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):• On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.• Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.• The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

 

Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely States in India.• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

ASTRONOMY AND SPACE SCIENCE

 

»Galaxies:Giant clusters of stars; our solar-system is part of galaxy called 'Milky-Way.' »Evolution of Space:Geocentric Theory: It was founded by Ptolemy in 140 A.D. It states that earth is at the centre of the universe.Helio-centric Theory: It was propounded by Copernicus in 1453 A.D. It states that all celestial body revolves around the sun.William Herschel: It showed that the sun is a member of galaxy, the Milky Way and placed at one corner of Milky Way.Edwin Hubble (1925): He proved presence of other galaxies. He also proved that galaxies are receding constantly from each other. With the help of analyzing red shifty Doppler Effect), he also proved the rate at which galaxies are receding.

»Big Bang Theory:It was put forth by Abbe George Lemaitre. It states that the receding movement of galaxies is the result of implosion. Big bang occurred at least 12 billion years ago. Evidences: Discovery of back-ground radiation proved by COBE, cosmic background experiment, discovering uneven ripple of microwave radiation, which suggests sudden explosion.

»Black-holes:It is extremely concentrated matter. The pull of gravity is so powerful that nothing, not even light, can emerge from it. So, black-hole can't be seen. Black-hole formation indicates ultimate death of a star. The collapsing star core (due to finishing up of fuel hydrogen), imparts much energy to star exterior and explosion with very high luminosity takes place. After the explosion the highly dense residue of a comparatively smaller star. Mass less than equal to 1.4 of solar mass is called as Chandrashekhar.

» Pulsating Theory:It goes beyond Big-Bang theory. It says that receding nature of galaxy will not continue for ever, and gravity would ultimately stop expansion and thereafter galaxy will collapse inward and ultimately forming pre-mordial substance once again.

» Event Horizon: Rim of the black-hole from which nothing could escape. Across event-horizon matter and energy pass in only one direction. Event-horizon indicates beginning of black-holes.

 

 SOLAR-SYSTEM

» Sun: 4 billion years old. Expected to glow with light and energy to 4 billion year more, and thereafter, it is expected to become white dwarf. 90% of the substance of the sun is hydrogen, 8%helium and 2% other elements. -Nearest star to sun is Proxima Centauri (4,2 light years away). -Brightest star seen is Sirius or Dog-star (8.6 light years away). - Visible part of sun is known as photosphere. Temperature of photosphere is 6000°C. Core-temperature of Sun is over million of degree centigrade; sun's, lower atmosphere is called chromosphere (red). Sun's upper part of at-mosphere is called chroma, it is visible only during total solar eclipse.

 

» Sun-spots:Sun throws hot material towards photosphere and these results in sun-spots. These are transient dart marking on the visible surface of the sun caused by a relatively cooler area and are seen between 5° and 35° North or South of the equator of the Sun. Temperature of sun-spot is 20000 lower than the surrounding photosphere. Sun-spot indicates volatility of sun. Sun-spots maxima and minima occur periodically. Time interval between two successive sun-spots maxima or minima is

» Solar-Flares:Powerful eruptions or radiations around the sun or associated with the sun-spot. This occur in the chromosphere of the sun. Solar-flares emits intense short-wave radiation. That intersects with the ionosphere of the earth. This may result in temporary period and appearance of brilliant display of Aurora, at the higher latitudes of earth closer to Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circles. Aurora is seen in the ionosphere of the earth. Aurora, is seen more frequently during sun-spot maximum period.

 

» Solar-Prominence: It uses gaseous eruption of the sun that reach the corona of the sun and they are associated with the sun-spot. They can be seen only during total solar eclipse because of brightness of sun.

» Solar-wind:Ionised gas found in the form of persistent stream of charged particles blowing out of corona and sweeping over the whole solar system. It is made up of plasma, i.e., ionised gas, mostly hydrogen and helium containing an equal number of protons and electrons. Solar wind blows at steady speed of400 km/sec.

 

» Pioneer-10:It was the first man-made object to leave the solar system, followed by Voyager- 1 and 2 which detected the presence of solar wind at the Helio-pause, which is at the edge of the solar system.

 

» Quasars:It stands for Quasi, stellar radio-sources. They are non-steller body resembling star, emitting intense radiation. It is believed to be at the edge of universe, considered as the farthest luminous

object from earth.

» Red-shift:To observer on earth ultraviolet light from receding galaxies appear as visible light emitted by galaxy will be detected in the infra-red part of the spectrum. The change of colour is/ called red-shift, a manifestation of the Doppler Effect.

 

» Pulsar (Pulsating star):It is neutron-star (star with mass 1.4 to 5 solar mass, in dyeing stage), rotating on its axis at very high regularity emitting intense radiation at regular intervals. They are distinguished from other type of celestial radio sources, as their emission instead of being constant over time scale of years consists of peiodic sequences of brief pulses.

 

» Meteor:It is smaller pieces of matters travelling at high speed in space.

» Meteorid:If the meteor enters in earth's atmosphere, it is called meteorid.

 

» Meteorite:If the meteorid can survive atmospheric friction and falls on the ground, it is called meteorite.

 

» Meteor Shower:When earth's atmosphere encounters the remains/debris of comet or larger asteroids, the number of meteor that are observed each hour increases giving the appearance of rain of stars. The annual meteor shower reaches its peak on 12 August every year.

 

» Leonid Shower: It was a meteor shower witnessed from the earth in November, 1998, most prominently in the far-eastern region of the earth. This shower was due to disintegrated part of Temple-Shuttle, that entered into earth atmosphere.

PLANETSTerrestrial and Jovian PlanetsTerrestrial planet are smaller in size; rocky in structure; slow rotation on the axis and have lesser satellite. Inner terrestrial planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.Jovian planets are huge in size; spin very fast and have higher number of satellites. Outer or Jovian planets are: Jupiters, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.- Earth is the densest of all the planets; Saturn has the lowest density (less than water 0.5)- Mercury is closest to the sun.- Sequence of planets' distance from the sun: Mercury< Venus< Earth< Mars< Jupiter< Saturn< Uranus< Pluto traces elongated elliptical orbit.So, from 1980-1999, the distance of Neptune was more than Pluto.- Uranus and Venus rotates retrograde (i.e., from east to west), other planet rotates in the same way as earth (from west to east).- Venus is the only planet whose period of rotation (243 days) is longer than the period of revolution (225 days) around the sun.- Uranus is tilted at 90°, so it almost rolls around the sun. Mars tilted at 23° in the same way as the earth, so experi¬ences four seasons as earth.- Mercury is the hottest planet; Venus is the second hottest planet (600°C), atmosphere mainly made of C02 (90%).- Mars glows with reddish light because of high iron content; it has thin atmosphere (containing free oxygen at very low-level), also has frozen water at polar region. Due to these factors, Mars is considered as the first planet that will be colonised.- Jupiter's internal temperature of Jupiter is very high, close to starting nuclear fusion. Mainly hydrogen is present around the Jupiter.- Saturn is the second largest planet; it looks yellowish light (due to the presence of ammonia). Ring around Saturn is made up of dust particles, frozen ice, and frozen ammonia.

-Uranus grows with blue light.- Neptune grows with the greenish blue light due to presence of methane.- Pluto is the coldest, darkest, and the strongest planet. It is smaller in size and does not fall in giant planet category

 

» Satellite:- Mercury and Venus have no satellite.- Earth has one satellite: moon- Mars has two satellite: Deimos and Phobos.- Jupiter has 19 satellites, one of the satellite known is Europa, containing large number of deep oceans. It contains possibility of extra-terrestrial life.- Saturn has 21 satellites (10 discovered by Voyage 1&2)- Uranus has 17 satellite (12 discovered by Voyage 1&2)- Neptune has 11,-one of this is tital.- Pluto's satellite is Charon.

 

 

» Asteroids:Minor planets of the solar system, small rocky structure, revolving around sun mostly between Mars and Jupiter. These are considered as debris of large planets existing between Mars and Jupiter as is evident from the distance between them.Earth has long history of collision with: (i) comets, and (ii) asteroids.Sedimentary rocks of 65 million years ago have high iridium content which gives evidence of collision of celestial body.- Miss distance: a celestial body coming closer beyond 9,00,000 km, may not strike earth. This is called as miss distance.

 

» Comets:Member of the solar system, found revolving around the sun beyond the path of Pluto, generally, at outer edges of the solar system.Comets are made of pre-mordial substance from which solar system are made. Since, they are undisturbed due to far location, study of comets may give more information about evolution of earth or other planets. Comets are made up of frozen ammonia, dust par¬ticles and ice crystals and other chemicals.- Halley Comet: appears after a period of 76 years.

- Halle Bopp: one of the larg¬est comet with 40 km diameter.- Comet Swift Turtle: calculated to collide on 14 Aug.2126 A.D. in Australia- Comets making journey towards sun develop small head and long tail, due to heat only as it approaches Jupiter. Tail extending millions of kilometers in the outer space. Tail always point away from the sun. Solar wind is responsible for the formation of tails since solar winds goes away from the sun.

 

»Syzygy:It is the alignment of three celestial bodies along a straight line; Viewed from one of these bodies, the other two will either be in conjunction or in opposition. An inferior planet, whose orbit lies inside that of earth, can, in reference to the sun as seen from the earth, be either in inferior conjunction or in superior conjunction; unlike a superior planet, whose orbit lies outside the earth's, and unlike the moon, it can never be in opposition to the sun as seen from the earth

 

Earth-Looks bluish white, body due to the presence of ocean and ice-caps.- Earth's core is mainly made up of iron and nickle; mantle is mostly solid.Outer core due to its movement gives magnetic field of earth manifested in Van-alien Radiation bell. Van-Allen Radiation belts are two concentric circles. Inner belt is more energetic and situated at 3000 km above the equator. Outer concentric circle is less energetic and found at 16000 km above the earth. Van-Allen radiation belts are formed due to concentration of solar-winds.

 

Fastest Rotational Period (descending order) -Jupiter > Saturn > Neptune > Uranus > Earth > Mars > Pluto > Mercury > Venus

 

Density (Highest to Lowest) -Earth > Mercury > Venus > Mars > Neptune > Jupiter > Uranus > Saturn

 

Size (Biggest to Smallest) -Jupiter > Saturn > Uranus > Neptune > Earth > Venus > Mars > Mercury > Pluto

Minerals and RocksThe Crust:There are eight abundant ele-ments in the earths' crust:Oxygen 47%Silicon 28%Aluminium 8.1%Iron 6%Magnesium 4%Calcium 2.4%Potassium 2.3%Sodium 2.1%There are eight important elements in the whole earth :Iron 35%Oxygen 30%Silicon 15%Magnesium 13%Nickel 2.4%Sulphur 1.9%Calcium 1.1%Aluminium 1.1%

ROCK TYPESRocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crystals. They are classified into three major types according to origin: (1) igneous, (2) sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic.

 

(I) Igneous rocks are those that solidify from a melt (called magma, a molten mixture of rock-forming minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam). Since their constituent minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at high temperatures.

Basic Characteristics: 1.These are solidified from a molten magma and water cannot percolate through them. 2.They usually do not occur in distinct beds or strata like sedimentary rocks. 3.Igneous rocks are generally not fossiliferous. 4.Igneous rocks are generally granular and crystalline. 5.It is less affected by chemical weathering as the water does not percolate in them easily.6.These rocks are generally weathered by mechanical weathering.

Most of the igneous rocks consist of silicate minerals: (a) Acidic when 65 to 85 per cent: acid igneous lack in iron.

and magnesium; quartz and feldspar are common minerals and granite is the common rock.(b) basic igneous rocks with 45 to 60 per cent silica content are dominated by ferromag-nesium minerals and have very low amount of feldspar and basalt, gabbro, dolerite are the examples.(c) Intermediate igneous rocks have 45 per cent silica and examples are diorite and andesite.(d) Ultra-basic igneous rocks have less than 45 per cent silica and example is Peridotite. The great majority of the igneous rocks are composed of silicate minerals and oxygen.

 

>The major mineralogical components of igneous rocks can be divided into two groups: felsic (from feldspar and silica) and mafic (from magnesium and ferrous iron).>The felsic minerals include quartz, tridymite, cristo-balite, feldspars (plagioclase and alkali feldspar), feldsp-athoids(nephelihe and leucite), muscovite, and corundum. y Because felsic minerals lack iron and magnesium, they are generally light in colour and consequently are referred to as leucocratic.> The mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxenes, amph-iboles, and biotites, all of which are dark in colour.> Supersaturated minerals include quartz and its polymorphs and a low-calcium orthorhombic pyroxene (called hyper-sthene).> Extrusive igneous rocks are: Rhyolite (felsic minerals, typically quartz, feldspars, and mica); Andesite (felsic minerals without quartz, usually including plagioclase feldspar and amphibole); Basalt (mafic minerals, typically plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene and olivine).> Intrusive igneous rocks are: Granite, Diorite, Gabbro and Peridotite.>Igneous rocks has two parts: Intrusive and Extrusive.

 

Intrusive has seven parts: l.Plutonic: deep-seated origin; rocks have coarse grain size; diorite, gabbro, granite, peridotite and syenite are examples. The largest partially exposed pluton is a batholith.

2.Hypabyssal: originates due to cooling and solidification of rising magma.3.Batholith: large body of igneous rock formed beneath the Earth's surface by the intrusion and solidification of magma.A well-known batho¬lith is located in the Sierra Nevada range of California, U.S.; Murha pahar at Ranchi is another example.

4.Laccolith: in geology, any of a type of igneous intrusion that has split apart two strata, resulting in a domelike structure; the floor of the structure is usually horizontal. A laccolith is often smaller than a stock. A well-known example of a laccolith is found in the Henry Mountains, Utah.

5. Sill : also called sheet-tabular igneous intrusion emplaced parallel to the bedding of the enclosing rock. Although they may have vertical to horizontal orientations, nearly horizontal sills are the most common.

6.Stocks: with outcrop and mainly composed of granite.

7.Dykes: sheet-like body which rises upward from a magma chamber and cuts discordantly through the bedding plane of the country rock. Dyke of Zimbabwe is the largest example.

 

 

Extrusive is of two types : Explosive type and Quiet Type: Bombs are big fragments; lapilli peas size; tuffs are volcanic materials; breccia or agglomerates mixture of smaller and larger parts.

> Igneous Rocks are divided into six types on the basis of textual charcteristics:(1) Pegmatitic igneous rocks (very coarse-grained like pegmititic granites, pegmatitic diorite, pegmatitic synite)(2) Phaneritic igneous rocks (coarse-grained like granites, diorites)(3)Aphanitic igneous rocks(fine-grained rocks like basalt, felsite, rocks of sills and dykes)

(4)Glassy igneous rocks (grainless like pitch stones, obsidians, pumice, perlite)(5)Porphyritic igneous rocks (mixed-grained).(6)FragmentaI igneous rocks (consisting of bombs, breccia, volcanic dusts, tuffs).

 

 

GRANITE:>Coarse- or medium-grained intrusive igneous rock that is rich in quartz and feldspar; it is the most common plutonic rock of the Earth's crust, forming by the cooling of magma (silicate melt) at depth.

>Granite may occur in dikes or sills.>Rocks containing less than 20 percent quartz are almost never named granite, and rocks containing more than 20 percent (by volume) of dark, or ferromagnesian, minerals are also seldom called granite.

>The minor essential minerals of granite may include muscovite, biotite, amphi-bole, or pyroxene.> Mineral composition of granite: Feldspar(52.3%); Quartz(31.3%); Mica (11.5%); Hornblende (2.4 %); Iron (2.0%) and others (0.55%)

>Granites are generally resistant to erosion but when the rocks are well jointed, they are easily weathered and very peculiar landform is generated, called tors

BASALTS:> Extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock that is low in silica content, dark in colour, and comparatively rich in iron and magnesium.> Some basajis are quite glassy (tachylytes), and many are very fine-grained and compact; it is more usual, however, for them to exhibit porphyritic structure, with larger crystals (phenocrysts) of olivine, augite, or feldspar in a finely crystalline matrix (ground-mass). > Olivine and augite are the most common porphyritic minerals in basalts; porphyritic plagioclase feldspars are also found. Basaltic lavas are frequently spongy or pumiceous; the steam cavities become filled with secondary minerals such as calcite, chlorite, and zeolites.> Basalts may be broadly classified on a chemical and petrographic basis into two main groups: the calc-alkali and the alkali basalts;> Normal alkali basalt contains olivine and, comm¬only, adiopsidicortitaniferous augite.> Feldslpar is most dominant (46.2%); Augite (36.9%); Olivine (7.6 per cent); Mineral Iron (9.5 per cent).

(2) Sedimentary rocks:Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of pre-existing rocks and the subsequent transportation and deposition of the weathering

Important characteristics: 1. It contains strata or layers.

 

2.The layers are rarely horizontal and generally tilted due to lateral compressive and tensile forces. 

 

3.It is formed of sediments derived from the older rocks, plants and animals remains.

 

4. It covers the 75 per cent of the surface area of the globe.

 

5.Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and porous.

6.1t is characterised by different sizes of joints. These are generally perpendicular to the bedding plains.

 

7.The riverine sedimentary rocks develop cracks when exposed to the sun. These cracks are generally of polygonal shape.

8. The most favourable sites of their formation is shallow sea floor hording continents.

 

9.The connecting plane bet¬ween two consecutive beds or layers of sedimentary rocks is called 'bedding plane'. The uniformity of two beds along a bedding plane is called conformity (i.e when beds are similar in all respect).

When two consecutive beds are not uniform or conformal, the structure is called unconformity. In fact, 'an unconformity is a break in a stratigraphic sequence resu¬lting from a change in conditions that caused deposition to cease for a considerable time'. There are several types of unconformity e-g(i) non-conformity ( where sedimentary rocks succeed igneous or metamorphic rocks),(ii) angular unconformity (where horizontal sedimentary beds are deposited over previously folded or tilted strata),(iii) disconformity ( where two conformable beds are seperated by mere changes of sediment type),(iv) paraconformity ( where two sets of conformable beds are separted by same types of sediments) etc.

10. Sedimentation units in the sedimentary rocks having a thickness of greater than 1cm are called beds. The upper and lower surfaces of a bed are called bedding planes or bounding planes. Sometimes the lower surface of a bed is called sole while the upper surface is called upper bedding surface.There are further sedimentary units within a bed. The units having a thickness of more than 1 cm are called as layers or strata whereas the units below 1 cm thickness are known as laminae. The several strata and laminae makeup a bed. When the beds are deposited at an angle to the depositional surface, they are called cross-beds and the general phenomena of inclined layers are called cross-lamination or cross-bedding.

11.Soft muds and alluviam deposited by the rivers during flood period develop cracks when baked in the sun. These cracks are generally of polygonal shapes. Such cracks are called mud cracks or sun cracks.

12.Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and porous but a few of them are also non-porous and impermeable. The porosity of the rocks depends upon the ratio between the voids and the volume of a given rock mass. l,Clastic(Composed of rock and mineral fragments)

 

Rock Type - Sandstone (Cemented sand grains, Conglomerate (Sand-stone with pebbles of hard rock), Mudstone(Silt and clay with some sand), Clay-stone( Clay ), Shale (Clay, broken into flat flakes and plates, with thin laminite;rich in organic material; found in lagoons, shallow seas and tidal flats), Siltstones (Fine grained clastic rock; carried by rivers). 2.Chemically Precipitated (From sea water or salty inla¬nd lakes)Rock Type - Limestone (Calcium Carbonate; formed by sea or lake), Dolomite (Magnesium and calcium carbonate ),Chert(Silica, a non-crystalline form of quartz), Evaporites (Minerals formed by evaporation of salty solutions in shallow inland lakes or coastal lagoons). 3.Organic (Formation due to organic material). Rock Type - Coal (It is formed from peat), Petroleum (It is a mineral fuel; found in liquid hydrocarbon), Natural Gas( It is a mineral fuel; a gaseous hydrocarbon).

There are three major categories in which sedimentary rocks are recognized: (l)terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks, (2)carbonates (lime-stone and dolomite), and (3)non-carbonate chemical sedimentary rocks. Terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of the detrital fragments of preexisting rocks and minerals and are conventionally considered to be equivalent to clastic sedimentary rocks in general. Because most of the clasts are rich in

silica, they are also referred to as siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. Silicic-lastics are further subdivided on the basis of clast diameter into conglomerate and breccia, sandstone, siltstone, and finer-than-silt-sized mudrock (shale, claystone, and mudstone). The carbonates, limestones arid dolomites, consist of the minerals aragonite, calcite, and dolomite.

 

Limestones and dolostones (dolomites) make up the bulk of the nonterrigenous sedimentary rocks. Limestones are for the most part primary carbonate rocks. They consist of 50 percent or more calcite and aragonite. Dolomites are mainly produced by the secondary alteration or replacement of limestones; i.e., the mineral dolomite replaces the calcite and aragonite minerals in limestones during diagenesis.

 

Sandstones are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. There are three basic components of sandstones:(1) Detrital grains, mainly transported, sand-size minerals such as quartz and feldspar,(2) A detrital matrix of clay or mud, which is absent in "clean" sandstones, and

(3) a cement that is chemically precipitated in crystalline form from solution and that serves to fill up original pore spaces.> The colour of a sandstone depends on its detrital grains and bonding material. Mudrocks : It includes all siliciclastic sedimentary rocks composed of silt and clay-size particles: siltstone (1/16 millimetre to 1/256 millimetre diameters), claystone (less than 1/256 millimetre), and mudstone (a mix of silt and clay).> Shale refers specifically to mudrocks that regularly exhibit lamination or fissility or both. Mudrocks are also loosely referred to as both lutites and pelites and as argillaceous sedimentary rocks.

> Coal: Coals are the most abundant organic-rich sedimentary rock.> With increasing compaction and carbon content, peat can be transformed into the various kinds of coal: initially brown coal or lignite, then soft or bituminous coal, and finally, with metamorphism, hard or anthracite coal. In the geologic record, coal occurs in beds, called seams, which are blanketlike coal deposits a few centimetres to metres or hundreds of metres thick.> Many coal seams occur within cyclothems, rhythmic successions of sandstone, mudrock, and limestone in which nonmarine units are

regularly and systematically overlain by an underclay, the coal seam itself, and then various marine lithologies.

 

> Oil and natural gas: Major natural gas varieties, include methane, ethane, propane, and butane.> These natural gases are commonly, though not invariably, intimately assoc¬iated with the various liquid hydrocarbons-mainly liquid paraffins, napthenes, and aromatics that collectively constitute oil.

(3) Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in pre-existing rocks under the influence of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes can be chemical (compositional) and physical (textural) in character.

 

Features of Metamorphic:1. The change is due to change in texture and mineral composition of the pre-existing rocks.

2. After metamorphism, some rocks become more harder than its original structure : marble is harder than limestone, quartzite from sandstone, and diamond from carbon.

3. They do not have fossils

4. The coarse-grained metamorphic rocks are imperfectly foliated , e.g, gneises from granites while fine-grained metamorphic rocks are perfectly foliated, for example schist from shales.

5. It may split along the bedding planes, for example mica-schist.

6. Some of them are impervious (marble and slate) and some of them are previous for example gneiss.

7. Most of it comprises bands of granular quartz and felspar.

 

Rock Type Description

1. Slate: Shale exposed to heat and pressure that splits into hard flat plates.2. Schist: Shale exposed to intense heat and pressure that shows the

evidence of shearing3. Quartzite: Sandstone that is welded by a silica cement into a very hard rock of solid quartz.4. Marble: Limestone exposed to heat and pressure, resulting in larger more uniform crystals.5. Gnesis: Rock resulting from the exposure of clastic sedimentary or intrusive igneous rocks to heat and pressure.

Chemical Composition :Despite the wide variety of igneous and sedimentary rock types that can recrystallize into metamorphic rocks, most metamorphic rocks can be described with reference to only four chemical systems: pelitic, calcareous, felsic, and mafic.(1) Pelitic rocks are derived from mudstone (shale) protoliths and are rich in potassium (K), aluminum (Al),silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and water (H20), with lesser amounts of manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), calcium. (Ca), and other constituents.(2) Calcareous rocks are formed from a variety of chemical and detrital sedi¬ments such as limestone, dolostone etc. and are largely composed of calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), and carbon dioxide (C02), with varying amounts of aluminum, silicon, iron, and water.(3) Felsic rocks can be produced by metamorphism of both igneous and sedimentary protoliths (e.g.,granite and arkose, respectively) and are rich in silicon, sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminum, and lesser amounts of iron and magnesium.(4) Mafic rocks derive from basalt protoliths and some volcanogenic sediments and contain an abundance of iron, magnesium, calcium, silicon, and aluminum.

 

Rock composition: Thermodynamics of metamorphic assemblages1. The number of mineral phases that can coexist stably in a metamorphic rock at a particular set of pressure-temperature conditions is given by the Gibbs phase rule.2. A typical pelitic rock made up of the six chemical components silica, aluminum oxide, ferrous oxide, magnesium oxide, potash, and water would contain no more than six minerals; the identity of those minerals would be controlled by the pressure and temperature at which recrystallization occurred.3. The process of chemical mixing is referred to as metasomatism.

 

Distribution metamorphic rocks: The central and often dominant feature of most continents is their vast Precambrian-shield area; examples include the Canadian Shield, Brazilian Shield, African Shield, and Australian Shield. They consist of vast areas of granitic or granodioritic gneisses. Inside them, between them, and overlapping onto them are belts of sedimentary rocks. These rocks are frequently metamorphosed in the greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite facies. The Caledonian orogeny (at the close of the Silurian Period) produced tectonic metamorphic events along the east coast of North America! Greenland, the British Isles, Fennoscandia, Central Asia, and Australia. The Hercynian, or Variscan, orogeny followed about 300 million years ago, affecting subparallel regions and the Urals and European Alps. The rock cycle: It reflects the basic relationships among igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

Erosion includes weathering (the physical and chemical breakdown of minerals) and transportation to a site of deposition. Diagenesis is the process of forming sedimentary rock by compaction and natural cementation of grains, or crystallization from water or solutions, or recrystallization. The conversion of sediment to rock is termed lithification.

Earth's InteriorSources for the study of Earth's Interior:-1. Artificial Sources -(a) Density(b) Pressure(c) Temperature(d) Meteorites

(a) Average Density of Earth : 5.52 g/cm .Average Density of Earth's crust:2.6 to 3.3 g/cm This indicates higher density below the crust and because the acceleration due to gravity is quite uniform everywhere therefore mass is distributed uniformly in the form of concentric layers.(b) Pressure in itself is not responsible for the increase in density, rather the core is composed of intrinsically heavy metallic materials of high density.(c) Temperature increases at the rate of 2° to 3°C on every 100 mtemperature100 km 1100°C400-700km ISOO-to WC2900 km 3700"C5100 km 4300"C (d) Meteorites (hitting earth) allow us to determine the density, mineralogy and chemistry of the nickel iron core of bodies having a similar composition to that of the earth.2. Theories related to the origin of earth -Planetesimal, Tidal and Nebular Hypothesis

3. Natural sources(a) Vulcanicity(b) Evidences from SeismologySeismology - Study of seismic waves generated during earthquakes.

 

Seismic waves are of three types:-1. Primary (Longitudinal or Compressional or 'P') waves-to and fro motion of particles in line of the propagation of the ray. These waves can pass through both the solid and the liquid medium2. Secondary (transverse or distortional or S) waves-particles move at right angles to the rays. These waves cannot pass through the liquid. 3. Surface (Long-Period or 'L') waves.

-Affect only the surface of the earth and covers the longest distance of all seismic waves.It has lower speed than P and S waves but is of most violent and destructive nature. These waves get reflected and refracted while passing through a body having hetero¬geneous composition and varying density zones at the discontinuities. Many such discontinuities are expressed as follows -1.Gutenberg discontinuity -Between outer liquid core and the solid mantle2. Mohorovicic discontinuity-Between crust and mantle.3. Conrad discontinuity- Between oceanic (Basaltic or SIMA layer) and continental (Granites or SIAL layer) Crust- Up to 30-40 km beneath the continents (greater depth in mountainous regions).- 10 km deep beneath the oceans

 

MANTLE - Below the crust and up to 2900 km. It is a solid layer.CORE - Outer core is liquid in state where as inner core is solid.Chemically the earth can be divided into following layers:

1. SIAL-Just below outer sedimentary cover.> Composed mainly of granites

>Density - 2.9>50 to 300km thick.

>Rich in silica and aluminium

>It forms the continental layer.> Acidic in natureSilicates mainly present are those of sodium, potassium and aluminum.

 

2. SIMA.> Below SIAL> Composed mainly of basalt> Source of magma and lava> Rich in silica and magne¬sium> Density-2.9 to 4.7> Thickness - 1000 to 2000 km> Basic in nature> Silicate mainly present are those of magnesium, calcium and Iron.

3. NIFE -> Below SIMA> Rich in nickel and iron> Very high density> Diameter of this layer - 6880 km> Indicates magnetic property of the earth's interior Mechanically the earth can be divided into following layers

 

1. LITHOSPHERE ->The crust and the uppermantle (40 to 80 km) move asa unit known as Lithosphere> Divided into several large fragments called plates.> Moves over Asthenosphere

2. ASTHENOSPHERE> Beneath Lithosphere and up to 300km of depth>Low velocity zone (that is slow speed of seismic ways in this zone).>Plastic or less viscous (softer, more pliable).

3. MESOPHERE -> Below Asthenosphere> Whole mantle apart from the portion lying in Asthenosphere and Lithosphere.

4. BARYSPHERE> It comprises core.> Outer layer is liquid in state where as the inner core is solid.

 

STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY:1. Tectonics is concerned with the form, pattern and evolution of the globe's major features such as mountain ranges, pla¬teaus, fold belts and island arcs.2. Structural Geology: It concerns smaller structures such as anticlines, faults and joints.3. Tectogenesis: It means the study of deformation.

4.Tectostasy and Tectodynamic: J Tricart divided tectonics into two categories: tectostatic and tectodynamic types. Tectostasy refers to the actual disposition of existing strata and tectodynamism refers to the deformations that the rocks underwent at the given time period.

Uniclinal or Homoclinal Structure: It represents inclined rock strata at uniform dip angle caused by general regional tilt.They are subjected to differential erosion wherein resistant rocks are less eroded than soft rocks.The differential erosion of dipping strata of varying resistance gives birth to trellis drainage pattern and a few typical topographic features such as scrap and vale topography, cuesta and hogback ridges, etc.

Cuesta: also called Homoclinal Ridge, physical feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on one side and a gentle dip or back slope on the other.This landform occurs in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the differential weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and the soft underlying cliff maker, which erodes more rapidly. Cuestas with dip slopes of 40°-45° are usually called hogback ridges. Cuesta escarpments tend to be cut into rough, hilly country with numerous ravines and steep valleys, because the short streams flowing down the steep scarp face rapid erosion. The back slopes commonly are smooth.Cuestas are common in the United States, notably in Ari¬zona and New Mexico and along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

Buttes : The progressive dissection of twin cuestas results in the formation of isolated flat-topped.

Hogback: The escarpments or ridges having symetrical slopes on both sides are called hogback ridges.

Strike vales: Rivers form their valleys along soft rock beds due to comparatively more erosion than the resistant rock beds giving birth to the formation of strike vales.

Plate tectonics

> Plates: Broad rigid segments of lithosphere that floats on the underlying Asthenosphere.> Thickness: 100- 150 km Tectonic activity -Breaking and bending of lithosphere and boundary interactions between plates.Plate tectonics -Scientific achievement of the decades of 1960s.> Based upon 2 concepts -Continental drift and Sea floor spreading.> Term 'PLATE' -1st used by Canadian Geophysicist J.T. Wilson (1965).> W.J. Morgan and Le Pichon elaborated the concept of plate tectonics in 1968.> The concept is based upon the theories of continental drift, paleomagnetism and sea-floor spreading.

 

 

Continental Drift:This theory was propounded by Wegner who was trying to explain the past climatic changes in different regions. His theory depended upon the evidences like the juxtafixation of the opposite coast of Atlantic, presence of coalfields in temperate regions when they could only be formed in the tropical regions, evidences left by the glacial flow of the past, evidences of fossil fuels and similarity in the lithology of the rock structure on the opposite coast of the Atlantic. According to Wegner, the continents after breaking away from the Pangea(the unified landmass) moved along two directions - (l)equatorward movement (2)westward movement. The equatorward movement of continental blocks was caused by gravitational differential force and force of buoyancy. The westward movement of the continents was caused by the tidal force of the sun and the moon.

According to Wegner the Pangea, that is, the complete landmass as it was before any disruption, began to sepa¬rate into Gondwanaland and Angaraland in the Carboniferous period. The intervening space between these two giant continental blocks was filled up with water and the resultant water body was called Tethys Sea, Gondwanaland was disrupted during Cretaceous period and Indian Peninsula, Madagascar, Australia and Antarctica broke away from the Gondwana-landand drifted apart under the impact of tidal force of the sun and the moon. Similarly N. America broke away from Angaraland and drifted westward due to tidal force. Similarly, South America broke away from Africa and moved westward under the impact of the tidal force.

Wegner was later criticized for his illogical consideration of the nature of forces behind the continental drift. Later on the findings associated with sea-floor spreading and paleomagnetism clearified the real forces behind the movement of continents.

 

Hess's seafloor-spreadine model:In this paper Hess, drawing on Holmes's model of convective flow in the mantle, suggested that the mid-ocean ridges were the surface expressions of rising and diverging convective flow while trenches and Benioff zones with their associated island arcs marked descending limbs. At the ridge crests new oceanic crust would be generated and then carried away laterally to cool, subside, and finally be destroyed in the nearest trenches.

 

Supported and developed by Robert S. Dietz, J. Tuzo Wilson and Lynn R. Sykes, an American seismologist, showed that the motions deduced from earthquakes on transform faults conform to the directions of motion postulated by Wilson and are opposite those observed on a transform fault.

A magnetic survey of the eastern Pacific floor off the coast of Oregon and California had been published in 1961 by two geophysicists, Arthur D. Raff and Ronald G. Mason.

 

Paleomagnetism It refers to the preservation of magnetic properties in the older rocks of the earth. It gets magnetized depending on the presence of iron content in the rock and is preserved (frozen at temperature below Curie point, which is generally 600 degree C.

► The direction and inclina¬tion of .the magnetic field of rocks of different ages have been measured from rock samples collected from all. over the world, and this information can be used to as certain the location of the Earth's magnetic pole at the time when those rocks were formed. The direction of the magnetic field of a given rock sample indicates the direction in which the magnetic pole of the Earth lay when the rock formed, while the inclination of the magnetic field of the rock indicates how far away from the collection site the magnetic pole was located. For example, if the inclination of the magnetic field is nearly horizontal, the magnetic pole of the Earth must have been 90 great circle degrees away from the collection site because the site was

near the magnetic equator. On the other hand, if the inclination of the magnetic field of a rock is vertical, the collection site would have been located at or near the Earth's magnetic pole at the time of rock formation. It is assumed that if enough rock samples of a given age are averaged together, the average position of the magnetic pole will be the same as the average position of the Earth's rotational pole. Thus, paleomagnetic poles provide the location of the planet's rotational pole.

► The geocentric axial di-pole magnetic field represents 95 per cent of earth's total magnetism. Global system of Lithosphere plates: Depending upon the intensity of boundary activity plates are di¬vided into greater plates, lesser plates and sub-plates. Greater plates -Pacific, American (N and S), European (having Persian sub-plate), African (having Somalia sub-plate), Australian-Indian and Antarctic plates. Lesser plates -Nazca, Cocos, Philippines, Caribbean, Arabian, Juan de Fucca, Caroline, Bismark, Scotia plates. Movement of Plates -Constantly in motion with respect to each other and to Earth's axis of rotation. Plate velocity varies all along the sphere of the Earth.

Plate Tectonics

 Because all the plates move with different velocities in different directions and manner, therefore they are in dynamic action with respect to each other as well as along the Plate Boundaries. There are three Types of Plate boundaries:-

 

1.Constructive Margin or Divergent Plate Boundary.-Zones of tension, where the lithosphere splits and moves apart.-Hot magma comes up through cracks and forms new crusts; therefore it is constructive in nature.-Thus rifting of continents and formation of ocean basins take place.-This involves a series of stages:-

(i) Intracontinental Rifting - Rift is formed due to tension and magma rises into it.

(ii)Interplate thinning - Hot magma rises and melts the lithosphere thereby de opening the rift. If rift deepens sufficiently, sea water may enter (e.g. Red Sea).

(iii)Ocean ridge formation- Finally magma wells into the rift at an increasing rate and the land-mass is gradually separated into two parts forming a ridge (e.g. Mid -Atlantic Ridge and the Carlsberg ridge in the

Indian Ocean).-Characterized by volcanic activity with fissure eruptions; formation of new crust, submarine mountains, ridges and rises and occurrence of shallow foci earthquakes.

 

2.Destructive margin or Convergent Plate BoundaryWhen the plates collide, the leading edge of one (the plate having higher density) is bent downward, allowing it to descend beneath the other. Upon entering the hot asthenosphere, the plunging plate is heated, melted and is completely assimilated in the upper mantle. Since one of the plates is destroyed here, this boundary is known as convergent destructive margin, 0cean -There may be different Collision Rising: types of collisions depending upon whether the crust of the plate is continental or oceanic:-(i)Oeean -ocean collision(e.g. collision of Pacific and European beneath the N.American plate).

-Characterized by mountain building, rock deformation, metamorphism, earthquakes and volcanic activity.

-Slabs of oceanic crust along with sediments are scraped off by the over-riding continental material and are incorporated in a mass of complex mixture of rocks called a melange. Within the melange, distinctive assemblage of deep-sea sediments, submarine lavas, peri-dotite and gabbro all together formanophiolite suite.(iii)Continent -continent collision-When two plates carrying continental crust collides (e.g. Indo-Tibetan collision) Characterised by mountain building, ophiolite suite, earthquakes and remnants of past volcanic activity.

-Two continental plates approach each other and their oceanic crusts get subducted one below the other .After oceanic crust of one is completely consumed; the oceanic crust of the other is con¬sumed into the mantle. Now, continental crusts of each collide. These are low density crusts and therefore do not subduct, rather because of the convergence and simultaneous buoyancy effect upliftment is generated. (E.g. Tibetan Plateau)

-Zone where the two continental crusts are plastered is known as the SUTURE Zone (e.g. Indus - Tsangpo suture zone).

 

3.Conservative Margin (Parallel or Transform fault Boundary)-At conservative margin the plates slide past each other without the formation of new crust. It is generally formed at diverging boundaries (e.g. MOR) where different parts of plates move with different velocity resulting in formation of faults known as Transform fault(e.g. San Andreas fault).

EARTH'S MOVEMENT: Endogenetic forces:The forces coming from within the earth are called as endogenetic forces which cause two types of movements in the earth, viz, (i) Horizontal movements, and (ii) Vertical movements. These movements motored by the endogenetic forces introduce various types of vertical irregularities which give birth to numerous varieties of relief features on the earth's surface, eg., mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, faults, folds, etc. On an average, the origin of endogenetic forces is related to thermal conditions of the interior of earth. Generally, the endogenetic forces and related horizontal and vertical movements are caused due to contraction and expansion of rocks' because of varying thermal conditions and temperature changes inside the earth. The endogenetic forces and movements are divided, on the basis of intensity, into two major categories:

(i) Sudden forces(ii) Diastrophic forces

Sudden forces are the result of long period preparation deep within the earth. Only their cumulative effects on the earth's surface are quick and sudden. Geologically, these sudden forces are termed as 'constructive forces' because these create certain relief features on the earth's surface.

Diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal movements which are caused due to forces deep within the earth. These diastrophic forces operate very slowly and their effects become discernable after thousands and millions of years. These forces also termed as constructive forces, affect larger areas of the globe and Produce meso-level reliefs, for example, mountains, plateau, plains, lakes, big faults, etc. These diastrophic forces are further subdivided into two groups, namely, epeirogenetic movements and orogenetic movements.

 

(A)Epeirogenetic movements: Epeirogenetic word consists of two words, viz: 'epiros' (meaning thereby con-tinent) and 'genesis' (meaning thereby original). Epeirogenetic movement causes upliftment

and subsidence of continental masses through upward movements are, infact, vertical movements. These forces and resultant movements affect larger parts of the continents. These are further divided into two types: upward movement and downward movement.

 

(B) Orogenetic movement: The word orogenetic has been derived from two Greek words, 'pros' (meaning thereby mountain) and 'genesis' (meaning thereby origin or formation). Orogenetic movement is caused due to endogenetic forces working in horizontal movements. Horizontal forces and movements are also called as tangential forces. Orogenetic or horizontal forces work in two ways, namely, (i) in opposite direction, and (ii) towards each other. This is called 'tensional force' when it operates in opposite directions. Such type of force and movement are also called as divergent forces. Thus, tensional forces create rupture, cracks, fracture and faults in the crustal parts of the earth. The-force when operates face to face, is called compression force or convergent force. Compressional force causes crustal bending leading to the formation of fields or crustal warping leading to local rise or subsidence of crustal parts. Crustal bending: When horizontal forces work face to face, the crustal rocks are bent due to resistant compressional and tangential forces. It is in two ways: (i) warping, and (ii) folding. The process of crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust wherein the crustal parts are either warped (raise),upward or downward. The upward rise of the crustal part due to compressive force resulting from convergent horizontal movement is called upwarping. While the bending of the crustal part downward in the form of a basin or depression is called down warping.

 

 Folds:Folds are wave-like bends formed due to tangential compressive forces resulting from horizontal movement caused by the endogenetic force originating deep within the earth. The two sides of a fold are called limbs of the fold. The limb which is shared companion syncline is called middle limb. The plane which Dissects the angle between the two limbs or middle limb of the syncline is called the axis of fold or axial plane. On the basis of anticline and syncline, these axial planes are called as axis of anticline and axis of syncline respectively. The inclination of rock beds with respect to horizontal plane is termed as 'dip', the angle of dip is measured with an instrument called clinometers. The strike of an inclined bed is the direction of any horizontal line along a bedding plane. The direction of dip is always at right angle to the strike.

Anticlines: The unfolded rock beds are called anticlines. Synclines: Downfold rock beds due to compressive forces caused by horizontal tangential forces are called synclines. Anticlinorium: It refers to those folded structures in the regions of folded mountains where there are a series of minor anticlines and synclines within one extensive anticline.

Synclinorium: It represents such a folded structure which includes an extensive syncline having numerous minor anticlines and synclines.

Monoclinal folds: These are those in which one limb inclines moderately with regular slope while the other limb inclines steeply at right angle and the slope is almost vertical.

Isoclinal folds: When the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the fold become parallel but not horizontal.

Recumbent folds: These are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the fold become parallel as well as horizontal.

Overturned folds: These are those folds in which one limb of the fold is thrust upon another fold due to intense compressive forces. Limbs are seldom horizontal.

Plunge folds: These are found when the axis of the fold, instead of being parallel to the horizontal plane, becomes tilted and forms plunge angle which is the angle between the axis and the horizontal plane.

Fan folds: These with anticlinorium or obtuse angle.

Open folds: These are those in which' the angle between the two limbs of the fold is more than 90 degree but less than 180 degree

Closed folds: These are those folds in which the angle between the two limbs of a fold is acute angle. Such folds are formed because of intense compressive force.

Earth's Interior 

NAPPES:► Nappes are the result of complex folding mechanism caused by intense Horizontal movement and resultant compressive force.► Both the limbs of a recumbent fold are parallel and horizontal.► Due to further increase in the continued compressive force, one limb of the recumbent fold slides forward and overrides the other fold. This

process is called 'thrust' and the plane along which one part of the fold is thrust is called 'thrust plane'.► The upthrust part of the fold is called overthrust fold. Due to continuous compressive and horizontal movement, the bro¬ken limb of the fold is thrown several kilometers away from the original place. Such broken limb of the fold is called 'nappe'.

 

CRUSTAL Fracture► Crustal fracture refers to displacement of rocks along a plane due to tensional and compressional forces acting either horizontally or vertically or sometimes even in both ways. Crustal fracture depends on the strength of rocks and intensity of tensional forces. Generally, fractures are divided into: (i) joints and, (ii) faults.► A joint is defined as a fracture in the crustal rocks where¬in no appreciable movement of rock takes place, whereas a fracture becomes fault when there is appreciable displace¬ment of the rocks on both sides of a fracture and parallel to fault - a fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks due to tensional movement caused by the endogenetic forces. Different components of a fault:Fault Dip: It is the angle between the fault plane and hori¬zontal plane.Up thrown side: It represents the uppermost block of a fault. Downthrown side: It represents the lowermost block of a fault.Hanging wall: It is the upper wall of a fault.Foot wall: It represents the lower wall of a fault. Fault scarp: It is the steep wall-like slope caused by faulting of the crustal rocks. Normal faults: These are formed due to the displacement of both the walls in op¬posite directions due to frac-ture. Consequently, there is great stress. The fault plane is usually between 45o and the vertical.Reverse faults: These are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock blocks towards each other. The fault plane in a reverse fault is usually inclined at an angle between 40° and the horizontal. Step faults: When a series of faults occur in any area in such a way that the slopes of all the fault planes of all the faults are in reverse direction, the resultant faults are called as step faults.

RIFT VALLEY:Rift valley is a major relief fea¬ture resulting from faulting activities. Rift valley represents a trough, depression or basis between two crustal parts. Rift valleys are actually formed due to displacement of crustal parts and subsidence of middle portion between two normal faults. Rift valleys are generally also called as 'graben' which is a German word which means a trough-like depression. A rift valley may be formed in two ways, viz:

(i) When the middle portion of the crust between two normal faults is dropped downward while the two blocks on the either side of the down dropped block remain stable.(ii) When the middle portion between two normal faults remains, stable and the two side blocks on either side of the middle portion are raised upward.Rhine rift valley is the best example of a well-defined rift valley .Death valley in the southern California (USA) The floor of the Jordan rift valley and Death sea. The Narmada valley, the Damodar valley and some stretches of the Son valley, the Tapti valley. The central plain of Scotland, Spencer Bay of Australia, etc. are examples of rift valleys.

VolcanicityCovers all processes in which molten rock material or magma rises into the crust or is poured out on its surface and solidifies. Three main processes:-1. Generation of Magma2. Intrusion of masses of magma3. Extrusion of molten material on to the surface. Magma - A molten silicate material which is a combination of liquid, solid and gas. Its generation is a result of complex interaction of increase in temperature, decrease in pressure and addition of water (water increase the melting point of most silicates).The volcanic material is known as MAGMA below the surface and separates into lava, gases, vapor, ashes and fragmented material as it emerges on the surface. Generally, the molten materials are called magma below and lavas above the surface.Fragmental or Pyroclastic materials are thrown during explosive types of eruption. On the basis of size pyroclastic materials can be represented as:-Volcanic Dust < Volcanic Ash< Lapillis < Volcanic BombsConstituent of Magma-Two most important constitu¬ents: Silica (Si) and water - Other elements - Na, Si, K, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, and gases. Steam and Vapour - 69-90% of the total gases.Steam and Vapour comprises phreatic and the magmatic vapor. Phreatic vapor comes from the water in the Phreatic Zone.Magmatic vapor comprises carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide etc. Other Compound - Sulphurated Hydrogen, Hydrochloric acid, Volatile chlorides of Iron, Potassium and other metallic matter.

 

Types of Volcanoes:They are classified on the basis of:

(i) Mode of eruption(ii) Period of eruption and the nature of their activities.

♦ On the basis of the mode of eruption, Volcanoes can be sub-classified as:(i) Central Eruption type of Explosive Eruption Type (through a central pipe or small opening accompanied with violent and explosive gases).(ii) Fissure Eruption type or Quiet Eruption type (e.g. mid oceanic ridges). This type can further be divided into following types:--Lava flood or Lava flow (highly fluid lava) -Mud Flow-Fumaroles (of gases issuing from a small hole) Central eruption type of volca¬noes can further be divided into following types:--HAWAIAN (quiet and nonviolent) - having long glassy threaded red lava known as Pele's hair.(e.g.-Kilavea in Hawaii)-STROMBOLIAN (erupts with moderate intensity)-Eruption comprises of lava, pumice, scoria and bombs etc, -VULCANIAN (erupts with great force and intensity)-Highly viscous lava ash laden with volcanic clouds. -PELEEAN (most violent and explosive type)-Domes are formed due to eruption and successive eruption blows off these domes.-VESUVIUS (extremely vio¬lent-Enormous volume of explosive gases is given off. -PLINIAN (most destructive).

 

♦ On the basis of periodicity of eruptions, they can be sub-classified as follows: -ACTIVE: constantly ejects lavas, ashes etc. (e.g.- Etna and Stromboli. Stromboli is known as the light house of the Mediterranean.)-DORMANT: which are quiet for some time and may suddenly erupt. (E.g.-Vesuvius)

-EXTINCT: these do not have any indications of future eruptions.

World Distribution: Distribution of volcanoes in the world can be explained through classification into fol-lowing systems:-1. Linear Volcanoes e.g.: Hawaiian-Emperor-Seamount Chain (Pacific Ocean). Line-Tuamotu Chain (Pacific Ocean) and Austral-Marshall-Gilbert Chain (Pacific Ocean).2. Chain Volcanoes e.g. Andes, Cascade Mountains (USA)3. Cluster Volcanoes: e.g. Madeira, Galapagos, Canaries, Azores, Mauritius and Reunion etc.4. Ridge Volcanoes: e.g. Mid oceanic ridges and risesArc volcanoes: e.g. Kurile, Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines, Sulawesi (Celebes), New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Java, Bali, and Sumatra, Lesser Antilles, Scotia Tyrrhenian and Aegean Seas and Aleutian Is.

Various Volcanic Belts:-

1. Circum-Pacific Belt (Fire Girdle of the pacific or the fire ring of the Pacific) Island arcs and Festoons (E.g. Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines, Aleutian Island, Hawaii, some Highest volcanic Peaks -Cotopaxi (S.America), Fujiyama (Japan), Shasta, Rainier and Hood (W. Cordillera of N. America), Valley of ten thousand smokes (Alaska), Mt. St. Helens (USA), Kilavea (Hawaii), Mt. Taral, Pinatubo and Mayon (Philippines).2. Mid-Continental Belt (Volcanic Zones of convergent continental plate margins) Volcanes of Alpine Mt. Chains, Mediterranean Sea, Agean Sea, Fault zone of Africa (Kilimanjaro, Mem, Elgon, Birunga, Rungwe etc.)3. Mid-Atlantic Belt- Hekla (Iceland) , Lesser Antilles, Southern Antilles, Azores, St. Helena, Mt. Pelee (Martinique) in Caribbean Sea.4. Intra Plate Volcanoes - various chain volcanoes, Columbia plateau, peninsular India, Parana of Brazil and Paraguay. Flood

Basalts and Shield Volcanoes

 

Geologists postulate that at various points beneath the lithosphere there occur mantle plumes which are isolated columns of heated rock rising slowly within the asthenosphere. Directly above a mantle plume, crystal basalt can be heated to the point of melting and produce a Magma pocket. The site of Magma is called a hot-spot.

Where a mantle plume liese beneath a continental lithospheric plate, the hot spot may generate enormous volumes of basaltic lava that accumulate layer upon layer and is known as Flood Basalts. Hot spots also form above mantle plumes in the oceanic lithosphere. The emerging basalt builds a class of volcanoes known as shield volcanoes.

Volcanic Features (Topography produced by vulcanity)(a) Extrusive(i)From Explosive type of Eruption(ii)From Fissure type of Eruption

Features formed due to the explosive type of eruption can be divided into Elevated and Depressed forms. Elevated Forms -Cinder or ash cones (low height and formed of volcanic dusts)- Composites Cones (highest of all cones) -stratification of different materials -Parasite Cones (several branches of pipes come out from the main central pipe) -Basic lava cones (shield cones) (high degree of fluidity of lava produces a long cone with significantly low height)

- Acid Lava cones (highly viscous lava produces high cones)- Lava Domes (similar to shield cones but are larger and more extensive).- Lava Plugs (Plugging of volcanic pipes and vents when volcanoes become extinct) Depressed Forms- Craters (crater lakes)- Calderas(b) Intrusive (these can be concordant or discordant) Concordant are those which have boundaries parallel with beddings of the rocks. Those which cut through the bedding are known as Discordant.

(i) Major intrusive features are:

 

♦ Concordant features:- Lopoliths -Saucer like bodies concordant to the structure of the rocks and of enormous size. (e.g. Duluth (USA) Bushveld (S.Africa))

♦ Discordant features: -Batholiths or Bathyliths (very large deep seated discordant intrusions. Largest intrusive bodies)- Bosses and stocks- small intrusions similar to batholiths. Bosses have circular whereas stocks have irregular intrusions.

(ii)Minor intrusive features:

 

♦ Concordant features-Sills- thin sheet like intrusions injected between bedding planes.-Laccoliths- when viscous magma pushes into overlying strata and is bent upward to form a done.- Bysmaliths- Faulted variants of laccoliths

♦ Discordant features -Dykes (Vertical instrusions cutting across bedding planes).- Volcanic Necks (Eroded remnant of solidified lava which formerly filled the vent of a volcano).-Diapirs(These are formed from domes when the overlying rocks are ruptured and the intrusive body forces upwards. An earthquake is a ruthless demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces caused by endogenetic thermal conditions.

EarthquakeThe earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a point

of sudden energy release, the focus. The point within the earth where earthquakes are generated is called focus or hypocenter. The point on the earth's surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.Four types of earthquake waves are found: three discovered by R. D. Oldham and one later, by Augustas E. H. Love

Basically, they may be divided into two chief kinds of seismic waves:(1) Body waves and(2) Surface waves.

 

(1) BODY-WAVES: The fastest seismic waves, move through the earth. Slower surface waves travel along the surface of the earth. Body waves tend to cause the most earth-quake damage. There are two kinds of body waves:

(1) compressional waves and

(2) shear waves.

As the waves pass through the earth, they cause particles of rock to move in different ways. Compressional waves push and pull-the rock. They cause buildings and other structures to contract and expand. Shear waves make rocks bend or slide from side to side, and buildings shake. Compressional waves can travel through solids, liquids, or gases, but shear waves can pass only through solids. Compressional or longitudinal waves are the fastest seismic waves, and they arrive first at a distant point. For this reason, compressional waves are also called primary (PI waves. ie„ they have shortest wavelength among the four. Their velocity is 5 to 8 km per second. They can travel through liquids and solids but travel faster in denser solid media. These waves are like sound waves and cause any rock in their path to compress and then expand in the same direction as the waves are travelling. Primary waves undergo refraction and reflection at the margin of earth's outer lighter shell and inner dense core. Secondary or S waves which are of medium wavelength, are also called Shake or Shear waves. Shear waves, which travel slower and arrive later, are called secondary (S) waves. Body waves travel faster deep within the earth than near the surface. For example, at depths of less, than 25 kilometers, compressional waves travel at about 8 kilometres per second, and shear waves travel at J.8 kilometres per second. At a depth of 1,000 kilometres, the waves travel more than 11/2 times that speed.

 

(2) SURFACE WAVES: are long, slow waves. They produce what people feel as slow rocking sensations and cause little or no damage to buildings. There are two kinds of surface waves: (1) Love waves and (2) Rayleigh waves. Love waves, named after A. E. H. Love in 1911, travel through the earth's surface horizontally and move the ground from side to side. Rayleigh waves, named after Lord Rayleigh in 1885, makes the surface of the earth roll like waves on the ocean. Typical Love waves travel at about 4.4 kilometers per second, and Rayleigh waves, the slowest of the seismic waves, move at about 3.7 kilometers per second.

 

Damage by Earthquakes:(1) Fault Slippage : Near a fault, both the shifting of large blocks of the earth's crust, called fault slippage, and the shaking of the ground due to seismic waves cause destruction. The rock on either side of a fault may shift only slightly during an earthquake or several meters.(2) Liquefaction: In areas with soft, wet soils, a process called liquefaction may intensify earthquake damage. Liquefaction occurs when strong ground shaking causes wet soils to behave temporarily like liquids rather than solids. Anything on top of liquefied soil may sink into the soft ground. The liquefied soil may also flow toward lower ground, burying anything in its path. (3) Tsunamis. An earthquake on the ocean floor can give a tremendous push to surrounding seawater and create one or more large, destructive waves called tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves, other horizontally.Causes of Earthquake:(1) Continental Drift(2) Sea-floor Spreading(3) Plate Tectonics(4) Isostasy and Faulting(5) Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropogenic Causes: The introduction of additional artificial superincumbent load through the construction of large dams and impounding of enormous volume of water in bog reservoirs behind the dams cause disequilibrium of already isostatically adjusted rocks below the reservoirs or further-augment the already fragile structures due to faults and fractures underneath.(6) Volcanicity Measuring Instruments: (1) Seismograph : The first electromagnetic seismograph was constructed by Italian scientist in 1855. But the first modern seismograph was devised by John Milne-in 1880, the author of the book 'Earthquake and Other Movements'. It is based on the principle of pendulum.(i) Seismoscope is a qualitative device to indicate the arrival of an earthquake with human perception may not register if theacceleration is less than 1 cm/s the minimum acceleration felt by

human beings.(ii) Seismograph, on the other hand, records an earthquake and this piece of recording is called a seismogram. A telegraph is what a seismogram to seismograph is. (iii) Seismometer lies between a Seismoscope and a seismograph. The movements of the device are calibrated with known earthquake parameters. Oldham's array of wooden cylinders is a Seismoscope:(2) Accelerographs: are specifically designed to measure, the direction and intensity of ground motions during an earthquake for application to earthquake engineering.(3) Inverted Pendulum: are used in the seismograph.(4) Chronograph: the paper component of a seismograph is called a chronograph which consists of a drum rotating at a controlled constant speed around which a time-marked paper moves like a conveyor belt, just touching the stylus.

 

 

Measurement of Earthquake: (1) Richter scale: Probably the best-known gauge of earth-quake intensity is the local Richter magnitude scale, developed in 1935 by United States seismologist Charles Francis Richter. This scale, commonly known as the Richter scale, measures the ground motion caused by an earthquake.It is a logarithmic scale that runs from 1 to 9, though no upper limit exists; a magnitude 7 quake is 10 times more powerful than a magnitude 6 quake, 100 times more powerful than a magnitude 5 quake, 1000 times more powerful than a magnitude 4 quake, and so on. An estimated 800 quakes of magnitudes 5 to 6 occur annually worldwide, in comparison with about 50,000 quakes of magnitudes 3 to 4, and only about one earthquake of magnitudes 8 to 9. Until 1979 an earthquake of magnitude 8.5 was thought to be the most powerful possible; since then, however, improvements in seismic measuring techniques have enabled seismologists to refine the scale, and 9.5 is now considered to be the practical limit. Every increase of one number in magnitude means the energy release of the quake is 32 times greater. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 releases 32 times as much energy as an earthquake measuring 6.0. An earthquake with a magnitude of less than 2.0 is so slight that usually only a seismometer can detect it. A quake greater than 7.0 may destroy many buildings. There are about 10 times as many quakes for every decrease in Richter magnitude by one unit. For example, there are 10 times as many earthquakes with magnitude 6.0 as there are with magnitude 7.0.The largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude scale

measured 9.5. It was an interplate earthquake that occurred along the Pacific coast of Chile in South America in 1960. The largest intraplate earthquakes known struck in central Asia .and in the Indian Ocean in 1905, 1920, and 1957. They range between about 8.0 and 8.3.

 

(2) Mercalli Scale: It was introduced in 1800s by the Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli, measures the intensity of shaking with gradations from I to XII. Because seismic surface effects diminish with distance from the focus of the quake, the Mercalli rating assigned to the quake depends on the site of the mea-surement. Intensity I on this scale is defined as an event felt by very few people, whereas intensity XII is a catastrophic event that causes total destruction. Intensities II to III on the Mercalli scale are roughly equal to magnitudes 3 to 4 on the Richter scale, and XI to XII to 8 to 9.

(3) Rossi-Forel Scale : It is a scale for rating the intensity of earthquake shocks, devised in 1878. It was modified by the Mercalli Scale.

 

MOUNTAINS:Anything above,600 m (2000 ft) can be regarded as amount mountain. Hill is smaller than mountain but no specific definition for absolute elevation. A mountain may have several forms: Mountain ridge: It is a system of long, narrow and high hills. Generally, the slope of one side of a ridge is steep while the other side is of moderate slope but a ridge may also have symmetrical slopes on both the sides.

Mountain range: It is a system of mountains and hills having several ridges, peaks, summits and valleys. Mountain chain: It consists of several parallel long and narrow mountains of different periods.

Mountain system: It consists of different mountain ranges of the same period. Different mountain ranges are separated by valleys.

Mountain group: It consists of several unsystematic patterns of different mountain systems.

Cordillera: It is a community of mountains having different ridges, ranges, mountain chains and mountain systems. The mountainous region of the western part of North America is the best example of a Cordillera.

 

Classification of Mountains: (1) On the basis of HEIGHT:(1) Low mountains: height ranges between 700-1000m;(ii) Rough mountains: height - 1000m-1500m;(iii) Rugged mountains: height - 1500-2000m;(iv) High mountains: height above 2000m.

 

(2) On the basis of LOCATION(i) Continental mountains:(a) Coastal mountains: Examples are - Appalachians Rockies, Alpine mountain chains, Western and Eastern Ghats of India, etc.(b) Inland mountains: Examples are - Ural mountains (Russia), Vosges and Black forest block mountains (Europe),

Block mountains: These are originated by tensile forces leading to the formation of rift valleys. They are also called as horst mountains. 

Dome mountains: These are originated by magmatic intrusions and upwarping of the crustal surface. Examples are: normal domes, lava domes, batholithic domes, laccolithic domes, salt domes.

Mountains of Accumulations: These are formed due to accumulation of volcanic materials. Different types of volcanic cones (e.g., cinder cones, composite cones, basic lava cones, etc.) come under this category.(e) (ii) Circum-erosional or Relict mountains: Examples are-Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern ghats, Western ghats, etc. (all from India).

 

(3) On the basis of PERIOD OF ORIGIN:(i) Pre-Cambrian mountains:(h) Examples are -Laurentian mountains, Algoman mountains, Kilarnean mountains, etc. (North America), mountains of Feno-Scandia, Northwest highlands and Anglessey, etc. (Europe).(ii) Caledonian mountains:These are the mountains formed during Silurian and Devonian periods. Examples are - Taonic mountains of the Appalachian system, mountains of Scotland, Ireland and Scandinavia (Europe), Brazi-lides of South America, Aravallis, Mahadeo, Satpura, etc. of India.(iii) Hercynian mountains:These are the mountains formed during Permsari and Permocarboniferous periods. Examples are - mountains of Iberian

peninsula, Ireland, Spanish Messeta, Brittany of France, South Wales, Cornwall Mendips, Paris basin, Belgian coalfields, Rhine Mass, Bohemian plateau, Vosges and Black forest, Frankenn Hartz mountain, Donbas coalfield (all in Europe), Varsican mountains of Asia includeAltai, Sayan, Baikal Arcs, Tien Shan, Khingan, Tarim basin, Nanshan Alai and Trans Alai mountains of Amur basin. North American Variscan mountains include Applachians; South American Variscan mountains are Austrian and Saalia folds of San Juan and Mendoza, mountains of Puna are of Atacama, Gondwanides of Argentina, (iv) Alpine mountains: These are the mountains formed during tertiary period. Examples are - Rockies (North America), Andes (South America), Alpine mountain systems of Europe (mainly Carpathians, Pyrenees, Dinaric, Alps, etc.), Atlas mountains of north-west Africa; Himalayas and mountains coming out of Pamir Knot of Asia (Taurus, Pauntic, Zagros, Elburz, Kunlun, etc.). Atlas mountains of north-west of Africa.

 

BLOCK MOUNTAINS: Motored by endogenetic forces coming from within the earth. Block mountains are basically of two types, e.g.:  (i) tilled block mountains having one steep side represented by fault scarp and one gentle side, and, (ii) lifted block mountains represent real horst and are characterized by flattened summit of tabular shape and very steep side slopes represented by two boundary fault scarps. Block mountains are also called as horst mountains. Block mountains are found in all the continents, for example:(i) young block mountains around Albert Warner,P.Klamath lakes in the Steens mountain district of South Oregon, Wasatch range in Utah province, etc. in USA.(ii) Vosges and Black forest mountains bordering the faulted Rhine rift valley in Europe. (iii) Salt range of Pakistan, etc. Sierra Navada mountain of California (USA) is considered to be the most extensive block mountain of the world and movement of side blocks.

 

FOLDED MOUNTAINS:Folded mountains are formed due to folding of crustal rocks by compressive forces generated by endogenetic forces coming from within the earth.

 

Its features are: (a) They are found in great height;(b)Highest and extensive;(c)The width is less than height;(d)Arrow-like shape; (e)Faults are common cause of mountain uplift and faults in turn are due to shrinking of the crust;(f)Fossilsare being found;(g)Highest peaks are found in folded mountains; (h) Folded mountains are the youngest on the surface of the earth;(i)Basically found in the form of sedimentary rqc-ks;0) Have been Phanerozoic formed in long and shallow seas: Geosyncline; (k)Are generally formed in arc shape having one side concave slope and the other convex slope;(l)Are found along the Archean margins of the continents facing ocean; Young Fold Mountains: Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, A-ndes

 

Old Fold Mountains:Pennines, Appalachians, Cape Ranges of South Africa, Great Dividing Ranges of A-ustralia.Oldest: Scotland, Norway. Asia: Himalayas (8848 m.); Arakana Yoma; Sulaiman; Hindukush; Zagros; Elburz; Pontus; Taurus; Kunlun; Karakoram (861 lm.). Europe: Caucasus (5630m.); Balkan; Carpethian; Alps (4810m.); Dinaric Alps;mass by a few 100 m., for eg., Western Patlands of Ranchi and Palamu (India)-Jharkhand;

► Due to the deposition of the lava (volcanic), e.g., Dexcan trap, Entream of Ireland Columbian plateau (USA), Mahabalsstuvar and Panch gani. It is formed due to depo sition of basaltic lava;► Due to the adjoining areas which are not folded, but are raised during the process of mountain building, eg., Cumber-land plateau to the west of Apalachian mountains;► Because of the marginal sediment of geo-syncline are folded into parallel ranges, eg., Tibetan plateau between Kunlun and Tienshan, and Himalayas, Iranian plateau between Zagros and Elbruz mountains, Anatolian plateau between Pontus and Taurus mountains (Turkey);► Erosional or dissected plateau: thick deposits of loose materials of wind also form plateau. Loess plateau of China is the best example. Classification of plateaus: There are ten types of plateaus. According to mode of origin :-(a) Simple plateau:► Plateaus formed by exoge-netic factor:It is of three types: (i)Glacial plateau: Examples are - Garhwal plateau, Greenland.land plateau, Marg of Kashmir; (ii)Aeolian plateau: Examples are -

Potwar (Pak) and Loess (China) plateaus; (iii)Fluvial plateau: It is formed due to the rivers. Examples are - Bhandar, Kashmir, Rewa, Rohtas and Panna plateaus;► Plateaus formed by endogenetic factors: It is of the following types: (I)Intermontane plateau: Features of these plateau are: -Highest and most extensive plateau on the globe; -It is caused by upwarping of the middle portion of geosyn-cline, known as median mass; Example:Tibetan plateau : highest (5000 m) and most extensive (20,64,000 sq.km.) plateau of the world. It is also called the 'roof of the world'. It is surrounded by: -Kunlun mountain: North -Himalayas: South -Kunlun and Himalayas: West -Chinese mountain: East Many rivers originate from this plateau in different directions: -Southern plateau region: Indus and Brahmaputra rivers; -Eastern plateau region: Hwangho, Yangtze, Salween and Mekong rivers; -North-east plateau region: Tsaidan swamps. [NOTE: The endogenetic forces cause high mountains than exogenetic forces.] Mexican plateau:

It is surrounded; by:-West: Sierra Madre Occidental Mt. range;-East: Sierra Madre Oriental Mt. range;The average height near Mexico city is 2250 m (7410 ft.) and decreases to 1216 m. (4000 ft.) near the international border with USA. Plateau of Bolivia and Peru (South America): The Peruvian plateau is sur-rounded by Cordilera Central ranges and Cordillera Occiden-tal ranges in the east and west respectively. The average height is 3648 m. (from sea-level, 12000 ft.). LakeTiticaca, a fresh water lake, comes out of it.Gobi plateau in Asia Iranian and Tarin basin Columbian plateau Great basin(II) Piedmont plateau: It is formed at the foot hillzone of extensive mountains.

 

PLAINS:► Are flat areas with low height;► An extensive tract without prominent hills and depressions► Some plains are only a few mts. above the sea level, examples argisouth deltaic plains qfBangladesh. Some are quite high, examples are-the eastern Missisippi plain (450 m high), even higher than the Piedmont plateau;

► Thus, it should be mentioned that the plains maybe above the or below the sea levels but not higher than the surrounding regions;► The slope should be quite gentle, the average fall of the slope should be 4 mts. and in extreme cases, not more than 50mts.

Mode of Origin:► Because of endogenetic factors and diastrophic movements, i.e., structural plains. Examples are- Great plains of USA, Gulf coastal plain, Atlantic plain, Russian platform -also called epicontinental form; Great plains (USA) are bordered by Rockies in the west, Central lowland province in the east, Mississippi Missouri plateau and by Reogrande river in south and plains of Canada in the north.Atlantic coastal plains : It startsfrom Newyork to Gulf of Mexico.Its average width is 480 kms. and is of Miocene and Pliocene. The average gradient is 10 ft/mile, the other is Coromandel and Northern Circar coastal plains, formed due to mile subsidence and consequent sedimentation. Erosional plains: Due to erosion (it is formed). It is of four types:(i)Peneplains: It happens due to weathering and rivers. It is characterized by convex, concave residual hills, called the 'monadnocks'. Examples are-Chambal, Swaranghati, Mississippi, South Africa.

(ii)Glacial plains: Glaciers transform highland areas through their slow but continued erosive works into lowlands. Examples are- Sweden, Finland, Ladakh, Imphal basin. (Manipur hills), Canada.

(iii)Wind-eroded plains: Reg, Serir and Hamada (Sahara), Aravalli (arid .plains) near Jaisalmer.(iv)Karst plains: It is composed of limestones. Examples are-Yugoslavia's and Mexico's Karst plains.Depositional plains: It is of five types:(i)AUuvial plains: Examples are- Mississippi delta, Lomb-ardi plains (Italy) formed by Po river, Yangtze plain (China), Indus plain (Ganga), USA plain (Sacramento), Russia (Samarkand), South America (Chile) plain, Amazon plain, Salween and Mekong plains. [It is formed due to the rivers]. Delta plain: Ganga delta is the largest delta of the world (llakh 29 thousand sq.km), the tributaries of delta are called distributaries. (ii)Glacial plains: These are of two types:(a)True glacial plains: These are formed of pure glacial materials;(b)Outwash plains: These are formed due to deposition of materials after the ablation of glaciers and ice sheets. Glacial plains are divided into three parts on the basis of structure and composition: -Till: Finer or coarser materials; Eskars and Drumlins; -Morainic: finer glacial materials;-Outwash: Admixture of sands, gravels, silts and clays. Examples are- West Germany, north-west Russia, north-west USA, central Canada. (iii)Lacustrine plains: When lakes are filled with sediments; examples are- Kashmir valley, Imphal basin, Hungary plain, Great lakes (North America), (iv) Loesses plains: It is formed due to air transportation of the sand; it is an unstratified, homogeneous, finegrained.

Examples are- Loesses of China, Europe, USSR, lower Missisippi (USA), Rhine valley (Alsace), southern Netherlands,(v)Lava plains: Examples are-France, USA, Iceland, Argentina, NewZealand. These are economically very important because black soils are formed due to weathering of lavas. These black soils are also called 'Regur' soils are good for growing cotton.

 

LAKES:

Lakes are static bodies of water, usually but not necessarily fresh water on the land's surface which is surrounded by lands on all sides.Lakes are not permanent features on the earth's surface. Lakes are formed, developed and ultimately obliterated due to silteration and upliftment of lake beds due to diastrophic movements. For example, several lakes have disappeared in the Kumaon region like SukhaTal and SarraiyaTal around Nainital. The highest lake of the world Tso Sekuru (Tibetan plateau) is located at the height of 18284 ft and the lowest is the Dead sea-1300 ft below the sea level.

Charateristics of a Lake :--Are variable and changes with time,-Height has nothing to do with-Some lake have greater depths -e.g Baikal lake of Siberia is more than 1.6 km deep (1600); some are shallow and almost become dry during the summers and hence are called seasonal lakes. Size does not matter. It can be as big as the Caspian Sea and csn also be as small as Tarn Glacier lake (very small).Preconditions of a Lake:-Basins, depressions and troughs are the most ideal places for the development of lakes. Troughs:(1)A system of low atmospheric pressure; characterized by much greater length and width.(2)A valley that has been overdeepened by glacial erosion.(3)The lowest part of the wave formed between two crests. -There should be proper and regular supply of water. The water table should be high.

Classification of Lakes: I)On the basis of salinity:-(a)Fresh Water Lakes : Very low amount of salt flow of water;Eg., Kumaon (U.P). Dal and Wular lake of Kashmir. (b)Saline Lakes:--Are also called salt lakes and ajejelatively common. These are found mainly in semi-arid and arid regions of warm cli-rnate where the rate of evaporation is very high. -These are of four types :-(i)Alkaline lakes : having the dominance of salts of Sodium and Potassium Carbonate:

(ii)Bitter lakes: contains salts ofSpdium Sulphate; (iii)Borax lakes : have high proportion of Borax; (iv)Mixed lakes : have a mix-ture of different salts. -Examples of saline/ salt lakes:- Sambhar and Panch-bhadra lakes (Rajasthan), salt lakes of Lingtzi Tang (Kashmir), Chilka lake (Orissa), are all in India.-Examples of saline/salt lakes (outside India) Great Salt lake (Utah- USA) - a remnant of Bonneville lake, a fresh water lake.Cursbn lakes, Waker and Honey lakes in USA, Lahontan, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, Dead Sea.II) Diastrophic lakes:lakes. Examples, Crater lakes of Oregon in USA, Tana lake(Ethiopia), Nicaragua (Central America).IV) Lakes formed due to mass translocation of Rock Waste -This includes land slides etc. -Examples: San CristoBal, Slumgullion Mudflow (Colorado, USA). In 1968, a landslide took place in Darjeeling and two lakes were formed due to damming of Tantakhola - a tributary of Jaldhaka river.V) Glacial lakes: These are also called moraine lakes. -Examples: Grand lake of Colorado (USA), Naini/ Nainital lake (UP). lakes of Canada, Norway, Sweden and Finland.VI)FluviaI lakes: These are formed due to rivers. They are of two types:VII)Oxbow lakes: - e.g.Wjilar lake in Kashmir.

VII)Delta lakes:-Godavari Delta, Ganga Delta called beels. Ponchastrian lake of Mississippi, Mayeh lake of Nile Delta, Marigot lake of Niger Delta. 

WEATHERING;The process of disintegration of rocks in situ (static) is generally called weathering. Weathering isJhe breakdown and alternation of minerals . Near the earth's surface to products that are more in equilibrium with newly imposed physico-chemical conditions. Thus, weathering may be defined as the mechanical frac-turing or chemical decomposition of rocks by natural agents at the surface of the earth. It is obvious that weathering involves two types of changes in the rocks, for example: physical and mechanical changes, wherein rocks are disintegrated through temperature changes, frost-action, biological activities (biotic factor) and wind actions.(ii)Chemical changes, wherein rocks are decomposed through static water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and biological activities.Provided that:(a)The breakdown of rocks occurs in situ;(b)There is no large-scale transport of weathered materials except mass-movement or mass-transaction of weathered materials down the slope under the force of gravity. The products of rock weathering tends >to accumulate in a short surface layer called re-golith; and the

regolith grades downward into solid or altered rocks known as bed rocks. Therefore, regolith is the layer of loose broken rocky material mantling the surface of the undecomposed bedrock. The regolith produces the source of sediments consisting of detached mineral particles deposited and transported a fluid medium which may be water, air or glacier ice.

 

Agents of Weathering:(i) Transportation(ii) Deposition(iii) Erosion(i)Transportation: The wind, running water, moving ice and sea waves also carry away particles, thus removing one part and settling it in other part is called the process of transportation.(ii)Deposition: The material carried out by winds, running water, and moving ice are deposited in some other place is called deposition. (iii)Erosion: It is same as weathering, but, it is very much different at the same time. Weathering is a static process, there is no displacement and movement of rocks. It does not constitute depositional features. Whereas erosion is basically more a process of denudation than weathering. (Denudation is a term used to denote the action of laying bare by the process of washing away of the surface materials, such that all surface inequalities would be reduced to uniformity. It is ba-sically the process oTaegrada-tion. Erosion is basically a dynamic process, there is always displacement of rocks,thus, denudation = weathering + transportation. The depositional feature is also included in the erosion. Therefore, we see erosion in a broader concept, because it includes both transportation and deposition. (1) Block Disintegration Due to Temperature Change: The repetition* of expansion and contraction of outer rock layers due to diurnal rangeof temperature in the hot desert areas causes tension and stresses which introduce parallel joints in the Rocks.(2)Granular Disintegration Due to Change in Temperature: The coarse grained rocks are more affected by shattering process in those hot deserts which are characterised by high range of daily temperature.Shattering Due to Rain Shower and Heat: The outer shells of the rocks are shattered hot climatic regions mainly in hot desert areas. (4) Block disintegration due to frost:Frost action weakens the rocks in two ways:(i)Due to freeze and thaw of water between the particles of the rocks.(ii)Due to freeze and thaw of water in the crevices and spaces.(5)Exfoliation due to temperature and wind:Exfoliation weathering, also known as onion weathering, refers to peeling off concentrjc shells of rocks due to combined actions of heat

and wind in hotarid and semi-arid regions and monsoon lands. The outer shells of rocks become loose due to alternate expansion and contraction due to high temperature during daytime and comparatively low temperature during night respectively, and these loosened shells are removed (peeled off by strong winds).(6) Disintegration and exfoliation due to unloading: Sheeting refers to the development of cracks and fracturesParallel to the surface caused bv removal of super-incurnbent load resulting into reduction of conflicting pres-sure.

 

Chemical weathering:Decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to chemical reaction is called chemical weathering wherein the minerals of the rocks weather away. Water vapour and water are the media which activate several types of chemical reactions within the rocks. Pure water, distilled water, is chemically inert but when it mixes with the atmospheric gases, mainly with C02, it becomes potent solvent. Following are the important chemical reactions:

(I)Solution: It refers to the dissolution of soluble particles and minerals from the rock with the help of water in motion but a thin film of water around a solid particle also leads to chemical dissolution. Common salts are most soluble whereas carbonate rocks are of moderate solubility. Limestones are more susceptible to solution process which depends on temperature, C02 content of water and PH of the solution.(II)Oxidation: The chemical process of oxidation simply means a reaction of atmospheric oxygen to form oxides. When water is mixed with oxygen, its reaction with the minerals of the rocks forms hydroxide.(III)Carbonation: It is the reaction of carbonate or bicarbonate ions with minerals. The process of carbonation is also known as 'solution' wherein atmospheric C02 after mixing with water forms Carbonic acid (H2C03), i.e.,C02 + H20 >H2C03,which after reacting with carbonate rocks, say limestones (CaC03) forms Calcium carbonate [Ca(HC03)2] which is easily dissolved in water.

(IV)Hydration: The process of hydration is related to the addition of water to the minerals. The rocks after having absorbed water undergo the process of positive change of their volume. The process of hydration changes feldspar minerals into Kaolinite clays, this process is known as 'Kaolinization'.

(V)Hydrolysis: It is a chemical reaction between minerals and water, that is, between hydrogen ions or hydroxyl (OH) ions, and the ions of the mineral in order to form mineral compounds. Silicate minerals are most affected by hydrolysis.(Vl)Chelation: Chelation is a complex organic process by which metallic cations are incorporated into hydrocarbon molecules. Chelation is a form of chemical weathering by plants.

 

Biotic Weathering (i) Faunal weathering: The burrowing of animals, worms and other organisms help in gradual breakdown of rocks or fragments thereof. (ii)Floral weathering: Floral weathering does not take place independently, rather it helps the physical and chemical process of weathering. Larger plants affect and control weathering in a number of ways: (a)Cracks are widened by root penetration and consequent root pressure.(b)Dense vegetation cover generates distinct micro climate at the ground surface. (iii)Anthropogenic weathering: The economic and technological man' lashed with modern technologies was becoming the most powerful weathering and erosion agent. Biochemical Weathering:► It refers to decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to organic materials of both flora and fauna.► A complex set of different biochemical processes such as Cation exchange in roots, chelation, solution by root exudates and production of different kinds of organic acids such as humic acids, bacterial acids, microfaunal acids, etc. produced by organic materials.► Humic Acid active chelation and helps in the decomposition of silicate minerals. Fulvic Acids derived from peat, help in the decomposition of rock materials.

Mass Movement-Mass wasting Phenomena: Direction of Movement of rock is divided into three categories: (i)Vertical: rockfall, collapse (of roofs of underground caves or cavities or lava tubes) earthfall, debris fall, topple (rotational fall of rock slab's, or of earthen material) and settlement (collapse of ground surface due to withdrawal of water, crude oil, etc.); (ii)Lateral: Blockslide (movement of materials along a horizontal fracture or interface between two rock strata), spread (lateral displacement of a series of rock blocks), cambering (draping of sedimentary units), sackung (lateral spreading away from anticlinal crests CREEPING: very slow and imperceptible downslope movement of materials i.e colluvium); and (iii) Diagonal : soil creep (movement of moistened soils downslope), rockcreep, talus creep, rockslide, debris slide, slumping (movement of fine materials along a curved plane), flow (dominant role of water, downslope transport of water-soaked fine debris), debris flow, mud flow, solifluction and avalanche.

 

LANDFORMSFluvial Landforms► Shaped by running water (overland flow and stream flow)► Fluvial processes are most important of all the exogenetic processes as landforms associated with them have overall dominance in the environment of terrestrial life.► 3-phase work of fluvial processes - Erosion, Transportation and Deposition1.Erosion► Normal Erosions:which takes place by natural physical forces.► Accelerated Erosion:That which is produced by man's interference. Direct force of a falling raindrop (Splashing). Splash

Erosion-Surface flow then removes soil in thin layers (Sheet Erosion)-Steep slopes having torrential rains-produce intense activity -Rill Erosion (innumerable closely spaced channels are formed) - Grows larger forming Gullies (Steep - walled canyon like trench) - A rugged barren topography called Ravines and Badlands are formed. (e.g. Chambal)Process or types of erosion -1.Chemical Erosion: Corrosion (or solution) and Carbonation 2.Mechanical Erosion -Impaction (Effect of blow upon the river bed or banks by large boulders)-Cavitation (Due to collapse and implosion of air bubbles.) -Attrition (Shattering and breaking up of the stream load through collisions and mutual abrasion)-Hydraulic Action (Lifting and quarrying effect of rushing water)-Corrasion or Abrasion (Stream uses its load to scrape away its bed, particularly in steep confined sections of stream channels.)

Erosional landforms: 1.River valleys-Formed in the youthful stage of fluvial cycle of erosion. -V-shaped in the initial stage (caused by vertical erosion or valley deepening) -3 types of v-shaped valleys:

(i)Gorge - Steep precipitous wall within which a narrow river is confined (e.g.-Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Rhine, Zambezi)(ii)Canyon - A very deep and extended gorge.

(iii)Structual benches - Differential erosion of alternately arranged hard and soft rocks forming step-like valleys known as structural benches. Rapids-Current flowing at more than normal swiftness forms Rapids.

Waterfalls-Formed due to:-(i)Differential erosion of hard and soft rocks(ii)Plateau scarp formation (Livingstone, Aughrubies, Gersoppa falls) (iii)Because of fault scarps (Victoria fall on Zambezi River)(iv)Due to Glacial Hanging valley (Yosemite fall) (v)Fall in sea level and related rejuvenation(vi)Other topographical reliefs and earth movements. (vii)Due to formation of knick point in a rejuvenating stream (Fluvial cycle of erosion is an exogenetic process which erodes the landforms and lowers down the relief which was earlier produced by folding, up warping or emergence of land because of endogenetic forces. Thus a cycle of emergence and lowering down of the relief because of erosion continues. A landform in the early stage of the fluvial cycle of erosion has higher relief and sharp landscape than those in later stages. If by any means the landscape of a later stage encounters emergence because of endogenetic forces at work, the relief is rejuvenated that is the landform seems to have reverted back to an earlier stage. This is known as river rejuvenation.Cascade- A fall in steps. Cataract-Larger steps than in a cascadePot Holes-cylindrical holes worn in the solid bedrock (formed as a result of evortion-grinding action of the whirling particles)Plunge Pools-Potholes of much bigger size Terraces-step like flat surfaces on either side of the present lowest valley floors are called terraces.Structural Benches-The benches or terraces formed due to differential erosion of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds called structural benchesMeanders-Bends of longitudinal courses of rivers Misfit Meanders-Meander formed within the extensive former meanders. Meanders are of three types: Wavy, Horse shoe, Ox-Bow or BraceletIncised Meander-Representative features of rejuvenation. They develop through vertical erosion leading to valley incision or deepening Ox-Bow Lakes-Formed due to impounding of water in the abandoned meander loops. Peneplain - It represents featureless low lying plain having undulating surface and remnants of convexo-concave residual hills. End product of normal cycle of erosion. Frequented with low residual hills: Monadnocks.

 

Transportation :The size and amount of load and the velocity of stream determine their transporting power. Transportation power is directly proportional to the sixth power of stream velocity

Transportation is done in various ways:-(i) Traction (ii) Suspension (iii) Saltation (iv) Solution Deposition:

It is affected by following factors:-1 .Decrease in channel gradient

2. Spreading of stream water over larger area.

3,Obstruction in channel flow

4.Decrease in the volume and discharge of water

5.Decrease in the velocity of streams.6.1ncrease in the load etc.

 

Characteristic of rivers.--► A river system is an open system (comprising of collecting transporting and dispersing systems) lying in a drainage basin surrounded by divides called watersheds.► Tributaries decrease in number in a mathematic progression downstream► Length of tributaries increases downstream► Slope of tributaries increases downstream► Channels deepen downstream► Water flows in a laminar form (path parallel to the bed)► Discharge or volume of water = velocity channel cross-sectional area► Velocity is greatest near the centre► Base level may be local (a tributary in main river), temporary (lake), or ground base level (Sea etc.)► Erosional power is directly proportional to the square of stream velocity.

 

Depositional Landforms Alluvial Fans and Cones : Formed due to accumulation of materials in the form of fan and cones respectively at the base of foot hills. Alluvial Cones are made of coarse materials than the alluvial Fans.Natural Levees - Narrow belt of ridges of low height built by the deposition of sediments by the spill water of the stream on its either bank.Flood Plain - Surfaces on either side of a stream that are frequently inundated. Crevasse splays - Formed by breaching of levees when water escapes through a series of distributary channels. Backswamps-Plain area adjoining a levee may contain marshes called Backswamps. Yazoo Streams - Distributions of rivers occupying lateral positions.

Delta -Triangular deposition at the mouth of a river debouching in a lake or a sea.

Factors that help in Delta for-mation - (1) Long Courses of rivers

(2) Medium size sediments

(3) Calm or Sheltered sea

(4) Suitable place (shallow sea and lake shores)

(5) Large amount of sediments

(6) Accelerated erosion

(7) Stable condition of sea coast. On the basis of shape delta can be 1.Arcuate 2. Bird-Foot 3. Estuarine 4. Truncated Arcuate(Lobate Form) –Semicircular Common in semi-arid region -Growing delta -e.g.:Nile, Niger, Ganga, Indus, Hwang Ho, Mekong, Irrawady, Rhine, Volga, . Danube, Rhone, Lena Bird-Foot-Also called Finger Delta Rivers with high velocity carry suspended finer load to greater distance inside the oceanic water, (e.g. Mississippi) Estuarine Delta -Submerged under marine water-e.g.:Narmada, Vistuala, Elb, Ob, Seine, Hudson.

 

Drainage Pattern : Spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in turns of geometrical shapes in the areas of different rock types, geological structure, climatic conditions and denudational history. 1 .Trellis-In the areas of simple folds characterised by parallel anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valley. 2.Dendritic-In the region of flat rolling topography, uniform lithology and impermeable rocks eg. Himalayan rivers.3 .Rectangular-Confluence angle determine by weaknesses like faujts, fractures and joints.4.Radial-This centrifugal pattern is formed by the streams which diverge from a central higher point in all directions, eg. Sri Lanka, Hazaribagh plateau, Ranchi Plateau, S.Centripetal- Inland Drainage region with depression, basin or crater lake.(e.g.- Kathmandu valley).6.Annular- Developed over a mature and dissected dome mountain characterised by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds.7. Bar bed- When tributaries flow in opposite direction to their master stream.8.Pinnate-Formed in a narrow valleys flanked by steep ranges e.g.- Upper Son,Narmada.

9.Herringbone When broad valleys are flanked by parallel ridges having steep hillside slopes e.g. Upper Jhelum in Kashmir valley10. Parallel drainage- On Cuestas or nearly emerged coastal plains ( e.g. WesternGhats and some on Eastern coastal plains.

 

Drainage System-1 .Consequent- follows regional slope They are the primary streams.

2.Subsequent -Those originate after master consequent and follow the axis of the anticlines or ridges and the strikes of beds are called subsequent streams.

3.obsequent -The streams flowing in opposite direction to the master consequent are called obsequent.

4. Antecedant -Those which are originated prior to the upltftment of land surfece.

5.Superimposed -It means a river which, flowing on a definite geological formation and structure, has inherited the characteristics of its previous form developed on upper geological formation and structure are superimposed on the lower geological formation of entirely different characteristics, (e.g. Deccan Rivers).

 

Karst Landforms-Produced by chemical weathering or chemical erosion of carbonate rocks by surface and sub-surface water. -Named after the Karst Region of Yugoslavia haying typical limestone topography. -Distribution of Karst Areas:-Erstwhile Yugoslavia; Spanish Andalusia; S.Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennesse and Florida (USA); Chalik Area of England, and France. 

 

Limestone topography has not developed properly in India because of the absence of extensive thick limestone formations near the surface. Most of limestones of the Vindhyan formation are buried under thick covers of sandstones and shales.Though some Karst regions are present -► Guptadham Cave (Rohtas Plateau)► Jammu and Kashmir

► Sahasradhara, Rovers Cave and Tapkeshwar Temple (Dehra Dun, Uttranchal)► Panchmarhi (M.P.)► Eastern Himalayas► Bastar district (Chhat-tisgarh)► Coastal areas near Vishakhapatnam.

Essential conditions for the development of Karst land-forms:► Massive, thickly bedded, hard, tenacious and well jointed limestone.► Lime stones should not be porous.► It should be above ground water table.► Widely distributed in both area! and vertical dimensions.► Carbonate rocks should be very close to the ground surface.► Limestone should be highly folded, faulted or fractured.► Adequate rainfall. -Mechanism of erosion in Karst areas

► Carbonation Erosional Landforms Lappies-Highly corrugated and rough surface of limestone lithology with low ridges and pinnacles.

Terra Rosa- Weathering residue at the surface. Solution Holes- Holes produced by dissolution of lime stones by chemically active rain water.Sink Holes- Small solution holes.Dolin - A large solution hole. Swallow Hole- Formed by coalescence of closely spaced sink holes.Collapse Sinks- Solution holes formed due to collapse of upper surface.Solution Pans- Similar to doline with shallow depth and larger areal extentKarst Lakes- When Dolines plugged by clay are filled with water.Karst Window- Formed due to collapse of upper surface of sink holes or dolines. Uvala - Extensive depression formed by coalescence of several dolines.Polje- Most extensive depressions larger than dolines and are formed due to downfolding and faulting.Karst Plain- Upper surface having several sink holes. Sinking Creek- Numerous sink holes located in a line. Blind Valley- When flow is terminated at a swallow hdle, the valley looks dry valley and is known as blind valley. Karst Valley- U shaped valleys developed on lime stones.

Cave - Voids of large dimension below ground surface. It is the most significant feature. Ponores-Vertical passages that connect the caves and the swallow holes.Natural Bridge- Formed due to collapse of the roofs of caves or due to disappearance of surface streams and their reappearance.

Depositional Landforms Causes of Deposition :-(l)Chemical reactions (2) Charge in temperature .and. pressure conditions (3) Loss of Carbon dioxide (4) EvaporationSpeleothems- Deposits in the caves are collectively called 'Speleothems'. Calcite is the common constituent. Travertines- Banded calcareous deposits are called Travertines'Drip Stones-Calcareous deposits formed by dripping- of water in dry caves.

Stalactites- Dripstones hanging from the roof of a cave.

Stalagmites- Growing upward from the bottom of a cave.

Cave Pillars- These are formed when stalactites and stalagmites meet together.

Drapes or curtains- Numerous needle shaped dripstones hanging from the cave ceiling.

Helictites- Sideward growth from stalactites.

Helgmites-Sideward growth from stalagmites.

Flowstones-Floor deposits caused by seepage water

Marine Landforms

-Confined only to the narrow coastal zone.-Produced by joint action of waves, currents and tides. The effect of waves is predominating.-As the waves approach the shore the wavelength continues to decrease while the wave height increases to such an extent that the crest of the wave, topples over and the wave is transformed into a 'breaker' which then collapses. -Breakers may be Spilling, Plunging or Surging breakers.-They return towards the sea as Backwash or Undertow or Rip Currents.-The turbulent water known as 'Swash' or 'Surf' or 'Uprush', rushes shore ward with great velocity and force. The distance from the shore where the wave breaks is known as 'Plunge Line' -Wave refraction results in the formation of littoral or long shore currents which move parallel to the sea coast. Coast- Land surfaces modeled conspicuously by waves, now as well as in the past. Shore- Narrow strip of land between the low tide water mark and the high tide mark. Shoreline- Line of contact between land and water Beach- Deposit made by seas

that rest on the shore. Processes and Mechanism of ErosionWave Quarrying- Pressure of waves and oscillatory motion of water removes the material. Abrasion, Hydraulic Action, Solution and various weathering processes also activate erosion.

Rate of wave erosion is determined by-(i) Degree of exposure of the coastal region (ii) Tidal range (iii) Composition of Coastal bed rock.

Erosional Landforms: Notch-A recess, indicating the point of wave attack on the coastline.

Cliff - Almost vertical steep precipitous slope above the sea water on a rocky coast. Wave cut Platform- A platform at the base and front of cliff formed due to retreat of cliff.

Marine Terraces- Elevated wave-cut platforms marking former high sea levels Coves or Bays- Where hard and soft rocks lay alternately, differential erosion will create lesser indentations on the coast. These are coves or bays. Bight- Feature much larger but similar to that of a cove or a bay.

Hanging Valley-Rapid retreat of cliff renders small streams incapable to keep down cutting thereby resulting in hanging valleys.

Sea Caves- Wave action on a headland protruding into the sea leads to cave formation. Arch- Two caves, developing on opposite sides coalesce to form an arch.

Stack- Eventually, the arch collapses and an isolated pinnacle called stack is formed. Blow hole- A hole formed on a cave roof because of wetness in rock

Geo- When the whole cave roof collapses, an inlet is formed known as Geo Tidal Pools- Deep depressions on the wave cut platform due to quarrying.

Rock Reefs- The hard resistant parts of a platform which have withstood erosion.

 

Transportation Work: Backwash currents transport the eroded materials seaward which are brought back to the coast by the Surf currents. Thus transportation goes both ways.Long shore currents are generated due to oblique incidence of waves

striking the coast. These currents transport materials parallel to the shoreline.

 

Depositional Landforms: Deposition occurs because of: -Decrease in transporting power of wave-Interruption of the long shore drift-River entering the sea  -Mutual neutralisation of tidal currents-Shelter provided by the embankments in the coast. Wave Built Platform- Formed by sediments derived from theerosion of cliff and wave cut platforms.

Beaches- A land on shore between the high water mark and the low water mark. Composed of cobbles, pebbles, boulders, fine silt, clay and sand. With reference to the type of material involved beaches can be shell, coral, rock, lava or Shingle beach.

Shingle Beach-It is composed of flat, circular, smooth stones. Beach Ridges or Berrns- Linear accumulation of shingles on a beach, parallel to the high water mark.

Beach Cusps- Crescent shaped mass of beach material, ranging from sand to quite large shingles or cobbles. Ridges and

 

Runnels-Rises and depressions lying parallel to the shoreline Bars- The ridges, embankments of sands form by sedimentation through sea waves parallel to the shore line are called bars

Off-Shore or Long Shore Bars- If the bars are formed in such a way that they are parallel to the coast but are not attached to the land, they are called off-shore or long shore bars.

Spits- Sand bars having one end attached to the land and the other projecting into the sea, are called spits. Hook- A curved Spit.

 

Connecting Bars- A bar joining two headlands or two islands

Tombolo- A connecting bar which connects a headland or mainland with an Island. Lagoons- They are formed when the curves or bays are completely enclosed by bars, (e.g. Chilka and Pulicat) Mudflats- A specialised vegetation adapted to salt and brackish water (Halophytes)

invade the lagoon region and help to bind the sediments. The whole lagoon area is finally turned into marsh or tidal mudflats. Analogous to salt marshes tidal mudflats in mid-latitudes are the mangrove swamps of the tropics.

Aeolian Landforms-Aeolian processes involve erosion of dry and loose material along with transportation and deposition of fine sediments mainly sands by action of wind. These occur mainly in arid and semi-arid regions of tropical and temperate environments.-Besides Aeolian process limited fluvial processes are also operative in arid and semi-arid regions characterised by inland drainage, ephemeral and intermittent streams. -Wind erosion is largely controlled and determined by:-1. Wind velocity 2.Nature and amount of sands, dusts and pebbles 3.Composition of rocks 4.Nature of vegetation 5.Humidity, rainfall amount, and temperature

Wind erosion occurs in three ways:-1.Deflation: Removal and blowing away of dry and loose particles of sands and dusts. Long and continuous deflation produces depressions or hollows known as 'Blow Outs'.

2.Abrasion or Sand Blasting: Wind armed with entrained sand grains as tools of erosion attacks the rocks and erodes them.3.Attrition: Mechanical wear and tear of the particles.

 

Erosional landforms Deflation Basins-Depression created through deflation, also known as Deflation hollows e.g. Quattara depression (Egypt), Buffalo Hollow (American Great Plain)Big Hollow (Wyoming, USA), Pong Kiang Hollow (Mongolian Desert)

Mushroom Rocks- Rocks having broad upper part and narrow base formed due to abrasion at base. Isenberg- Sharply rising residual hills.

Demoiselles- Rock pillars having relatively resistant rocks at the top and soft rock below. These are formed due to differential erosion.

 

Zeugens- Abrasive action of wind acting on exposed weakness of horizontally bedded rocks (hard above and soft below) thereby producing a tabular mass of resistant capping upon softer rocks beneath.

 

Yardangs- Sinuous ridges and parallel depressions formed' due to differential abrasion of vertically arranged thin alterations of hard and soft strata. Typical of Turkistan Desert and also in Tibesti Massif (Sahara)

 

Ventifacts-Faceted rock boulders, cobbles and pebbles formed due to prolonged wind abrasion (one abraded face-Einkanter, two abraded faces-Zweikanter, three abraded faces-Dreikanter).

 

Stone lattice- Differential erosion of hard and soft portions of rocks through abrasion produces pitted and fluted surfaces called stone lattice.

 

Transportation Takes place through 1. Suspension-Materials kept in suspension by upward moving air(e.g. Dust, Haze, Smoke)2.Saltation-Mechanism of bouncing, leaping or jumping of particles.3. Surface creep-Transport of loosened materials on the ground surface.

 

Depositional Landforms Ripples- Wave like features formed by saltation impact. They may be transverse or longitudinalSand Dunes- Heaps or mounds of sands. They are mobile landforms and may be coastal dunes, riverine dunes, and lacustrine dunes. Formation of Sand dunes re-quire-1 .Abundance of sand

2.High velocity of wind

3.Obstacles such as tree, bushes, rocks, forests etc.

4.Suitable places for the accumulation of sands. Nebkhas- Dunes formed due to shrubs as obstacles

 

Lunettes- Dunes that develop on the lee of desert depressions.Fore Dune- Those formed on the windward side of a hill.Depending upon shape they may be:-Linear or Longitudinal (or Seif Dunes), Star, Dome, Reverse, Barachan, Transverse Loess- Thick deposits of non-stratified, non-indurated well-sorted fine grained sediments consisting of quartz silt. Sediments for the accumulation of loess are derived from desert areas, flood plains of river valleys, coastal areas etc. (e.g. Chinese loess has been deposited from sediments from Gobi deserts. Hwang Ho flowing through loess plateau acquires enough sediments that makes it look yellowish in colour) Five Great Desert Provinces:-1. Sahara- Central Asian Province (Sahara, Arabian, Indian, Karakum, Kizil Kum, Takla Makan, Gobi)2. Southern African province (Namib, Karroo, Kalahari)3.South American dry zone (Atacama, Patagonia) 4.North American (Mojave, Arizona, Sonoran) 5. AustralianDesert having mobile sands are called Ergs.

GLACIERS. GLACIATED TOPOGRAPHY:About 10% of the earth'ssur-face is covered by glaciers. Glaciers are formed due to accumulation of ice. Snowline is generally defined as a zone between permanent and seasonal snow and that height above which there is permanent snow cover, The snowline is at he lowest height sea-level in the polar region and increases equator-ward where it tends to occur between 5000-6000 mt. The areas of accumulation of huge volume of ice are called snow-fields. The glaciers grow by gradual transformation of snow into granular snow and then into firn and neve and finally into solid glacial ice (granular snow-firn/neve-solid ice).

Types of glaciers: They are basically of three types:► Mountain glaciers;► Continental glaciers;► Icecaps. glaciers. Icecaps: The biggest is called as icecap. It is broad domes with flattened cross section covering thou-sands glaciers. There is one difference between icesheets and jcecaps. Icesheets: Eg., Antarctic and Greenland.Continental glaciers: It is also a kind of icesheet but since it is spread oyer the continents, hence are known as continental glaciers.Examples are: Antarctic -average thickness is 4000 m; Greenland -average thickness is 3000m. Other examples are -Arctic, Canada, Iceland, Norway.Valley/Mountain/ Alpine glaciers:Examples are:(i) Himalayan region: Roopal glacier (16 km), Punma glacier (27 km), Rjmu glacier (40 km), Himarche glacier, Barche and Milaspin glacier (all in Kashmir Himalaya).

(ii) Hispar glacier, Baifo glacier (62 km), Baltorp glacier (58 km), Siachen (72 km), Batura glacier (58 km), Sasaini glacier (158 km), all in Karakoram range.

Cirque glacier: The armchair shaped or amphfthejatric cirque or corrie is a horse shoe shaped, steep wall depression representing a glaciated valley hill. It is known by different names at different places. It is known as:► CWN- at Wales;► CORRIE - at Scotland;► KAR - at Germany;- Cirque lake is called 'Tarn'.Col/Aretes and Horns:► When it becomes pyramidal called as col and peak;► When the peak looks like teeth, it is called 'aretes'. Nunatak: the higher peaks and mounds surrounded J>y_ice from all sides are called Nuna-tak&-Milan glacier (19 km), Kedarnath (14 km), Gangotri glacier (25 km), Kosa (11 km) all in Kumaon Himalayas. -Zemu glacier (25 km), Kanchenjunga (16 km) - all in Sikkim.Other sub-types of glaciers:(l)Piedmont glacier: These are found in colder areas and not in the tropical or temperate regions. If is to coalescence of severalmountains and valleys or glaciers at the foothill zone for eg., Melaspina of Alaska (USA)! (2)Iceshelf: Floating thick icesheet/icecap attached to the coast. Eg., Ross iceshelf, Ronne iceshelf, Filchner iceshelf - all in Atlantic coast.

(3)Niche glacier: It represents a small upland icemass which rests upon a sloping rockface.

(4)'U' shaped valley: They are 'U' shaped and are associated with the tributary valleys called hanging valleys. The main glacial valleys of much greater depth are called hanging valleys.(5)Crag and Tail: A peculiar landform having vertical eroded steep side up glacial side and tail-like appearance with lower height, down glacial side is called crag and tail.

(6) Roches mountains: They are all covered by ice andlakes are formed at the foothills and are called Beaded lakes and the smaller lakes are called Paternoster lake.(7)Morraines: They are ridgelike depositional features of glaciers. They are long but narrow ridges with height more than 30 m(8)Drumlins: They look like inverted elliptical or avoid hills. (9)Eskers: They are long narrow and sinuous ridges of sands and gravels and are situated in the middle of ground moraines.

(10)Kames: These are small hills or irregular mounds of bedded sands and grave)s which are deposited by melt of the water near or at the edge of the retreating icesheets.

(11)Kettles and Hummocks: Kettles are depressions in the outwash plains. Large kettles are dotted with numerous low mounds and are called hum-mocks.

(12)Outwash: The melt water caused due to ablation of glaciers at its snout descents through the terminal morraine and spreads like sheet water. It is also known as 'sander' and 'braids'.

 

LANDFORMS MADE BY GLACIERS Features of Erosion: 1.Cirques; These are circular depressions formed by plucking and grinding on the upper parts of the mountain-slopes. Also known as Corries or Amphitheatre.

2.Arete: This.name is applied to the sharp ridges produced by glacial erosion. Where two cirque-walls intersect from opposite sides, a jagged, knife-like ridge, called arete results, also known as comb or serrate-ridge.

3.Horn: Where three or more cirques grow together, a sharp-pointed peak is formed by the intersection of the aretes.

 

4.Col: Where opposed cirques have intersected deeply, a pass §r notch called a col is formed.

 

5.Glacial-trough: Glacier flow constantly deepens and widens its channel so that after the ice has finally disappeared, there remains a deep, steep walled, 'U' shaped valley, known as glacial trough.

 

6.Hanging valley: Tributary glaciers also carve 'U' shaped troughs. But they are smaller in cross-section,, with floors lying high above the floor-level of the main trough, i.e., main glacial valley.

7.Fiords; When the floor of a glacial trough open to the sea lies below sea level, the sea-water will enter as the ice-fronts recedes, producing a narrow estuary, known as a 'fiord'.

8.Tarns: The bed-rock is not always evenly excavated under a glacier, so that floors of troughs and cirques may contain rock-basin and rock-steps. Cirques and upper parts of troughs thus are occupied by small lakes called tarns.

 

Glacio-Fluvial Deposits: 1.Outwash plain: It is also known as overwash plain. Glacial streams carry a huge quantity of rockdebris and then form fan-like plains beyond the terminus of glaciers. These are stratified, when they occur on valley floors, such outwash plains are called valley trains.

2.Karnes or kame terraces: These are formed on the top surface of a glacier where the surficial melt-waters wash sediments from the top in to depressions. As the ice melts the material that formerly filled depressions on top of the gla-cier is dropped and makes small hills, which are more or less flat-topped and are known as kames. Terraces, called kame terraces, are built in this way.3.Eskers: These are winding steep-sided ridge-like features built of stream borne drift, these are also known as Osser or Oss.4.Erratics: These are stray boulders of rocks which have undergone a prolonged glacial transport and have subsequently been deposited in an area, where the country rocks are of distinctly different types. At times they are delicately balanced upon glaciated bed-rock, and are called poking or logging-stone.

5.Kettles: Drifts occurring in the vicinity of a glacier and particularly those lying near about the ice-terminus are ordinarily found to contain a number of depressions, some of which may give rise to lakes or swamps. Such hollows are known as kettles. 6.Varves; These are layered clays alternating with coarser and finer sediments.

 

Other Important-Processes and Features Associated with Glacier:1.Niviation: It is the process of quarrying of rocks mostly by frost-action.2. Ablation. Includes processes both evaporation and the melting of snow and ice.

3.Calving: Within fiords, glaciers come in contact with marine water and blocks of ice are found to break-off from the mass of the glacier. This process of wastage of glacier is known as calving.

4.Serace: Similar to a waterfall in a river, in a steeper section of the valley, the glacier is broken-up into rugged ice-pinnacles and is known as serace.

5.Iceberg: These are floating ice-hill on the sea water.

6.Crevasses: These are cracks formed due to differential movement within the mass of glacier. In German, they are known as Bergschrund.

7.Nunatak: A rock-mass which projects through an ice-sheet, generally found at the margins of a sheet where the ice is thinnest, is known as nunatak.

CLIMATOLOGYATMOSPHERE Composition:1. Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%2. Oxygen (O2)-20.9%3. Argon (Ar)-0.9%4. Carbon Dioxide (C02)-0.033%. These 4 constitute 99.997%.5. Water vapour (H20) Trace Constituents:Neon (Ne) Helium (He) Krypton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Hydrogen (H2) M ethane CH4) Nitrous Oxide (N20) Radon (Rn)Highly variable constituents:Water vapour Ozone (03) Sulphur dioxide (S02) Nitrogen dioxide (N02)Carbon Monoxide (CO) Particles (dust, salt)

 

Characteristics: Nitrogen: When the weathering of igneous rocks takes place, it adds nitrogen in the atmosphere. It is found between 50-100 km. but dominates the lower 50 km.

Oxygen: It occurs up to 120 km. but up to 6 km. as 02, while above it occurs in dissociated form or O.

Carbon dioxide: Absorbs heat radiation from the earth in the atmosphere. It is: transparent and keeps the earth temperature at high level. The rocks gradually remove away the C02 from the atmosphere. It dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a compound i.e. C02+H20= H2C03. The ocean contains 60 times more C02 than the atmosphere.

Argon, Neon, Krypton, Xenon: Chemically inactive; present in tiny proportion; known as noble gases. Water Vapour: Most variable in proportion and largely concentrated in the lowest Kms.; recycles in evaporation- condensation. It is mainly found in lowest region: 6 km of atmosphere. Therefore it becomes less with height. Neon: Bright Red. Used in Neon sign, tubelights and advertisement boards.

Helium: Chemically inert. It is added in the atmosphere by the oil fields. The amount of helium has increased 10 times. Since it is chemically inert hence it can only be lost by escape in the space. Hydrogen: It is negligible in low atmosphere but present above 1500 km. Protons and electrons are found in hydrogen.

Ozone (03) -Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared radiation and therefore increases the. temperature above stratosphere. Maximum production of ozone occurs at 30-40 km above the earth's surface but its maximum concentration occurs at 20-30 km above the earth. Ozone hole was first sighted above Antarctica. Ozone immediately reacts with chlorine. Variations in Atmospheric Composition:1) Variation with height:► Water Vapour comprises up to 4% of the atmosphere by volume near surface but non existent above 10 km. of the atmosphere;► Ozone is mainly concentrated between 15-35 km.;► 100-200 km. is the nitrogen layer;► 200-1,100 km. is the oxygen layer;► 1,100-3,500 km. is helium layer;► Above 3,500 km. is the oxygen layer again.2) Variations with latitude and seasons:► Above 30° latitude north, C02 is least;► Ozone content is low over the equator and high over 50 degree north latitude, particularly in spring.

Atmosphere can be divided into following layers:Troposphere; Stratosphere; Mesosphere; Ionosphere; Thermosphere; Exosphere; Magnetosphere Troposphere:

Troposphere:

► It is the most important zone for weather phenomenon, because of:(a) Gradual decrease of temperature with height i.e. 6.5 degree C per km. Temperature decreases except at winter pole;(b) The lowest part of troposphere up to 1.5-2 km. is called friction layer, where topography greatly influences wind speed and circulation;► It contains all the major atmosphere pollutants. This is also called Connective layer where the clouds are formed;► it roughly extends to a height of 8 kms near the poles and about 18

kms. at the equator► the thickness at the equator is greatest► it contains dust particles and over 90% of the earth's water vapour► aviators of jet aeroplanes often avoid this layer due to presence of bumpy air pockets.► The upper limit of the troposphere is called Tropo-pause, literally means zone or region of mixing. Its height is 17 km during January and July over the equator and the temperature of this height is 700 C

Stratosphere:► From Tropopause to about 50 Km;► It is an Isothermal region and extremely dry free with clouds, water vapour and dust; here air is at rest and movement is almost horizontal► Some clouds found are called Mother of Pearls or Nacreous.► Contains much of Ozone (03); therefore called Ozono-sphere, especially between 15 kms to 35 km from the sea level. The combining of atmosphere oxygen 02with individual oxygen results in the creation of ozone.► In the lower stratosphere (up to 25 km.) temperature remains constant, temperature increase gradually with height up to 50 Kms; and at 50 kms becomes 0° C or 32° F.► The upper limit of the Stratosphere is called Stratopause.► Winds decrease with height in the lower stratosphere and then increase with height in the upper stratosphere.► Feable winds and Cirrus Clouds are found in the lower stratosphere

Chemosphere:► Chemosphere extends from troposphere to an altitude of 50 kms. Overlapping both homosphere and heterosphere.► In this air glove occurs at night especially green and red. It is a part of Stratosphere.► In this air glow occurs at night, especially green and red.

Mesosphere:► Height from 50 Km to 80 Km.► The temperature decreases fairly with the height with the minimum temperature of about -90 degree.► Mesopause (the top of the layer); above Mesopause temperature increases with increasing height► The presence is because of meteoric dust particles.

Thermosphere:► The part of the atmosphere beyond Mesopause is known as thermosphere wherein temperature increases rapidly with increasing height.► it is above 200 km. and N02 and 02 are found.

► its lower portion is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen in molecular and atomic forms;► rapid temperature increase approaching 1700 degree C, at 350 kms.► thermosphere is divided into two layers: (1) Ionosphere and (2) Exosphere Ionosphere:► 80 kms. to 640 kms. and above► Radio waves found; it is a region of electrically charged or ionized air lying next to Mesosphere► High electron density;► 150 kms.-380 kms. known as Appleton;► Absorbs deadly X-rays;► The northern lights or aurora borealis are found.► This layer is called Kennelly Heaviside Layer (99-130 kms) here interaction takes place between solar-ultra-violet photons with nitrogen► Sporadic Layer is associated with high velocity winds. The bulk of the atmosphere consists of electrically neutral atoms and molecules. At high altitudes, however, a significant fraction of the atmosphere is electrically charged. This region is generally called the Ionosphere.It extends throughout the mesosphere and thermosphere but is most important and distinct at altitudes above about 80 kilometres.Most of the ionization in the ionosphere is effected by pho-toionization. Photons of short wavelength (i.e., high energy) are absorbed by atmospheric gases. A portion of the energy is used to eject an electron, converting a neutral atom or molecule to a pair of charged species: an electron, which is negatively charged, and a com-panion positive ion. Ionization in the Fl region is produced mainly by ejection of electrons from 02,0, and N2. The threshold for ionization of 02-corresponds to a wavelength of 102.7 nanometres. Thresholds for 02 and N2 are at 91.1 and 79.6 nanometres, respectively. Exosphere:► 640 kms and above;► The atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and helium form the tenuous atmosphere;► The density becomes extremely low and the atmosphere resembles a nebula because it is highly rarefied. Aurora Australis and Aurora Borealis are produced- magnetic storms on the sun discharge electrified particles in the space. The earth's magnetic poles attract these particles. Aurora Australis (the southern dawn). Aurora Borealis (the northern dawn).

 

Chemical Composition:► It is basically divided into two parts: (1) Homosphere and (2) Heterosphere

Homosphere:(a)It represents the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends upto the height of 90 km from the sea-level.

(b)The main constituent gases are Oxygen (20.946%), Nitrogen (78.084%). Others are Argon, Carbon-dioxide, Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen, etc.(c)The proportion of different gases is uniform at different levels in this zone.

Heterosphere:

(a)This zone extends from 90 km to 10,000 km.

(b)There are four parts of it: (i) Molecular nitrogen layer- it is dominated by molecular nitrogen and extends upward up to the height of200 km (90 to 200 km); (ii) Atomic oxygen layer: extends from 200 to 100 km; (iii) Further upward there is helium layer which extends up to the height of 3500m; (iv) Atomic hydrogen layer- it is the top most layer of the atmosphere and extends up to the outer most limit of the atmosphere.

 

Temperature is affected by:l)Latitude: at high latitude there is low temperature and at low latitude, there is high temperature due to longer and shorter distances. Thus equator will be affected due to isolation or sunstroke and tropics will be most affected between 6° north- 6° south. Because the vertical motion is relatively rapid during its passage over the equator, but its rate slows down as it reaches the tropic;

2)Altitude: places near the earth's surface are warmer, thus the temperature decreases with the increasing height above the sea level because of the lapse rate i.e. every 1 km decreases by 6.5 degree c.

3)Continentality: Continental Climate: summer - 70 degree F; winter - 28 degree F; range - 42 degree F.; Maritime Climate: summer -62 degree F; winter- 48 degree F; range - 14 degree F. 4)Oceanic Currents and Winds

 

PRESSURE and PLANETARY WINDS1) O'-S" North South:► Called Equatorial Low Pressure Belt;

► Intense heating, with expanding air and ascending convection currents;► It is the closest point to the sun, therefore, the air is relatively more hot due to which, the air becomes less denser, lighter and moves upward.► It is called DOLDRUMS or calm;► It is a Zone of Wind Convergence.2) 10*-15° North and South:► Due to high pressure belt around this area, there is subtropical high pressure belt where the air is comparatively dry, light and calm.► This is very beneficial in maritime trade, hence, is called maritime trade.Since the air becomes hotter at the equator, it raises upward and around 30 degree north and south starts coming down. Due to this, a high-pressure belt is created. Hence, horse latitude i.e. 25° -35° north and south, no wind blows.3) 30°- North- South:► Subtropical High Pressure Belt;► Air is comparatively dry and winds are calm and light.► It is a region of descending air currents of wind divergence with cyclonic activity;► Referred as HORSE LATITUDE.4) 30°-60° North and South:► It is the area of temperate low pressure belt or the antitrade wind area. There is rainfall all round the year and cyclones and anti-cyclones are developed.► Comparatively, anti-trade winds are faster in southern hemisphere than in the northern;► Due to Coriolis force, they become South Westerlies in the north and North Westerlies in the south.In the southern hemisphere, due to oceans between 40 de-gree-60 degree South Westerlies blow with much greater force with regularity throughout the year. Here three types of winds are found:- Roaring 40s, Furious 50s, and Shrieking or Storming 50s.5) 60°-North-South:► Two Temperate Low Pressure Belts which are also zones of convergence with cyclonic activity;► The sub-polar low pressure areas are best developed over oceans.6) 90°-North-South► Temperatures are permanently low, are the Polar High Pressure Belt.

HORSE LATITUDE -The dynamically induced subtropical high pressure belt ex-tends between 30°-35° (25°-35°) latitudes in both the hemispheres.-This belt separates two wind systems, viz. trade winds and westerlies.-This zone 30°-35° is characterized by weak and variable winds and

calm. -It is known as horse latitude because of the fact that in ancient times had be sailed through the calm conditions of these latitudes.

 

DOLDRUM-A belt of low pressure, popularly known as equatorial trough of low pressure, extends along the equator within a zone of 50 degree N and 50 degree S latitudes. This is the belt of calm or doldrums because of light and variable winds. -This belt is subjected to seasonal and spatial variations due to northward and southward movement of the overhead sun (summer and winter solstices). Polar Belt:Temperature is permanently low, so this region is the high pressure belt. In the northern hemisphere, they blow north east and in southern hemisphere, south east. The polar easterlies blows towards the temperate low pressure belt. They are extremely cold as they come from Tundra and Icecap region. They are more regular in the south than the north. Planetary Winds: Winds tend to blow from the high pressure belts to the low pressure belts, are the planetary winds. Coriolis Force or Ferrel's Law of Deflection:

► Instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another, however the effect of the rotation of the earth (Coriolis force) tends to deflect the direction of the winds. In the northern hemisphere, winds are deflected to their right and in the southern hemisphere to their left.► This is known as Ferrel's Law of Deflection.► The Coriolis Force is about along the equator but increases progressively towards the Poles.

Trade Winds:► These winds blow out from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern hemisphere towards the Equatorial low become North East Trade Winds and those in the southern hemisphere become the South East Trade Winds. These trade winds are the most regular of all the planetary winds.► They blow with great force and in constant direction.► Therefore , helpful to traders to sail. Trade winds bring heavy rainfall.► They sometimes contain intense depressions.► The word 'trade' comes from the Saxon word'tredan' which means to tread or follow a regular path.► They blow from north -east towards the equator, in the northern hemisphere and from south-east towards the equator, in the southern hemisphere.

 

Permanent Winds:They blow throughout the equator.

 

Westerlies:► From the Subtropical High Pressure Belts, winds blow towards the Temperature Low Pressure Belts.► Under the effect of Coriolis Force, they become the South-Westerlies in the northern hemisphere and North-Westerlies in the southern hemisphere.► This warming effect and other local pressure differences have resulted in a very variable climate in the temperature zones, dominated by the movement of cyclones and anti-cyclones.► In the southern hemisphere, where there is a large expanse of ocean, from 40 degree south to 60 degree south; westerlies blow with much greater force and regularity throughout the year.► There is much variation in the weather conditions in their poleward parts where there is convergence of cold and denser polar winds and warms and lighter westerlies.► Their velocity increases south ward and they become .stormy. They are also associated with boisterous gales. The velocity of the westerlies be-cpme so great that they are called:(a)Roaring forties between the latitudes 40-50 degree S; (b)Furious fifties at 50 degree S latitude; and(c)Shrieking sixties at 60 degree S'latitude. Polar Easterlies:► It blows from the Polar Easterlies towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts.► It is extremely cold winds as it comes from Tundra and Ice-Cap regions. y It is more regular in the south than in the north.► It is defected to the right to become the N.E. Polar Winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left to become the S.E. Poter Winds in the Southern Hemisphere.► These polar cold winds converge with warm westerlies near 60-65 latitudes and form polar front or mid-latitude front or mid-latitude front, which becomes the centre for the origin of temperate cyclones.

Fohn and Chinook:Fohn is a warm, dry and local wind- Northern Alps- Switzerland in spring; and called climate oasis.► Chinook is a warm, dry and local wind- Eastern slopes in Rockies in USA and Canada in winters.► It increases temperature 35 degree F within 15 minutes.► It causes Avalanches.► In North America, it is called Chinook, meaning 'the snow eater'.► Chinook winds are more common during winter and early spring

along the eastern slopes (leeward side) of the Rocky Mountains from Colorado (USA) in the south to British Columbia (Canada).

 

Sirocco:Sirocco is a warm, dry and dusty local wind, which blows in northerly direction from Sahara desert and after crossing over the Mediterranean Sea, reaches Italy and Spain,► Becomes extremely warm and dry while descending through the northern slopes of the Atlas Mountain.► It is known as Khamsin in Egypt; Gibli in Libya; Chili in Tunisia; Simoom in Arabian Desert; Blood Rain in South Italy; Leveche in Spain; Gharbi in Adriatic and Aegean Sea.

Mistral:► It is a cold wind which blows in Spain and France from North-east direction; especially in winter► The average velocity of mistral is 56-64 km/h to 128 kmph Bora:► Bora is an extremely cold and dry north-easterly wind in Adriatic Sea, with a velocity of 128 kmph to 196 kmph► It is also called Tramontana and Gregale. Harmattan:► It is warm and dry winds blowing from north-east and east to west in the eastern part of Sahara desert.► Called as Doctor in Guinea coastal of Western Africa► Called Brickfielder in Victoria in Australia; Blackroller in the Great plains of USA; Shamal in Mesopotamia; Norwester in New Zealand.

Blizzard:► It is a violent stormy cold and powdery polar wind laden with dry snow and is prevalent in North and South polar regions, Siberia,-Canada and the USA.► Northers in the Southern USA and Burran in Siberia. Tropical Cyclones: Typhoons: It occurs mainly in the region 6 degree and 20 degree North and South of the equator and are most frequent from July to October. It's velocity is 100 m.p.h. Torrential downpour is accompanied by Thunder and Lightening. Hurricanes: Same feature, but only differs in intensity, duration and locality. It has calm, rainless centres, where pressure is lowest.Tornadoes: Its velocity is 500 m.p.h. It appears as a dark funnel cloud. 250-1400 ft. in diameter. It is most frequent in spring.

Atmospheric Pressure:► Air has weight and therefore it exerts air pressure or atmospheric pressure. Pressure is felt maximum at the surface and it decreases with height.

► It is about 2.7 kg per sq. cm i.e. 1013.2 millibar, water vapour decreases the pressure, the movement of the earth also affects pressure.► At the equator earth rotates with a speed of 1600 km/ hour and completes a distance of 40,000 km in 24 hour.► Speed decreases as it goes up and down;► At 45 degree latitude speed is 1100 km/ hour and becomes 0 degree at the poles, therefore after 60 degree latitude air pressure is constant.

Types Of Atmospheric Pressure:(a)Vertical distribution ofpres-sure - the pressure is highest at surface and at every 300 m above the earth the pressure decreases by 34 millibar. At 5,500 m. pressure reduces to half and 1/4th at 11000m. (b)Horizontal distribution of pressure - In January, sun is tilted towards south and therefore in the southern hemisphere there is low-pressure belt. Therefore in Eurasia and North America high pressure is developed with low temperature. In July, at Atlantic and Pacific ocean low pressure is developed especially Icelandic and Aleutianic. On the other hand, when the sun is tilted towards north low pressure is shifted to Asia and Africa. However in the lower Asia, Africa, South Pacific Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean high pressure is developed.

► There are 7 pressure belts: i)Equatorial Low Pressure Belt;ii)North of Capricorn- High Pressure Belt;iii)South Of Cancer- High Pressure Belt;iv)66 degree North Low Pressure Belt (Northern sub-Polar region);v)66 degree South low Pressure Belt (Southern sub-Polar region);vi)North Pole High Pressure Belt;vii)South Pole High Pressure Belt,

 

Relation between Pressure and Wind:l.The temperature increases when wind expands and density decreases and when the temperature Jails, winds contracts and density increases. Therefore, where temperature is increased, density is lowered and any reduction in temperature produces high pressure.

2. The earth rotates west to east and therefore, it produces centrifugal force and due to this force, there is change in the direction of the wind. There are three laws related to it:-(a)Ferrel's Law: In the northern hemisphere, wind deflects towards right and in the southern hemisphere it is vice-versa. This means that in the north-em hemisphere, the wind deflects clockwise and in the southern anti-clockwise. This is called deflection of wind and because of high and low pressure the wind tends to be deflected instead of being straightened.

(b)Buisballot's Law: In north hemisphere at the right side of your backside, there would be high pressure and at the left, low pressure. In the south, it is vice-versa. This would help in determination of appropriate direction.(Hadley’s Law: In the northern hemisphere the wind from north to south deviates right and in the southern hemi-sphere, from south to north deviates to the left. The left from east to west does not deflect according to this law. Clouds: Clouds are defined as aggregates of innumerable tiny water droplets, ice-particles of mixture of both in the air, generally above the ground surface Acid Rain:-Acidity measured by pH. -PH scale runs from 1 to 14 measures the balance of Hydrogen ions (H*) & Hydroxide ions (OH) in a  14 point scale

-Positive and negative balance is pH7.-If there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ion, the pH is less than the solution is termed acidic, the lower the pH, the higher the acid content. -Rainfall- somewhat acidic pH: 5.5 to 6 0.

 

Condensation:The process of change of water vapour into liquid form is called condensation. Therefore, condensation is opposite to vaporization Surface Tension: water has the highest surface tension of any liquid except mercury. Surface tension is the attraction of molecules of each other.

Humidity: water in gaseous form or water vapour in the atmosphere is referred to as humidity. It can also be defined as the number of molecules of water/unit volume. Vapour Pressure: Vapour pressure is simply the pressure, exerted by the water vapour content. Its value increases as the temperature increases.

Specific Humidity: Specific humidity is the ratio of the weight of moist vapour (gms) to the weight of moist air ( Represents the actual quantity of moisture in a definite air. It decreases fmm equator to poles. In Arctic it is 0.2 gm./kg., while in equatorial region, it is 18 gm./kg. It is used in Climatology

Absolute Humidity: Absolute humidity of the air is the mass or weight of vapour per unit volume of air

Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually present in the air having definite volume and

temperature (Absolute humidity) to the maximum amount the air can hold.

Forms of Condensation: Mist: Forms on wet surface, lakes or rivers where the hu-midity is high and condensation in evening was led to wisps of mist over the fields and water especially in sheltered spots.Rime: It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the freezing of super cooled water droplets on the surface . below 0 degree C. Smog: Smoke and Fog. Normal lapse rate:6.5 degree C/ thousand m. or3.5 degree F/thousand feet.

Dew Point:► The temperature at which air becomes saturated is called Dew Point.► The vapour is limited. If the volume of vapour increases but there may be a point at which the vapour cannot be incorporated, this is called saturation point.► Dew points are the temperaing winter than summer.

Regional Distribution:According to the ancient Greek thinkers the globe is divided into three temperature zones on the basis of latitudes: (1) Tropical Zone; (2) Temperature Zone; (3) Frigid Zone;(1) Tropical Zone -Extends between the tropics of Cancer (23.50N) and Capricorn (23.50S).-The sun is more or less vertical on the equator throughout the year.-There is no winter around the equator because of high temperature prevailing throughout the year.(2) Temperate Zone-Extends between 23.5° and 66.5° latitudes in both the hemispheres.-There is a marked seasonal contrast with the northward and southward migration of the overhead sun - The range of temperature is exceptionally high.(3) Frigid Zone -Extends between 66.5° latitudes and the poles in both the hemispheres.-More oblique sun's rays throughout the year resulting into exceptionally very low temperature characterize it. -The length of day and night is more than 24 hrs. Isanomalous Temperature -The difference ot observed ^ temperature of a place and the mean temperature of the latitude passing through that places called thermal anomaly. -For example, if the average temperature of 30°N latitude is 20°C and the temperature of "S" place located on the latitude is 30°C, then the thermal anomaly is of 10°. -If the observed temperature of a particular place is more than the mean temperature of the latitude of that place, the thermal anomaly is called positive thermal anomaly, but

if the observed temperature of a given place is less than that of the latitude of that place then it becomes negative thermal anomaly.-The equal thermal anomaly of several places is called isanomalous temperature and the lines drawn on the world map joining places of equal thermal anomaly are called isanomals.

Water Vapour and Evaporation-The process of transformation of liquid (water) into gaseous from is called evaporation. -The process of conversion of vapour into (water) and solid form (ice, snow, frost) is condensation.

Latent Heat-Energy in the form of heat is required for the conversion of water into gaseous torm (water vapor). Heat energy is generally measured in the unit of calorie.-The potential energy of water is more than ice and that of (vapour is more than water. This hidden amount of heating water is the latenheat.

Humidity Capacity -The moisture content (humidity) of the air is measured in grain per cubic foot or in gram per cubic centimetre. -Evaporation is the main mechanism through which wa-sher is converted into humidity. -Temperature and evaporation are directly positively related and hence humidity and temperature are also directly positively related. -The moisture retaining capacity or humidity capacity refers to the capacity of an air of certain temperature to retain maximum amount of moisture content.-Humidity capacity is directly positively related with temperature-Higher the temperature, higher the humidity capacity and vice-versa.- The ratio of increase of humidity capacity also increases with the increasing temperature.

Absolute Humidity-The total weight of moisture contained (water vapour) per volume of air at definite temperature is called absolute humidity.-Evaporation is the main mechanism through which water is converted into humidity or vapour. Temperature and evaporation are directly and positively related. -The absolute humidity decreases from equator towards thepoles and from ocean to the continents.-The possibility of preeipitation largely depends on absolute humidity.-The air having moisture content equal to its humidity capacity is called 'saturated air'. -Generally absolute humidity does not change with increase or decrease of temperature. Specific Humidity -It is defined 'as the mass of water vapour in grams contained in a kg Qf air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a definite

air-It_is seldom affected by change in the air temperature measured in the units of weight-It is directly proportional to vapour pressure, which is the partial pressure exerted by water vapour in the air and is independent of other gases', and is inversely proportional to air pressure.-It decreases from equator to pote ward.-In real sense, specific humidity is a geographer's yardstick of a basic natural resource water to be applied from equatorial to Polar Regions. -It is a measure of quantity of water that can be extracted from the atmosphere as precipitation.-In Arctic, it is 0.2 gm/kg., while in equatorial region, it is 18gm/kg.

 

Relative Humidity (RH) Relative humidity is defined as a ratio of the amount of watervapour actually present in the air having definite volume and temperature (i.e., absolute humidity) to the maximum amount the air can hold (i.e.,humidity capacity). (Relative Humidity = Absolute Humidity / Humidity Capacity) There is inverse relationship between air temperature and relative humidity, i.e., relative humidity decreases with increasing temperature while it increases with decreasing tem-perature.When the humidity capacity and absolute humidity of the air are the same, the air is said to be saturated and relative humidity becomes lOO percent. Relative humidity (RH) can be changed in two ways: first, if the absolute humidity increases due to additional evaporation and secondly, change takes place temperature. Importance of RH: -The possibility of precipitation depends on it. -High and low relative humidity is indicative of the possibility of wet and dry conditions respectively. Distribution of RH: -Equatorial regions are characterized by highest relative humidity.-It gradually decreases towards subtropical high pressure belts where it becomes minimum (between 25°-35° latitude) -Latitudes largely control seasonal distribution of relative humidity.-Maximum R.H. is found during summer season between 30°Nand30°S latitudes. Condensation-The transformation of gaseous form of water (i.e., water vapour) into solid form (ice) and liquid form (water) is called condensation. -Condensation is opposite to evaporation.-The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is called Dew point temperature. -Condensation depends on:(a) the percentage of relative humidity of the air; and(b) the degree of cooling of air.

Cooling of Air and Adiabatic ChangeTemperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of 6.5°C per 1000m or 3.6°F per 1000 feet. This rate of decrease of temperature with increasing height is called normal lapse rate.A definite ascending air with given volume and temperature expands due to decrease in pressure and thus cools. -It is apparent that there is a change in temperature of air due to ascent or descent but without addition or subtraction of heat. Such type of change of temperature of air due to contraction or expansion of air is called adiabatic change of temperature.Adiabatic change of temperature is of two types, viz.: (i)dry adiabatic change (ii)moist adiabatic change. -The temperature of unsaturated ascending air decreases with increasing height at the rate of5.50Fper feet or 10°C per 1000m This type of change of temperature of unsaturated ascending or descending air is called dry adiabatic rate. -The rate of decrease of temperature of an ascending air beyond condensation level is lowered due to addition of latent heat of condensation of the air. This is called moist adiabatic rats--In this case temperature of an ascending air beyond condensation level decreases (and hence the air cools) at the rate 3°F per 1000 feet. This is also called retarded adiabatic rate.

 

Stability and Instability of the Atmosphere-Different types of precipitation (dew, rainfall, frost, snowfall, hailstorm, etc.) depend on stability and instability of the atmosphere.-The air without vertical movement is called stable air while unstable air undergoes vertical movement.-An air mass ascends and becomes unstable when it becomes warmer than the surrounding air mass while descending air mass becomes stable. The stability and instability depends on the relationship between normal lapse rate and adiabatic change in temperature.

Stability: When the dry adiabatic lapse rate of ascending dry air is higher than the normal lapse rate and if it is not saturated and does not "attain dew point, it becomes colder than surrounding air at certain height with the result it becomes heavier and descends. This process causes stabilityof atmospheric circulation due to which vertical circulation of air is resisted;When the ascending parcel of air reaches such height that its temperature equals temperature of surrounding air, its further upward movement is stopped. Such air is said to be in the state of neutral equilibrium.

 

Mechanical Instability: It is a case of abnormal conditions when the normal lapse rate is exceptionally very high (15 degree C to 35 degree C per. lOOm.). The upper layers are cold and denser than the underlying layers, therefore, cold and denser upper layers automatically descend. Such situation is called mechanical instability and helps in the formation of tornado.

Conditional Instability: When a parcel of air is forced to move upward, it cool at dry adiabatic lapse rate (10 degree C per 1000 m. or 5.5 degree F per 1000 feet), normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per 1000 m. The air is initially forced to move upward but rises automatically due to its own properties after condensation point is reached.

 

Dew: The earth receives radiation fromihe sun during day and reflects in the night.► When the earth reflects the heat the surface becomes cooleLand the air around it also becomes cooler.► Then the water vapour in the air condenses and then is called 'dew'.► But there are two preconditions: (1) there must be vapour in the air; and (2) the surface must be cool enough to condense that water vapour.► That's why after rainy season, the water vapour content in the air increases.► After the rainy season in the winter, the air becomes cool and therefore adequate dews are formed in Oct.Nov.

Fog:► It is a special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically small water droplets which are kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface arid reduces horizontal visibility.► Fog is generally associated with inversion of temperature and occurs in the morning hours but sometimes also continue till noon.When there is a mixture of smoke and fog, it becomes Smog.

 

Radiation Fog:► Radiation fog is formed when warm and moist air lies surface. Due to this situation overlying warm and moist aircools and the dew point is reached, with the condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei (dust particles and smokes) forms numerous tiny water droplet and thus fog is originated.► When fog is combined with sulphur dioxide it becomes poisonous and causes human deaths. Such fog is called urban smog.

Advectional Radiation Fog:► The fog formed due to mixing of warm moist air and cold air due to arrival of warm and moist air over cold ground surface is called advectional radiation.► The fogs occurring over sea surfaces are called sea fogs, which are generally formed, near the coastal areas frequented by cold ocean currents.

 

Steam Fogs:Steam fogs are in fact advectional fogs, which are formed when cold air moves from land over oceanic surface and there is evaporation of large quantity of moisture from water surface to saturate the overlying cold air. They are also called evaporation fogs.

Upslope or Hill Fogs:It originate when continental warm and moist air rises upslope along the hill slopes because the rising air is saturated due to cooling and condensation of moisture around hygroscopic nuclei and forms fogs which cover the lower segments of hill slopes.

 

Frontal Fogs: Fronts are formed when two contrasting air masses (warm and cold air masses) converge along a line. Warm air is pushed upward by cold air and hence overlying warm air is cooled from below due to underlying warm air is cooled from below due to underlying cold air and fogs originate after condensation. Frost:► When the temperature falls below freezing point, it forms a frost.Temperature either 0° C or less, than the water droplets take the form of ice cubes. Rime:► It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the freezing of super cooled water droplets on the surface below 0°C.

RAINFALLOrigin of Rainfall► The presence of warm, moist and unstable air and sufficient number of hygroscopic nuclei are prerequisite condition for rainfall.► The warm and moist air after being lifted upward be comes saturated and clouds are formed after condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei (salt and dust particles) but still there may not be rainfall unless the air is supersaturated.► The process of condensation begins only when the relative humidity of ascending air becomes 100% and the air is further cooled through dry adiabatic lapse but first condensation occurs around larger

hygroscopic nuclei only. Such droplets are called cloud droplets.For condensation there are following pre conditions:► The air becomes warm and goes vertical and then spreads;► To come into contact of warm air with high mountains and then to climb over then and to come close to the top layer of ice and become cool;► To become cool by approaching the colder latitudes;► To come in contact with colder air or currents.

 

Theories of Rainfall Cloud Instability:

Theory of Bergeron Findeisen: This theory was postulated in 1933; also called Icecrystal theory.► This theory is based on the fact that relative humidity of air is greater with respect to an icesurface than with respect to water surface.► Air temperature ranges between 5°C to 25°C, then water droplets become supersaturated.► The aggregation of ice crystals is more prevalent when air temperature ranges between 0 degree to 50 degree C► When the ice crystals fall and pass through layer of air with temperature more than 0 degree C, they change into raindrops.

 

Collision Theory:► The Bergeron process could not explain the mechanism of rainfall in tropical areas.► The Collision Theory involving collision, coalescence and sweeping for the formation and growth of rain drops was postulated by many meteorologists.► According to this theory, the collision may cause splitting and scattering of cloud droplets.► Longmuir modified this theory saying that the larger drops fall with greater velocity than smaller drops hence absorbing them.

Types of Rainfall: Conventional Rainfall► Occur due to thermal convention currents caused due to insolational heating of ground surface.► Prevalent especially in equatorial areas;► Warm air rises up and expands, then reaches at a cooler layer and saturates and then condenses mainly in the form of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and normally precipitation takes place in the second half of the noon;

► Also rains in the tropical, subtropical and little in temperate regions;► But there must be two pre conditions:Abundant supply of moisture through evaporation to air so that relative humidity becomes high;Intense heating of ground surface through incoming shortwave electromagnetic solar radiations.

 

Features of Conventional rainfall: 1 .It occurs daily in the afternoon in the equatorial region. 2.1t is for very short duration but occurs in the form of heavy showers.3. They make Cumulonimbus clouds.4.1n hot deserts it is not regular, but is irregular and sudden.

 

Cyclonic or frontal rainfall:► Occur due to upward movement of air caused by convergence of extensive air masses► It happens due to the convergence of two different air masses with different temperature. The worm air rises over cold air and cyclonic rain occurs;► Cold air pushes up warm air and the sky is clear again.

 

Orographic Rainfall occurs due to ascent of air forced by mountain barrier. The preconditions are: (a) there should be mountain barrier across the wind direction, so that the moist air is forced on obstruction to move upward e.g. Aravali in Rajasthan is parallel to Arabian Sea and thus forms rain shadow area; (b) there should be sufficient moisture in the air; (c) the height of the mountain also affects rainfall; and (d) if the height is more but more distance from sea, lesser rainfall; if the height is less but nearer to sea, more rainfall.

 

Features of Orographic rainfall: ► The windward slope. E.g. Mangalore is located in the western windward slope and receives 2,000 mm of rainfall, whereas Bangalore is in rain shadow area and hardly receives 500 mm. rainfall. Similarly Coast Ranges of North America receives 2,000 mm. but eastern slope doesn't.► The maximum rainfall occurs near the mountain slope and decreases

away from the foothills. E.g. in Shimla, 1520 mm.; Nainital, 2,000 mm. and Darjeeling receives 3150 mm. rainfall because Darjeeling is nearest to Himalayan slopes. Patna 1000 mm., Allahabad 1050 and Delhi 650 mm.► If mountain is of moderate height, the maximum rainfall doesn't occur at the top rather it occurs on the other side.► Cumulus clouds while the leeward side by Stratus clouds characterizes the windward slope of mountain at the time of rainfall.► The amount of rainfall increases with increasing height along the windward slope of mountain up to a certain height but the amount of rain decreases with increasing height because of marked decrease in the moisture content of air. This situation is called 'inversion of rainfall';► This type of rainfall may occur in any season. Inversion Point: maximum rainfall line is at 24,000 feet or 7,000 m. at the equator whereas in the Himalayas, it is 12,000 feet or 3600 m.; at Alps 21,000 or 6,300 m. and at Pyrenees mountain 18,00012,000 feet.

 

Distribution of Rainfall:► Rainfall is related with air temperature and atmospheric humidity, while humidity is closely related with temperature through the process of evaporation.► The regions having high temperature and abundance of water receive higher amount of rainfall e.g. Equatorial regions.► SubTropical regions also have the same conditions but the western parts receive least rainfall due to anticyclonic conditions.► Mean annual rainfall for the whole globe is 970 mm. but is unevenly distributed.► Some places receive less than 100 mm. of rainfall e.g. Hot deserts like Kalahari, Thar etc., while some receive more than 12,000 mm. like Cherrapunji in India.► The equatorial regions receive rainfall throughout the year, while the other areas have seasonal rainfall.► The Mediterranean region receives most of the annual rainfall during winters.

Other Forms of Precipitation1 .Ice: If the temperature of the entire atmosphere is below 0°C, the condensation will lead to ice formation and snowfall. 2.Snowfall: The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the ground surface is called snowfall. It occurs when the freezing level is less than 300m from the ground surface. These crystals reach the ground , without being melted in a solid , form of precipitation as snow3 .Sleet: In U.K. it refers to a mixture of snow and rain but in American

terminology it means falling of small pellets of transparent and translucent ice having a diameter of 5 mm.or less.4.Hail: It consists of large pellets or spheres of ice. In fact hail is a form of solid precipitation wherein small balls or pieces of ice, Known as.Hail or stones, having a diameter of 550 mm fall downward as hail storms! They are very destructive and dreaded form of solid precipitation because they destroy agricultural crops and claim human and animal life. After condensation, if the temperature is below 0 degree C, than the water drops would take the form of hails. 5.Drizzle: The fall of numerous uniform minute droplets of water having diameter of less than 0.5 mm. is called drizzle. They fall continuously from low stratus clouds but the total amount of water received on the ground surface is significantly.

AIR MASSES (AM)

 

1.Meaning and Characteristics "An air mass may be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties, especially temperature, moisture content, and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometres." According to A.N. Strahler and A.H. Strahler: " a body of air in which the upward gradients of temperature and moisture are fairly uniform over a large area is known as an air mass." An air mass may be so extensive that it may cover a large portion of a continent and it may be so thick in vertical dimension that it may vertically extend through the troposphere.► An air mass is designated as cold air mass when its temperature is lower than the underlying surface while an air mass is termed warm air mass when its temperature is higher than the underlying surface.► The boundary between two different air masses is called front.

 

II. Source Regions► The extensive areas over which air masses originate or form are called surface regions whose nature and properties largely determine the temperature and moisture characteristics of air masses.► An ideal source region of air mass must possess the following essential conditions:► There must be extensive and homogenous earth's surface so that it may possess uniform temperature and moisture conditions;► There should not be convergence of air; rather there should be divergence of air flow so that the air may attain the physical properties of the region.► Atmospheric conditions should be stable for considerably long period

of time so that the air may attain the characteristics of the surface.► There are six major source regions of air masses on the earth's surface:1.Polar oceanic areas (North Atlantic Ocean betweenEurasia and North America, and Arctic region during winter season),3.Tropical oceanic areas (anticyclonic areasthroughout the year),4.Tropical continental areas (North AfricaSahara, Asia, Mississippi Valley zone of the USA most developed in summers),5 .Equatorial regions (zone located between trade windsactive throughout the year), and6. Monsoon lands of S.E. Asia

Ill) Classification of AM: There are two approaches to the classification of air masses, e.g., (a) Geographical Classification and (b) Thermodynamic classification. Geographical Classification:► The geographical classification of air masses is based on the characteristic features of the source regions.► Trewartha has classified air masses on the basis of their geographical locations into two broad categories, viz., (i) Polar air mass (P), which originate in the polar areas. Arctic air masses are also included in this category; (ii) Tropical air mass (T), which originate in tropical areas. Equatorial air masses are also included in this category. ► These two air masses have been further divided into two types on the basis of the nature of the surface of the source regions:(a) Continental air masses (indicated by small letter V) and(b) maritime air masses ('m') Thermodynamic Modifications and Classification of Air Masses

► Thermodynamic modifications of an air mass involves its heating from below while passing through different surfaces away from the source region.► The modification of air masses depend on 4 factors: (i)Initial characteristics of air mass in terms of temperature and moisture content: (ii)Nature of land or water surface over which a particular air mass moves,(iii)Path followed by the air mass from the source region to the affected area, and (iv) Time taken by the air mass to reach a particular destination.► A warm air mass (w) is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of the region visited while if the air mass is colder than the surface temperature it is called cold air mass(k).

Such mechanical modifications are introduced due to cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions, Based on the thermodynamic and mechanical

(dynamic) modifications air masses are divided into:1. cold air mass; and 2.warm air mass.

Fronts: Usually, air mass from one region gradually moves to the other region occupied by some other air mass. When a warmer and a lighter air mass moves against a cold and more dense air mass, the former rides over the latter. Such a front is called a warm front. On the contrary, if the cold air mass forces its way under a mass of warmer air and pushes the latter upwards, the front will be called a cold front.

 

General Frontal Characteristics: (i)Temperature: Great difference in temperature are recorded across a front. But the change in the temperature may be abrupt or gradual depending upon the nature of the opposing air masses. The width of frontal transition zone is dependent on the temperature contrast. Besides the fronts are always characterized by the temperature inversion layers because of ascent of warm air over a wedge of cold and dense air mass.(ii)Air Pressure: there is an abrupt change in the pressure as well as the pressure gradient across a front. (iii)Winds: Abrupt wind shift at the fronts.(iv)Clouds and Precipitation: Frontogenesis:The term was for the first was used by Tor Bergeron. It is a process of regeneration of the old and the decaying fronts or it means the creation of altogether new fronts.

Frontolysis: The process means the dying of a front. Fronts do not come into existence out of a sudden, rather they appear only after the process of frontogenesis have been in operation for quite some time . In the same way the act of vanishing of the existing fronts is not accomplished suddenly. The process of frontolysis must continue for some time in order to destroy an existing front. Convergence of the wind toward a point or contraction toward a line augments the process of frontogenesis. On the contrary, divergence of the wind from a point, or is helpful to the process of frontogenesis .

 

Frontogenesis there for is likely to occur when fronts move into regions of divergent air flow. That is why in crossing the subtropical high pressure regions, the front generally disappears. Cyclones facilitate development of fronts whereas anticyclones do not allow the formation of the fronts.

Classification of fronts:1.Cold front 2.Warm front 3.0ccluded front 4.Stationary front Cold Front:

 

A cold front is a front along Which cold air is invading the warm air zone. Since the colder air masses denser, it remains at the ground and forcibly uplifts the warmer and lighter air mass. In fact, when pressure distribution is such as to force the cold air to advance and the warm air to retreat, the zone of transition is called a cold front. The steepness of the front is closely related with its velocity. Higher velocity results in the steeper slope, while the lower velocity makes the slope of the front rather gentle. The slope of the cold front varies from 1 : 50 to 1 :100. Depending upon the instability of the overrunning warm air, convective clouds or even thunderstorms may occur along the leading edge of the cold front. The type of front slopes backward instead of forward, so there is no warning far in advance often approaching cold front and no preceding cloudiness until the front is near. The cold front in general is associated with narrow band of cloudiness and precipitation. The cold front passes more rapidly. The sky becomes clear soon after the passage of the front. However, the weather produced along the cold front is valid. At the actual front, the clouds are of Nimbostratus and Cumulonimbus type which produce heavy rainfall. In certain cases precipitation falls ahead of the front, while on occasions it is behind the same. If cold front moves rapidly, the secondary cold fronts may develop at some distance behind. With the passage of cold front, the sky becomes rapidly clear and the weather improves. There is a sudden drop in the temperature. The wind shift from south to west or northwest generally accompanying the frontal passage. There is marked decrease in the specific and relative humidity. The weather after a cold front has passed, is dominated by subsiding and relatively cold air mass. In winter, the passage of a cold front is followed by a cold wave which further reduces the surface temperature.

Warm Front: The slope of warm front is 1 : 100 to 1 : 200. Cirrostratus clouds halos around the sun and the moon. Mackerel sky is produced by Cirrocumulus clouds. As the front approaches the viewer, the clouds become lower and thicker. The thick cloud sheet overlying the surface position of the front gives steady precipitation extending over a long distance ahead of the front. Warm fronts usually yield moderate to gentle precipitation over a relatively larger area for several hours. This is in conformity with the gentle slope of the front. Convective activity is generally absent along a warm front. The passage of a warm front is , marked by a rise in the temperature and pressure. The specific humidity arises rapidly.

 

Occluded Front: An occluded front is a front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front, the cofd front moves rapidly than the warm front. Ultimately, the cold front overtakes the warm front and completely displaces the warm air at the ground. A long backward swinging occluded front comes into the existence.There are two types of occlusion :(i)Cold front occlusion which is most common, and (ii)Warm front occlusion. The weather that is produced along an occluded front is usually a combination of the cold front and the warm front weather conditions. Stationary Front: It is a front in which the surface position of the fronts do not move.

Zones of Frontogenesis:The fronts do not form everywhere. There development is confined to certain defined zones. Fronts usually develop in those areas of the world where air masses have strong temperature contrasts. (i)Atlantic Polar Front: This is the most important zone, which is developed maximum in winter. It is an area between Great lakes, Iceland, Portugal and West Indies. (ii)Atlantic Arctic Front: (iii)Mediterranean Front: This front lies over Mediterra. nean and Caspian Sea region which develops in winter. (iv)Pacific Arctic Front: This front lies between Rocky mountains and Great Lake regions. In winter, it shifts equatorward.In winter, two pacific polar fronts develops: (i) near the coast of North America; (ii) near the Asian coast. The winter rainfall along the Pacific coast of North America is produced by the storms developed on these fronts. The Polar fronts over western Atlantic and Pacific deyelop 10 degrees further north in summer than in winter. The summer Polar Fronts develop over Eurasia in Middle North America. In the southern hemisphere the average position of the polar front is about 45 degrees south in January. In July, there are two polar fronts (i) originating over South America and (ii) the other at 170 degrees west.

CYCLONES:

Cyclone is a system of low atmospheric pressure in which the barometric gradient is steep. Winds circulate, blowing inwards in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are classified into two parts: (l)Tropical Cyclone (2)Temperate or Extratropical Cyclone

 

(l)Tropical Cyclone: A system of low pressure occurring in tropical latitudes, characterized by its very strong winds; found mainly in Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia. Tropical Disturbances are classified into three parts :(a)A Tropical Depression is a system with low pressure enclosed within few isobars and the wind speed is. 33 knot or 61 tens and it lacks a marked circulation.(b)A Tropical Storm is a system with several closed isobars and a wind circulation of 115 Kms.(c)A Tropical Cyclones is a warm core vortex circulation of tropical origin with a small diameter often of an approximately circular shape; they occur only in oceanic areas where the sea temperatures exceed 27 degree C.

Different Names of Tropical Cyclones:

Hurricanes -N. America & Caribbean

Typhoons - Western North PacificWillywillies- AustraliaBagulo- Philippine IslandsTaifu- JapanCyclones- Indian Ocean

 

Structure of the Tropical Cyclones:► It is essentially radially symmetrical► It has six regions (1) The eye is the centre of the storm which is characterised by more or less circular with comparatively clear skies, lowest pressure, the highest temperature and highest relative humidities; (2) The eye is surrounded by a wall of cumulonimbus known as eyeball. Strongest wind is found; (3) Spiral bands or Rainbands or Feeder bands contain many individual thunderstorms which produce heavy rainfall;(4)Annular zone is characterized by cloudiness and high temperatures and low humidities;(5) Outer Convective band; (6) Main cloudmass. Horizontal structure of tropical cyclone

Eye the innermost or central portion of the mature cyclone is the 'eye'. It is about 10 to 30 km in diameter, depending upon the size of the.storm and is a more.or less calm region with little or no clouds and some subsidence. The eye or the calm centre can be described variously as the: Pressure eye (where mean sea level pressure is

lowest), Wind eye (light or calm wind conditions), Radar eye (the eye seen in radar echoes) and the Satellite eye (clear or dark spot seen in the cloud mass in satellite imagery).

Eye Wall or Inner Ring Surrounding the eye is a tight 'inner ring' of hurricane winds. This core of maximum winds is at the centre of a solid thick wall of towering Cumulonimbus clouds and is called the 'eye wall'.

Outer Ring An outer ring of cyclonic circulation lies beyond the eye wall, where the speed decreases steeply and clouds and rain diminish rapidly outwards.

(2) Temperate Cyclone: It is also called 'Depressions'. It has low pressure at the centre and increasing pressure outward. It has varying shapes such as near circular, elliptical or wedge, therefore, it is also called Low or Troughs or Mid Latitude Depressions.

Secondly, they are formed in the regions extending between 35 degree to 65 degree latitudes in both the hemispheres.

Thirdly, Tropical Cyclone is confined strictly over sea, whereas Temperate Cyclone form over both land and sea.

Fourthly, Tropical cyclone is produced in summer and autumn and Temperate cyclone largely in winter.

Fifthly, Temperate cyclone has low pressure gradient, whereas tropical cyclone has steep pressure gradient; and

finally, rainfall in temperate cyclones is slow and continuous, whereas in tropical cyclone the rainfall is violent and torrential.

 

Anticyclone: A system of atmospheric pressure in which the isobars on a synoptic chart indicate a relatively, highpressure in the centre and decreasingly low pressures outwards to the periphery of the system. The isobars are generally widely spaced, indicating light winds which may be absent near the centre. Air movement is clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern hemisphere. The term anticyclone was coined by Galton in 1861 Anticyclones do notexperience any precipitation and tend to be dry. It is characterized by larger, slow moving and more persistent with a high pressure at the centre but with a weaker pressure gradient and light variable winds diverging from the centre.► They are usually circular in shape but sometimes also assume 'V

shape.► They are much larger in size and area than temperate cyclones as their diameter is 75% larger than that of the latter.► Anticyclones do not have fronts.► Winds descend from above at the centre and thus weather becomes clear and rainless.

Fohn Winds: (Latin: meaning growth) A warm and relatively dry wind which descends on the leeward side of a mountain range. Fohn winds are :

Chinook- Andes and RockiesYamo- JapanTramontane- C. EuropeSamun- IranNorwester- New ZealandBerg- S. AfricaSanta Ana- CaliforniaZonda- Argentina

 

Depression Winds: A moving wind involves air masses originating both on its poleward and equatorward side, therefore, both warm and cold wind result.Depression winds are:1.WarmSirocco- ItalyLeveche- AustraliaKhamsim- EgyptGibli- TunisiaBrickfielders- Victoria (Australia)2. ColdSoutherly Burster- New South WalesPampero- ArgentinaFriagem or Surazo- BrazilPapagayo- MexicoMistral -Rhone Valley (France)Levanter- West MediterraneanEtesian- East MediterraneanBora- Adriatic CoastConvectional Wind: They are basically desert winds with dusty and gusty surface windsKaraburan - Tarim BasinHaboob -SudanHarmattah- West Africa

Tornadoes: A rapidly rotating column of air developed around a very intenselow pressure centre. It is associated with a dark funnel shaped cloud and with extremely violent wind blowing in a counterclockwise spiral; but accompanied by violent down draughts. Common in USA.

ZONESThere are four principal climate regions:1.Tropical (hot)2.Subtropical (warm)3.Temperate (cool)4.Polar Regions (cold)

What is a natural region?Natural region is an area of earth throughout which there are similarities in conditions of relief,rainfall, temperature, vegetation and human activities. Climate Zone:

 

Equatorial Region: Also called Amazon type, Selvas (in S.America), which in Portuguese means forest; winters of the Tropic. Area under this climate region are from 0°10° North and South of the equator. In Central America (Panama), in S. America come Brazil, there it is called Amazon low land, Coast Guyana. In Africa: Congo basin i.e. Liberia, Ivory coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Gabon, Congo, Zaire, Gulf of Guinea. In South East Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea and parts of Philippines. Temperature:25-30oC or 75°90° F; average temperature is 26° C. Annual range of temperature is 3° C

Rainfall: 100-250 cm. and is of convectional type.Mean monthly rainfall is 15 cm. and humidity is very high.

Natural Vegetation: Equatorial Rainforest type.

Leaves are found viz. Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Greenheart, Cinchona and Rubber, Coconut Palms, Mangroves, Oil Palms.

Important Tribes: Semang in Malaysia, Kubus in Sumatra, Daykas in Borneo, Pygmies in Congo Basin, Amazon Indians in Brazil.Climate: InterTemporal Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is dominated by warm, moist, maritime equatorial and maritime tropical air masses yielding heavy convectional rain.

 

Hot Zone: Between 10°30° North and South, this comprises:

(a) Tropical Monsoon or Indian Type:Regions: India, Pakistan, SriLanka, Bangladesh, S.China, Thailand,Myanmar, N.Australia, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.Temperature: Between March and June 2646° C, between June and Oct. 4620° C, between Nov. to Feb. 200° C. Annual temp, range17° C Rainfall: Maximum 300 cm. Heavy summer rain up to 60 inches..Vegetation: Monsoon forest i.e. Deciduous forest viz. Teak, Rosewood, Deodar, Bamboo, Sal.

 

(b) Tropical Marine:Regions: Central America, N.E. Australia, West Indies, C6astal low lands of Brazil and East Africa, E. Malagasy and Philippines.Temperature: 29° C, annual temperature range 8°C. Rainfall: Summer rain upto 4080 inches, both convectional and orographic. Vegetation: Deciduous forest viz. Teak, Rosewood, Deodar, Bamboo, Sal.

 

(c) Sudan Type or Savanna or Tropical grassland/ Continental:Region: 720° N and most ideally 515° N & S of equator. In S. America Brazilian highlands (Savanna region is locally called Cerado), parts of Bolivia, Paraguay, Llanos, Valley of Columbia, Venezuela, Argentina.In Central America Cuba, Jamaica, Caribbean Islands. In AfricaSudan, Mali Guinea, Niger, Senegal, Chad, Ghana, Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Dahomey. In Australia Northern regions and Queensland. Temperature: In summer 32° C, in winters 21° C and annual temperature range is 1 PC. Average Temp. 22°37° C.

Rainfall: Convectional type; of 25150 cm. Humidity high in summers.Vegetation: Elephant grass, Bottle trees, Baobaps, Savanna (tropical grass).

Tribes:Masai or Kraal (in African Grassland), Kikuyus in Kenya, Hausas in Sahara and Llanos in Venezuela.

 

(d) Sahara region or Tropical Desert climate:It is a region of land which has less than 25 cm. of rainfall in a year. It has three types: 1 .Tropical Desert e.g. Sahara; 2.Temperate or midlatitude desert e.g. Gobi and Turkistan; 3.Cold desert: Tibet and Tundra Regions: In US lower California and Mexican Desert. In S.

America Atacama Desert. In Africa Namib, Sahara Desert (main countries which come in this are Tunisia, Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Sudan, Mali, Niger, Chad and Mauritania) and Kalahari Desert (in Namibia and Angola). In Asia Iranian, Arabian and Thar Desert. In Australia The Great Australian Desert.

Temperature: 1049°C; maximum temperature in Jacobabad (Pakistan) is up to 51.7° C, in California's Death Valley is 58°C, highest is in Azizia58.7°C. Annual temperature range 39°C.Vegetation: Shrubs Cactus, Spines, Prickly Pear.

Tribes: Tuaregs (Western Sahara Desert), Bedowins (Arabian Desert), Bindibus (Australian Desert), Bushmen (Kalahari Desert).

Temperate Zone/Climate: Between 30°45° N and S There are three types of climates in it:

 

(a) Western margin or Mediterranean type:Regions: 30-40° N and S. In Europe: Spain, Portugal, Israel, Turkey, Southern France, Greece, Syria, Lebanon. In Africa: Morocco, North Algeria, Tunisia, Upper Libya, Upper Egypt.In N. America: large parts of California.In S. America: Central Chile. In Australia: Adilade, Melbourne, Northern Island of New Zealand.Temperature: In summer 20-26°C and in winter 7-5°c

Rainfall: 20-30 inches mainly in winters.Four important winds are Sirocco in Sahara, Santa Ana (S. California). Mistral and Bora in MediterraneanVegetation: Chapparel in California, Malleg Scrub in Australia. Maguis or Garigue in France. Macchia in Italy, Fymbosch in S. Africa, Mediterranean forest and shrub. Olive trees. Citrus Fruits, Evergreen Forest, Myrtle, Rosemary, Laurel, Holly. Madrona and Cork Oak,

 

(b) Central Continental/ Light summer/ Temperate grassland/Steppe Type:Regions: North Coastal Africa Morocco, N. Algeria, Tunisia and North of Bengasia in Libya.Temperature: 65°F. Rainfall: Light Summer rain 25-75 cm.Vegetation: Steppe or Temperate Grasslands; Oaks of Spain, Eucalyptus.

(c) Eastern Margin/ China Type/ Gulf Type/ Natal Type:Region: 25-40°N&S;In Asia areas of North and Central China, S. Japan (islands Kyushu, Shikoku and portion of Honshu), Southern Korea.In N. America:South Eastern States of US.In S. America: South Paraguay, N. Argentina, Uruguay and S. Brazil.In Africa: East Central Coastal Regions, specially Natal area of S. Africa.In Australia: New South Wales and South Queensland.

Temperature: It varies between 21°-27degree C in summer and between 5-2° C in winters.

Rainfall: 75-125 cm., rainfall is heavier in summer (45 inches) than in winter.

Vegetation: Warm and Wet forests (Deciduous), Pines, Beech, Oak, Magnohas, Camehas, Camphor, Eucalyptus, Mulberry, Mate, Walnuts, Bamboo.

 

(d) Temperate Grassland/Prairie Type:Region: 4050°N&S North America: Prairie; South America: Pampas, (from Andes mountains to Atlantic Ocean);S.Africa: Velds (Transvaal) Europe: Pustaz in Hungary; Asia: Steppe in Russia (S.W. Siberia and Mongolia) Australia: Downs, (MurrayDarling Basin).

Temperature: in summers 18 to 24°Gand in winters 4 to 2°C.

Rainfall: in spring and early summer, 2565 cm. and of convectional type. Vegetation: short grass.

Tribes:Kirghiz in Central Asia, Red Indians (N. America), Hottentots (S. Africa).

 

Cool Temperate Zone:It is of four types:

(a) Western Margin/ British Type/ Marine West Coast: Region:40°60" N & S;Europe: (W. France, Belgium,West Germany , Denmark,Luxemburg, Netherlands, British Isles, S. Norway upto Baltic Sea)N. America: (W. Canada and N. W. USA Washington and Oregon State

of USA)S. America: ( S. W. Coast of Chile Puerto Montt to Cape Horn).Australia: Islands of Tasmania, most parts of Victoria, and south island of N. Zealand, Temperature: Winter: 8° -0° C; Summer: 18-25°C. Rainfall: Throughout the year, but maximum in winters; of cyclonic type; average 50-120 cm.; sometimes windward side it is 250 cm.Vegetation: Deciduous Forest; Oak, Elm, Maple, Beech, Ash, Birch, Poplar, Hornbeam, Chestnut.In New Zealand Kaury tree is found; in N.America Douglas, Fir, Redwood, Sequoir, Western Hemlock, Western Cedar, Sitka Spruce.

 

(b) Central Continental/ Siberian Type/ Taiga Type/Cool Temperate Central Type/ Corniferous Type: Region:55°70° Northern Hemisphere; South Alaska, S.Canada, parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, N. Russia, N.Siberia and Sakhalin island.Temperature: in winters upto 50°C and in summer 15°C.Rainfall: 25-100 cm. and is of cyclonic type.Natural Vegetation: Coniferous (Pine, Fir, Hemlock, Larch, Cedar, Spruce) and evergreen trees shed their leaves after 5 years. Here, Timber is called Delwood. Lumbering is done especially in Canada, harvesting is also done

(c)Eastern Margin/ Lauretian Type:Region:45°60° North Hemisphere;In North America: St. Lawrence low land (therefore called Lauretian Type) and East USA, Eastern Canada, New Foundland.In Asia: Manchuria, Amur river region of Siberia and in N. Japan region of Hokkaido. Temperature: in winters, 3° to 17° C and in summer, 18°-24°C.Rainfall: 50-125 cm. Vegetation: Coniferous trees and Deciduous trees like Maple, Beech, Ash, Chestnut, Elms, Spruce, Fir, Larch, Korean Pine.

 

(d) Cool Temperate Interior/ Tundra/ Cold Desert:Region: above 65°N Southmost parts of Canada, Saskatchewan and Manitoba Province of Canada, N. Central and mid West of USA, Alberta, Alaska, N. Scandinavia, Iceland, Spitzbergeu in Svalbard island, E. Europe, Western Russia and Siberia. Temperature: 19°to 18°C Rainfall: up to 25 cm, and of cyclonic type.Vegetation: Bush Tundra and Grass Tundra.Tribes:Eskimo Igloo. Transport by Dog Driver, Huskies, boat like Kayak and Umyak.

Cold Zone:Region: 65°-90° North, Arctic or Polar; Canada, Alaska, Icecaps of Greenland. Temperature:29° to 40°C in winters; in summer 10°C. Rainfall: very light in summer, 10 inches.Vegetation: Turidra; Mosses, Lichens.Tribes:Samoveds in Arctic circle, Yaktus in Trans Baikalia, Chukchis in Siberia.

 

Grasslands Continents/ Countries1. Prairies - N America.2. Pampas - S America3. Pretoria - S Africa4. Veld- S Africa5. Steppes - Eurasia 6. Downs - Australia7. Pusta - Hungary8. Cantaburry Grasslands- N. Zealand 9. Manchuria Grassland- China

OCEANOGRAPHY

Distribution of Sea: ► Hydro sphere is36,10,60,000 sq. km about 71% of the lithosphere (3/4th of the globe).► Total surface area of the globe is 5,09,950,000 sq. km. (Lithosphere).► Important oceans are Pacific Ocean (16,50,00,000 sq. km); Atlantic ocean (8,20,00,000 sq. km); Indian Ocean (7,30,00,000 sq. km).► Average depth of the ocean (hydrosphere) 3800 m and average height of lithosphere is 840 m from the sea level.► The height and depth of lithosphere and hydrosphere are represented by HYPSOGRAPHIC or HYPSOMETRIC CURVE.► The ocean basins have 4 relief zones:1) Continental shelves2) Continental slopes3) Deep Sea plains4) Oceanic Trenches

Continental Shelf:► It is partly submerged in water while partly exposed;► Its average depth is 100 fathoms; ► Its slope is gentle i.e. from 1° to 3° towards the sea;It is 8.6% of total area of ocean basins, but the highest area is in Atlantic i.e. 13.3%, 5.7% in Pacific and 4.2% in Indian ocean;► The shelves are narrow where high mountains are close and parallel

to the coast;► The narrowest shelf is in western coast of South America i.e. 16 km. because of Andes mountain;► The shelves are wider where the coast lands are wide plains. The average width is 48 km. The widest is in North America i.e. from 96 to 120 km.;►It is mainly created by marine erosion and fluvial deposits;

 

Continental Slope:► Slope is 5"60°;► 40°near St.Helena; 30°at the Spanish Coast; 62° near St. Paul; 5°-15° near Calicut.► It constitutes 8.5% of total area of the ocean basin : Atlantic ocean 12.4%, Pacific ocean 7% and Indian ocean 6.5%.► Most extensive continental slope are found between 20° N 50" N latitude and on 80° N and 70°S. Most important continental slope is the SubMarine Canyons.► Due to steep slope, marine deposits doesnttake place; Deep Sea Plains:► Found in the depth of 3000 m. to 6000 m. and constitutes 75.9% of total ocean basin;► 80.3% in Pacific, 80.1% in Indian Ocean, 54.9% in Atlantic Ocean.

Ocean Deep or Trenches:► There are 57 deeps in the world;► Highest in Pacific i.e. 32,19 in Atlantic and 6 in Indian Ocean;

 

Trenches1. Mariana or Challenger Trench North Pacific 11,022 m.2. Aldrich or Tonga Central South Pacific i 0,882 m.3. Swire or Philippine Trench N. West Pacific — 10,475 m.4. Nares or Puerto Rico Trench West Indian Island 8,385 m.5. Kurile Trench Kamchatka 10,498 m.6. Tizard or Romanche Trench S. Atlantic 7,631m.7. Java Trench Indian Ocean 7,450 m.8. Karmadee Pacific Ocean 10,447 m.9. PeruChile Trench Pacific 8,025 m.10. Aleutian Trench Pacific 7,679 m.11. Middle America Pacific 6,562 m.

Submarine Canyons:► It has originated because of various types of earth movement

► Are long narrow and very deep valleys or trenches located on the continental shelves and slopes with vertical walls resemblirflefriecontinental Canyon.Submarine Canyon1. It is similar lot the youthful river valleys on the land but are deeper2 The course is generally straight 3 The gradient of are steeper near islands i e 13 8%► They have coarser materials which includes clays, silts, gravels and pebbles.

Distribution of Submarine Canyons:► There are as many as 102 submarine canyons.► Generally they are more abundantly found along the straight coast than highly indented and crenulated coastline. ► They are more commonly found Off the east mm of US from Canada to Cape Hatteras.► They are also found off the Californian and Mexican coast, Mediterranean, east coast of India, Aleutian lands, Japan, Philippines.

Reliefs of Ocean Basin: 1) Pacific Ocean:► It is one third of the globe: has a triangular shape:► Average depth is 4572 m► It has highest number of islands (more than 2,000), grouped in three categories:1. Continental Islands: Aleutian islands, Chilean islands, British Columbia (islands of Canada);2. Island Arcs and Festoons:Kurile islands, Japanese Archi3.Scattered and Smaller Islands: Hawaiian islands, Fiji islands, Micronesian islands (Marshal island), Continental Canyon1. It is lesser deeper.2. It's course is dendritic.3. It is less steeper.4. The width is lesser.► Important seas in the Pacific ocean are Bearing sea, Okhotsk sea, Japan sea, Coral sea, Yellow sea, Java sea, China sea, Tasman sea, Arafura sea.

 

2. Atlantic Ocean:► 1/6 of the geographical area (8,20,00,000 km sq.) and half the area of Pacific ocean;► It is located between North and South America in the west and between Europe and Africa in the east;► It is'S' shaped;

► Its width is minimum between Liberian coast and Cape Sauroque (256)km.;► About 24% of Atlantic is 915 m:' deep.Continental Shelf in the Atlantic Ocean:► Width 2.24 km. more than 80 km.;► It is narrowest at the bay of Biscay, Cape of Good Hope and the Brazilian Shelf i.e. 5° S to 10°S latitude and widest near New Foundland► Important Continental Shelf are found at Hudson Bay, Baltic sea, North sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, British Isles, Iceland, St. Helena, West Indies, Trinidad, Falkland, S. Orkneys, S. Shetland, S. Georgia, S. Sandwich, Canary island, Cape Verde, St. Pierre and Miquelone island, Madeira island.

Mid Atlantic Ridge:► Dolphin Rise and Challenger Rise north of Equator► Wyville Thompson Ridge or Challenger Rise, south of equator;► Telegraphic Plateau between South of Greenland and Iceland;► New Foundland, Azores Rise, Sierra Leon, Para Rise, Unea Ridge.► In North Atlantic North American Basin; Puerto Rico Basin ( 8,000 m. deep).► In the South Atlantic east South American Coast; Argentina Basin; South Atlantic Ridge; Walvis Ridge; Cape Basin; Cape Town.

 

Indian Ocean► It is smaller than the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean;► Average depth is 4,000 m.;► Formed by the blocked mountains of Gondwana land;► Important seas are:Mozambique Channel, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal;► Important islands. Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Suqutra or Socotra Island, Zanzibar Island, Comoros Island, Mauritius, Reunion Island, Rodrique Island, Caragos Island, Chagos Archipelago and Diego Garcia Island, Mayotte Island, Seychelles Island, Victoria, Mahe, Addabra Island, Prince Edward Island, St. Paul, Maldives, Lakshwadeep, Andaman and Nicobar, Christmas Island, Crozet Island.

 

Ridges:

1.Mid Oceanic Ridge: Average width is 320 km. and includes: Lakshwadweep.Chagos Ridge or Maldives ridge; It is called Chagos St. Paul Ridge between Equator and 30°South; It is called Amsterdam St.

Paul Plateau between 30°50° South latitude; After 50° it bifurcates; Western branch is called Kergulian Gaussberg Ridge: 48°63° South latitude . eastern branch is called the Indian Antarctic ridge. 2.Central Ridge: Socotra Chagos Ridge, also known as Charlesberg Ridge, emerges from the central ridge at 5° South latitude and extends in NORTHWESTERLY direction in almost accurate shape upto GARDAPHOOL Peninsula of N.E. Africa. 3. Seychelles Mauritius Ridge: bifurcates from the main ridge around 18° South latitude near Mauritius island and runs upto Amirante island.

4.Madagascar Ridge: It extends upto 40°S latitude; at 40°48° South it is called Prince Edward Crozet Ridge'. 5.90 East Ridge: Extends from the Continental Shelf off the Irrawadi river mouth and runs in almost northsouth direction, parallel to 90° east longitude and upto 40° south, where it merges with Amsterdam St. Paul plateau.

 

BASINSPacific Ocean:1.Philippines East PHILIPPINES to South Japan: 5,000-6,000 m.

2.Fiji 10°32° S latitude: 4,000 m.3.East Australian Australia and New Zealand 5,000 m.4.Peru 5°-24° South latitude 4,000 m.5.South west Pacific 20°-50° South latitude 4,000 m.

 

Atlantic Ocean: l.LabradorBetween Greenland in North and New Foundland in South, i.e., between 40°-50°North 4,0004500 m.2.North American 12°-40° North latitude 5,0006,00 m.3.Brazilian 30°South latitude from equator, east coast of Brazil in the west to above Para rise in the east 4000 m4.Spanish From Iberian peninsula to 50°N. 5,000 m.5.Cape Verde 10°-23.5°N. 5,000 m.6.Giunian From Giunia Ridge to Sierra Leonne 5,000 m.7.Angola From equator to 30° S. 5,000 m.8. South and North Canary Near Morocco 5,000m.

 

Indian Ocean: 1.Oman Near Oman 6,658 m.2.Arabia Between Laccadine and Socotra.3.Somali Between Socotra and Seychelles 3600 m..

4.Mauritius 3,6006,391 m.

5. Mascarene Between Madagascar and Seychelles

6.Agulhas Natal Near Corozet Ridge 3,600 m.

Temperature of Ocean Water:With respect to temperature, there are three layers of ocean from the surface to the bottom in the Tropics:1. First layer temperature 20°-25° C.2.Thermocline layer or middle layer it is characterized by rapid rate of decrease of temperature with increase in the depth.3.Third layer colder than the above two layers. Within 24 hrs., the difference between maximum and minimum temperature is only 1° C in the ocean, this is called the 'daily range of temperature'.► Annual range of temperature it means bigger the size of ocean, lesser the annual range. That's why Atlantic ocean records higher annual range of temperature than the Pacific ocean because the size of Atlantic is smaller than Pacific.

 

Factors affecting the temperature of oceans:1. Latitude regions near the equator will be hotter.2.Size of waters bigger the size of ocean, lesser the annual range.3.Prevailing wind 4.Currents ► The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is at the rate of 0.5° F per altitude.► The average temperature becomes 22°C (73°F) at 20° latitude; at 40° latitude the temp, is 14°C (57°F); near the poles temp, is 0°C (32°F).► The average temperature of all the oceans is 17.2 °C (63°F), in Northern Hemisphere19.4° C (67°F), in the Southern Hemisphere 16.1°C (61°F).

Vertical Distribution of Temperature:► The temperature will get lesser from surface to bottom: Sun is the major source of heating but infact the solar rays very effectively penetrates upon 20 m. depth and they seldom go beyond 200 m. depth.

 

Salinity: It is defined as the ratio between the weight of the dissolved material and the weight of sample sea water.

► Generally salinity is defined as the total amount of solid material in gm. contained in one kg. of sea water and is expressed at part 1000 means 30 gm.► The average salinity of 35% is recorded between 10°30° latitude in the southern hemisphere.► The zone between 40°60° latitude in both the hemisphere records lowest salinity where it is 31%-33%

1. Pacific Ocean:► Near the equator, salinity is 34.85%;► It increases to 35% between 15°20° latitude in the north hemisphere; But in the southern hemisphere, it increases to 36% i.e. more than sea;► Besides salt, silver, gold and radium also occur but in minute proportion in sea water.► These elements are 0.3 (silver), 0.006 (gold) and 0.0000002 mg/metric tonne or part/1000 million.

 

2. Atlantic Ocean:► average salinity is 35.67%;► highest is between 15°20° latitude;► in 5° North latitude, salinity is 34.98% and in 15° North, it is 36%;► in 15° South, salinity is 37.77%.

3. Indian Ocean:► from 0°10° North latitude, salinity is 35%;► 10°30° North, the salinity is 33.5%;► near Persian Gulf, 40%; highest is in Red sea, 3641%. (In the landlocked sea, lowest salinity js in Caspian sea, i.e. 14% in the northern part. But in the Kara Bnpa? bav salinity is highest i.e. 170%).► near Salt Lake (US), salinity is 220%. In Red sea, salinity is 240%, in Lake Van (Turkey) is 330%, in Dead sea, it is 238%.

 

Distribution of Salinity: the average salinity in the oceans and the sea is 35%. Horizontal Distribution: on an average, salinity decreases from equator towards tne poles. The equator accounts only 35% of salinity.► The highest salinity is observed between 20°40°N.. because this zone has high temperature, high evaporation, but low rainlall least i.e. 31%, near Manchurian, it is 34%, this salinity in Manchuria is severe because of Oyashio current coming from Berring Strait.

► in the Southern hemisphere, lowest is near the Peruvian and Chilean coast i.e. 33%.

OCEANIC DEPOSIT:

1. Gravels: its diameter 2 mm-256 mm; are sediments and are deposited near the coast on the 256 mm. (diameter), cobbles-64 mm., pebbles -4 mm., granules- 2 mm.

2. Blue Mud: materials derived through the disintegration of rocks rich in Iron sulphide. It is especially found in Atlantic ocean, Mediterranean sea and Arctic sea and has 35% of calcium carbonate

3.RedMud: rocks rich in Iron oxides, contains 32% of calcium carbonate and found at Yellow sea, Brazilian Coast

4. Green Mud: contains green silicates of potassium (K) and Glauconite (form of iron) and contains 0-56% of CaCo3 and found mainly in Japanese, Australian and African coasts, at the depth of 100-900 fathoms.

5. Calcareous Oozes: contains lime and generally found is of two kindsa. Peteropod Ooze: has 80% of CaCo3, found in tropical oceans, especially Canary island, entails mid Mediterranean ridge;b. Globigerina Ooze: 64.46 Ca, 1.64% silica, found in tropical and temperate zones of Atlantic ocean between the depth of 2,000-4,000 fathoms.

6.Red Clay: has silicates of alumina in abundance (85. 35%) and oxides of iron, calcium.

 

Ocean Currents:

Atlantic Ocean :

Warm Currents: 1. North Equatorial Current: it is formed between equator and 10° N latitude. It has two branches (a) Antilles, is diverted northwards and flows to the east of West Indies island and helps in the formation of Sargasso sea (which is between 20°40°N. latitude). Sargasso seaiia&maxjmmn salinity in Atlantic and mean temperature is 28° C; (b) Caribbean current enters Gulf of Mexico and becomes Gulf Stream.2. South Equatorial Current: it is 20° S latitude from the equator. It basically originated under the stress of the trade wind.

3. Counter Equatorial Current: it flows from west to east, also called Guinea stream or Compensation current.4. Gulf Stream: originates in Gulf of Mexico, around 20° N latitude. It has three branches(a) Florida Current, the average temp, of water at its surface is 24°C or 75° F, while salinity is 36%. At 30° N latitude, its temperature falls upto 6.5° C or 43.7° F;(b) Gulf Stream, was first discovered by PoncedeLeon in 1513. The Florida Current after having water of Antilles current is known as Gulf Stream beyond Cape Hatteras (Near Washington);(c) North Atlantic Drift or Current, 45° N latitude and 45°. W longitude, the Gulf Stream is divided into many branches. All the branches are collectively called North Atlantic Drift/Current. It has two branches:(i) Northern branch it has two branches, one goes towards Norwegian sea and second one goes towards South Iceland and here it is called Irminger Current,(ii) Eastern branch one branch enters Mediterranean sea near Gibraltar and second branch iscalled Rennell Gmren near Bay of Biscay.After Sargasso sea, the temperature is reduced to 410° C and here, a round Gulf of St. Lawrance near Halifax, the Gulf Stream is called 'Cold Wall'. It loses its original characteristic near 40° N latitude because it meets the cold Labrador current. 5. Brazilian Current: flows up to 40° S latitude and merges with Gold Falkland Current.

Cold Currents: 1. Labrador Current: originates in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait and merges with Grand Bank (Gulf Stream) around 50° W longitude. Big icebergs are found near New Foundland and Grand Bank.2. Canary Current : flows along the western coast of North Africa between Maderia and Cape Verde.3. Falkland Current: 30°S latitude.4.South Atlantic Drift: is the Eastward continuation of Brazilian Current 400 S latitude. 5.Benguela Current: flows from South to north along the western coast of Africa. Later merges with south Equatorial current.Sargasso Sea has 3 currents : a) North Equatorial Current; b) Canary Current; c) Gulf Stream.Water is very calm and motionless; found between 20° N-40° N latitude. between 35°- 75° W longitude. highest salinity is 37%.

 

Pacific OceanWarm Currents:1.North Equatorial Current: originates of the western Coast of Mexico

and flows in western lie direction and reaches the Philippine coast. This originates because of Californian Current and NE. Monsoon. It is joined by Kuroshio Current near Taiwan and counter equatorial current near Japan. 2.South Equatorial Current: originates due to SouthEast Trade winds and.flow from east to west, bifurcated near New Guinea.3.Counter Equatorial Current: it extends upto Panama Bay. Its average temp, is 27.5° C and the salinity is 34.5%. 4.Kuroshio System: startefrom Taiwan from the Bering Strait and has five currents (a)Kuroshio Current 30° N latitude; from Taiwan to Raiku Ridge.(b)Kuroshio Extension 42° N latitude and Oyashio current (a cold current).(c)North Pacific Drift up to Aleutian Current and becomes a part of it.(d)Tsushima current; between Japanese sea and western coast of Japan. It is warm and enters Japan sea by the name of Tsushima Current. (e)Counter Kuroshio Current between Hawaiian island and American coast. 5.East Australian Current: 40° S; is warm.6.Counter or El Nino Current: 3°- 30° S; along Peruvian Coast.

Cold Currents:1.California Current: near Mexico.2.Peru Current: is also called 'Hobalt' or 'Humboldt' Current. Annual temperature is 14° 17°C.3.West Wind Drift: also called roaring 40s between Tasmania and South American Coast. 40° 50° S.4.0yashio Current: known as Kurile Cold current. From Berring Strait to Arctic sea; divides into two parts at 50° N latitude one merges with Aleutian and Kuroshio Current and second moves upto the Japanese coast.

 

Indian OceanThe currents flowing in the Indian Ocean change their flow direction twice a year due to North east and South West Monsoon winds.

Warm Currents: 1.North East Monsoon Current: 5° N latitude; originates in the Bay of Bengal reaches to Arabian Sea. 2.1ndian Counter Current: 2°- 8° S latitude: mainly concentrated to Zanzibar to Sumatra.

3.South West Monsoon Current.4.Indian Equatorial Current: 10°- 15° S; from Australian to African Coast and is obstructed by Madagascar. One major branch flows

southwards, known as 'Agulhas Current' which is warm. 5.Mozambique Current: it is a part of Indian equatorial; joins Agulhas Current near 30° S latitude.6.West Wind Drift: 40° N latitude; 110° East; known as 'Roaring 40s'; one branch flows as west Australian cold current along the Western Coast of Australia and near the Tropic of Capricorn turns towards the left.

Ocean Tides► The rise and fall of sea water due to gravitational forces, centripetal of the Sun and Moon are called tides. The sea waves generated by the tides are called Tidal Waves.► The earth rotates from west to east and revolves around the sun following an elliptical orbit. Similarly, the moon rotates from west to east and revolves around the earth following an elliptical orbit. The period of the farthest distance between the moon and the earth (4,07,000 km) is called 'APOGEE'. While the period of the nearest distance (3,56,000 km) is called 'PERIGEE'.► The surface of the earth with its diameter of 12,800 km (8000 miles) is 6400 km nearer to the moon then its centre► The centre of the moon is 3,84,800 km (2,40,000 miles) away from the centre of the Earth. The earth's outer surface is 3,77,600 km away from the outer surface of the moon.► Therefore the gravitational force of the moon will be maximum at the earth's surface facing the moon, while it will be minimum at the opposite side of the earth.► Consequently the water of the earth's surface facing the moon is attracted and pulled and high tides occur. At the same time low tide is formed at the opposite side of the Earth.► Therefore, two tides and Ebbs are experienced twice at every place on earth's water surface within 24 hours.The moon. Thus the tide centre takes 24 hours 52 min. to come under the moon.► The average difference in water level between high and low tides at any place is called 'AMPLITUDE' of the tide.► The tidal range is generally 13 m. In the Mediterranean and Baltic, the range is very small but highest tide is experienced in the Bay of Fundy (East Canada), the tide may rise 1520m

 

Types Of Tides:1) Spring Tides: The spring tides are the highest when the moon, earth and the sun are in the straight line. They occur at new and full moon; especially on 1 Jan it is highest. The straight line is called 'SYZYGY', and this position is called 'CONJUCTION'. When the position of earth is

in between sun and moon it is called 'OPPOSITION'.2) Neap Tides: The position is quadrature i.e. sun, earth and moon are in a position of right angle. They occur at the moon's first and third quarter i.e. on the 7th and 8th day of every fortnight and the direct force is produced by the sun and the Working in opposite direction and thus low tide is formed. The height neap tide is 20% lower than general tides.3) Tropical and Equatorial Tides: like the sun, there is also northward and southward position of the moon in relation to the equator of the earth. If the sun completes its northward and southward position in one year (nearly 365 days), the moon completes it in 29.5 days (1 synodic month). When there is maximum declination of the moon to the north of the equator, the moon's rays fall vertically on the tide centres (near the Tropic of Cancer) hence spring tides are caused. Such tropical tides move westward along the Tropic of Cancer and also occur along the Tropic of Capricorn which is opposite to the Tropic of Cancer. The tides occurring along the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are called the 'Tropical Tides'.4). Apogean and Perigean tides.5). Daily and Semidiurnal Tides.6). Equinocital tide.

Theories related to origin of Tides:1. Equilibrium Theory by Newton.2. Progressive Way Theory by William Whewell.3. Canal Theory by G.B.Airy.4. Stationary Wave Theory by R.A.Herish.5. latitudes.

 

Coral Reefs: They are significant sub marine features. They are formed due to accumulation and compaction of skeletons of limesecreting organisms known as 'Coral Polyps'. Coral Polyps thrive in the Tropical Oceans confined between 250 N to 25°SCoral Reefs are formed due to formation of a shell calcereous at suitable depth. Preconditions for formation of Coral Polyps:(a) corals are formed mainly in Tropical Oceans because they require high mean annual temperature ranging between 20°C to 21°C or 68°F to 70°F their survival;(b) corals do not live in deeper waters i.e. not more than 200-250 feet or 60-77 m. below the sea level, because of two factors (i) due to lack of sufficient sunlight; and (ii) due to lack of oxygen;(c) there should be clean sediment free water;(d) fresh water is also required;

(e) a very high oceanic salinity is also injurious for growth because such water contains little amount of CaCo3 Salinity should be 27-30%;(f) the corals grow in open seas and oceans but die in lagoons and small enclosed seas because of lack of supply of food.

Types of Coral Reefs:

1. Fringing Reef2. Barrier Reef3. Atoll

 

1.Fringing Reef: (i) in between land and continental shelf and it is closed to the shore(ii)the upward slope is steep and vertical while the landward slope is gentle; (iii)though fringing reefs are attached to the coastal land but sometimes there is gap between them and in this gap water -boat channel; (iv)Fringing coral reefs are generally long but narrow in width. E.g. Sakan island, Southern Florida, Mehetia Island (of society group of island);(v) it develops along the continental margin.

2. Barrier Reefs:(i) the largest coral reef off the coastal platforms but parallel to coast are barrier reef;(ii) the average slope is about 45°,jiome barriers are characterized by 1525° slope;(iii) it is separated from the coast by a much wider and deeper channel or lagoon:(iv) the reef is partially submerged(v) in this the lagoon, sometimes its depth goes upto 240- 340feet; ,(vi) examples are Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, it stretches upto 1920 km. or 1200 miles which covers 2/3 of the coastal length of Queensland province of Australia.

 

3. Atolls:(i)Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except that they are circular in shape;(ii)enclosed by a shallow lagoons without any land in the centre(iii)generally found along an island;(iv)the depth of lagoons ranges between 240-420 feet or 40-70

fathoms;(v)Atolls are of 3 types:(a) True Atoll: characterized by circular reefs enclosing a shallow lagoon(b)Shapeless reefs.

(c)Coral Pinnacles small ridges which rise within the lagoon.

 

Theories Regarding Origin of Coral reefs:1. Subsidence theory of Darwin.2. Standstill theory by Murray.3. Glacial Control theory by Daly.

WORLD SOIL SYSTEMThe soil system is the product of environmental and biological processes in interrelation with climate, vegetation (flora), animals (fauna), underlying rocks, topography and time which affect the biosphere.

 

Components of soil

1.Living organisms and organic matter (5 -12 %)

2.Mineral matter (38- 47 %)

3.Soil solution (15- 35%)

4.Soil atmosphere (10-15 %)

Regolith - Loose and unconsolidated weathered rock materials.

Soil Structure- The aggregation of individual soil particles in the form of lumps or clusters is called soil structure.

1.Translocation of materials through illuviation, capillary action upward movements, melanization, leucinization, compaction and induration. Darkening of the colour of a section of soil profile through organic matter is known as Melanization. Lightening of the colour of a section of the soil profile mainly in the of of the soil profile mainly in the zone of maximum eluviation is known as Leucinization. The hardening of a section of the soil profile such as kahkar pan, iron pan, calcrete, alcrete, silcrete etc. is known as Induration. The process through which water percolates downward thereby removing humus,

soluble bases and sesquioxides from the upper horizon is known as Leaching.

2.Transformation of materials (it includes processes like audification, neutralization, oxidation, reduction, solution precipitation, hydration, dehydration, hydrolysis, decomposition, humification and mineralization. The formation of soluble organic metallic complexes and the dissociation of clay humus thereby making them susceptible to leaching is known as Podzolization. In seasonally heavy rainfall region, the silica is removed from the upper soil rather than the iron or aluminum thereby leading to Laterization. In an anaerobic or water logged condition, the reduction of iron takes place and this process is known as Gleyisation.

 

Classification of Soils:

Primarily soils can be classified into Zonal, Azonal and Intrazonal soils,

zonal soils are fully matured soils which have developed under the conditions of good soil drainage over a long period of time.

Azonal soils do not have well developed soil horizons but there is uniformity in the soils from top toottom.

 

Intrazonal soils are those that are formed in waterlogged areas.  Intrazonal soils have high content of calcium carbonate soluble salts and sodium.

Zonal soils can be classified as follows:1.Laterite soils These are found in high rainfall areas (e.g. equatorial rain forests) having hot and humid conditions. It is also found in areas of wet and dry conditions. They are charectrerised by leaching, accumulation of sesquioxides. Crust formation, acidic nature and red color.

2. Red soils these soils are also found in tropical areas having high rainfall. They are highly leached having residues of iron and aluminum oxides. This deeply weathered soil is low in fertility.

3. Red and yellow soils: Found in regions having high temperature and abundant rainfall. This soil is affected by leaching, podzolization and laterization and has a well developed horizon. It is susceptible to

erosion and gives a good response to agriculture when mixed with fertilizers.

4 Black soils these soils are formed on the basaltic bed rock formed because of lava flow. Such soils are highly water retentive and are good for production of dry crops.

5. Red Desert soils Found in arid tropical areas and is characterized by underdeveloped horizon, coarse texture, and moderate to high fertility. This soil becomes productive when irrigation is applied and salt content is rationalized. The most important characteristic of these soils is the saline nature and encrustation of its surface. Because of excessive dryness lime is brought to the surface.

6. Chernozem Found in temperate grassland areas of the world which receives low and light precipitation. Thick accumulation of humus gives it a characteristic black color and therefore it is also known Black Earth. The moderate rainfall which the region receives resulting in balanced leaching and evaporation, does not allow the humus to percolate. Further it is characterized by clayey texture, basic nature and high fertility.

7.Chestnut As these are found in the arid margins of the Chernozem belt they have lower humus content, are of lighter color and fertile than the chernozems.

8.Seirozems These are found in the mid latitude continental deserts of central Asia and N. America and are characterized by poor horizon development, low humus content, lime concentration and grey color . Under irrigation they become productive.

9. Podzols These are found in humid mid latitude forests and the coniferous forest regions having moderate to low rainfall. Melting of snow in these colder regions allow adequate water flow for leaching to take place resulting in high acidity. Thick forest vegetation allows slow organic matter decomposition and subsequent podzolization. Though they have low fertility, but it can be enhanced by the addition of lime and fertilizers.

10.Grey Drown podzolic soils: These are found in the mid latitude deciduous forests on the western margin of continents and parts of East Asia. They are characterized by lesser leaching and acidity and more Humus content than podzols. They are reasonably fertile.

11.Tundra soils These are found along the polar margins in the Tundra region. These are characterized by acidic reaction, slow chemical and

organic changes, homogenous soil profile and low fertility. This is a permafrost region arid is affected by water melting and logging during summers.

 

Azonal soils can be classified as follows Soils of a different classification expressed in terms of soils of above classification.Entisols -Azonal soils.Inceptisols- Alluvial soilsAridisols- Desert soilsMollisols- Chestnut and ChernozemSpodosols- PodzolsAlfisols- Grey Brown podzolicUltisols -Red brown podzolicOxisols- Laterite soilsHistosols- Peaty or Bog soils.

World Biomes (Flora and Fauna )

Tropical Evergreen Rainforest Biome Also called optimum biome (optimum condition for development of plants and animals). It has largest number of plant species.Trees are the most significant members.Creepers or climbers: Belong to the category of Vines. Long woody climbers are known as Lianas. Another type of climbers is Epiphytes which do not have their roots on the ground surface. The epiphytes provide certain habitats to micro organisms such as planarians, earthworms, snails, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, termites, ants, grasshoppers, earwigs, scorpions, snakes, tree frogs, lizards and a host of insect larvae. Micro epiphytes include moss, lichens, algae etc.

Vertical stratification: There are five layers of strata from the ground surface to the uppermost canopy of the tropical evergreen rainforest biome:

1 .Top layer (or dominant layer) Tallest trees (3090 m)

2.Second layer (or codominant layer) Tress (25 -30 m)

3.Third layer Small trees

4.Fourth layer Herbaceous and shrub layer

5.Fifth layer Herbaceous plants and ferns. Animal life : Vertical stratification of the floral biome has largely affected the life forms of animals. Even animal life shows stratification. Upper air animal community Birds like Asian Falconets, swifts, seviftlet, curassows, tinamous, opossum, kinkajous and armadillos etc. Main canopy animal community : Toucans, parakeet, barbets, contingas, and bill birds etc.Middle zone flying animal community. Mostly flying birds and insectivorous bats. Middle zone climbing animal community Squirrels and civets.

Large ground animal community, Mouse deer, cassowaries and members of pig family. Small ground animal community, Insectivorous such as Argus, pheasant, peacocks and fowls such as Guinea fowl.

 

Monsoon Deciduous Forests number of plant species is less in the tropical deciduous biome than the tropical evergreen rain forest biome. There are four strata or layers in the vertical structure of the tropical deciduous forests:1. Uppermost Trees2. Second layer Trees3. Third layer Shrubs4. Herbaceous plants. Most trees are deciduous. Shrubs of the third stratum are evergreen.

Trees have large hydromorphic leaves or small, hard xeromorphic leaves. (The large hydromorphic leaves enable the trees to trap more and more rainfall during wet seasons, but these large leaves are shed in dry periods to conserve moisture. Where as small and hard xeromorphic leaves enable the trees to withstand dry weather and water deficiencies.) There are numerous lianas and epiphytes but they are less in number than the rain forest biome.Animal life There are comparatively less number of animal species than the rain forest biome.

Very small animals (microorganisms to very large bodied animals like elephants, horses, hippopotamus, rhinos, lions etc.The biome represents the largest number of domesticated mammals because of the development of agriculture. (The lions of Gir forest of Gujarat, together with other animals like leopards, spotted deer, sambhar deer, Indian gazelle, Nilgai antelope, wild boar etc. are now endangered species because of enormous destruction of the Gir forest Ecosystem.)

 

Savanna Biome Vegetation has three distinct layers:1. Ground strata Grasses and herbs.2. Middle layer Shrubs and woody plants.3 Top or canopy layer Trees Savanna grasses Hyparrhenia (elephant grass), Panicum, Pennisetum, Aridropogen and African.Trees have in built mechanism to reduce evapotranspirationreduced size of leaves, sunken stomata and thickened suticles etc.Tress may have very deep roots which can penetrate deeper into soil for water. Some trees are fire resistant (pyropytic) as they have thick bark and thick budscales. The savanna biome is characterized by the monotony of tree species as there are tree species as there are very few tree species per unit area. Acacia, Baobao, Isoberlinia, Pom palm (African Savanna). Eucalyptus such as Eucalyptus Marginata and Eucalyptus calophylla (Australia), Pine treesJHonduxas).

Animals African Savanna has the largest number and greatest variety of grazing vertebrate mammals in the world. African Buffalo, Zebra, Giraffe, Elephants, Antelopes, Hippopotamus etc. South American and Australian Savanna do not have large number of grazing mammals similar to the African savanna is invariably found.Marsupials. Around 50 species of Kangaroo are found in Australia varying from the Red Kangaroo to the small species of Wallaby.) South America Large grazing mammals including deer and guanaco. Toucans, parrots, night kingfishers, parakeets, wood peckers are also found.Savanna Birds Courses, bustards, game birds, ostrich, gazelle and emu.

 

Mediterranean Biome Vegetation has sclerophyll characteristic as they are stiff and hard and the stems have thick barks.Range from Mediterranean mixed evergreen forests to woodland, dwarf forest and shrubs.Shrubs are differently named: Maquis or Garrigue S. EuropeChaparral California Fybos or Fynbosch Africa Malle Scrub Australia. To withstand dry conditions, they have some Xeromorphic structure thickened suticles, grandular hairs, sunken stomata etc.Trees Evergreen Oak, Deciduous Oak, Jarrah (Australia) and shrubs like Arbutus, Pistacia, Rhammus, Ceratania etc.Animals Mule deer , Chilean Guanaco, Squirrels, Wood rats, Wolf, Mountain lion , Grizzly bear, Rabbits, Cyote, Chilean Fox, Lizards, Snakes, birds( kites, falcons, hawks), Quagga (a type of antelope), Bontebok( a type of antelope)

 

Temperate grassland Biome Vegetation in this biome comprises perennial grasses (family Gramineae). Grass steppes — Tussock forming species of Steppe. Semi arid Xerophytic Steppe which is associated with Chestnut soil.North American Pampas humid and sub humid Pampas. Important grasses of Pampas include Briza, Lolium, Paspalum, Panicum and Bromus etc.

Velds of S. Africa: This may be classified into Themada, Veld (having red grasses), Sour Veld (having grasses like Aristida, Eragrostis and Llyparrhenia etc.) and Alpine Veld( having Festuca and Bromus along with Themada veld) Animals Buffalo, pronghorn, antelope, wild horse, saiga antelope, guanaco, wolf, coyote. Kangaroo and wallaroos are found in Australia. Rhea is a bird found in Pampas. Bisons are found in N. America

The Boreal Forest Biome or Taiga biomeAdapted to the extreme environmental conditions of the Siberian type of climate of this Biome.Richest source of softwood in the world.Important trees include Pine (white, red, scots, and jack), Fir (Douglas, Balsam), Spruce, and larch, Birch, Poplar and Alder.Animals Caribou, Moose, Timber wolf, Lynx, Red Squirrels, Owls and Hawks.

 

Tundra BiomeLithosols in this region only supports vegetation like mosses and lichens. Animals Musk Ox, Arctic Foxes and Stoat, Reindeer and Caribau.Birds Waterfowl. Ducks. Swans, Geese and Ptarmigan.

Natural Regions of the WorldIntroduction: A natural region is a group of areas where the conditions of relief, temperature, rainfall, natural vegetation and consequently the cultural environment are more or less similar. There are 7 regions of the world:1. Equatorial Region2. Savanna Region3. Hot Desert Region4. Mediterranean Region5. Temperate Grassland

6. Coniferous Forests7. Tundra Region

 

1. Equatorial Region:Location : it stretches along the equator in the form of a belt roughly between the latitude of 10°Nand 10°S. It includes the Amazon lowlands and the coast of Guyana in S.America; Congo basin and Guinea coast of Africa and Malayasia, Indonesia, New Guinea and South Philippines of the Asian Continent.

Natural Environments:(a) Climate: It is a hot wet climatic region, temperature about 27°c throughout the year. Diurnal ranges are also not significant. It is a humid region where the humidity is very high. Rainfalls throughout the year but is heavier after the position of Equinoxes on two occasions after 21s' March and 23"1 Sept. No change in the season. Average annual rainfall between 150300 cm. Rain is of conventional type.

(b) Natural Vegetation: Forest is the natural vegetation and are the world's densest forests, also known as Selvas.

(c) Animal life: The tsetse fly is dangerous because of its poisonous sting. The Hippopotamus, Rhinocerous and the Elephants are found in abundance. Hippos are found in swampy areas. Other animals are the Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Monkeys, Apes, Sloths, Lizards and Jaguars are also found.

 

2. Savanna Region:Location: The Savanna regions are located on either side of the Equatorial Forest Region. They lie between 10°20° latitudes in both the hemispheres. The biggest area of Savanna is found in Africa and Sudan. Savanna region is also called sudantype region. The Savannas are the grasslands of the tropical zones and are also called Tropical Grasslands. Natural Environments:

(a) Climate: It is generally hot and the average temperature is about 37°c and is generally dry. Diurnal ranges are generally higher, rainfall is seasonal and is received mostly in summers. It is a region TradeWind Belt and the trade wind winds are Dry Belts. Average rainfall is between 25150 cms.

(b) Natural Vegetation: it is a region of seasonal rainfall and the main vegetation is the grass. Trees of medium height, belonging to the deciduous variety, are also found here. The trees shed their leaves during winter. The Savannas are natural grasslands and look like Park Lands. Average height of the grass is 4mts. e.g. Elephant grass. Other types of grasses are Campos in Brazil; Llanos in the Orinico basin and Parkland in Africa.

(c) Animal Life: native animals are of two types1 .Grasseaters Giraffe, Zebra, Gazelle, Bear and Antelopes, Elephants, Wild Bufalloes and Rhinoes. 2. Flesheaters Lion, Tiger,Leopard,Panther,Hyena, Jaguar and Puma .Other animals are Ostrich,Kangroo found in Australia, Chinchilla, Capybra, Viscacha etc.

 

3. Hot Desert Region:

Location: hot desetrts are located between 20°30° latitude in both the hemisphere on the western coast of the continents. They are also called Tropical Deserts. They are different from the midlatitude deserts and cold deserts, hot deserts are found in High pressure belts along the Tropics in the trade winds region. Distribution Of Hot Deserts: (i)Asia Thar desert and the Arabian Desert; (ii)Africa The Sahara and the Kalahari; (iii)N. America Lower California and Arizona states of USA; (iv)S. AmericaAtacama desert; (v)Australia The Great Australian desert. The Sahara desert of Africa is the biggest hot desert of the world. The Hot desert regions are located in the subtropical high pressure belts, which are not favourable regions for rainfall.

 

Natural Environments : (a) Climate: Very high temperature because of dryness of air, cloudless sky, intense insolation and high rate of evaporation. Coastal strips don't have high temperature because of seabreezes and cool currents. Trade winds are dry, relative humidity is low. Rain is of conventional type.

 

(b)Natural vegetation: Xerophytic type plants Cactus, grass,scrubs,weeds and bulbous plants are found here.Treesdate plants are found in Oasis. The desert plants have leaves of needle shape, hairy and waxy,

 

(c) Animal Life: Camel is the most common animal found in the desert. Other animals like Antelops, Jackals, Foxes, Hyenas, Badgers and Rabbits. Burrowing animals Snakes, Lizards, Ants are also found here.

 

4. Mediterranean type Region:Location: This region is located on the western margins of the continents between 30°40° latitudes in both hemispheres. Shifting of wind belts is the basic cause of this type of climate. Rainfall is in winters. This region is also called Winter Rain Temperate Region. The Mediterranean coast land is the single biggest area of this climate and hence the region is known as the Mediterranean Type. Areas: Europe Coastal regions of Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece; Asia Coastal regions of Turkey, Israel, Syria and Lebanon; Africa Coastal region of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco in the North and South Western tip of Cape Province of S.Africa in South; Australia Southern and Southwestern Coastal regions of Australia; N.America Western margin of California; S.America Central Chile.

 

Natural Environments: (a)Climate: this region is transitional between the Dry Sub Tropical Trade Wind belt and the Rainy Cool Temperate Maritime Westerlies belt. During summers, the wind belts shift Poleward and the area comes under the influence of Dry Trade Winds and during winters it shifts Equatorwards and comes under the influence of Rainy Westerlies. The average summer temp, is between 20°c to 26°c, relative humidity is low. Rainfall is received during winters from the OnShore Westerlies with temperate cyclones. The normal rainfall is between 3575 cm. Sunshine is always abundant and winters are mild. Local Winds: Sirocco also known as Chili in Tunisia; Ghibli in Libya; Leveche in Spain; Khamsin in Egypt and Malta; Gharbi in the Adriatic and Aegean sea; Mistral and Bora.

(b)Natural Vegetation: it is of evergreen type. Vegetation types are:1.Evergreen broad leaved forests: Eucalyptus in Australia, Evergreen Oaky in S.Europe, Red Wood in California, Jarra and Karri.2. Bushes and Scrubs: Laurel, Myrtle, Lavender etc. are bushes. Maquis, Chaparral and Mallee are the scrubs.3. Evergreen Coniferous trees: Found in highland areas, are tall and have needle shaped leaves Pines, Firs, and Cedars etc.

 

5. Temperate Grassland:

Location: are situated in the interiors of the Continent between 40° and 55° latitude in both hemispheres; are known by different names in different regions: Steppes (Eurasia); Pampas (S.America); Velds (S.Africa); Downs (Australia). Areas: Asia: Manchuria and Russian Turkestan; Europe:Southern part of European Russia and Hungary; N.America: South Central Canada and North Central USA; S.America: North Argentina and Uruguay; Africa: Transvaal state of S.Africa; Australia: Murray Darling Basin of the Province of Southem Australia.

 

Natural Environments:

Climate: Temperate Grassland of North have a different climate compared to that in the Southern hemisphere, because of the location.

 

6. Coniferous Forests:

Location:it is found only in Northern hemisphere between55° to 70" latitude and is bordered by temperate grasslands in South and Tundra region in North.

Areas: Asia: Northern Siberia; Europe: Northern part of European Russia, Poland, Finland and Sweden; N.America: Northern Canada from Labrador coast to the Eastern boundary of Alaska. These forests are also known as Taiga (Russia).

Natural Environments: (a) Climate: temperature below freezing point(45°c) during winters. During summers average temp.is 15°c.Rainfall between 25-75 cm.

 

7. Tundra Region:Location: arc cold deserts situated roughly beyond 65°N latitudes. Summer isotherms of 10°c and 0"c denotes the limits of Tundra.

Areas: N.America: Northern coastal region of Alaska and Canada and islands near coastal fringe of Greenland; Europe: Northern Scandinavia, Iceland, Spitsbergen Islands and North coastal region of European Russia; Asia: Northern coastal region of Siberia.

Natural Environments: (a)Climate: very low temperature; winters are long and severe while summers are short and cool, the Sun does not

set for 2 to 3 months in summer.. Average summer temp, is 12°c, rainfall is light and hardly 25 cm.

(b)Natural vegetation: temp, is too low for germination of seeds and the area is marshy where soil is permanently frozen. Xerophytic vegetation is found: bush tundra scrubby bushes like Alders, Birches, Willows and Junipers; grass tundra Moss, Lichens and Sedge; flowering plants Poppies, Lillies, Buttercups and Violets.

(c)Animals: Reindeer. Caribou, MuskOx, Blue Fox, Sable, Polar Bear and Lemmings. Marine Animals like Seals, Walruses, Whales and variety of Fishes like Salmon, Halibut etc. Insects: many mosquitoes and insects.

WORLD ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

AgricultureAgricultural Typology1 .Nomadic Simplest form of pastoralism. Herds graze on natural vegetation. Pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather than crops for survival. Seasonal pattern of movement of Nomads along with their herds between mountains and lowland pastures is known as Transhumance.Fulani -W. AfricaMasai -East Africa (Tanzania and Kenya)Nuba - EthiopiaTuareg - SaharaHottentots - Botswana Bedoins - Saudi Arabia Khirghiz, Kazakhs and Kalmuk - Central AsiaYakuts, Samoyeds, Koriaks and Lapps - Scandinavia

2.Simple Subsistence FarmingBetter known as Shifting cultivationSlash and burn agriculture A plot of forest is set on fire and cleared and the cultivation is carried for sometime. When land gets exhausted, they shift to other areas (Field rotation) It is known by different names in different regions. Milpa - Central America Roca - Brazil Ladang - Malaysia Humah - Indonesia Kaingin - PhilippinesTaungya - Burma Chena - Sri Lanka Jhum or Bewar- India.

3. Sedentary Subsistence Agriculture In Tropical lowlandsCrop rotation along with field rotationSubsistence farming along with cultivation of cash crops and collection and sale of forest productsPrevalent in South East Asia and West Africa

4. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture (Oriental Agriculture)Marked by intense rice cultivationUsually in Monsoon lands East Asia, South Asia and S. E. Asia.Intensive cultivation on wet lowlands and terraced uplands supports dense population This agricultural system is of two types(i) Dominated by wet paddy(ii) That without paddy (dominated by sorghum, sugarcane, maize etc.).

5. Subsistence crop and livestock farmingFarmers produce crops and raise livestock mainly for their own subsistence and sell nothing to the local market Turkey, Iran, Iraq, southern Mexico etc.

6. Mediterranean AgricultureIn bordering areas of Mediterranean sea, California, Central Chile, S.W. Africa, and S. Australia.It includes cultivation of cereals and vegetables with the aid of seasonal precipitation along with plantation crops of olives, figs, dates and grapes. Farming is both subsistence and commercial and also involves livestock farming (small animals which graze on highlands). Olives and grapes are most important commercial crops. It is a major wine producing area.

7.Livestock RanchingCharacterized by commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. Ranches have a continuous vegetative cover (either native grasses or legumes such as Lucerne, cloves and alfalfa). They are known by different names in different areas: Llanos (Venezuela) Sertao (Brazil) Pampas (Uruguay and Argentina) Patagonia (Argentina) Karroo of South Africa Semiarid areas of Australia and New Zealand. In Europe ranching is not common, but some ranches are found in Spain and Portugal.

8.Extensive Commercial Grain Farming-Wheat cultivating regions of the world-It is a wheat monoculture region (spring and winter) -Highly mechanized cultivation- Extensive farming means large size of holdings, greater use of

machinery and little labour employment. Steppes (Eurasia) Prairies (N. America) Pampas (Argentina) Veld (S. Africa) Cantebury Plains (New Zealand) Pustaz (Hungary) Downs (Australia)

9. Mixed Farming (Commercial liverstock and crop farming)- Integration of crops and liverstocks.-Extensive use of agricultural inputs (fertilizers, manures, techniques etc.)-Wide varriety of crops are grown.-In Europe, N. America (to the immediate west of Appalachians), South Africa, North East Argentina, S. E. Australia and New Zealand.

10. Commercial Dairy Farming-Prevalent on permanent pastures of temperate regions. -It is characterised by high productivity, commercialization, and high labour intensity. -N. E. United States, NW Europe, Australia, New Zealand (North Island), parts of Argentina, Middle Chile, S. Africa, Russia and Japan.

11.Market gardening or Truck farming-Fruit and vegetable farming in suburban areas.-Though farming is capital Intensive and scientifically managed, it is done on small and intensive scale- Prevalent in USA and North Western Europe

12.Collective Farming -Collective farms in Russia are known as Kolkhuzi and state farms as Sovkhozi.- In China there are state farms which are known as Communes.-Israeli collective farms are known as Kibbutzim. -This type of farming is still managed and aims at egalitarian agricultural social system.

13. Plantation Agriculture-Cash crops are produced in a highly capitalised and centralized cultivation system on large scale for exports. -It is prevalent in tropical areas especially in equatorial rain forests and monsoon lands--Important plantation crops cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and tobacco. -Plantation agriculture is a colonial legacy in the third world countries.

CROPS

 

Wheat-Originated in Asia Minor and Middle East Temperate and Subtropical crop-Grown mechanically on extensive farms-Temp.: 15°C (July isotherm of 15.5°C marks the northern limit of wheat cultivation in the northern hemisphere) -Where wheat could not be grown in winter (because of extreme cold), It is grown in spring.- Best wheat comes form Chernozem soils (Ukranian Black Earth), brown prairies and grey brown podzolic soils of the deciduous forest regions. - The Polder Lands (reclaimed from sea) Belgium and the Netherlands with their fertile marine clay or riverine silt gives high wheat yields. -An open, rolling topography with adequate drainage is neededTerraced wheat farming is unusual, except in Japan and China-Spring wheat is grown in colder north of the Canadian Prairies and in parts of the Continental steppes and Siberia. Elsewhere, winter wheat is grown.-Hard Red Spring Wheat: Colder and drier Russia, Canada and USA. -Hard Red Winter Wheat Southern CIS, Danube Basin of C. Europe, wheat crescent of Argentina and central USA- Soft Red Winter Wheat Western Europe and the eastern states of USA. -Soft White Wheat Western USA, Australia, S.Africa, Chile, Europe and most of Asia.

Rice-Grown under humid conditions in tropical areas receiving good rainfall.

-Requires (20° 30°C) of temperature .Rainfall (100-250 cm).-Intensive cultivation is practiced in monsoonal Asia where it is grown for subsistence purpose.-Compared to wheat, Rice has not much commercialized in the world trade.

Barley-Most ancient crop. -Greatest tolerance for arid conditions- grown in a wide range of climate, topographical and soil environment, where wheat fails to survive. -Can be grown in:1. Subarctic regions2. Semiarid regions3. High Altitudes4. Light Limey Soils-Used as human food, animal feed and malting (beer and whiskey)

- Major beer drinking countries are therefore major barley producers e.g. France, U.K, Germany, Denmark. -Europe accounts for half of the world's total production. -Russia and China are the major producers. -International trade is small.

Maize-18-270C of temperature-60-115cm of rainfall- Grown on wide range of soils.-In mountainous areas where soils may be thin and slopes are steep, maize can survive when other cereals fail to take root. 75-90% of world's production is consumed for feeding animals.-Used for preparing industrial alcohol-USA, China, Brazil are major producers

Rubber-It is the latex of 'Hevea brasiliensis' tree.-Other latex plantsbalata, funtunia elastica and gutta pecha.-Rubber tends to become sticky in hot and brittle in cold weather; therefore it is vulcanized (i.e. mixed with sulphur)-Needs 21-27°C of temperature-(50-250 cm) of rainfall, evenly distributed throughout the year.-Deep, friable well drained soils are ideal. Acidic soils are also suitable.-Land should be flat or gently undulating-Rubber tree sheds its leaves annually despite its equatorial habitat. This is known as Wintering.

Oil Palm-Originated in W. Africa -Constant high temperature, plenty of sunlight and evenly distributed heavy rainfall. (200cm.).-The crop is not ideally suited to small holder cultivation as it requires regular attention in the field to combat pests and must also be quickly processed.

Coconut-Tree of tropical coastlands -High temperature and rainfall is required

-Ideal habitat: sandy soil

-Grow best around the shores of Indian and Pacific oceans

-COPRA dried of the net-Flower can be made into a fermented drink called Toddy, widely used in Southern India and Malaysia.

Groundnuts-Leguminous plant. -Originated in Brazil -Warm temperature and light to moderate rainfall is required (38cm in coastal area, with high humidity and 6090 cm in drier interior region) -Grown in seasonally dry tropical and subtropical climates (Savanna of West Africa, monsoonal climates of India and China, as well as in Southern U.S.A-In West Africa, it is grown in rotation or intercropped with millet and Guinea corn by peasant farmers.- Senegal has some large mechanized farms -In USA, the groundnuts are grown in the same regions as cotton, which also yields oilseeds.

Soya Beans-Traditional crop of China - Warm temperate to cool temperate crop-Temperature requirement 21°C and moderate rainfall of 100cm-Moisture retentive soils are ideal but a low atmospheric humidity is better than a moist atmosphere (require same conditions as maize) -In USA, they are grown extensively in the Corn Belt.

Tobacco-Temperature requirement more than 18°C -Moderate rainfall and rich, regularly fertilized, soil is required.-Requires large labour force -Tropical tobacco is poor in quality than temperate

-High Quality Tobacco W. Cuba, Deli area of Sumatra and Connecticut valley (USA)

- Four main types of tobacco1. Virginia2. Turkish or Oriental3. Cigar4. Other tobacco

Fibers► Animal fiber sheep, goats, alpacas, vicunas, camels, silkworms► Vegetable fiber cotton, flax, jute, hemp, sisal and abaca► Artificial or Synthetic fiber Rayon, Nylon, Acrilan, Polyster

Wool-A major export of the tern-Native of tropical America -Now grown in almost every country with a warm temperate, subtropical or tropical climate.- Types of wool:1 .Merino Finest wool of high quality2.Crossbred Medium grade

3.Carpet Wool Coarse, thicker and more variant in quality. Produced in marginal sheep rearing areas like India, Iran and Ethiopia -Wool from animals other than sheep Angora Goats (from Asia minor). Kashmir Goats (Pashmina), Alpaca and Vicuna ( Animal related to Llama), Camel Hair. -Sheep farms are very large in Australia. These are known as 'Stations'.-Australia In the interior sheep rearing is the principal agricultural occupation while in more favoured areas sheep are part of farming economy. Drought is a problem

- Sheep production for wool in Europe is often a less economic form of land use than the of raising of sheep for meat or arable farming

-Wool production declined but the woolen textile industry remained in the traditional areas in the industrial countries of the northern hemisphere, except for small scale development in India. This position is almost the reverse of that in the cotton textile industry which is now dominated by the cotton growing countries. (May be because woolen industry requires fewer workers than cotton textile industry and markets for woolen goods are in the colder northern countries).

Silk-Temperature more than 16°C►Production cost is high in Japan and low in China -Silkworms feed on Mulberry trees.

Cotton►Origin Eurasia. -Varieties:1.Long staple (Egypt, Sudan, Peru and USA).2.Medium staple (Bulk of world cotton output Mainly in USA and CIS).3.Short staple (Mainly in Asia. But many regions have now shifted to medium and long staple cotton).-Requirements Warm climate (25°C or more), (50-110 cm) of rainfall.-It does badly in wet conditions-Medium loamy soils with good drainage-Bollworm and Boll Weevil are pests which destroy crops.

Jute-Grown in hot tropical condition with plenty of moisture. -Heavy rainfall and rich alluvial soil are favorable

Linen-Grows best in cool, temperate conditionsFrom 16-18°C of Temperature and 50-75 cm of rainfall - From the stem of the 'FLAX' plant

Tea-Native to hill slopes of Monsoon Asia-One of the hardiest tropical shrubs-Cultivation in the tiny tea gardens of China and the large tea estates of India is basically similar-Two main kinds of tea:1.Black Tea (from India and Sri Lanka) Used in Europe and America2. China Tea or Green Tea (or Sencha): Consumed in Far EastRequirements: Temperature 1525°C, rainfall 100cm (evenly distributed), well drained acidic soils.

Coffee-Native of Southern Ethiopian highlands (Kaffa district) Dutch introduced coffee in East Indies (highly flavoured Java Coffee)-Mocha (from Arabian Peninsula)-Blue Mountain coffee (Jamaica and other West Indies)-Species of the trees: 1.ArabicaMost important in world trade. Grown in Brazil and East Africa

2.Robusta West African variety. It is hard and poorer in quality.3.Liberica High yielding, moderate quality

Cocoa- Indigenous to Tropical America-The consumption of cocoa is greatest where the standard of living is highest -Varieties Cacao Carioua (Tropical America) and Cacao Forastero (West Africa)

- Unlike tea or coffee, it thrives in a tropical lowland environment. Often grown with banana.

Wine-Viticulture or vine culture -National drink in France and Italy-Rice wine is produced in Japan China and S. E. Asia Beer Barley and Hops Cider Apple Barley Rum Molasses Brandy Grapes -Inferior grapes are dried in J the sun to form Currants (Shores of the W. Mediterranean), Sultanas(Asia Minor) or Raisins (USA)

Sugar-From Sugar cane, Sugar beet or Sugar maple. It is also extracted from the date palm and other palm trees. -Sugar Cane mainly from tropical countries. -Sugar beet mainly grown in temperate countries -Sugar beet consumed locally

Sugar cane important export commodity.- Sugar cane is usually grown as a monoculture crop either in USA, Central and South America, on moderately sized .owner occupied farm, as in Australia, or peasant holdings, by small holders, who either own or rent small plots, e.g. in the West Indies.

Livestock-The British consume great quantities of lamb where as the continental Europeans eat mainly beef and veal -Beef cattle Hereford and Aberdeen Angus. -Dairy cattle Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey.

-Dual purpose Shorthorn and Galloway-Draught Zebu (Asia and Africa).-While beef cattle can be kept on relatively poor pastures at great distance from markets, dairy cattle are confined to the most favoured areas.

-For dairying, the climate should with a moderate to heavy rainfall and the ground should be moisture retentive. Lowland areas are more suitable than Uplands

-In China, dairy farming is poorly developed, where as in Japan, increasing westernization of the diet has led to the growth of dairy farming -India has the world's largest cattle and buffalo population and is also the largest milk producing nation.

Fishing-Vital source of food in countries like Norway, Iceland and Japan.-Fishing includes Fish, Seals, Pearls, Crustaceans (lobsters, crabs, prawns, shrimps), Molluscs (oysters, mussels, cockles, clams), Sponges and Seaweeds -Advanced countries where meat is easily available such as the U.K, USA or Australia tend to consume little fish. -Major commercial fishing grounds are located in the cool water, of the northern hemisphere in comparatively high latitudes especially where warm and cold ocean currents meet.-Reasons for concentration in High latitudes:

1. Planktons which is readily available in cool shallow waters.

2.Cool climate3. Physical and environmental influences like indented coasts, sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts.

4.Moderate or large population -Sturgen and Cavier fishes are found in Black and Caspian Sea.

► Types of fishes.1. Salt Water Fish(a) Pelagic (living at or near the surface) e.g. Herring, Mackerel, Sardines, Pilchards. Anchovies, Menhaden(Caught by drifters, seine nets)(b) Demersal (found in deep waters) e.g. Cod, Haddock, Halibut, Hake and Tuna (Caught by trawlers)2. Fresh water Fish e.g. Trout, Perch and Pike3. Anadromous fish (spawned in the inland rivers, but spend most of their time in sea), e.g. Salmon

Who owns the Oceans - Territorial waters over which a state has full sovereignty are recognized as extending for 19km from the coast.- A further 19km contiguous zone is recognized in which the coastal state can take action against those who break the law.-A 320km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which starts at the same base line as the Territorial waters. -States may claim rights to seabed resources for at least 320km and may extend these rights to the edge of the shelf as much 1280km in some cases.

Forestry-A robber industry

-Forestry in some parts especially in Europe is more akin to agriculture than to traditional methods.-Types of forests:1.Tropical Hardwood Forests -Evergreen rain forests and tropical monsoon forests.

-In monsoon forests trees are deciduous.-Broadleaved and hardwood trees. Teak, Ebony, Mahogany etc.2. Coniferous Forests -Lies north of the temperate hardwood belt. -Conifers are tall, straight, evergreen trees with narrow, needle like leaves. Only a few conifers like Larch are deciduous-Most coniferous trees are softwoods and are light in weight-Although there is a wide variety of species in the Spruce, Pine, Fir and Larch families, the trees usually occur in pure stands consisting of one particular specie.-Most dense, luxuriant coniferous forests are found in Western North America. -Areas: 1 .Western N. America (California, Washington, Oregon and SW Alaska in USA and British Columbia in Canada) Some of the largest

trees like gigantic California Redwood or Sequoias are found in this region.2.Central and Eastern N. America (more continental climate and thin soils of the Laurentian shield support less luxuriant and often more scattered type of coniferous forest) 3.Southern USA (Virginia to Texas)4.N. Europe (Scandinavia) and adjacent Russia) along with some areas in north Britain, Germany and Central Europe uplands5.Asiatic Russia Much of Northern Siberia

Transport:Highways in Germany, called Autobahns.-Some other European countries like Belgium, France, Italy and Britain have also constructed major highway networks known by various names like Auto routes (France), Autos trade (Italy) and Motorways (England). -Road network in USA are known as Highways.- Tourism has been facilitated by the construction of good, long distance roads in many countries e.g. in South America Pan American highway, and the Brasilia Belem road connects the south to the Amazon.

Rail transport-The first ever public railway was started between Stockton and Darlington in northern England in 1825.

 

-Gauges are used in rail construction according to the topography, the alignment of the track and the speed of the travel.

-On level ground surfaces Broad Gauge (1.51.7 m) is used e.g. Trans Siberian Railway.

- Narrow Gauge (1 m) is mainly used in hilly areas where there are many sharp curves to deal with e.g. in SE Asia and many parts of Africa.

 

-The Standard Gauge (1.4 m) is adopted over the greater part of the globe because it is the most efficient for all purposes.

 

-The fastest and the heaviest trains of the world are all found on the Standard Gauge e.g. in the USA, Canada, China, Middle East and most of Europe.

- Trans Siberian Railway which runs from St. Petersburg (formerly Leningrad) and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east is the most important railway in Asia. The Trans Siberian Railway has its connections with Odessa in Ukraine, Baku in Caucasus, Tashkent in Uzbekistan, Ulan Bator in Mongolia, Shenyang in Manchuria and Beijing in China.

-ln Japan the Railway network is very good but still railways are not financially prosperous, because commuter trains are only used in rush hours and run empty during much of the day. -In Thailand due to lack of high standard road network the railways are an efficient form of passenger transport, whereas in Malaysia, where conditions of roads are good, taxies, buses and Lorries provide cheaper and much faster transport and more direct communications have greatly reduced the profits of railways.

-The only Trans continental railway in South America is one which links Buenos Aires (Argentina) with Valparaiso (Chile) through the Uspallata Pass across the Andes.

-Australian Trans Continental Railway from Freemantle (near Perth) to Sydney, passing through Kargoorlie, Adelaide, Melbourne and Canberra

-The Canadian Pacific Railway runs from Vancouver (British Columbia) to St. John's (New Brunswick) on the Atlantic coast.

-The Canada National Railway runs from Vancouver to Halifax in Nova Scotia.

-Benguela railway which runs through Angola to the Katanga Zambia copper belt and the Tanzara railway from Zambia copper belt to the sea at Dar–e- salaam are important railway routes in Africa.

-The densest railway network in Africa is in South Africa because of the mining of gold, copper and diamonds.

-In Europe the greatest railway densities are found in the industrial regions of the Western Europe. Belgium has the greatest railway density in Europe.

-In North America the greatest railway density is found in the east central USA and southern Canada, south of the great Lakes, and on the Atlantic sea board where most of the main cities are linked by rails.

Water transport- Water transport has its edge over other modes of transport on two

fronts. First, that it uses existing routes e.g. rivers, seas, and needs no special tracks except in the case of canals and secondly that it is the cheapest form of transport for large, bulky goods.

Inland waterways- Inland waters are basically of three types, namely rivers, rivers which have been modified or canalised, and specially constructed canals.

- Rivers like Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Mackenzie have their courses through empty and inhospitable lands into the frozen Arctic Ocean due to which these rivers despite of their great length and volume have little economic significance.

 

-Rivers in Japan, Indonesia, Korea, Philippines and New Zealand are of little navigational value because of the narrowness of the countries or smallness of the island.The Paraguay River which is an important route way for. Landlocked Paraguay is very difficult to navigate because of much silting and frequent shifting of channel's position.

 

-The importance of canals in inland waterways can be noticed in regions of northern Europe, where together with modified rivers they form a very extensive network linking all the major industrial areas and providing a cheap form of transport for raw materials such as ores, coal and grains.

 

-Some important canals- France Canal , Burgandy Canal, Marne and Rhine Canal, and Rhone and Rhine Canal.Germany Mittelland Canal, Kiel Canal (between Baltic Sea and the North Sea), Dortmund Ems Canal, Ludwig Canal. The Netherlands Albert Canal, North America Soo Canal (between Lake Superior and Lake Huron) , Welland Canal (between Lake Erie and Ontario), Erie Canal and Houston ship Canal.

Ocean transport Major trade routes.

The North Atlantic route -This is the busiest sea route and carries the foreign trade greater than that of rest of the world combined altogether. Some of the largest terminals are located in Rotterdam,

Antwerp, London, New York, Boston and Philadelphia.2.The Cape of Good Hope route.3.The Mediterranean Suez Asiatic route This route was once considered as the lifeline of Britain The is route provides the fastest way of transporting oil to Europe.4. The Panama Canal West Indian Central American route The Panama canal joins the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and called as "The Gateway to the Pacific'.5. The South Atlantic route6. The Trans Pacific route Honolulu (Hawaii Islands) is the convergence point and known as the 'Crossroads of the Pacific'.

Air transportNorth America -The greatest amount of air traffic is found in the USA.-Great distances and the high standard of living have ensured a large potential market for air services.-The USA is served by four large air corporations: the United Airlines, Tran world Airlines, Pan American Airlines and Eastern Airlines -The largest airline company in Canada is the Trans Canada Airlines.Europe-London's Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world.

Major Airlines:

Britain - British Airways,

Virgin- AtlanticThe Netherlands –KLM,

Germany – Lufthansa,

Italy- AlItalia,

France - Air FranceNorway, Sweden and Denmark (Scandinavian countries) -SASRest of the world: Japan Japan Airlines, India Air India, Australia Qantas, Russia Aeroflot, Singapore Cathay Pacific, Pakistan PIA,Bahrain Gulf Air.

WORLD REGIONAL AGRICULTUREEurope and CIS

Wheat: Despite their intensive system of wheat cultivation by which yields, sometimes three times as high as those of the average extensive wheat farm, are obtained, Western European nations are not wheat exporters.

Ukraine, France, Turkey, Germany, Romania and Italy are major producers.

-The continent as a whole is the greatest wheat importer. Mainly comes from Canada, the USA, Argentina and Australia.-Denmark which used to be a wheat exporter has switched to dairying and market gardening,► Areas in Europe where wheat is grown:1. Steppes (Ukraine Black Earth)2.The Paris Basin 3.TheLombardy Plains of Italy 4.The Puztaz of Hungary 5.The lower Danube Basin of Romania and Bulgaria6. Scania in Sweden and7. Central Spain-Characteristics of wheat cultivation in Europe:1. High yields2. High cost of production (There many countries have subsidized wheat cultivation and imposed tariffs on imported wheat)3. Grown on great varieties of topographical and climatic areas.

Rice: In the North Italian Plain, the Ebro Basin of Spain, the Rhone Delta of France and scattered areas in the Balkans. Corn Used as a green fodder or winter feed as silage. West European countries are the chief importers of maize where it is used as an animal feed and for industrial uses.

Cotton C.I.S- Leading producer: Uzbekistan-Azerbaijan and Armenia also grow cotton. -The large state and collective farms are highly mechanized and almost all of the cotton is grown in irrigated fields. -The hottest area in Central Asia, where the relative humidity is very low, have the highest cotton yields.

- Cotton textile industry around Moscow Others Leningrad , the Baltic states of Estonia and Latvia and Ukraine, Armenia,

Flax-Largest producer CIS, Second largest Poland - Areas North European Plain-Largest producer in W. Europe France. Production in Belgium and the Netherlands, long famous for their high quality Linen, has declined North Ireland is the traditional linen manufacturing area.

 

Silk-Silk manufacture, originally based on locally produced silk is now dependent on important supplies.-Frances, Italy and Switzerland Traditional silk manufacturing countries are major importers.-Manufacturing centers Lyons, Grenoble France Milan Italy Krefield, Germany, Britain Wool-CIS has largest number of sheep in the world (mostly in Asiatic Russia) but has lower wool production than Australia.-Most textile production are in European Russia including Moscow and Leningrad, Kiev (Ukraine) and Alma Ata (Kazakhstan)Britain, Italy, Germany and France are only minor producers today, but once they were important.

Tea-Many of the large British tea companies, which have been in business for generations, especially in Mincing Lane in London, blend and market tea as well as own tea estates in various parts of the Commonwealth. More than half the world's tea trade goes through London, where much is loaded, packed and re exported. CIS countries also grow some tea for home consumption

 

Wine-About two third of the world's wine come from the Mediterranean countries.

- Italy and France Greatest producer and consumers.

- France is a major exporter but is a net importer of wine. Types of Wine1. Asti Turin- (Italy)2. Chianti Tiber basin-(Italy)3. Marsalis Sicily-(Italy)4. Champagne Paris Basin-(France)5. Burgundy Upper Rhone, Saone Valleys (France)6. Beaujolais Upper Rhone, Saone valleys (France)7. Cognac Aquitaine (brandy) basin(France)8. Sherry Cadiz(Spain)9. Malaga Port of Malaga(Spain)10. Port Oporto and Douro basin (Portugal)11.Tokay -(Hungary)12.Hocks- (Germany) Rhine-Apart from climate, pedagogical factors and the unrivalled wine preparation skills handed down from generation to generation have

contributed to the superiority of the wine industry.-In Spain, the major vine growing areas are along the coasts in Valencia and Andalusia, and in the river basins of Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.-Frelburg is the centre of the German wine industry.

Sugar Belt-Sugarcane is the major source of sugar in tropical and subtropical areas, where as the colder countries of temperate region are dependent on Sugar beet for local sugar production. Russia and other countries of CIS are jointly the largest producers.-Ukraine Grows it in a belt between Kiev and Voronezh along with the northern shores of the Black sea. Poland, Germany, Italy,France, Britain, Czech Republic and Slovakia are major producers. Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands and the Scandia region of Sweden are other producing areas.

 

OlivesMainly grown in the Mediterranean shore land. -Italy, Spain, Greece, Tunisia, Turkeys, Portugal, Morocco and Syria.

Tobacco: Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Italy and Poland

North AmericaWheat: USA-Grown mainly by extensive mechanized farming. -Average yield is not high. -Leading wheat states Kansas, North Dakota, Nebraska and Montana-Varieties and their regions: 1.Hard Red spring wheat N and S Dakota, Montana, and Minnesota2.Hard Red winter wheat Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, and N. Texas. 3.Soft Red winter wheat Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and most of mid Atlantic states.4.Soft White wheat Region Around Michigan and Huron and on the west coast (California, Columbia plateau, Oregon and Idaho)-Kansas is the leading wheat producer.CANADA-Almost all the wheat from Canada is spring wheat and 95% of the total comes from the Prairie provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba.-Factors that have contributed to the rise of Canadian Prairies:1 .Availability of extensive cheap land2.Extensive Railway network

3 .Fertile Prairie soils (Chernozem)4.Undulating Topography

5.Suitable Climate (early melting of ice because of Chinook Wind results in longer growing season)6.Access to Markets (handled through Winnipeg, Port Arthur and Fort William on L. Superior and the Great lakes St. Lawrence water ways) Corn (Maize) USA-Corn leads all other crops in total acreage and a highly developed Corn belt has evolved south of the great lakes, -It is the largest maize producer and exporter (especially to Japan and North West Europe)-Corn belt includes Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota.-Corn belt is by no means a monoculture region, but it is a highly developed mixed farming region.-One of the most prosperous agricultural regions of the world.-Iowa leads in corn production followed by Illinois

-Com and animals have led to the development of such large cities as Chicago, St. Louis, Omaha, Cincinnati and Kansas City

Cotton-Several important changes have altered the entire economy of the old cotton belt. The most important has been the westward shifts in cotton growing. Advantage of west fertile soils, climate and labour. Texas is the largest producer.-Sheep are relatively unimportant-Lamb is not a favorite meat in USA.-The sheep are kept in the drier western states, the greatest concentration being on the Edward Plateau of Texas

-Woolen textile industry is located in North England (extreme North East USA)

 

Dairy Farming -The chief dairying region is the Hay and Dairy Belt south of the Great lakes in the states of Wisconsin, Dakota and Minnesota.-Wisconsin leads every state in almost all categories of dairy products.

Beef Cattle-Greatest beef producer in the world.-Large local demand and therefore little surplus for export.-Cattle are raised in W. Prairies and then taken to cattle fattening areas.

-Processed in towns such as Chicago, St. Louis. Omaha and Kansas City. Pigs-Most of America's Pigs are found in the Com Belt -Americans and Canadians consume a great deal of pork. -Greatest rearing area Corn Belt (Iowa and Missouri)

FishingCANADA and USA1.North West Atlantic Fishing Grounds:- It was traditionally the world's richest Cod fishing region- Centered on the Grand Banks- Fishes like Cod, Herring and Mackerel are caught in the surface waters (Pelagic). Halibut, Haddok, Hake and Flounder in the deeper waters (Demersal).-Inshore fishing shellfish and crustaceans (important in the urbanized North East).

-Reasons for the development of fishing:(a)Vast continental shelf (b) Convergence of cold Labrador and warm Gulf Stream off New Foundland (c)Lack of natural resources on land.(d)Cool temperate climate not only favors large scale commercial fishing, but also the preservation and storage of fish.-Fishery and Marine industry.-Important in the Maritime Provinces of Canada (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island)

2. North East Pacific -Alaska to California.

-Salmon most valuable species , but greatly depleted.

-Amongst Demersal (found in deep water) fish Hake is important-In recent years, catches of Alaska Pollack has become important.Tuna and Sardine Off California

USA- Leading fishing states Alaska, Massachusetts, California, Delaware and New Jersey- Major fishing ports Gloucester, New Bedford, Baltimore-Crustaceans and Shellfish are an important part of the American fishing industry.

Canada-Salmon, Cod and Lobsters are important fishes.

–Cod at Newfound land and Lobsters at Nova Scotia

–Salmon New Brunswick and Nova Scotia

-Fishing in British Columbia is centered at Vancouver -Inland fisheries R.Skeena, R.Fraser, Gr.Lakes, Gr. Slave lakes(Salmon, Trout, Eel).

-Canada largest producer of NewsprintPines. (Centered at Quebec, Toronto, Montreal and Ottawa)

-Bowater's plant of Comer Brook is probably the largest newsprint mill in the world.

AsiaRice: CHINA (Areas): 1. Chang Jiang (Yangtze Kiang) and Xi River (Si Kiang) Basins.2.South East Coastlands

3.Sichuan (Szechwan) Basin

4.Hill slopes south of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze)Rising of dietary standards has given wheat a greater prominence.BANGLADESH Rice fields in the Ganges Delta region are nil irrigated.JAPAN: High Yield and produced in Northern HonshuMalaysia large paddy settlement Schemes Kubang Pasu, Kedah, Tanjong Karang, Selangor.(Irrigation schemes)

Wheat CHINA1. Hwang Ho Basin2. Manchuria-Flood control measures have helped wheat cultivation on the northern side of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze Kiang)

-Wheat is the staple food of the Northern China as rice is of the southern China.

-Also grown in North Korea and Japan (N. Honshu) Maize India and China. Barley Upper Ganges Basin

SOUTH EAST ASIA: Rice: 1. Indonesia Mostly in Java (rich volcanic soil). Raised as either Sawah (wet Paddy) or Huma(dry paddy)

2.Mekong Delta, Annam coastland, Tonle Sap area of Cambodia and Vietnam are all natural sites for paddy cultivation.

Oats: North China Manchuria and around Hwang Ho Millet and Sorghum Southern and Western India, North Eastern China, Indo China peninsula, S. Borneo, Myanmar, Japan (S. Honshu), Eastern Kamchatka Peninsula.

Tea: SRI LANKA-Introduced in 1870s after blights had destroyed almost all coffee trees in the Central Highlands.Yields are low, though the tea is of high quality

-Competition has increased for India and Sri Lanka because of rise in production in East Africa (Kenya etc.)CHINA -Export is much smaller than those of India and Sri Lanka.

- Areas Chang Jiang (Yangtze) Valley, Sichuan (Szechwan) Basin.

-Tea gardens are small.

-Oolong Tea is produced in Taiwan.INDONESIA -Java, introduced in Sumatra as well.-Black tea is exported to the Netherlands.BANGLADESH - Exported through Chittagong-Main areas Surma ValleyPeninsular MALAYSIA -Cameroon Highlands (Picking is done by immigrant Tamil women from southern India and Sri Lanka)

 

Coffee- Java coffee (Java and Sumatra)-Mocha (Yemen) -India, Malayasia, Vietnam, and Philippines also grow coffee. Cocoa-Papua New Guinea is the main S.E. Asian producer

-Also grown in eastern Sabah (Malaysia)

 

Sugarcane-India, Pakistan (production has increased because of irrigation), China (Si kiang basin), Taiwan, Thailand (leading producer in S.E. Asia), Philippines (Panay, Negros, Cebu and Luzon islands)- Sugarbeet (Northern China)Plantations in South East Asia► Rubber plantations were established in most of the South East Asian countries.

► Philippines is the only South East Asian country which grows no rubber► Thailand presently is the largest producer of rubber in the world.► Immigrants from China and South India flocked to South East Asia to get work on the estates. As a result of immigration, while people of Indian extraction account for about 10% of the Malaysia population. the proportion of Chinese people is around 38% in Malaysia.► Malaysian estates and plantations are perhaps the most efficient and wellrun in the world. Government in Malaysia had allowed the large estates to coexist with small holdings.► Where as political stability in Malaysia has led to better developmental performance on various economic fronts, other countries in South East Asian have witnessed retarded growth because of prolonged struggles for independence, confiscation of estates, struggle for power and frequent incidents of coups.

RubberMALAYSIA-Most important crop in Malaysia-Expansion of rubber growing efficient, methodology, research and replanting along with establishment of RubberResearch Institute in Kuala Lumpur and political stability have led to the growth of rubber industry.INDONESIA-Since most of the lands in Java were owned by peasant farmers, most of the rubber estates were set up in Sumatra.THAILAND -Presently the largest producer in the world.

- Grown in southern region because seasonally dry climate in other parts prevent rubber growing.-Grown mostly by smallholders and small estate owners of Chinese extraction.CAMBODIA -Rubber was grown mainly in the east of the country but production has been interrupted by the war and subsequent political instability.VEITNAM -Main Area North East of Ho Chi Minh citySRI LANKA-After tea, rubber is the most important export crop.

Palm OilMALAYSIA- Largest producer in the world. Grown on estates as well as on small holdings.INDONESIA-Mainly in southern SumatraCopra (Coconut)Philippines, Indonesia, India and Sri lanka along with Papua New Guinea, Fiji and New Hebrides.

 

Groundnut-India largest producer - China North China Plains)-Also grown in Indonesia and Myanmar

Soya bean-China : North China Plains and Manchuria

-Japan and Indonesia also grow Soya bean

Olive- Turkey and Syria Tobacco-Turkey and South West Asia, South Asia and South East Asia-China and India are major producers-Greece and Turkey produce aromatic Turkish tobacco Indonesia also produces tobacco.

Dairy: Cattle-India largest producer of milk in the world.

-Japan has a large number of important dairy industries.

-Dairy Industry is not well developed in China because of traditional reasons.

Sheep: -Middle East including Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and some other countries, is the leading sheep farming region in Asia. Sheep rearing is also important in dry areas of India and China as well.

-China kept on extensive farms in the western province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) and in Inner Mongolia

Pig: -China Most important pigrearing country.

-Also important in Korea, Japan, Philippines and continental South East Asia.

South AmericaRice:Brazil 1. Greatest rice growing nation in the southern continents.

2.Growing in SE Brazil (heavy precipitation, swampy coastal lowlands and abundant sunlight)

Wheat Argentina 1. Method of cultivation similar to USA and Canada2. Greatest concentration in the wheat crescent of the Pampas from Rosario to Bahia Blanca3. Dense network of railway supports transportation to costal ports of Buenos Aires and Bahia Blanca. Outside Argentina, only Uruguay and Central Chile have considerable wheat cultivation

MaizeArgentina, Brazil and Mexico Coffee Brazil Factors for the rise of the Brazilian coffee industry:1.Land (well drained and rolling plateau)2. Climate (Warm and Humid) The prevailing S.E. trade winds from the S. Atlantic Ocean blow onshore and are favorable.Fazendas (or coffee estates) are usually located at some elevation, away from the cold valley bottoms. This is to avoid chilling frosts.3. Soil: Variable soils of SE. Brazil are suitable for coffee production (Terra Rossa is the best among them)

4.Labour and land tenure Most of the land in Brazil is owned by rich land owner, comparatively little land is in small holdings. 5.Accessibility Intricate system of roads and railways. -Sao Paulo is the centre ofthe coffee trade (Its outport is Santos)-Sao Paulo, Santos and Rio De Janeiro (all in SE) are the most prosperous in Brazil. Now it is increasingly grown further north in Minas Gerais.Columbia- Chief coffee centers Medellin, Manizales and Tolima-Columbian coffee has an excellent flavor and fetches higher prices than Brazilian one.-Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru are the chief producers

-In Central America coffee is the chief crop having high yields. Mexico, El Salvador and Guatemala are the major coffee producers (Also in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica)CocoaBrazil-Growing region Bahia and Esparto Santo

-The red clay soils of the crystalline rocks are ideal for the cropEcuador-On Guayaquil Lowlands Other producers Venezuela, Peru, Columbia, and Trinidad and TobagoCentral America W. Indies grown on abandoned banana lands (e.g. Costa Rica) Other producers in Central America are Mexico, Haiti, Dominican Republic and Costa Rica

WineChile Central valley around Santiago Argentina Around Mendoza and San JuanCottonBrazil-Production mainly from North East and South East of the country.-Plantations have also been established in the Chaco.

-Not a major textile producer.Peru-Has a long cotton growing tradition (Mainly in the oasis settlements in the Atacama Desert)Other Producers Mexico, Columbia, Nicaragua, other C. American states and W. Indies Wool Argentina-In the dry windy plateau country of Patagonia

-Majority of Argentina's production is of medium and poor grade woolsUruguay Fairly important wool producerOther producers Brazil and Chile. There is little woolen textile manufacture in Latin America.

Fisheries-Fisheries are less developed in the temperate waters of the southern hemisphere. - In Argentina, S. Africa, Australia and New Zealand meat is more popular. -Tropical waters have less potential for fishing in general because fish of commercial species are fewer. -Well developed in regions off Peru and Chile. -Anchovies are common. -Upwelling cold waters help Plankton development. -Bulk of fish caught not used for food but for fertilizers. -The rise of fishing industry has endangered the Guano (bird droppings rich in phosphate) industry because the birds can no longer find sufficient food in coastal waters. -Chile's catch is mainly used for industrial purposes rather than food.

Forestry-Huge reserves exist but relatively unimportant producing area.-Brazil is the only major commercial timber producer (but wood comes from Parana pine rather than Amazonian forests. This is because of difficulties in transporting the logs to the main industrial and population centers in the south east and also because of the greater versatility of conifers for industrial use.)

-Columbia and Haiti produce timber mainly for fuel. -Chile and Argentina have mall production of industrial woods.-Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay are major producers of Quebracho wood

Africa

Wheat-It is of little importance except in the extreme south, in parts of Cape Province and in northern Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).

-Elsewhere in Africa, maize is much more important than wheat.

 

Rice-Egypt (Nile Delta and valley)Though Basin irrigation is still used, huge dams like Aswan have helped in the development of perennial irrigation system.-Minor producers Congo, C.A.R., Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Mali and Madagascar.

 

Maize-S. Africa is the major producer.- Production is often small in African countries but the crop is relied on as a staple food and therefore has an importance in the economy greater than mere production figures would indicate.Oat and Barley in Africa these are grown in eastern, southeastern and southern pockets.

Millet and sorghum -Millet is an important subsistence crop. It is often called Durra or Guinea

 

Corn. -Main producers Nigeria, Sudan, Niger, Chad, Mali and Egypt. Vegetables(a) Starchy tubers (i) Manioc or Cassava (Zaire and Nigeria)(ii) Yams (common food crops in Africa ,S.E. Asia and the Pacific islands and are grown by shifting cultivators and subsistence farmers). Major producers Nigeria, Togo, Benin, Ivory Coast.

Fruits(a) Tropical fruits (i) Dates (Desert areas of Sudan and Algeria (ii)

Bananas (W. Africa)(iii) Pineapples (Zaire and Ivory Coast)(b) Sub tropical and warm temperate fruits Citrus fruits like Grapes in S.Africa.

Spices-Clove Pemba and Zanzibar-Vanilla Malagasy (Elsewhere Vanilla is grown in Mexico and Indonesia)

 

Tea- Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique and Uganda

-Kenyan tea is of high quality and is grown on highlands around Nairobi. Java coffee (Indonesia) ,Mocha (Yemen)- Ivory Coast, Zaire and Cameroon are chief producers.

-Kenya, Uganda and Angola also grow coffee. Cocoa-Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon -Mainly on small holdings.

-Brazil and Ivory Coast (new producers) have higher yields than Ghana and Nigeria.

-The greatest concentration is in the cocoa triangle (including Accra, Kumasi and Takoradi) Forests-Nigeria, Ethiopia and Sudan are major timber producers.

-Many countries have turned to commercial extraction Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Zaire-Forests are less extensive and often less luxuriant than in Latin America or South East Asia.-Though largest forest area is in Zaire Basin, transportation is difficult.

AustraliaWheat-Major Exporter

-Method of cultivation similar to USA and Canada

-Yields are low (Wheat farms are not all that prone to climatic hazards in the southern continents as they are in the north because of maritime locations)

-Irrigation is necessary in Victoria and NS. Wales

- Wheat cultivation is intensified in the Riverina district of the MurrayDarling Basin and in Swanland (W. Australia)

Wine-Chiefly from S. Australia, around Adelaide.

-Minor area Murray Darling Basin of Victoria and New South Wales Centered at Mildura.

Wool-Leading producer

- Two third of produced wools belong to Merino Class

-Concentrated in New South Wales, especially in the rolling Downs on the western side of the GreDividingRange.

-New Zealand has astonishing numterjifsheerj. Maritime climate and,better pasture are helpful. Out of total threefourth belongs to the Rodney Marsh (British). New Zealand fleeces are the heaviest 

 Forests-Australia has little natural forest It has some reserves in the moister south east and in Tasmania,- Major tree type Eucalyptus (poor quality timber) Also possess valuable Jarrah and Karri. (Found in south west of the country in Swanaland in W. Australia)

-Australia has few local softwood resources but many conifers have been planted in order to provide larger supplies.

-New Zealand has some small softwood reserve. (Most in less fettled south island which has Kauri Pine.)

POPULATION Anthropological geographyBy comparing the biology of man with that of other animals and so determining the degree of their relationship (Taxonomy) and by looking at fossils and so determining their age and development (Paleontology), the evolution of man can be predicted.Geochronological evolution of mankind.Paleocene and Eocene Prosimains (pre monkeys) ,Oligocene Prosimians decreased during this period, Miocene Dryopithecines (group of apes), End of Miocene Ramapithecus (progressive animal; with rounded dental arcade and human like teeth, was clearly a human ancestor), Pliocene Australopithecines (southern ape man, upright in stature and used crude tools), Pleistocene Homo erectus (erect walking

primitive man), Late Pleistocene Appearance of Neanderthal (skulls more massive than that of present man. Their tools were finely constructed than homoerectus.Second interglacial stage other Pleistocene Appearance of modern Homosapiens.An early group of Homosapiens are called Cromagnon.

Races of the worldRaces can be primarily classified into Caucasiod, Mongoloid and negroid.

Caucasoid-Skin colour reddish white to olive brown.- Stature medium to tall -Head long to broad and short-Face narrow to medium broad-Hair light blonde to dark brown- Eye light blue to dark brown- Mainly found in Europe.- Also along the northern belt of Africa, Asia Minor (Turkey), Afghanistan, Iran to Baluchistan and Northern India.- Subraces of caucasoid Mediterranean, Ainu, Celtic, Nordic, Alpine and East Baltic.- some composite races Armenoid, Dinaric. Predominantly white ones include Australian, Indo Dravidian and Polynesian. Residual mixed type include Nordic Alpine and Nordic Mediterranean.

Mongoloid-Skin colour saffron to yellow brown, some are reddish brown.-Stature Medium tall to medium short.-Head Predominantly broad ( Brachycephals)-Face Medium broad to very broad.-Hair brown to brown black.-Eye brown to dark brown, medial epicanthic fold very common.- Mainly Asiatic or oriental race.-Also found in central, eastern and SE Asia and western parts of Americas ( Red Indians etc.), Arctic region (Eskimos in Canada, Greenland and Yakuts in Siberia).- Sub races include classic mongoloid and Arctic mongoloid.- Composite races include those that are predominantly mongoloid like Malaya mongoloid, Indonesian mongoloid and American Indians.

Negroid-Skin colour brown to brown black- Stature tall to very short -Head predominantly long, height low to medium. -Face medium broad to narrow

-Hair colour brown black -Eye brown to brown black, vertical eye fold common.- Characterized by prognathism that is protrusion of the jaw.-Some are also affected by steatopygia (bulky hips) e.g. Hottentots.- Sub races include African Negro, Nilotic negro and Negrito.-Composite races including those that are predominantly negroid like Melanesians and papuans.-Secondary subraces include Bushmen of Kalahari and hottentots of southern Africa.By 8,000 B.C hunters and gatherers had migrated from Africa through out Europe and Asia, to Australia and across the Bering Strait and southward the length of America. Only Antarctica was totally uninhabited by mankind. Major revolutions like Agricultural Revolution (10,000 years before). Industrial Revolutions (1779 A.D) and Medical Revolution (20th century) were marked by distinct rise in world population.

Factors affecting distribution of population- Availability of arable land and water The plain areas having fertile soil and appropriate climate for the cultivation of crops are the regions of high density of population .Areas having incidence of anthropogenic innovations like irrigation etc. also tend to have high population density.

-Area of civilization The longer a place has been continuously used by farmers, the larger is the density and the population. (E.g. Eastern China plains and Indo Gangetic plains)- Accessibility: Accessible places are those that can easily be connected by transportation to other places. Such areas always tend to have high population. A higher relief would result in lower population density. 56 percent ofthe world's population is confined to. an altitude of less than 200 m. Only about 20 percent of the world's total population is found in regions with an altitude of more than 500 m. Japan provides the classic example of relationship where the demographic relief is opposite of its physiographic relief.- Restrictions of National boundaries: Crossing of international boundaries by the people of one country to another are not allowed by the proviso of international law. Most governments restrict immigration and several countries control emigration as well. Therefore the population density is not uniform throughout the world.Inhabited regions of the world are known as Ecumene areas, whereas the uninhabited areas are known as Non Ecumene areas.

Population DistributionThe world can be divided into densely and sparsely populated areas.

Densely populated regions are those having density greater than hundred persons per square kilometers. It includes the following areas-East Asia (China, Japan, S. Korea and Taiwan)

-South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal)- North Western Europe (France, UK, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Ireland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal and Italy).- Eastern North America (NE USA and SE Canada)Apart from the above four, following regions also have high density:-Deltas of Mekong, Menam and Irrawady.- Indonesian island of Java (high population density is because of rich volcanic soil)- Linear concentration along the Nile Valley in Egypt. Ring of settlement around Lake Victoria and the coastal area of Nigeria.-Central Mexico.-Coastal areas of Venezuela, Brazil and Argentina.

Sparsely populated areas are as follows:-Desert, arid and semiarid areas (generally they are thinly populated by nomadic hunters and gatherers like the Bushmen of Kalahari and nomads like the Badawins of Arabia and Sahara etc.). Exceptions occur where towns have emerged in deserts owing to the mining of gold and other precious metals (e.g. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Australia and Cripple Creek in USA etc.) -Ice caps and cold regions. (Very sparsely inhabited, usually by hunters like Eskimos) Exceptions occur where minerals are available and men have settled there to exploit them (e.g. iron ore in Gallivare in Sweden, gold in Yukon Valley and Fort Yukon in Alaska.)- Mountainous Regions. Exceptions occur where minerals are found, like some pockets in Peru and Bolivia. In Kishtwar (Bhadarwah district of J&K), mining of precious stones have led to the emergence of settlements.In tropical regions where climate at lower altitudes is not conducive, most of the towns, cities and settlements have developed around 2000 m above sea level Addis Abab (Ethiopia), Kampala(Uganda), Nairobi (Kenya), Quit(Euador), Ooty(India), Kandy(Sri Lanka)

Most populated countries in world:ChinaIndiaUSAIndonesiaBrazilPakistanRussiaJapan

BangladeshNigeriaMexicoGermanyIranEgyptUKFrance

ASIA (countries in sequence of their population)ChinaIndiaIndonesiaPakistanJapanBangladeshVietnamPhilippinesIranTurkeyThailandMyanmarS. KoreaN. KoreaUzbekistanNepalAfghanistanIraqTaiwanMalaysiaS. ArabiaSri LankaKazakhstanYemenSyriaCambodia

Factors affecting distribution of population- Availability of arable land and water The plain areas having fertile soil and appropriate climate for the cultivation of crops are the regions of high density of population .Areas having incidence of anthropogenic innovations like irrigation etc. also tend to have high population density.

-Area of civilization The longer a place has been continuously used by farmers, the larger is the density and the population. (E.g. Eastern

China plains and Indo Gangetic plains)- Accessibility: Accessible places are those that can easily be connected by transportation to other places. Such areas always tend to have high population. A higher relief would result in lower population density. 56 percent ofthe world's population is confined to. an altitude of less than 200 m. Only about 20 percent of the world's total population is found in regions with an altitude of more than 500 m. Japan provides the classic example of relationship where the demographic relief is opposite of its physiographic relief.- Restrictions of National boundaries: Crossing of international boundaries by the people of one country to another are not allowed by the proviso of international law. Most governments restrict immigration and several countries control emigration as well. Therefore the population density is not uniform throughout the world.Inhabited regions of the world are known as Ecumene areas, whereas the uninhabited areas are known as Non Ecumene areas.

Population DistributionThe world can be divided into densely and sparsely populated areas.

Densely populated regions are those having density greater than hundred persons per square kilometers. It includes the following areas-East Asia (China, Japan, S. Korea and Taiwan)

-South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal)- North Western Europe (France, UK, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Ireland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal and Italy).- Eastern North America (NE USA and SE Canada)Apart from the above four, following regions also have high density:-Deltas of Mekong, Menam and Irrawady.- Indonesian island of Java (high population density is because of rich volcanic soil)- Linear concentration along the Nile Valley in Egypt. Ring of settlement around Lake Victoria and the coastal area of Nigeria.-Central Mexico.-Coastal areas of Venezuela, Brazil and Argentina.

Sparsely populated areas are as follows:-Desert, arid and semiarid areas (generally they are thinly populated by nomadic hunters and gatherers like the Bushmen of Kalahari and nomads like the Badawins of Arabia and Sahara etc.). Exceptions occur where towns have emerged in deserts owing to the mining of gold and other precious metals (e.g. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Australia and Cripple Creek in USA etc.) -Ice caps and cold regions. (Very sparsely inhabited, usually by hunters like Eskimos) Exceptions occur where minerals are available and men have settled there to exploit them (e.g.

iron ore in Gallivare in Sweden, gold in Yukon Valley and Fort Yukon in Alaska.)- Mountainous Regions. Exceptions occur where minerals are found, like some pockets in Peru and Bolivia. In Kishtwar (Bhadarwah district of J&K), mining of precious stones have led to the emergence of settlements.In tropical regions where climate at lower altitudes is not conducive, most of the towns, cities and settlements have developed around 2000 m above sea level Addis Abab (Ethiopia), Kampala(Uganda), Nairobi (Kenya), Quit(Euador), Ooty(India), Kandy(Sri Lanka)

Most populated countries in world:ChinaIndiaUSAIndonesiaBrazilPakistanRussiaJapanBangladeshNigeriaMexicoGermanyIranEgyptUKFrance

ASIA (countries in sequence of their population)ChinaIndiaIndonesiaPakistanJapanBangladeshVietnamPhilippinesIranTurkeyThailandMyanmarS. KoreaN. KoreaUzbekistanNepal

AfghanistanIraqTaiwanMalaysiaS. ArabiaSri LankaKazakhstanYemenSyriaCambodia

WORLD: Major Producing Regions

Rice ProductionChina India Vietnam Bangladesh Thailand Myanmar Brazil Philippines Japan

Wheat ProductionChina India USA France Russian Federation Canada Australia Germany Turkey Pakistan Cereals China USA India France Indonesia Russian Federation Canada Brazil Germany Australia

Barley: Germany Canada Russian Ferderation France Turkey Spain UK USA Denmark China Maize USA China Brazil Mexico Argentina Romania India Italy Indonesia Canada

Oats: Russian Federation Canada USA Australia Poland Millet India Nigeria China Niger Burkina Faso

Rye: Russian Federation Germany Poland Belarus Ukraine Sorghum USA India Nigeria Mexico China Argentina Sudan Australia Ethiopia Burkina Faso

Sugar Cane: Brazil India China Pakistan Thailand Mexico Australia Columbia Cuba USA

Tea: India China Sri Lanka Kenya Indonesia Turkey Japan Vietnam Iran Bangladesh

Wine: France Italy Spain USA

Jute: India Bangladesh China Myanmar Uzbekistan Nepal Tobacco China India USA Turkey Zimbabwe Greece Indonesia Italy Malawi Pakistan

Coconuts: Indonesia India Philippines Brazil Mexico

Natural Rubber: Thailand Indonesia Malaysia India China

Freshwater Fish:China India Brunei Indonesia USAThailandRussian FederationVietnamJapanNorway

Marine Fish:ChinaThailandVietnamMyanmarIndiaIndonesiaMexicoMalaysiaSouth Korea

Silk:ChinaIndiaUzbekistan Brazil Crude Oil: USASaudi ArabiaCISIranMexicoFisheriesChinaPeru

JapanChileUSARussia

World : Mineral and Power Resources and IndustriesAsia

JAPANCoal-Chikugo (N.W. Kyushu), Ishikari (Hokkaido), Johan and Ube (Honshu). -Has to import coking coal. -High Production costs and low quality coal makes mining unprofitable and Japan relies heavily on imported oil and on HydroElectric Power. Lignite Deposits are fairly well scattered throughout Japan.Hydro Electric Power (H.E.P.)-Lack of coal and oil, a rugged topography well distributed heavy precipitation and an enormous industrial demand has lead to the development of H.E.P.-It's unstable geological situation with frequent earth quakes are a deterrent to the building of really large dams even if the mountain streams were large enough to warrant them.-H.E.P plants In Japanese Alps.Thermo Electricity It contributes twothird of Japan's total energy requirement. IronOre Imported from Philippines, Malaysia, India and Australia.Copper Japan produces appreciable quantities but has started importing now. Found in north and north east of Tokyo and northern Shikoku.Zinc Central and Northern HonshuJapan also produces Lead, Gold and SulphurIndustries- Shortage of industrial raw materials and solid fuels.- Indented coastline and many large ports- Technically biased educational system.- Regions:1.KEIHIN Region (Kwanto Plain)-TokyoElectrical Engineering- YokohamaShip building, oil refining, Petrochemicals -KawasakiMarine engineering, cement, glass. 2.HANSHIN (Kinki Plains) Industrial conurbation comprising of Osaka Textiles. -Kobe Shipbuilding, Oil refining, and Petrochemicals. -Kyoto Handicrafts, Porcelain.3.ICE BAY Region (Dominated by Nagoya) (Nobi Plains).-Nagoya Textiles Machinery, Automobiles, Locomotive, Aircraft.-Hamamatsu Musical Instruments

4.KITAKYUSHU (Northern Kyushu) Based on Chikugo Coal fields.- Centered at Yawata Kokura and Moji. Extends southward to Fukuoka and Nagasaki. -This region specializes in Steel, Ships, Machine parts and Textiles.5.Other Industrial Cities- Muroran Iron and Steel. -Akita and Nigata Oil refining.-Hiroshima Engineering- Hakodate and Sapporo (Hokkaidu) also have <=ome industries.

CHINA Coal-A1 types of coal are found. -Shanxi, Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia. Also in Gansu, Henan, Hebei and Shandong. -Manchurian coal fields including those at Jilin, Liaoning, Heilongjiang. -Szechwan (Sichuan) basin. Coal mining centres Fushun, Fuxin, Kailan, Hegang HydroElectricity -Projects both for power and flood control.- Several dams along Hwang Ho. Other projects on Yang Tze Kiang, Si kiang and some in Manchuria.Iron OreLargest deposit Manchurian deposits at Anshan Other regions Maanshan and Tayeh (Lower Yangtze) -Iron Steel Industries are centered at Anshan, Taiyun, Shanghai, Wuhan, Chongquing, Guangzhou, Shandong, Xinjiang, Hainan Islands. Copper Western and SW China Tungusten-One of the largest producers in the world -Hunan and Jiangxi Lead, Manganese, and rock salt are also found. Kaolin or China clay, a fine clay formed by the alteration of granite by metamorphism is found in huge quantities.

Industrial Regions1 .Manchuria (Iron Steel Engineering)- Centered at Anshan Fushun Shenyang .These three forms Mukden Triangle 2,Tianjin Beijing- Tianjin Shipbuilding, Chemicals-Beijiing Light Industry, Textiles and Machine making 3.Shanxi Baotou Based on China's largest coal field Shanxi and Shaanxi.Centered at Baotou, Taiyuan and Datong. These three are centers of Iron and steel industry.4.Lower Yangtze Kiang (Oldest industrial centre). -Shanghai Cotton Textile (also a premier port). 5.Wuhan Area (Central Yangtze Kiang and Han Basin). - Centered at Wuchang Hanyang Hankou. These three forms the conurbation of Wuhan Main industries in this region are Metallurgy, Heavy industries, Ship Building, Railway Equipment.6. Si Kiang Delta Region Centered at Guangzhou (Canton Iron and Steel Shipbuilding Textiles, Chemicals, Brewing, Handicrafts, Food processing.7. SichuanCentered at Chongquing and Chengdu Iron and steel,

Textiles, Pulp and PaperOther industrial cities In the mountainous Yunnan and the empty lands of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) isolation hamper industrial development despite the rich mineral resources. Some towns, such as Anning, Kiuchvan (Iron and steel) Yumen and Hangzhou (oil refining) and Kunming (Chemicals, textiles) have industrial development.

KOREAH.E.P North Korea Shuifeng Dam across Yalu River Iron Ore North Korea Tungsten North and South KoreaMica South KoreaIndustries (South Korea)-Taegu Electronics

-Pohang Iron and steel

-Ulsan Petrochemical, Shipbuilding-Changwon MachineryHONG KONG Light Industries

SOUTH EAST ASIA Coal-Hongay Vietnam -Omibilin (Sumatra) Indonesia.-Samarinda (Kalimantan) Indonesia-Cebu Island Philippines

-Krabi (In kra Peninsula)Thailand-Batu Arang and Sabah Peninsular Malayasia H.E.P Abu Bakar Dam Cameroon Highlands (Peninsular Malaysia) Iron Ore Malaysia and PhilippinesCopper Myanmar, Sarawak (Malaysia) and Irian Jaya (Indonesia)

Tin: Malaysia (all fields in peninsular Malaysia) Kinta Valley, Larut Plain, Kelang Valley, Jelebu Valley. Smelting is done at Penang and Singapore Thailand Kra Peninsula, Pukhet (off shore Island) Indonesia Banga, Billiton, Singkep.Also found in Burma and Vietnam.Nickel Philippines and IndonesiaTungsten Thailand Gold Philippines Chromium Philippines

Petroleum: Indonesia:Sumatra Palembang, Jambi (Refineries) and Singapur ; Kalimantan Balikpapan, Tanjung ; Irian Jaya Klamono Brunei Seria, Kuala, Belait Myanmar Singu, YenangYaung, Indaw, Minbu (Syriam refineries and Yangon refineries)Malaysia Off shore Sarawak, East Coast of Peninsular MalaysiaIndustries-Singapore -Oil Refinery, Electronic Assembly (Processing of Rubber,

Copra, and Lumber) -ShipBuilding -TourismThailand Automobile Assembly plants, Electrical ItemsMalaysia Furniture, Soap, Fertilizers, Electronic Goods.Philippines Paper and Wood Products, Electrical Appliances, Fishery Industry

WEST ASIAN AND OTHER ASIAN COUNTRIES

Coal-Iran Kermanshah -Pakistan Quetta and Kalabagh

H.E.PPakistan Sukkur, Mangla, Guddu, Tarbela, Taunsa, Triple Canal Project, Kotri

ChromiumTurkey Guleman, Tithye Petroleum-Major pipelines from inland fields or field on Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Coast.- Saudi Arabia Dammam , Dharan Exported to Ras Tanura (Bahrein) or Port Saida. Oil refineries at Ras Tanura and Damman. -Iran Masjid- E- Sulaiman, Nafi -I -Shah ,Lali, Agha-Jari (send to Abadan on persian gulf and Kermanshah for refinery)-Iraq Alaband, Khanaquin Kirkuk. Refinery at Daura, near Baghdad. New fields Gulf coast west of Basra and Mosul.- Mediterranean ports Banias (Syria), Tripoli (Lebanon), Haifa(Israel) -KuwaitBurgan oilfields (exported as crude oil through Mina Al Ahmadi Port Others Bahrein, Qatar, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E

North AmericaU.S.A:

 

Coal-Pennsylvanian Anthracite- Appalachian Bituminous

-Pittsburgh N.Appalachians (Iron and steel Capital of the world)- Birmingham S. Appalachians (Pittsburgh of the south)- Interior Provinces (Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas)

-Gulf Provinces (Texas, Alabama, Arkansas)-Rocky Mountain Provinces (Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, N.

Mexico, N. Dakota)-Pacific Provinces (Washington, Oregon, California)

-Alaska (future reserves)

 

H.E.P- Fall Line (Appalachians), Rockies, Mississippi Basin, Laurentian Shield, Great Lakes, St. Lawrence, Grand coulee Dam , R. Columbia (Washington), Bonneville Dam R. Columbia (Washington), Hoover Dam or Boulder Dam(reservoir L. Mead) R .Colorado, Davis Dam and Parker Dam (R. Colorado in Arizona), St. Lawrence Seaway with generating stations at Beauharnais, Cornwall, Prescott, Kingston, Montreal), St. Anthony falls (Minneapolis), Long Sault Rapids (Massena). Dams along Mississippi and Missouri (Fort peck, Garrison, Fort Randall, Gavin's Point).Tennessee Valley Project on R. Tennessee.

Petroleum and Natural Gas1 .Midcontinental region (Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas)- 1930 Oklahoma City became the heart of American oil industry.- Also a great Natural gas area.

2. Gulf coasts region- (S. Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas)- Extends under the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico.

3 Rocky Mountain Regions- Wyoming, Colorado, Montana, N. Mexico- Mining difficult and expensive (because of scattered deposits, folding and faulting)4. Californian Region- Centered at Los Angeles, Long Beach and S. San Joaquin5. Appalachian and Eastern Interior Region (Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Ohio)6. Alaska Region (A pipeline for shipment to USA From Alaska to Valdez)

Iron Ore1 .Lake Superior region (Hematite) e.g. Mesabi (Iron ore is shipped from Duluth) 2 North East region Adirondacks (New York) and Cornwall (Pennsylvania) 3. South East region Birmingham (Alabama) (Red Mountains)4.Western region Scattered fields at Utah (Iron Mountain), Nevada, Wyoming, California (Eagle Mountain) Steelworks at San Francisco Los

Angeles Pueblo (Colorado) Provo (Utah) Copper- Arizona Globe Morenci Largest single copper mine Bingham (Utah) -Montana Butte- Nevada and New Mexico (new Producers)

Tin -U.S is very short of tin and therefore imports and stockpiles large quantities. -American stockpile release drastically affects tin prices Bauxite- Due to great bulk of the Bauxite, concentration is due at seaboard Locations. -Mobile (Alabama) -Baton Rouge (Louisiana)

 

Lead Rockies, Ozark Plateau of Missouri, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Colorado.

Zinc Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas

Tungsten Nevada, Utah, Idaho

Molybdenum Leading producer. Climax mine of Colorado is probably the world's largest molybdenum mine.

Platinum California

Mica Largest produces are Eastern Rockies and Appalachians

Sulphur Texas (major producer)Silver, Vanadium and Uranium are also found.

Industrial RegionsSouthern New England -Centered at Boston -Boston (Shipbuilding, Textiles, Shoemaking, Footwear Machinery)- Lowell Providence (Woolen Textile)-New Bedford (Worsted Textiles)-Fall River (Cotton Textiles) -Hartford (Aircraft and Armaments)

Mid Atlantic States- Depends upon Pennsylvanian anthracite Iron ore, Coal and oil from Appalachians (Industrial conurbation from New York to Baltimore)Iron and Steel industries, Engineering, electrical goods etc.

Pittsburgh Lake Erie region -Iron and steel Region- Pittsburgh (Iron Steel capital of the world), Cleveland (Steel, Wearing apparel), Wheeling (Steel), Akron (Rubber), East Liverpool (Pottery), Buffalo (Flour milling chemical metal goods)

Detroit Region-Detroit Greatest automobile manufacturing region- Centered at Detroit, Lansing and Toledo Automobile and related industries

Lake Michigan Region -Chicago (Focal point at the convergence of roads and railways from all over the USA) Iron and Steel, Meat Packing, Grain milling, Agricultural machines, Rail Engines and coaches-Milwaukee Steel Engineering Textiles -Gary Iron and Steel

Southern Appalachian Region -Birmingham Iron and Steel. (The region gets its H.E.P from the Appalachian fall line).Eastern Texas- Industrial development dependent upon oil. The area has world's largest known deposits of Sulphur.- Known for Oil, Chemical and cotton Industries.- Shift westward of cotton belt has provided raw material and Created markets.- Assisted by the construction of Intra coastal waterway running parallel to the coast.- Houston Oil refineries, chemical plants, synthetic rubber- Dallas and Fort Worth are twin cities lying in this region. Dallas, a major cotton market is known for clothing and fashion. Fort Worth is known for Cattle, aircraft and aerospace. These two cities share the world's largest airport and are also major financial centers owing to vast oil wealth.

Other Industrial Cities -St Louis Meat Packing, Flour Milling and Agricultural machines-Kansas City Agricultural machine, Aircraft, Oil refining- Omaha, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Denver, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Memphis these places have Flour milling, Meat packing, Cotton textiles, Food processing and other agricultural industries.-New Orleans Oil refining, Chemicals and Cotton textiles -San Francisco Oil refining, steel, aircraft engineering, food processing.-Los Angeles and San Diego -Oil refining, steel, aircraft engineering, food processing, television-Seattle Aircraft, Lumbering, Fish Canning, aluminum smelting.

CANADACoal Cape Breton Island, Vancouver Island (Lies in British Columbia and feeds the Sydney Steel Plants) and Alberta.

H.E.P-Vancouver, Duncan, Bridge river, Arrow Lakes, Corner Brook, Kemono, Churchill falls (formerly Hamilton falls).

-St. Lawrence Niagara falls -Rapids at Salt Ste Marie -Nipigon River (Port Arthur and Fort William)- Winnipeg River -Kitimat scheme (R. Nechaka) Petroleum-Prairie provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan (centered at Edmonton, Calgary and Turner valley), Grand Bank, Athabasca Tar Sand.

-Trans Canadian gas pipeline supplies gas from Alberta gas fields to Toronto and Montreal. Iron Ore-Knob Lake (Labrador), Steep Rock (N. of Lake Superior) Baffin IslandCopper Sudbury, Flin Flon, Sheridan, Lynn Lake and CoppermineNickel Sudbury, Lynn Lake, Hope, Thompson Lead, Zinc and Silver Sullivan Mines (British Columbia). Also in Manitoba and North West Territories Industries1.Lake Peninsula to Montreal -Good Accessibility, Cheap H.E.P American investment Toronto Engineering, Automobile, Chemicals, Textiles, Pulping and Food processing Hamilton (Birmingham of Canada) Heavy engineering and Iron and Steel. Windsor Automobile, Tyre making- Kingston Locomotive

2. St. Lawrence region Montreal Ship Building, Oil Refining, Paper and Pulp and Food Processing. It is a Leading Grain port.Quebec Marine Engineering, Ship building, Food ProcessingOttawa Saw milling, Paper and Pulp

3.Continental interior (Canadian Prairie)Winnipeg Agricultural, industries, Fur, Dressing textiles Edmonton Oil extraction, Natural gas

4. Vancouver Lumbering Timber industries Fish canningSome other industries Paper Corner Brook (Newfound land) Aluminum refining Kitimat Iron and Steel Sydney, Nova Scotia and Hamilton

urope and CIS

Coal: CIS: Donetz (Donbas) Ukraine, Moscow Tula Russia, Kuznetsk (kuzbas) Kazakhstan, Karaganda Urals Kazakhstan, Tungus and Lena Basin Siberia,BRITAINScottish coalfields- Lanark shire, Fifeshire, Ayrshire, MidlothianPennine coalfield Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire Midland coalfields N. Staffordshire, S. Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire Welsh coalfields S. WalesGerman Rhur Westphalia Aachen Saar Cologne (Lignite) Bavaria (Lignite)Saxony(Lignite)FRANCE Pas de Calais Nord Alsace Lorraine

BELGIUM Kempenland coalfields Franco Belgium and coalfields in Sambre Meuse DepressionPOLAND Upper and Lower SilesiaSPAIN Northern Spain, around OviedoOther countries Erstwhile Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Hungary

H.E.P-Dnieper Combined Scheme RUSSIA- Two huge dams at Volgogarad and Kuybyshev (River Volga)-Other dams at Irkutsk Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Beloyarsk, Ufa, KuybyshevITALY Italian Alps and Apennine Streams FRANCE Pyrenees, Central Massive and French Alps, Dams on Saone and Rhone, Grenoble on Isere, HEP: NORWAY-Per capita output of HEP is greatest in the world.- Sharpsborg (Oslo fiord), Notodden (South of Oslo), Mo I Rana (Steel Works) SWEDEN Trollhattan Falls (Gota)GERMANY Grevenbroich, Innerwerk, Bitterfield SWITZERLAND Rugged, glaciated upland and numerous falls, rapid and lakes in ALPS. Geothermal Energy Iceland, Italy ( Larderllo) Tidal Power Ranee Estuary (Brittanny, France)

 

Iron Ore-Krivoi Rog Ukraine- Kuzbas (Kustanay) Kazakhastan-Angara (E. Siberia) -Ural region (near Magnitogorsk, Russia)- Kiruna, Gallivare, Dannemoa, Grangeborg and Kopparberg in Sweden- Lorraine, Normandy, Pyrenees and Central Massif in France-Bilbao, Santander, Oviedo (Spain)- Scunthorpe, Frodingham (Britain)-Siegerland (Germany) Copper Ural, Balkhash and Dzhezkazgan in CIS Aluminium Smelting at Invergorgon (Scotland), Holy island (Wales)Lead Lake Baikal (Russia), C. Siberia (Russia). Also found in erstwhile Yugoslavia and Bulgaria

 

Zinc- Britain and Belgium are important Zinc smelting countries- Ireland and Germany also produces zincUranium France, Russia Nickel Ural (Russia) Manganese Nikopolo (Russia), Chaitura (Urals) and Russian TurkestanChromium Urals (Sarany) in Russia, Kazakhstan, Finland, AlbaniaTungsten Russia, Portugal, Austria

IndustriesGREAT BRITAIN1. Midland Region-Centered at Birmingham- Power presently comes from thermal electricity and imported oil.(a) Based on S. Staffordshire coal field Centered at Birmingham, Dudley, Wolver Hampton. These are known for Iron and steel and Glassware(b) Warwickshire coalfields Coventry Automobile industry.(c) Leicestershire coal field. Burton on Trent (brewery), Derby (textiles and Engineering), Nottingham (Hosiery, Pharmaceuticals and Cigarettes and Tobacco).

2. North East England (Based on Northumberland and Durham coalfields) New Castle (Shipbuilding), Darlington (Locomotives)

3. Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derby shire -Bradford and Halifax (Worsted textiles), Leeds( Garments), Sheffield (World's largest cutlery town, Iron and steel and Engineering)

4. Lancashire Region-Manchester (cotton textile centre of the world), Liver pool (port), Birkenhead (Ship Building)

5. Greater London Industrial Region- London (Financial centre), Thames Estuary (Cement, oil refineries).

6. Central Scotland -Glasgow (Iron and steel) Port Glasgow (Shipbuilding) Clyde side (Shipbuilding)

7. Belfast Region (Ireland) -Traditionally noted for Shipbuilding and Linen industry

8. South Wales (A classic example of the effect of decline in the importance of coal and changes in industrial locations).- Centered at Cardiff, Swansea, Port Talbot, New Port

FRANCEa) North East Industrial region -lron and Steel, Textiles, Engineering-Based on Coal fields Nord and Pas De Calais- Dunkirk (Iron and Steel), Lille (cotton, woolen, linen and synthetic textiles).(b) Lorraine regionIron and Steel, Rolling mills and tin plating- Centered at Metz, Nancy, Thionville, Longwy.

(c) Greater Paris -very wide range of goods(d) Isolated industrial towns -St. Entienne (Armaments, bridges), Clemont Ferrand (Tyres), Lyon (Great silk making city)

GERMANY(a) Ruhr Westphalia Region -Essen and Dortmund (Iron and Steel, Heavy Industries Engineering), Dusseldorf (Heavy Chemicals), Gelsenkirchen (Engineering), Krefeld and Wuppertal (textiles)(b) Middle Rhine Area- Frankfurt Railway Engineering, Electrical engineering, Automobile engineering, financial centre-Mainz Leather, Brewery(c) East Germany-Based on Saxony coalfields and Stassfort salt deposits. R. Elbe provides water transport. -Leipzig(Optical instruments), Dresden (Porcelain), Berlin (Engineering, Textiles and Electrical equipments)(d) Other cities of Germany-Hamburg (Shipbuilding, Marine Engineering), Munich (Beer, musical instruments, scientific instrument), Stuttgart (Automobiles, Optical equipments and watches), Hanover (Metal and Chemicals), Achen(Iron and Steel, Engineering)

BELGIUM-Liege (Iron and Steel, Heavy industries), Brussels (Textiles, chemicals and paper), Antwerp (diamond cutting, Shipbuilding, oil refining, petrochemicals), Ghent (Linen textiles)

LUXEMBURG-Major industries are at Esch, Dudelange, Differdange

THE NETHERLANDS -Rotterdam (marine Engineering and Shipbuilding), Utrecht (Light Machinery), Eindhoven (Electrical Engineering and Linen), Arnhem (Rayon, Tin smelting), Amsterdam (Diamond cutting), Rotterdam( major port, port industries) Europort (Oil Refineries)

SWEDEN- Stockholm Stockholm's engineering products can be transported by the Gota Canal to Goteborg (premier port and leading shipbuilding centre) -Eskilstuna Sheffield of Sweden( Cutlery and Ornamental goods)

NORWAY- Leading industries Marine EngineeringShipbuildingFish canningPulp and paper -MoIRana (Iron and Steel), Oslo (Pulp mills, Shipyard,

Chemical plants, Fish canning), Bergen and Stavanger (Fishing and Shipping)

DENMARK-Centralized at Copenhagen in Zealand- Important industries Dairying, Agricultural industries -Aarhus Agricultural industries.

SWITZERLAND- Basel and Baden (Engineering industry), Zurich (Engineering and Textiles), Jura Towns La Chauxde Fonds, Biel Le Locle (Clocks and Watches).-HEP from the Italian Alps and natural gas exploitation in Emilia and the Po delta has contributed greatly to the industrial needs of the north. -Genoa (Iron and Steel, Chemicals, Textiles, Automobiles Fiat, Lambretta etc.), Turin (Automobiles, Rail Coaches, Aircraft), Milan (silk textiles and Engineering works)

Africa

HEP: Africa has least output of hydroelectricity but its potential is the greatest in the world. Much of Africa are plateaus dropping abruptly to the coast or to rift valleys thereby forming natural heads.-River fluctuation A problem in the savanna region

Petroleum Central and southern Africa are poor in petroleum resources because of existence of ancient crystalline rocks and absence of sedimentary strataLibya Dahara, Beda, Zelten, South of Gulf of Sidra Algeria Hassi MassaoudNigeria Niger delta region (Refinery at Port Harcourt) Other Producers Egypt, Gabon Iron Ore- South Africa, Liberia (Bomi Hills, Mt. Nimba), Mauritania (Sourest), Algeria, West Africa including Sierra Leone and Nigeria

CopperZambia and Zaire (Katanga Zambia Copper Belt) -Mining Centres atNechanga, Kitwe and Lumumbashi. Tin-Nigeria (centered at Bauchi and Jos on the Bauchi Plateau), Zaire (Manono and Maniema) Bauxite Guinea Lead Morocco

 

Uranium South Africa, Niger, Gabon Nickel South Africa Manganese South Africa (Postmasburg Krugersdorp), Gabon, Ghana

Chromium South Africa (Rustenberg), Zimbabwe (Selukwe, Kildonan) Tungsten South Africa Cobalt Katanga District (Zaire), Kilemba (Zambia), Morocco

Vanadium S. Africa (World's largest producer) and Namibia _Gold TJS. Afnca (Witai; ersrand, Odendaalrus, Lydenburg), Zimbabwe, Ghana, Zaire (KiloMoto Mines, Kasai Valley), Sudan (Red Sea Hills) Platinum S. Africa (Rustenburg)

Diamonds Zaire, S. Africa, Ghana, Namibia, Sierra Leone, Angola, Botswana, Central African Republic Asbestos S. Africa, Zimbabwe

Phosphate Morocco, Tunisia, Togo, S. Africa

Industries- Smelting and refining of copper in Zambia and Zaire.- Processing of rubber, oil palm fruits etc in W. Africa.- Petrochemical industries Nigeria-S. Africa Industrially developed country.-Main region Witwatersrand (Iron and Steel, Engineering, Locomotives, Chemicals Textiles).- Other Places: Salisbury (new name Harare), Par E Salaam, Nairobi etc.Such cities have cement, brewing, food processing and light industries mainly geared to import substitution.

 

South America and Mexico

Coal-Like Africa, S. America with its pre Paleozoic rocks and rugged Andean ranges, has few coal reserves. This is because coal is found in sedimentary strata of carboniferous and post carboniferous period..-Concepcion (Central Chile), S. E. Brazil (low grade coal) Scattered deposits are also found in uplands of Peru, Columbia and W. Argentina. Hydro Electricity Brazil (At Paulo Alfonso on Sao Francisco River in North East),.Argentina and Venezuela Significant H. E. P producers.

 

Petroleum-Mexico ( Baja California etc.),Venezuela ( Gulf of Maracaibo, inland Puerto La Cruz, Llanos, Orinocco Delta). Much oil is also shipped to the Dutch islands of Aruba and Curacao.- Small oil Deposits Trinidad (Famous for its Pitch Lake an almost in exhaustible source of viscous asphalt or bitumen) Bermudez Pitch Lake

of Venezuela is a similar phenomenon.- Columbia Caribbean coastal lowlands and Magdalena valley.

-Ecuador Coastal lowlands and Amazonian region

-Peru both on coast and inland (Lobitos and Negritos near Talara).- Oil refinery at Talara. Upper Amozon basin at Ganzo Azul and is sent to the refinery at Iquitos on the Amazon for export down river.- Bolivia Eastern region at Camiri, Rio Bermejo and Sanandita (Pipelines run to Sucre and Cochabamba) -Chile Near Punta Arenas and on Tierra del Fuego- Argentina largest producer after Venezuela. Found near Mendoza In the North West and in South.Paraguay has no oil resources but Brazil has recently found significant oil deposits.

Iron Ore-Brazil Itabira, MinaGerais, Carajas (Iron and Steel works at Volta Redonda, Belo Horizonte)- Venezuela Guiana Highlands-Chile Algarrobo

-Peru Nazca Marcona

Copper Chile (Chuquicamata, El Teniente), Peru (Morococha, Casapalsa)

Tin Bolivia (Potosi and Oruro) Also in Brazil and Argentina

Lead and Zinc Peru and Mexico

Nickel Cuba and Dominican Republic

Manganese Brazil (Amapa), Mexico

Chromium Brazil Tungsten Bolivia

Industries- Argentina, Brazil (Best developed)- Argentina and Uruguay (Along the shore of Plate estuary extending inland as far as Rosario).-Buenos Aires, Rosario and Cordoba

-Ship building -La Plata Chemicals, textiles, aircraft, steel- Pampas Lands Meat Packing dairying flour milling- Brazil (Chief region is in South East)

-Sao Paulo Steel, Chemicals, motor vehicle assembly, paper, cement and beer.- Rio De Janeiro Shipbuilding and aircraft engineering -Belo Horizonte Metallurgy and Iron and Steel-In Chile, main industries are at Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepcion

 

 

Malthusian Theory of Population GrowthThomas Malthus, the English economist and demographer, in his 'An Essay on Principle of Population' (1798) had propounded a theory which traces an economic approach to demography. According to him population tends to increase faster than the means of subsistence. The fast increase in population absorbs all economic gains unless controlled by what he termed 'preventive and positive 'checks. He elaborated that if unchecked the population tended to increase at geometric rate while subsistence increased at arithmetic rate. 'Positive' checks according to him included wars, disease, poverty and especially lack of food. His 'preventive' checks included principally 'moral restraint, postponement of marriage and vice' in which he included birth control, abortion and adultery. He was also not in favour of contraceptive methods, since their use did not generate the same drive to work hard as would a postponement of marriage.

Demographic Transition TheoryThis theory was propounded by W.S Thompson and Frank W. Note stein. It is characterized by five transition stages:Stage 1 High and fluctuating birth and death rates and slow population growth.

Stage 2 High birth rates and declining death rates and rapid growth of the population

Stage 3 Declining birth rates and low death rates and declining rate of population growth.

Stage 4 Low birth and death rates, and slow population growth.Stage 5 Birth and death rates approximately equal which in time will result in zero population growth.Optimum population: A country is said to have an optimum population if the number of people is in proper balance with the available resources.

Population Problems Population problems of the Developing Countries:1. Rapid growth of population2. Unemployment3. Poor standard of Living and Malnutrition4. Mismanagement of the Agricultural Resources5. Slow growth of the Industrial Sector6. Orthodoxy7. Problem of Under Population (some of the under developed countries are under populated leading to problems like shortage of skilled labour, e.g. some countries of Africa and Latin America)

Problems of the Developed Countries1. Long span of Life leads to smaller proportion of productive younger people.2. Small work force3. Rural people in these countries out migrate and settle in cities.4. Problems because of urbanization.

► In India a voluntary Family Planning Policy has been adopted right from the beginning of 1960s.► In the 1970s the Chinese government adopted a more rigid policy and commenced a program to limit family size to two children. By 1980 the goal was changed to one child per family. The marriage age in China is generally over 24 years for women and 26 years for men and pre marital sexual relations are uncommon.

Most Spoken Languages of the WorldMandarinEnglishHindiSpanishArabicRussianBengaliPortugueseMalay IndonesiaJapaneseGermanFrenchUrduPunjabiKoreanTeluguTamilMarathi

CantoneseItalianWu (China)JavaneseVietnameseTurkishMin (China)ThaiUkrainianPolishSwahili

Major Religions of the World("Most Adherents') Christianity Islam Hinduism Chinese Faith(Confucianism and Taoism) Buddhism Shintoism Judaism

Some Facts on Religion► Among the total population of Muslims in the world, Sunnis constitute five times that of Shia population.► Shias are concentrated mainly in Iran, bordering areas of Iraq, some in India, Pakistan, Syria .and Lebanon etc.

► After the Japan's defeat in the Second World War, Shintoism no longer remained the state religion.► In Bali Island of Indonesia Hinduism is still prevalent as a predominant religion.► In China a matrix of intermingling of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism seemed to have developed, being true to the Chinese tradition of moulding the foreign influence rather than letting their own society get influenced or moulded by foreign penetrations► Among the followers of the Christianity, Roman Catholics may seem to be more widespread in comparison to their Protestants counterpart.► There are areas even within Europe where there exists almost a balance between Catholics and Protestants. E.g. Switzerland (48 % Catholics and 44 % Protestants), Germany (26% Catholics and 24% Protestants), Netherlands (36% Catholics and 26% Protestants).► Areas dominated by Roman Catholics:1. Atlantic Europe Ireland, France, Belgium., Spain, Portugal.2. Mediterranean Europe Italy, Greece, Monaco, Vatican City, San Marino.3.Central Europe Austria, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovakia. 4. In Latin America and French speaking Quebec (Canada)► In Canada as a whole Catholics are in minority.► In USA Protestant population is larger than that of Catholics.► One isolated pocket of Roman Catholics does exist in the old world

the Philippines.► Protestants areas in Europe Great Britain , N. Ireland, N. Netherlands, Scandinavia, Finland, N and C Germany, Denmark and Estonia.► Protestants predominates among Christians of S. Africa and Oceania.► In Europe as one moves eastwards into the former so called Iron Curtain (the virtual boundary between the Western and the Communist World from Trieste to Stetin in Eastem Europe) Russian Orthodox Church predominates, where Russian speaking people dominate.It covers East Europe, Eurasia and the Caucasus.► In Ethiopia in East Africa too, the Christians virtually have an independent church.► In Europe Islam has its influence in the areas like Albania, Bosnia, and Southern Serbia.► In Central Asia apart from tribal faith, Islam is a major religion.► Hinayana branch of Buddhism has its influence in Sri Lanka., Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.► Mahayana school of Buddhism has its influence in Tibet, Sin kiang, Mongolia, Taiwan, Japan, Malaysia, Brunei etc.

Some demographic features of South AsiaBirth Rate (descending order)MaldivesBhutanPakistanNepalBangladeshIndiaSri Lanka

Death Rate (descending order)NepalBangladeshPakistanIndiaBhutanMaldivesSri Lanka

Doubling Period (descending order)Sri LankaIndiaBangladeshNepalPakistanBhutanMaldives

Life Expectancy (descending order)MALESri LankaMaldivesPakistanIndiaBangladeshNepal

FEMALESri LankaMaldivesPakistanIndiaBangladesh Nepal

Percentage Urban Population (descending order)

Pakistan

India

Maldives

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Nepal

 

CONTINENTS AS REGIONS: South America

► Latitudinal extent 11°N55° S► Longitudinal extent 35° W81°W► Largest country (area wise)► Brazil► Largest country (population)► Brazil► South America and Latin America are different. Latin America comprises all the countries of South America along with Mexico and Caribbean countries.

► Countries Area wise Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Columbia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile► Landlocked countries Bolivia and Paraguay► Countries according to the length of coast line Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Peru► Main rivers and their tributaries: Amazon : Madeira, Tapajos, NegroParana: Paraguay, Pilcomayo Uruguay (forms Argentina's boundary with Brazil and Uruguay)Orinoco (in Venezuela) Magdalena (Columbia) Colorado, Salado and Negro (in Argentina)► In South America equator passes through Ecuador, Columbia and Brazil► Tropic of Capricorn passes through Chile, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil► Deserts Atacama (Chile) and Patagonia (Argentina)► Bolivian plateau It is an inter montane plateau, also known as Bolivian altiplano► Physiographic regions Amazon Basin [Equatorial rain forests (Selvas), Catingas, Plateau of Mato Grasso, Campos (Tropical grassland),Plateau of Borborema, Sertao, Brazilian Highlands (Ancient rocks), Gran Chaco (Great low land having warm temperate forests and grasslands),Serra De Mantiqueira, Entre Rios, Pampas(Temperate grass lands), Patagonia (Desert),Andes (having Bolivian Plateau) (Peaks Bolivar, Cotapaxi, Chimbarazo, Misti, Ojas Del Salado, Cerro Aconcagua), Western, Central and Eastern Cordillera, Llanos (Tropical grass lands), Guiana Highland, Atacama (World's driest desert).► Brazil forms boundaries with all other countries in S. America except Ecuador and Chile► Amazon Basin and Western Columbia around Isthmus of Panama are very high Rainfall regions► Peruvian coast (because of cold Peru or Humboldt Current), Northern Chile and western and southern Argentina receive least rainfall.► Brazilian coast, Southern Uruguay area around, Rio de la Plata and Buenos Aires in Argentina, around Santiago in Central Chile, Peruvian coast, mountain regions of Ecuador and Columbia are densely populated.► Mediterranean climate and vegetation is found in Central Chile► Livestock ranching is very important in Argentina► La Paz (Bolivia) is the highest capital city in the world.► Brasilia (capital of Brazil) lies in the Campos region► Sao Paulo (Brazil) is the largest urban agglomeration in the southern hemisphere.► Coffee estates in Brazil are known as 'Fazendas'.► Rio de Janeiro is known for Sugar Loaf Mountains.► Manaus major rubber collecting centre in the upper part of the

Amazon Basin.► Belem situated near the mouth of the Amazon River and is a chief port of the Amazon basin► Recife (Brazil) is a port which exports sugarcane► Chuquicamata (Chile) is the world's largest copper town.► Punta Arenas is the southernmost inhabited city in the world.

Africa► Latitudinal Extent 37°N 35° S

► Longitudinal Extent 51°E- 16°W

► Countries (Area wise) Sudan, Algeria, Zaire, Libya, Chad, Niger, Angola, Mali

► Land locked countries in Africa Mali, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic (CAR), Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Ethiopia, Botsv/ana, Lesotho and Swaziland.

► Longest coastlines (Leaving Madagascar)Somalia, Mozambique, S. Africa, Egypt

► Namibia has a panhandle (the protruding part) in order to have access to the Zambezi River. It is a colonial legacy and is known as Caprivi Strip.

► Lesotho is completely surrounded by S. Africa, where as Swaziland lies trapped between Mozambique and S. Africa. This makes South Africa a perforated state.Latest country to gain independence in Africa Eritrea.

► Equator passes through Gabon, Congo, Zaire (Democratic Republic of Congo), Uganda, Lake Victoria and Kenya)

► Tropic of cancer passes through Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Libya, Egypt.

► Tropic of Capricorn Namibia, Botswana, S. Africa and Mozambique

► Colonial Rules in Africa Britain Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, S. Africa, Botswana, Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, British East Africa (Kenya) British Somalia land.France Algeria, French East Africa (including Mali, Niger,Barkina Faso, Benin, Mauritania), Morocco, Madagascar, French Equitorial Africa (Chad, C.A.R., Gabon) Belgium Congo, Zaire. Germany Togo, Cameroon,

German East Africa (Tanzania), Italy Libya, Italian Somalialand, Eritrea; Spain Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco,Potugal Portugese Guinea, Angola and Mozambique

► Liberia was formed as a country of settlement of slaves from United States of America (USA).

► Capital of Liberia that is Monrovia has been named af V ter the President Monroe of USA.

► Ethiopia and Liberia were never colonies.Physiographic features: Atlas mountains (Morocco and Algeria), Ahaggar mts.(Algeria), Libyan Desert (Libya and Egypt), Qattara Depression (a deflation hollow) in Egypt, Western Desert (West of Nile in Egypt), Sinai peninsula (Egypt), Tibesti .Massif(Chad), Nubian Desert ( Sudan and Egypt). Ethiopian Highlands (Highest Peak Ras Dashan) in Ethiopia, Mt. Elgon and Mt. Kenya(Kenya), Mt. Kilimanjaro (highest peak of Africa) in Tanzania (near Tanzanian boundary with Kenya) Mitumba mts. (Zaire), Katanga Plateau (Known for Copper deposits is inZaire and Zambia), Muchinga mts. (Zambia), Kalahari Desert (Botswana), Okavango swamps and Makagadikgadi salt pan (because of internal drainage) is in Botswana, High Veld (S. Africa), Drankensberg and Great Karroo ( S. Africa), Namib Desert (because of cold Benguela current), Bie Plateau (Angola), Congo Basin(Zaire), Adamawa Highland (Cameron andNigeria),Jos Plateau (Nigeria), Sudan region (Savannah region south of Sahara), Nimba Mts (Guinea), Fouta Djallon (Guinea) Sahel region (Lying south of Sahara is a transition zone between Sahara desert and savannah region. It is the least developed region.

► Horn of Africa Countries including Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia lie in a region having a horn shape.

► Lakes (largest Lake Victoria lies in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania). Lake Victoria does not from part of East African Rift valley Lakes lying in rift valley L.Turkana L.Albert, L.Edward, L.Kivu, L. Tanganyika, L. Malavi (also known as L.Nyasa)

Europe► Latitudinal Extent 36°N 71°N

► Longitudinal Extent 63°E 10°W (excluding Iceland) 63°E 24°W (including Iceland).

► Largest countries Ukraine, France, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Finland, Norway, Poland, Italy.

► Landlocked countries Luxemburg, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Austria, Hungary, Czech Rep., Slovakia, .Macedonia, Moldova, Belarus.

► Smallest Countries (area wise) Vatican City (inside Rome, Italy), Monaco (Bordering France and Mediterranean Sea), San Marino (inside Italy), Liechtenstein (Between Switzerland and Austria), Malta (Island in Mediterranean), Andorra (trapped between Spain and France on the Pyrenees mountain range).

► Monte Carlo, one of the biggest gambling centers in the world is the capital of Monaco.

► Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden and Denmark)

► United Kingdom comprises Wales, England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

► The British Isle including Wales, England and Scotland forms the Great Britain.

► Gibraltar is the territory of UK on the Spanish coast.

► Ceuta and Melilla are Spanish territory on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

► Islands in the Mediterranean Sea Sicily (Italy), Sardinia (Italy), Corsica (France), Balearic Islands(Majorca, Minorca and Ibiza) are part of Spanish territory ,Crete (Greece), Malta (Malta), Cyprus (Cyprus)

► The physiography of Europe can be divided into North Western Highlands, North Europian Plains, Central uplands and Alps and southern highlands.

► North Western highlands comprises highlands of Norway, Sweden and northern Britain. Almost all of Norway lies in the highland region which is good for hydroelectricity but poor for agriculture . Norwegian coast is known for fiords. Northern Sweden comes under the coniferous forest belt.

► North European plains are vast stretch of plains extending from France upto Russia.The plain is drained by numerous rivers flowing into North Sea(Rhine,Ems,Weser and Elbe) , Baltic Sea(Oder, Vistuala) and Gulf of Boothnia.

► The central uplands comprises Black Forest, Swabian Jura and Bohemian Forest in Bavaria(Germany), Moravian heights in Czech Republic, Sudeten on Czech Poland border, Carpathian mountains in Poland, Ukraine, Slovakia and Romania. The central Russian upland is an isolated upland lying near the western boundary of Russia with therest of Europe.The plain area towards the east of this upland is drained by Dnieper and Dniester rivers flowing into the Black Sea. Pripet river , a tributary of Dnieper has formed Pripet Marshes to the east of the central Russian upland. The lowland lying east of Central Russian Upland is drained by Don flowing into the Sea of Azov (marginal sea of Black sea) and the Volga river flowing into the Caspian sea.River Danube flows through Bavaria (Germany), Austria, Hungarian plain, Yugoslavia and then along the Bulgaria Romania border into the Black Sea.Southern highland include vast stretch of Alps including S. France, Switzerland, Northern Italy, Dinaric Alps in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia. Other ranges include Transylvanian Alps (Romania), Balkan Mts. (Bulgaria), Pindus Mts. (Greece), Appenines in Italy,Central Massif (France), Pyrenees (France, Spain and Andorra), Cantabrian Mts. (Spain).

► A series of parallel ranges or highlands (Cantabrian mts., Old Castle, New Castle, Sierra Morena and Andalusia and Rivers like Ebro, Douro,Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadilquivir mark the topography of Spain. R. Ebro flows into the Mediterranean Sea where as the rest flow towards the Atlantic Sea.

► Highest peak of Europe is Mt. Elburz (5633 m) in the Caucasus.

► Mt. Blanc(4807 m) is the highest peak in Alps lying on the border of France, Italy and Switzerland.

► Mt. Matterhorn (4478 m) lies on the Swiss Italian border.

► Pico de Aneto is the highest peak of Pyrenees.

► Corno Grande is the highest peak of Appenines.

► Mt. Tatra is the highest peak of Carpathian mountains.

► Crimea is the land portion of Ukraine protruding into the Black Sea.

► Strait of Kerch joins the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov.

► Strait of Bospurus joins the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara.

► Dardanelles joins Marmara and the Agean Sea.

► Strait of Otranto joins the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.

► Strit of Messina lies between Sicily and the Italian mainland.

► Srait of Bonafacio lies between Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy).

► Ionian peninsula Greece Iberian peninsula Spain and Portugal.Pymees range forms boundary between France and Spain Oder river forms boundary between and Germany Shetland, Orkney and Hebrides Islands are in UK Faroe Island forms part of Denmark.Kaliningrad is a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea. Baltic States Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland.

Asia► Latitudinal Extent 80° N to 10° S► Longitudinal Extent 160° W to 33°E► Largest country area wise Russia.► Largest country (population) China.► Largest Countries (Area wise) Russia, China, India, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, Turkey, Myanmar, Afghanistan.► Russia and Turkey lies both in Asia and Europe.► Equator passes through Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes (Sulawesi) in Indonesia.► Tropic of Cancer passes through S. Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China and Taiwan.► Arrangement of sea (North to South) Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea.► Physiogaphy

 

WESTASIA:Rub Al Khali and An Nafud deserts (Saudi Arabia); Akhdar mountains (Oman); Kuwait, Qatar and UAE are more or less plain countries and Qatar is a peninsula; Dead Sea (Jordan; Mesopotamia (Iraq); Syrian desert (Iraq, Syria and Jordan);Pontus Mountains (N.Turkey);Taurus Mountains (S.Turkey); Anatolia Plateau (Inter montane plateau in Turkey); Elburz mountains (Caspian coast of Iran, highest peak mt. Damanad); Zagros montains (S. Iran); Dasht e Kavir desert (N. Iran); Dasht e Lut(E. Iran);Rivers Kizil (Turkey), Euphrates and Tigris (Iraq, Baghdad is on Tigris)

EAST ASIA:Gobi desert lies south of plateau of Mongolia in Mongolia and China.Altai mts. is near W. Mongolia Chinese border. Takla Makan desert and Tarim Basin (NW China);Kunlun Shan (Central West Cnina); Dzungarian Basin (China, trapped between Mongolia and Kazakhstan); Qaidam Basin (Central China). The Great Wall of China stretches from midnorth to northeast China south of Inner Mongolia (Chinese province lying south of Mongolia). Hwang Ho river crosses the wall twice.Loess plateau of China lies in northern China and is drained by R. Hwang Ho which while passing through it acquires enough sediments that the river itself becomes muddy and is therefore known as yellow river. Siltation of river bed because of these enormous sediments leads to frequent floods creating havoc in the region . Therefore the river is also known as' Sorrow of China. It drains into the Gulf of Po Hai.Szechwan(Sichuan) basin lies in southcentral China and is drained by the Yangtze kiang (Chiang Jiang) river. Industrial centers of Chengdu and Chongquing lie in the basin. Shanghai is situated near the mouth of Yangtze Kiang river. Yunnan Plateau lies in S.E. China and is drained by Si Kiang (Xi Jiang) river. Hong Kong is situated close to the mouth of this river. Macau port lies west of Hong kong. Hainan island is situated close to the Gulf of Tongking. Manchurian plains lie in extreme N.E. China. Great Khingan Mts. lie west of Manchurian plains. Xinjiang province lies in the northwest and is inhabited by muslim tribals Uighurs. Islands of Japan (north tosouth) Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Ryuku. Asahi Dake is the highest peak ofHokkaiduo. Important cities in Hokkaido are Sapporo, Muroran and Hakodate. Tsugaru strait separates Honshu from Hokkaido. Highest peak of Japan is Mt. Fujiyama which lies in Honshu. Important urban centers in Honshu are Tokyo, Kawasaki, Yokohama, Shizuoka, Hamamatsu, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe and Hiroshima (lying on the southern coast from east to west). Akita and Nigata lie on the northern coast.Important urban centers in Kyushu are Kitakyushu, Fukuoka and Nagasaki. American base of Okinawa is part of Ryuku group of Islands.

 

SOUTH EAST ASIA: Colonies in south east Asia Myanmar British Malaysia British Indonesia Dutch Laos French Cambodia French Vietnam French Philippines Spanish and then AmericanThailand was never a colony. Arakan Yoma and Pegu Yoma are parallel ranges in NS dierection in Myanmar and R. Irrawady flows between the two. R. Chidwin is a right bank tributary of Irrawady river and R. Salween flows through E. Myanmar.Dawna and Bilauktaung ranges are in southern protruding land of Myanmar. Isthumus of Kra is the portion of Thailand that connects

Malaysia to the mainland Asia. R. Mekong flows through China, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and then makes delta in Vietnam.Korat plateau is in Thailand and Laos.Annam mts. lie along the LaosVietnam border. L. Toba and Barisan mts. are in Sumatra.Krakatau volcanic Island lies in Sunda Strait (between Sumatra and Java)Singapore is a small island lying south of peninsular Malaysia.Brunei is trapped by Malaysia on all sides on the Borneo Island. Rest of Bornoe is part of Indonesia.Highest peak of Borneo: Mt. Kinabalu is also the highest peak of Borneo Jakarta and Bandung lies in Java island of Indonesia. Southern Islands of Indonesia (from west to east) Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores.Western half of the New Guinea Island is called Irian Jaya and lies in Indonesia. Eastern half is known as Papua New Guinea which lies outside Asia.Seas of S.E. Asia: Andaman Sea East of andaman and Nicobar Is. Great channel seperates Andaman Nicobar Island and Sumatra. South China Sea Between Vietnam and Philippines. Sulu Sea Between Philippines and Borneo. Celebes Sea North of Celebes or Sulwesi Is.Molucco Sea Between Celebes and Moluccas Islands (lies east of Celebes), Ceram Sea South of Molucca Is. and north of Coram Is. Banda Sea North of East Timor and south of Molucca and Ceram Sea.Arafura Sea South of Irian Jaya and north of Australia. Flores Sea South of Celebes or Sulawesi Is.Java Sea North of Java Is. Lakes Baikal(Russia), Balkhash(Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan), Aral sea (Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan), Van (Turkey), Buhayrata -Asad (Saudi Arabia), LakeUrmia (Iran), Lop Nur (Chinese nuclear explosion site), Qinghai (China), Poyang (China), Dongtins(China), Tonle Sap(Cambodia)Caspian Sea (World's largest Lake) borders Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Azerbaijan and Russia (clockwise manner).

North America► Latitudinal extent 50 W to 170 W► Longitudinal extent 8 N to 83 N► Tropic of Cancer passes through Mexico and Bahamas Islands.► N America comprises Canada, USA (including Alaska), Mexico and the Central American countries including the Caribbean ones.

► Central American countries (north to south) Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama.► Central American countries (west to east) Guatemala, El Salvador, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama.► Central American counties (area wise) Nicaragua, Honduras,

Guatemala, Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Belize.

► Belize borders only the Caribbean Sea and El Salvador borders only the Pacific Ocean. Rest of the countries borders both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.► Central American countries are known as the 'banana republic'.

► Canada has three main physical divisions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains and the Cordillera region.► Canadian Shield is an old shield and is also known as Laurentian shield.

► Interior plains of Canada comprise mainly the prairie region and are drained by Mackenzie and Saskatchewan rivers.► Mount Logan (6050 m) lying in western most Canadian Rockies , is the highest peak in Canada.

► Mount Waddington (404 1 m) in the southern region and Mount Robson (3954 m) on the border of Alberta and British Columbia provinces are other important peaks.► Apart from Great Lakes, important lakes in Canada areGreat Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake and Athabasca Lake. Almost all the lakes in Canada are of glacial origin, especially the great lakes which were formed due to glacial expansion in the Pleistocene age and their subsequent retreat.► Quebec province of Canada is dominated by the French speaking people where as rest ofthe Canada is dominated by English speaking people.

► Toronto (on NW shore of Lake Ontario) is the largest city of Canada followed by Montreal. Toronto is the capital of the province of Ontario and is the leading cultural and educational centre in Canada.► Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba is the wheat city of Canada.► Hamilton (lying on the western end of the Lake Ontario) is known as the 'Pittsburgh of Canada'

► Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia is an important icefree port in Canada.► Canada has the longest shoreline in the world.► The physiography of USA can be divided into the Western Cordilleras, the Central Lowlands and the Eastern or the Appalachian highlands.

► Western Cordilleras comprises mainly the Rocky mountain system having the Front range in the Colorado province; Wyoming Basin or the Great Divide Basin, Uinta mountains, Wasatch range and the Big Horn

basin in the middle region; and the Yellow stone national park, Great plains province, the Snake river plain and plain of the Columbia river in the northern Rockies of USA.► Columbia plateau is the largest lava plateau in the world. It is drained by Snake and Columbia Rivers.► Colorado plateau is a plateau of well stratified sedimentary rocks. Colorado River has cut a deep canyon known as the Grand Canyon (largest Canyon in the world) in the plateau region of Arizona.

► Las Vegas (one ofthe largest casino centers in the world) lies west of Grand Canyon. The centre got developed in the wake of the construction of the Hoover or the Boulder dam on the Colorado River. The reservoir of this dam is called Lake Mead.► California is the largest state of USA both in area and the population.► California is marked by Mediterranean climate and is known for orchard farming.

► Some of the largest city got developed on the western coast of USA as a result of the 'Gold rush'.Hollywood, the film city is in Los Angeles. Around San Francisco in California there is a great fault zone known as the San Andreas Fault. It is a transform fault formed due to interaction of North American and Juan de Fucca plates.► Gulf of Mexico and the states lying along its coast including Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama are very rich in petroleum resources.

► Cities like Houston, Baton Rouge and New Orleans have developed because of oil and the region is presently one of the wealthiest in USA.► Florida is most affected by hurricane (i.e. the tropical cyclone). It is also known for oranges. The famous NASA center JFK in Cape Canaveral lies in Florida.► Mississippi and Missouri rivers meet at St. Louise in the Missouri state.

► The Appalachian highlands cover a vast area that extends from Newfoundland to Alabama.The highlands have distinct topographic regions including the Appalachian Plateau, the ridge and valley area, the Blue Ridge Mountains, the piedmont and the New England region.► Appalachian plateau is marked by well defined escarpment the Allegheny Front in the north and the Cumberland escarpment in the south.

► The piedmont region lies to the immediate east of the Appalachian Mountains. The contact region between the piedmont and the coastal

plain is known as the 'Fall line' having large number of falls and rapids and therefore it has huge potential for Hydro Electricity.► New England region comprises of extreme NE states including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut.

► D.C. stands for the 'District of Columbia' in Washington D.C.► Com belt of USA comprises the region lying south of the Great Lakes. Chicago in Illinois, which is known as the windy city is the focal point of transport routes.► The region lying west of the great lakes including the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin and others form the dairy belt.► Cotton belt lies in the southern USA mainly in the Texas province. Dallas in Texas, the city where John F. Kennedy was assassinated is known for cotton textile industries.

Australia► Latitudinal extent 10 N to 43 S► Longitudinal extent 115 E to 154 E► Tropic of Capricorn cuts it into two halves.

► Australia has eight federal units:1. Western Australia (Capital Perth)2, Northern Territory (Darwin) 3. South Australia (Adelaide)4. Queensland (Brisbane)5. New South Wales (Sydney)6. Victoria (Melbourne)7. Australian Capital Territory (Canberra)8. Tasmania (Hobart)

► Australia is flanked by the Great Dividing Range and the New England Range in the east► The Darling River emerges from the Great Dividing Range and drains major part of the New South Wales province besides others.► Australian Alps are in south east having Mt. Kosciusko (2228m) as the highest peak. Flinders ranges lying in north south direction in the eastern portion of South Australia is an example of Block Mountains.► Nullarbor plain is a long extensive plain lying along the southern coast. It is through these plains that the transcontinental Railway of Australia connects the East and the Western extremity.► The West and the North Western region of Australia comprises mainly of deserts including the Great Sandy desert , Gibson desert, Great Victoria desert, Tanami desert and the Simpson desert.

► MacDonnell and Musgrave ranges lie in Central Australia.

► The Physiographic regions of Australia comprises of:

1. The Great Western plateau or Western Australian Shield (also known as the 'Australian Outback'). A conspicuous Isenberg called Ayres Rocks lie on the barren plains at the centre of the continent. It is characterised by red rocks.2. The Eastern Lowlands extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Spencer Gulf.It has the great Artesian Basin characterised by lowlands and abundant wealth of subsurface aquifer layers. Drilling in this region produces spontaneous gush of water because of natural hydro static pressure. Such wells are known as Artesian wells.3. The Eastern Uplands comprise the Great Dividing Range, the Australian Alps, and the Tasmania.

► A significant feature of the NE Australia is the presence of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland which is the longest reef in the world.These are generated by the accumulation of coral polyps, the calcareous remains of micro organisms.► An internal drainage system in the form of Lake Eyre exists in the north east of the province of the South Australia.

► Other significant features include:1. Great Australian Bight (southern coast)2. Bass strait (separates Tasmania from the mainland)3. Cape York Peninsula (northern Queensland)4. Shark Bay (western coast)5. Joseph Bonaparte Gulf (west of Arneh land in northern Australia)6. Gulf of Carpentaria (largest gulf in Australia)7. King and Flinders Islands (between Tasmania and mainland Australia)8. Fraser Island (eastern coast)

► Indigenous people of Australia are known as Aborigines (e.g. Bindibus)► Animal species found only in Australia Koala, Kangaroo, Platypus, Dingo, and Wombat.► Great Dividing Range is also known as the 'Snowy Mountains'.

► Australia is the largest producer of the Bauxite in the world.► Sheep rearing farms in Australia are called as Stations.► Tasmania sea separates Australia from New Zealand is divided into two islandsthe Northern Island and the Southern Island. Southern Island is dominated by the Southern Alps having Mt. Cook as the highest peak.

► North Cape lies at the northern extremity of the New Zealand.► Cook strait separates the two islands of the country.

► Bay of Plenty lies north of the Northern Island.► Foveaux strait separates a small .island (Stewart Island) lying south of the Southern Island and the Southern Island itself.► Wellington, the capital lies in the Northern Island. Other cities of Northern Island areHamilton, Napier, and Auckland► Cities of Southern Island are Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill.

LINGUISTIC GROUPSUighurs : live for the most part in northwestern China, in the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang; a small number live in the Central Asian republics. Their principal food crops arc wheat, corn (maize), kaoliang (a form of sorghum), and melons. The chief industrial crop is cotton, which has long been grown in the area. Many Uighur are employed in petroleum extraction, mining, and manufacturing in urban centres. The chief Uighur cities are Urumchi, the capital of Sinkiang, and Kashgar. The Uighur of Sinkiang are Sunnite Muslims.

Kirghiz: also spelled Kirgiz, or Kirghiz, Turkic speaking people of Central Asia, most of whom live in Kyrgyzstan. Small numbers reside in Afghanistan, in western China, and in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkey. The people are Muslim in religion.. From 1926 to 1959 there was a heavy influx of Russians and Ukrainians into the area, and the proportion of Kyrgyz in the total population fell from about 66 percent to 40 percent. The development of agriculture and heavy industry, along with the growth of cities, did much to change the traditional Kyrgyz way of life.

Kazaks: also spelled Kazakh, an Asiatic Turkic speaking people inhabiting mainly Kazakhstan and the adjacent parts of the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang in China. The Kazaks are the second most numerous Turkic speaking people in Central Asia after the Uzbeks. The Kazaks were traditionally pastoral nomads, dwelling year round in portable, dome shaped tents (called yurts) constructed of dismountable wooden frames covered with felt. The Kazaks migrated seasonally to find pasturage for their livestock, including horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and a few camels. The diet consisted largely of milk products supplemented by mutton. Fermented mare's milk (koumiss) and horse flesh were highly esteemed but usually available only to the prosperous. Their nomadic life was gradually curtailed by the encroachment of settled agriculture on the pasturelands. In the 19th century an increasing number of Kazaks along the borders began to plant some crops. Most Kazaks are now settled farmers who raise

sheep and other livestock and grow crops. In Sinkiang, however, many nomadic groups remain.

Vupik : also called Asiatic, or Asian, Eskimo, Western Eskimo group of Siberian Asia and of Saint Lawrence Island and the Diomede Islands in the Bering Sea and Strait. They are culturally related to the Chukchi. The traditional economic activity of the Yupik speaking Eskimo was the hunting of sea mammals, especially seals, walrus, and, until the latter half of the 19th century, whales. Trade with the Russians developedattheendofthel9th century. The Yupik also traded with neighbouring reindeer breeders and with Alaskan Eskimo. Kayaks (one person, closed skin boats), bidarkas (open, flat bottomed boats), and whaleboats provided coastal transportation; dog teams and sleds were used on land.The Yupik practiced shamanism and believed in benign and harmful spirits. Under Soviet and Russian administration, new equipment was made available for sea hunting, and new occupations (e.g., processing products from skins and cooperating with Chukchi in reindeer breeding) were introduced, but such measures as forced exile from "unproductive" traditional settlements have disrupted if not destroyed a once highly efficient and self reliant culture.

Eskimo Aleut Language : family of languages spoken in Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and eastern Siberia by the Eskimo and Aleut peoples. Aleut is a single language with two surviving dialects. Eskimo consists of two divisions: Yupik, spoken in Siberia and southwestern Alaska, and Inuit, spoken in northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Each division includes several dialects. Eskimo and Aleut are related but quite distinct languages; they have no known outside relatives.

 

Ibos : also called Ibo people living chiefly in southeastern Nigeria who speak Igbo, a language of the BenueCongo branch of the Niger Congo language family. The Igbo may be grouped into the following main cultural divisions: northern (Onitsha), southern (Owerri), western (Ika), eastern (Cross River), and northeastern (Abakaliki). Before European colonization, the Igbo were not united as a single people but lived in autonomous local communities. By the mid20th century, however, a sense of ethnic identity was strongly developed, and the Igbodominated Eastern region of Nigeria tried to unilaterally secede from Nigeria in 1967 as the independent nation of Biafra. By the turn of the 21st century the igbo numbered some 20 million. Most Igbo traditionally have been subsistence farmers, their staples being yams, cassava, and taro. Trading, local crafts, and wage labour also are important in the Igbo economy, and a high literacy rate has helped

many Igbo to become civil servants and business entrepreneurs in the decades after Nigeria gained independence. It is notable that Igbo women engage in trade and are influential in local politics.

Yorubas : one of the three largest ethnic groups of Nigeria, concentrated in the southwestern part of that country. Much smaller, scattered groups live in Benin and northern Togo.. They speak a language of the BenueCongo branch of the Niger Congo language family. Most Yoruba men are fanners, growing yams, com (maize), and millet as staples and plantains, peanuts (groundnuts), beans, and peas as subsidiary crops; cocoa is a major cash crop. Others are traders or craftsmen.

Hausa : people found chiefly in northwestern Nigeria and adjacent southern Niger. They constitute the largest ethnic group in the area, which also contains another large group, the Fulani, perhaps one half of whom are settled among the Hausa as a ruling class, having adopted the Hausa language and culture. The language belongs to the Chadic group of the Afro Asiatic (formerly Hamito Semitic) family and is infused with many Arabic words as a result of Islamic influence, which spread during the latter part of the 14th century from the kingdom of Mali, profoundly influencing Hausa belief and customs. A small minority of Hausa, known as Maguzawa, or Bunjawa, remained pagan.The Hausa economy has rested on the intensive cultivation of sorghum, com (maize), millet, and many other crops grown on rotation principles and utilizing the manure of Fulani cattle Agricultural activity has yielded considerably more than subsistence, permitting the Hausa to practice such craft specializations as thatching, leatherworking, weaving, and silver smithing. The range of craft products is large, and trading is extensive, particularly in regularly held markets in the larger towns. The Hausa have settled in cities (of pre European origin, such as Kano), towns, and hamlets; but the great majority of the population is rural, for the headman of the compound.

Abaza Language : language spoken primarily in the western part of the Caucasus Mountains and in northeastern Turkey. Abaza is related to Abkhaz, Adyghian, Kabardian (Circassian), which constitute the AbkhazoAdyghian, or Northwest Caucasian, language group.

Gutob Language : also called Gadaba, language spoken in India, one of the Munda languages, belonging to the AustroAsiatic family of languages. Dialectsinclude Gadba and Gudwa. Gutob is spoken in the Koraput district of Orissa and the Srikakulam and Vish(khapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh.

Sre language : dialect spoken in Vietnam, one of the approximately nine dialects of the Koho language, belonging to the South

Bahnaric sub branch of the Bahnaric branch of the Mon Khmer family, which is a part of the Austroasiatic stock.Evenk Language : also called Evenki, also spelled Evenky, formerly Tungus one of the largest members of the ManchuTungus language family (a subfamily of the Altaic languages).

Chuang language : Pinyin Zhuang language spoken by the Chuang ethnic minority in southern China, mostly in the Chuang Autonomous Region of Kwangsi.

Ket language : one of two surviving members of the Yeniseian family of languages spoken by about 500 peopTe living in central Siberia, (The other, a moribund close relative called Yug [Yugh], or Sym, is sometimes considered a dialect of Ket.)

Afrikaans language : also called Cape Dutch, West Germanic language of South Africa, developed from 17thcentury Netherlandic (Dutch) by the descendants of European (Dutch, German, and French) colonists, indigenous Khoisan peoples, and African and Asian slaves in the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope. Afrikaans and English are the onlyIndo European languages among the many official languages of South Africa.

Aluct Language : Aleut Unangam Tunuu, one of two branches ofthe EskimoAleut languages.

Amoritc Language : one of the most ancient of the archaic Semitic languages, distributed in an area that is now northern Syria.

Amharic language : also called Amarinya, Amharinya, or Kuchumba, one of the two main languages of Ethiopia (along with the Oromo language).

Avestan language : also called (incorrectly) Zend Language, eastern Iranian language ofthe Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism.

Aramaic dialects survived into Roman times, however, particularly in Palestine and Syria.

Brahui Language: isolated member of the Dravidian family, spoken in western Pakistan.

Breton Language : Breiza member of the Brythonic group of Celtic languages, spoken in Brittany in northwestern France.

Major Linguistic Groups

 Burushaski Language : language spoken by the Burusho people living in the Gilgit territory of northwestern Kashmir. Burushaski is a "language isolate," not known to be related to any other language of the world.

Chakchiquel Language : member of the Quiche group of Mayan languages, spoken in central Guatemala. Carian language : ancient language spoken in the southernmost area of western Anatolia.

Catalan language : CatalaRomancc language spoken in eastern and northeastern Spain, chiefly in Catalonia and Valencia. It is also spoken in the Roussillon region of France, in Andorra, and in the Balearic Isles.

Palauan Language : major language of Palau, in the western Pacific Ocean. It is classified as belonging to the eastern branch of the Austronesian (MalayoPolynesian) family of languages.

Cebuano Language : also spelled Sebuano, also called Sugbuhanon, member of the Western, or Indonesian, branch of the Austronesian (MalayoPolynesian) language family.

Cherokee Language : a North American Indian language, member of the Iroquoian family, spoken by the Cherokee people originally inhabiting Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.Coptic Language : AfroAsiatic (formerly HamitoSemitic) language that was spoken inEgypt from about the 2nd century Ad and that represents the final stage of the ancient Egyptian language. Cornish Language : a member of the Brythonic group of Celtic languages, formerly spoken in Cornwall in southwestern Britain; it became extinct in the 18th or early 19th century as a result of displacement by English. Dari language : member of the Iranian branch ofthe IndoIranian family of languages; it is, along with Pashto, one of the two official languages of Afghanistan. Dari is the Afghan dialect of Farsi (Persian).Eblaitc Language : archaic Semitic language, probably the most ancient to survive in substantial form, dating from the third quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. As a Northern Central Semitic language, Eblaite is affiliated with the AfroAsiatic (formerly HamitoSemitic) family of languages such as Old Akkadian. Llaniite language : extinct language spoken by the Elamites in the ancient country of Elam, which included the region from the Mesopotamian plain to the Iranian Plateau.

Etruscan Language : language isolate spoken by close neighbours of the ancient Romans.

Dogon language : language of the NigerCongo language family spoken by some 600,000 Dogon people in northeastern Mali to the east of Mopti and along the border between Mali and Burkina Faso.

Yukagir Language : language spoken by not more than a few hundred persons in the Kolyma River region of Sakha (Yakutiya) republic of Russia. Yucatec language : also called Maya, American Indian language of the Mayan family, spoken in the Yucatan Peninsula, including not only part of Mexico but also Belize.

Chuvash language : member of the Turkic branch of the Altaic language family, spoken in Chuvashia and nearby regions along the middle course of the Volga River, in the central part of European Russia.

Yoruba language : one of a small group of languages that comprise the Yoruboid cluster of the Defoid subbranch of the BenueCongo branch of the NigerCongo language family. The other Yoruboid languages include Igala and Itsckiri.

Wolof Language: an Atlantic language of the Niger Congo language family genetically related to Fula and Serer.

Volscian Language: an Italic language or dialect, closely related to Umbrian and Oscan and more distantly related to Latin and Faliscan.

Votic Language: member of the Finno Ugric group of the Uralic language family, very nearly extinct.

 

Welsh Language : Cymraeg, member of the Brythonic group of the Celtic languages, spoken in Wales.

 

Wu Language : variety of Chinese spoken in southeastern Kiangsu Province and in Chekiang Province by more than 8 percent of the population of China. Major cities in which Wu is spoken include Taichou, Shanghai, Soochow, Ningpo, and Wenchou. Xhosha Language: Xhosa also spelled Xosaa Bantu language spoken by seven million people in South Africa, especially in Eastern province. Xhosa is a member of the Southeastern, or Nguni, subgroup of the Bantu group of

the BenueCongo branch of the Niger Congo language family. Other Southeastern Bantu languages are Zulu, Swati (Swazi), Sotho, Tswana, Venda, and Ndebele.

Sakha or Yakut Language : also called Yakut language or SakhaTylamember of the Turkic subfamily of the Altaic language family, spoken in northeastern Siberia (Sakha republic), in northeastern Russia.

Yiddish Language : the language of Ashkenazic Jewry (central and eastern European Jews and their descendants).

Tagalog language : member of the Central Philippine branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family and the base for Pilipino, an official language of the Philippines, together with English.

Syriac Language : Semitic language belonging to the Northern Central, or Northwestern, group; it was an important Christian literary and liturgical language from the 3rd through the 7th century AD.

Synthetic language : any language in which syntactic relations within sentences are expressed by inflection (the change in the form of a word that indicates distinctions of tense, person, gender, number, mood, voice, and case) or by agglutination (word formation by means of morpheme, or word unit, clustering). Latin is an example of an inflected language; Hungarian and Finnish are examples of agglutinative languages. Highly synthetic languages, in which a whole sentence may consist of a single word (usually a verb form) containing a large number of affixes are called poly synthetic. Eskimo and many American Indian languages are polysynthetic.

Thracian Language : language spoken by the inhabitants of Thrace primarily in pre Greek and early Greek times. Tigre Language : Semitic language of the Tigre people of northwestern Eritrea and smaller areas of neighbouring Sudan.

Tigrinya Language : also spelled Tigrigna, also called Tigray, or Tigrai, Semitic language of the Tigray people of northern Ethiopia and central Eritrea.

Tulu Language : also spelled Tugu, language of the Dravidian family, spoken in southern Karn(taka (formerly Mysore) state, India.

Sedang Language : also called Roteang, Hadang, Hatea, or Hoteang, North Bahnaric language of the MonKhmer family, which is itself a part of the Austroasiatic stock. Shan Language : Shan Tai language spoken

in the northern and eastern states of Myanmar (Burma) and belonging to the Southwestern group of the Tai language family of Southeast Asia.

MonKhmer Language : language family included in the Austro-asiatic stock. Mon Khmer languages constitute the indigenous language family of mainland Southeast Asia. They range north to southern China, south to Malaysia, west to Assam state in India, and east to Vietnam.

WORLD TRIBES► Baro -W. Amazon Basin.► Bantu -sNegroes of central and southern Africa.► Sakai- Malaya Island.► Semang -Malaya hilly area.► Papuan -Pacific ocean.► Bushman -S. Africa's Kalahari Desert.► Pygmies- Extremely shortstatured people of the Congo (Zaire) Basin.► Bedouins -Arab (Hamad and Nefad desert).► Berbers -Tribals of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.► Bindibu- Natives of Western Australia.► Gaucho- Nomads of Pampas in Uruguay and Argentina.► Hamites -Dark-skinned Muslims in N.W.Africa.► Masai-Tanganika, Kenya, East Uganda.► Khirghiz -People of the steppe type region (Central Asia, Russia).► Kikuyu -A tribe in Kenya.► Lapps -People of European tundra.► Eskimo- Greenland, Alaska and Tundra.► Samoyed- People of the Asiatic tundra Western Siberia (North USSR).► Semites- Jews and Ethiopeans.► Yukagir- Siberia.► Punan -Central Boroneao.► Kazak -Russia.► Masai- A Negro tribe of east Africa.► Maya -Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras.► Maori -New Zealand.► Magyar -Hungary.► Papuans- Tribal’s of New Guinea.► Red Indians -Aborigines of North America.► Tartars- A mixed group of people in Siberia.► Veddas- The racial stock of Srilanka► Yakuts -People in the tundra region in the USSR.► Boer -S.Africa.► Afridi -Pakistan.► Zulu -S.Africa (Natal).► Kossaks- (Black sea).

Regional Human Geography:

AFGHANISTAN;Ethnic groups: Pashtun (38 percent), Tajik (25 percent), Hazara (19 percent), Minor ethnic groups (Chahar Aimaks, Turkmen, Baluchi, Nuristani, and others) 12 percent, Uzbek (6 percent). Languages: Afghan Persian (Dari) 50 (percent), Pashto (35 percent), Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) (11 percent), 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) (4 percent).Religious affiliations: Sunni Muslim (84 percent), Shia Muslim (15 percent), Other (1 percent).

ALBANIA:Ethnic groups Albanian 95 percent Greek 3 percent Other (Vlachs, Roma [Gypsies], Serbs, and Bulgarians) 2 percent.Languages Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect; Gheg is spoken primarily in the north), Greek.Religious affiliations Muslim 70 percent Greek Orthodox 20 percent Roman Catholic 10 percent.

ALGERIA:Ethnic groups Arab 83 percent Berber 16 percent European Less than 1 percent.Languages Arabic (official), Berber dialects, French.Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion) 96 percent Nonreligious 3 percent Christian, Jewish, and other 1 percent.

ANGOLA:Ethnic groups Ovimbunda 37 percent Mbundu 25 percent Bakongo or Kongo 15 percent LundaChokwe 8 percent Nganguela 6 percent European 1 percent Other 8 percent.Languages Portuguese (official); Bantu and other African languages. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 65 percent Protestant 20 percent Indigenous beliefs 10 percent Other 5 percent.

ARGENTINAEthnic groupsDescendants of European immigrants 85 percent Mestizo, Native American, and other 15 percent. Languages Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French, indigenous languages.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 91 percent Jewish 1 percent Nonreligious 2 percent Other 6 percent.

ARMENIAEthnic groups Armenian 93 percent Azeri 3 percent Russian 2 percent Other 2 percent. As of the end of 1993, most Azeris had emigrated from Armenia. LanguagesArmenian 96 percent Russian 2 percent

Other 2 percent. Religious affiliations Armenian Apostolic 94 percent Other 6 percent.

AUSTRALIAEthnic groups Caucasian 95 percent Asian 4 percent Aboriginal and other 1 percent.Languages English (official), indigenous languages.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 29 percent Anglican 22 percent Protestants 14 percent Other Christian 15 percent nonreligious 14 percent Other 6 percent.

AUSTRIAEthnic groups German 99.4 percent Croatian 0.3 percent Slovene 0.2 percent Other 0.1 percent. Languages German (official), Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Turkish, Polish, Slovak, Hungarian, English. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 76 percent Protestant 5 percent Nonreligious 7 percent Muslims 2 percent Other 10 percent.

AZERBAIJANEthnic groups Azeri 90.0 percent Dahestani 3.2 percent Russian 2.5 percent Armenian 2.3 percent Other 2.0 percent Almost all Armenians live in the separatist Nagorno Karabakh (disputed) region.Languages Azeri 89 percent Russian 3 percent Armenian 2 percent Other 6 percent.Religious affiliations Muslim 93.4 percent Russian Orthodox 2.5 percent Armenian Apostolic 2.3 percent Other 1.8 percent.

BAHRAINEthnic groups Bahraini Arab 63 percent Asian 13 percent Other Arab 10 percent Iranian 8 percent Other 6 percent.Languages Arabic (official), English, Persian (Farsi), Urdu.Religious affiliations Shiite Muslim 60 percent Sunni Muslim 25 percent Christian 9 percent Oilier 6 percent.

BANGLADESHEthnic groups Bengali 98 percent Other 2 percent.Languages Bangla (official), Urdu, English.Religious affiliations Muslim 86 percent Hindu 12 percent Other 2 percent.

BELARUSEthnic groups Belarusian 77.9 percent Russian 13.2 percent Polish 4.1 percent Ukrainian 2.9 percent Other 1.9 percent. Languages Belarusian (official), Russian (official), Polish, Ukrainian, other. Religious affiliations Eastern Orthodox 49 percent Roman Catholic 13 percent Atheist 9 percent Nonreligious 24 percent Other 5 percent.

BELGIUMEthnic groups Flemish 55 percent Walloon 33 percent Mixed or other 12 percent.Languages Dutch (official) 56 percent French (official) 32 percent German (official) 1 percent Legally bilingual (divided along ethnic lines) 11 percent. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 81 percent Protestant 1 percent Muslims 4 percent Nonreligious 6 percent Other 8 percent.

BELIZEEthnic groups Mestizo 44 percent Creole 30 percent Maya 11 percent Garifuna 7 percent Other 8 percent. Languages English (official), Spanish, Maya, Garifuna (Carib). Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 62 percent Protestant 30 percent Other 6 percent None 2 percent.

BENINEthnic groups African (42 ethnic groups, the largest being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, and Bariba) 99 percent Other 1 percent.Languages French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), Bariba and Somba (most common vernaculars in north), indigenous languages.Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 65 percent Muslim 15 percent Christian (largely Roman Catholic) 20 percent.

BHUTANEthnic groups Bhutia 50 percent Ethnic Nepalese 35 percent Sharchops 10 percent Indigenous or migrant groups 5 percent.Languages Dzongkha (official); the Bhutia speak various Tibetan dialects; the Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects.Religious affiliations Lamaist Buddhist 75 percent Indian and Nepaleseinfluenced Hindu 25 percent.

Regional Human Geography: 

 

BOLIVIAEthnic groups Quechua 30 percent Mestizo 30 percent Aymara 25 percent European 15 percent.Languages Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official). Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 88 percent Protestant (Evangelical Methodist) and other 12 percent. BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA Ethnic groups Muslim 40 percent Serbian 38 percent Croatian 22 percent Languages SerboCroatian (official) 99 percent Other 1 percent. Religious affiliations Muslim 40 percent Orthodox Christian 31 percent Roman Catholic 15 percent Protestant 4 percent Other or nonreligious 10 percent.

BOTSWANAEthnic groups Tswana 75 percent Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4 percent Other 21 percent. Languages English (official), Setswana. Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 50 percent Christian 50 percent.

BRAZILEthnic groups Caucasian (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, and Polish) 55 percent Mixed Caucasian and African 38 percent African 6 percent Other (including Japanese and Arab) 1 percent.Languages Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic (nominal) 90 percent Spiritists and African Brazilian religions, such as Candombl, Maoumba, and Umbanda 4 percent Nonreligious 2 percent Other 4 percent.

BRUNEIEthnic groups Malay 64 percent Chinese 20 percent Other 16 percent. Languages Malay (official), English, Chinese.Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion) 67 percent Buddhist 14 percent Christian 10 percent Indigenous beliefs and other 9 percent.

BULGARIAEthnic groups Bulgarian 85.3 percent Turkish 8.5 percent Roma (Gypsy) 2.6 percent Macedonian 2.5 percent Armenian 0.3 percent Russian 0.2 percent Other 0.6 percent.Languages Bulgarian (official); secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown.Religious affiliations Bulgarian Orthodox 85 percent Muslim 13 percent Other 2 percent.

BURKINA FASOEthnic groups Mossi, Gourounsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani. Languages French (official); tribal languages belonging to Sudanic family are spoken by 90 percent ofthe population. Religious affiliations Muslim 50 percent Indigenous beliefs 40 percent Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10 percent.

BURUNDIEthnic groups Hutu (Bantu speakers) 79 percent Tutsi (Hamitic) 20 percent Twa 1 percent.Languages Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area). Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 62 percent Indigenous beliefs 32 percent Protestant 5 percent Muslim 1 percent.

CAMBODIAEthnic groups Khmer 90 percent Vietnamese 5 percent Chinese 1 percent Other 4 percent.Languages Khmer (official), French. Religious affiliations Theravada Buddhist 85 percent Indigenous beliefs 4 percent Muslim 2 percent Nonreligious 2 percent Other 7 percent.

CAMEROONEthnic groups There are some 200 groups, the largest of which are the Fang, Bamileke, Fulani, and Pahouin (Beti). Most groups make up less than 1 percent of the population. Languages 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official). Religious affiliations Christian 53 percent Indigenous beliefs 25 percent Muslim 22 percent.

 

CANADAEthnic groups British Isles origin 35.0 percent French origin 25.0 percent Other European origin 20.0 percent Indigenous peoples (designated in the census as 'Aboriginal") 3.0 percent Other 17.0 percent.Languages English (official), French (official), Chinese, Italian, Punjabi, Spanish, indigenous languages. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic45.2 percent United Church 11.5 percent Anglican 8.1 percent Other Protestant 7.9 percent Other or nonreligious 27.2 percent.

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Ethnic groups Baya 34 percent Banda 27 percent Mandjia 21 percent Sara 10 percent Mboum 4 percent M'Baka 4 percent Languages French (official), Sango.Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 60 percent Protestant 18 percent Roman Catholic 17 percent Muslim 5 percent.

CHADEthnic groups In northern and central Chad, Muslim peoples are dominant, including the Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba. NonMuslim peoples make up the majority of the population in southern Chad. These groups include the Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, and Massa.Languages French (official), Arabic (official); more than 100 different languages and dialects are spoken. Religious affiliations Muslim 50 percent Christian 33 percent Indigenous beliefs and animist 17 percent.

CHILEEthnic groups Mestizo 93 percent Native American 3 percent European 2 percent Other 2 percent. Languages Spanish (official). Religious

affiliations Roman Catholic 78 percent Protestant 3 percent Atheists 2 percent Nonreligious 7 percent Other 10 percent.

CHINAEthnic groups Han Chinese 92 percent Zhuang, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uygur, Miao, Yi, Korean, Yao, Bai, Tujia, Hani, and other nationalities 8 percent. Languages Standard Chinese, or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect); Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghainese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (HokkienTaiwanese), Xiang, Gan, and Hakka dialects; minority languages.Religious affiliations Officially atheist, but traditionally eclectic. Nonreligious 42 percent Buddhist 8 percent Atheist 8 percent Christian 7 percent Muslim 1 percent Other 34 percent. COLOMBIAEthnic groups Mestizo 58 percent White 20 percent Mulatto (people of mixecfblack and white ancestry) 14 percent Black 4 percent Mixed blackNative American 3 percent Native American 1 percent.Languages Spanish (official). Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 96 percent Protestant 2 Percent Nonreligious 1 percent Other 1 percent.

COSTARICAEthnic groups White (including mestizo) 96 percent Black 2 percent Native American 1 percent Chinese 1 percent. Languages Spanish (official), English. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 90 percent Other 10 percent.

COTE DTVORIEEthnic groups There are some 60 groups, the largest of which are the Akan (Baule, Agni), Kru, Mande (Mandinke, Bambara), Senufo, Dan, Guro, Gagou, and Lobi. There are 2 million Burkinabe, 100,000 to 300,000 Lebanese, and 30,000 French.Languages French (official); Akan, Dioula, 60 native dialects. Religious affiliations Muslim 39 percent Indigenous beliefs 35 percent Christian 26 percent.

CROATIAEthnic groups Croatian 78 percent Serb 12 percent Other 10 percent. Languages Croatian 96 percent Other 4 percent.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 76.5 percent Orthodox Christian 11.1 percent Islam 1.2 percent Protestant 0.4 percent Other and unknown 10.8 percent.

Regional Human Geography:

 

CUBAEthnic groups Mixed race 51 percent White 37 percent Black 11 percent Other 1 percent.Languages Spanish (official). Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 40 percent Traditional African beliefs and other (especially Santeria) 17 percent Atheist 7 percent Protestant 2 percent Nonreligious 30 percent Other 4 percent.

CYPRUSEthnic groups Greek 85 percent Turkish 12 percent Other 3 percent. Languages Greek, Turkish, English. Religious affiliations Greek Orthodox 85 percent Muslim 12 percent Maronite, Armenian Apostolic, and other 3 percent.

CZECH REPUBLIC Ethnic groups Czech 94.0 percent Slovak 3.0 percent Roma (Gypsy) 0.7 percent Polish 0.6 percent German 0.5 percent Hungarian 0.2 percent Other 1.0 percent.Languages Czech (official), Slovak, German, Russian, English. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 40 percent Protestant 3 percent Atheist 5 percent Nonreligious 32 percent Other 20 percent.

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (ZAIRE)Ethnic groups There are more than 200 African ethnic groups. The largest culture groups are the Lunda, Luba, Kuba, Bakongo (Kongo), Mongo, Mangbetu, and Azande. Other Bantu, NiloSaharan, AfricanAsian, European, and Asian groups also exist.Languages French (official), Lingala, Kikongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, other indigenous languages.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 52 percent Protestant 20 percent Kimbanguist (indigenous Christian) 10 percent Muslim 2 percent Other syncretism sects and traditional beliefs 16 percent.

DENMARKEthnic groups Danish, Inuit (Eskimo), Faroese, German.Languages Danish (official), Faroese, Greenlandic (an Inuit dialect), German. Religious affiliations Protestant 88 percent Roman Catholic 1 percent Nonreligious 5 percent Other 6 percent. DJIBOUTIEthnic groups Somali (largely lssa) 60 percent Afar 30 percent French, Arab, Italian, other 10 percent. Languages French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar. Religious affiliations Muslim 97 percent Christian and othecs 3 percent.

ECUADOREthnic groups Mestizo 55 percent Native American 25 percent Spanish 10 percent Black 10 percent. Languages Spanish (official), Native American languages (especially Quechua).

Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 94 percent Protestant 2 percent Nonreligious 1 percent Other 3 percent.

EGYPTEthnic groups Eastern Hamitic (Egyptians, Bedouin, and Berbers) 99 percent Greek, Nubian, Armenian, other European 1 percent.Languages Arabic (official); English and French widely understood by the educated.Religious affiliations Muslim (mostly Sunni) 94 percent (official estimate) Coptic Christian and other 6 percent (official estimate).

EL SALVADOREthnic groups Mestizo 90 percent White 9 percent Native American 1 percent.Languages Spanish (official), Nahuatl, Kekch, English Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 85 percent Protestant 10 percent Other 5 percent.

ERETRIAEthnic groups Tigrinya 50 percent Tigre, Kunama 40 percent Afar 4 percent Saho 3 percent Bilen, Hedareb, Nara, Rashaida 3 percent. Languages Tigrinya, Tigre, Arabic, Afar, Bilen, Hedareb, Kunama, Nara, Rashaida, Saho, English. Religious affiliations Muslim, Coptic Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant.

ESTONIAEthnic groups Estonian 64 percent Russian 29 percent Ukrainian 3 percent Belarusian 2 percent Finn 1 percent Other 1 percent.Languages Estonian (official), Russian, Ukranian, Belarusian, Finnish, Latvian, Lithuanain, German, English. Religious affiliations Protestant 17 percent Orthodox Christian 16 percent Other Christian 13 percent Atheist 11 percent Nonreligious 25 percent Other 18 percent.

ETHIOPIAEthnic groups Oromo 40 percent Amhara, Tigrean 32 percent Sidamo 9 percent Shankella 6 percent Somali 6 percent Afar 4 percent Gurage 2 percent Other 1 percent.Languages Amharic (official), Tigrinya, Tigre, Orominga, Ge'ez, Gurage, Somali, Arabic, English.Religious affiliations Ethiopian Orthodox 40 percent Muslim 45 percent Indigenous beliefs 12 percent Other 3 percent .

MACEDONIAEthnic groups Macedonian Slavs 67 percent Albanian 23 percent Turkish 4 percent Serbian 2 percent Roma (Gypsy), other 4 percent. Languages Macedonian 70 percent Albanian 21 percent Turkish 3

percent SerboCroatian 3 percent Other 3 percent.Religious affiliations Orthodox Christian (mostly Macedonian Orthodox) 60 percent Muslim 29 percent Nonreligious 7 percent Other 4 percent.

FIJIEthnic groups Fijian 50 percent Indian 45 percent European, other Pacific Islander, Chinese, other 5 percent. Languages English (official), Fijian, Hindustani.Religious affiliations Protestant (mostly Methodist) 46 percent Hindu 33 percent Roman Catholic 10 percent Muslim 7 percent Other 4 percent NOTE: Fijians are mainly Christian, Indians are Hindu or Muslim, and Chinese are Christian or Buddhist.

FINLANDEthnic groups Finn 93 percent Swede 6 percent Saami, Russian 1 percent. Languages Finnish (official) 92 5 percent Swedish (official) 5.7 percent Small Saami and Russian speaking minorities 0.5 percent Others 1.3 percent. Religious affiliations Protestant (Evangelical Lutheran) 86 percent Finnish Orthodox 1 percent Nonreligious 5 percent Atheist 1 percent Other 7 percent.

FRANCEEthnic groups Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, and Nordic; North and West African, Caribbean, Indochinese. and Basque minorities. Languages French, regional dialects and languages (Provencal, Breton, Alsatian, Corsican, Catalan, Basque, Flemish), English, Arabic.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 81 percent Protestant 2 percent Jewish

GABONEthnic groups Fang 36 percent Mpongwe 15 percent Mbete 14 percent Punu 12 percent Other 23 percent. Languages French (official), Fang, other indigenous languages Religious affiliations Christian 60 percent Animist 39 percent Muslim 1 percent.

GEORGIAEthnic groups Georgian 70.1 percent Armenian 8.1 percent Russian 6.3 percent Azeri 5,7 percent Ossetian 3.0 percent Abkhazian 1.8 percent Other 5.0 percent.Languages Georgian (official), Russian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, other. Religious affiliations Orthodox Christian 58 percent Muslim 19 percent Atheist 3 percent Roman Catholic 1 percent Nonreligious 15 percent Other 4 percent.

Regional Human Geography:

 

GERMANYEthnic groups German 91.5 percent Turkish 2.3 percent Italian 0.7 percent Greek 0.4 percent Polish 0,4 percent Other 4.7 percent.Languages German (official), English, Russian, Sorbian.Religious affiliations Protestant 37 percent Roman Catholic 35 percent Muslim 4 percent Nonreligious 17 percent Other 7 percent.

GHANAEthnic Divisions Adangbe, Akuapem, Akyem, Ashanti, Bono, Dagomba, Ewe, Fante, Ga, Gonja, Kwahu, Mamprusi, Nzima, and others.Languages English (official), Akan, Nzima, Dagbane, Ga, Ewe, other African languages .Religious affiliations Ethnoreligionists or indigenous beliefs 24 percent Muslim 20 percent Protestant 17 percent Independent Christian 14 percent Roman Catholic 10 percent Other 15 percent.

GREECEEthnic groups Greek 98 percent Other 2 percent NOTE: The Greek government states that there are no ethnic divisions in Greece.Languages Greek (official), Turkish, English, French.Religious affiliations Greek Orthodox 94 percent Muslim 3 percent Nonreligious 2 percent Other 1.

GUATEMALAEthnic groups Ladino (mestizo) 56 percent Native American 44 percent. Languages Spanish (official); more than 20 Native American languages, including Quich, Cakchiquel, and Kekch Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 90 percent Protestant, traditional Mayan, others 10 percent.

GUYANAEthnic groups East Indian 51 percent Black African, mixed 43 percent Native American 4 percent European, Chinese 2 percent.Languages English (official), Hindi, Urdu, Native American dialects. Religious affiliations Hindu 33 percent Protestant 20 percent Roman Catholic 10 percent Anglican 9 percent Muslim 9 percent Indigenous beliefs 2 percent Other 17 percent.

HAITIEthnic groups Black African 95 percent Mixed race and European 5 percent Languages French (official), Creole (official).Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 80 percent Protestant 17 percent Nonreligious 1 percent Other 2 percent Nearly onehalf of the population also practices Vodun (also called Vodou or voodoo).

HONDURASEthnic groups Mestizo 90 percent Native American (primarily Miskito, Payas, Xicaques, Zambo) 7 percent Black African 2 percent White 1 percent. 7 Languages Spanish (official), Native American dialects, Creole, English. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 94 percent Protestant, other 6 percent.

HUNGARYEthnic groups Hungarian (Magyar) 89.9 percent Roma (Gypsy) 4.0 percent German 2.6 percent Serbian 2.0 percent Slovak 0.8 percent Romanian 0.7 percent.Languages Hungarian (Magyar) (official) 98.2 percent Other 1.8 percent. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 63 percent Calvinist 20 percent Lutheran 5 percent Atheist 4 percent Nonreligious 7 percent Other 1 percent.

INDONESIAEthnic groups Javanese 45 percent Sundanese 14 percent Madurese 8 percent Coastal Malay 7 percent Other (350 distinct ethnic groups) 26 percent. Languages Bahasa Indonesia (modified form of Malay; official), English, Dutch, Sundanese, Arabic, Chinese, and local dialects, especially Javanese (about 300 languages and dialects are spoken). Religious affiliations Muslim 87 percent Protestant 6 percent Roman Catholic 3 percent Hindu 2 percent Buddhist 1 percent Other 1 percent.

IRANEthnic groups Persian 60 percent Azerbaijani and other Turkic 25 percent Kurdish 7 percent Lur 2 percent Baluchi, Turkmen, and other 6 percent. Languages Persian (Farsi) and Persian dialects 58 percent Turkic and Turkic dialects 26 percent Kurdish 9 percent Lluri, Balochi, Arabic, Turkmen, and other 7 percent.Religious affiliations Shiite Muslim 93 percent Sunni Muslim 6 percent Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, and Baha'i 1 percent.

IRAQEthnic groups Arab 7580 percent Kurds 1520 percent Turkmen, Assyrian, Jews, and other 5 percent. Languages Arabic (official), Kurdish (in Kurd occupied areas), Assyrian, Armenian.Religious affiliations Muslim 96 percent Shia 6065 percent Sunni 3136 percent Christian 3 percent Other 1 percent.

IRELANDEthnic groups Celtic, English Languages Irish (Gaelic) is spoken mainly in areas along the western seaboard. English is the language generally used. Both Irish and English are official languages.

Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 85 percent Church of Ireland (Anglican) 4 percent Protestant 1 percent Nonreligious 3 percent Other 7 percent.

ISRAELEthnic groups Jewish (Israelbom 62 percent, Europe/Americas/Oceara born 26 percent, Africabora 7 percent, Asiaborn 5 percent) 82 percent Non Jewish (mostly Arab) 18 percent. Languages Hebrew (official), Arabic used officially for Arab minority, English Religious affiliations Jewish 77 percentMuslim (mostly Sunni Muslim) 12 percent Christian 5 percent Nonreligious 4 percent Other (including Druze, Bahai) 2 percent.

ITALYEthnic groups Italian (includes small clusters of German, French, and Slovene Italians in the north and Albanian and Greek Italians in the south), Sicilian, Sardinian.Languages Italian (official), German, French, Slovenian, Ladin, regional Italian dialects.Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 98 percent Other 2 percent.

JAPANEthnic groups Japanese 99.4 percent Other (mostly Korean), including Ainu 0.6 percent.Languages Japanese (official). Religious affiliations Buddhist 55 percent Christian 4 percent Shintoist 3 percent Nonreligious 10 percent Other (including "new religions") 28 percent. JORDANEthnic groups Arab 98 percent Circassian 1 percent Armenian 1 percent. Languages Arabic (official), English widely understood among educated population.Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion; almost all Sunni Muslim) 93 percent Christian 4 percent Nonreligious 2 percent Other 1 percent.

KAZAKHSTANEthnic groups Kazakh (Qazaq) 46 percent Russian 35 percent Ukrainian 5 percent German 3 percent Uzbek 2 percent Tatar 2 percent Other 7 percent. Languages Kazakh (Qazaq, official language); Russian (language of interethnic communication). Religious affiliations Muslim 43 percent Atheist 11 percent Orthodox Christian 10 percent Roman Catholic 3 percent Nonreligious 29 percent Other 4 percent.

 

KENYAEthnic groups Kikuyu 21 percent Luhya 14 percent Luo 12 percent

Kalenjin 11 percent Kamba 11 percent Kisii 6 percent Meru 6 percent Other 19 percent. Languages English (official), Swahili or Kiswahili (official), Kikuyu, Luo, numerous other indigenous languages. Religious affiliations Protestant 43 percent Roman Catholic 23 percent Indigenous beliefs 12 percent Anglican 10 percent Muslim 7 percent Hindu 1 percent Other 4 percent.

KUWAITEthnic groups Kuwaiti 45 percent Other Arab 35 percent Indian, Pakistani 9 percent Iranian 4 percent Other 7 percent. Languages Arabic (official), English widely spoken.Religious affiliations Sunni Muslim 45 percent Shia Muslim 40 percent Roman Catholic 9 percent Hindu 3 percent Nonreligious 1 percent Other 2 percent.

 

KYRGYZTANEthnic groups Kyrgyz 57 percent Russian 18 percent Uzbek 14 percent Ukrainian 2 percent German 2 percent Tajik, other 7 percent.Languages Kyrgyz (official), Russian. Religious affiliations Muslim 70 percent Russian Orthodox 20 percent Other 10 percent.

Regional Human Geography:

LAOSEthnic groups Lao Lum (lowland Lao), including Lao and Tai 66 percent Lao Thoeng (Lao of the mountain slopes), including Khamu, Lamet, Laven, Sedang, and Nyaheun 24 percent Lao Sung (Lao of the mountaintops), including Hmong and Yao (Mien) 10 percent. Languages Lao (official), numerous indigenous languages and dialects, French, English.Religious affiliations Buddhist 60 percent Animist, Christian, Muslim 40 percent.

LATVIAEthnic groups Latvian 55 percent Russian 32 percent Belarusian 4 percent Ukrainian 3 percent Polish 3 percent Other 3 percent.Languages Latvian (official), Russian,

Lithuanian.Religious affiliations Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox.

LEBANONEthnic groups Arab 93 percent Armenian 5 percent Other 2 percent. Languages Arabic (official), French, Armenian, English Religious affiliations Muslim 70 percent (5 legally recognized Islamic groups: Shia, Sunni, AJawite, Druze, Isma'ilite) Christian 30 percent (11 legally recognized Christian groups: 4 Orthodox Christian, 6 Catholic, 1 Protestant).

LIBERIAEthnic groups Indigenous African ethnic groups (Bassa, Gio, Kpelle, Kru) 95 percent AmericoLiberians (descendants of repatriated slaves) 5 percent. Languages English (official) 20 percent Mande, KruBassa, other 80 percent. Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 70 percent Muslim 20 percent Christian 10 percent.

LIBYAEthnic groups Indigenous African ethnic groups (Bassa, Gio, Kpelle, Kru) 95 percent AmericoLiberians (descendants of repatriated slaves) 5 percent. Languages English (official) 20 percent Mande, KruBassa, other 80 percent Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 70 percent Muslim 20 percent Christian 10 percent.

LITHUANIAEthnic groups Lithuanian 80 percent Russian 8 percent Polish 8 percent Belarusian 2 percent Ukrainian 1 percent Other 1 percent. Languages Lithuanian (official), Russian, Polish, English Religious affiliations Roman

Catholic 84 percent Orthodox Christian 3 percent Protestant 1 percent Nonreligious 11 percent Other 1 percent.

LUXEMBOURGEthnic groups Celtic base (with French and German blend) 75 percent Guest workers and residents from other European countries, including Portugaland Italy 25 percent.Languages Luxembourgisch, German, French, English Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 94 percent Protestant 2 percent Nonreligious 3 percent Other 1 percent.

MADAGASCAREthnic groups Merina 27 percent Betsimisaraka 15 percent Betsileo 12 percent Tsimihety 7 percent Sakalava 6 percent Antaisaka 5 percent Other 28 percent.Languages French (official), Malagasy (official), Hova and other dialects Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 52 percent Christian 41 percent Muslim 7 percent.

MALAWIEthnic groups Chewa, Nyanja, Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, Ngonde, Asian, European Languages English (official), Chichewa, other indigenous languages Religious affiliations Protestant 55 percent Roman Catholic 20 percent Muslim 20 percent Hindu, indigenous beliefs 5 percent. MALAYSIAEthnic groups Malays and other indigenous groups 59 percent Chinese 26 percent Indian 7 percent Other 8 percent.Languages Bahasa Malaysia (official),

Chinese (various dialects), English, Tamil, Iban, other indigenous languages Religious affiliations Muslim 48 percent Folk religions 24 percent Christian 8 percent Buddhist 7 percent Hindu 7 percent Other 6 percent. MALDIVESEthnic groups Sinhalese, Dravidian, Arab, African.Languages Divehi (official; dialect of Sinhala), English Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion; mostly Sunni Muslim).

MALIEthnic groups Sinhalese, Dravidian, Arab, African.Languages Divehi (official; dialect of Sinhala), English Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion; mostly Sunni Muslim).

MALTAEthnic groups Maltese 96 percent British 2 percent Other (including Sicilian, French, Spanish, and Italian) 2 percent Languages Maltese (official), English (official), Italian Religious affiliations Roman Catholic 93 percent Other 7 percent.

MAURITANIAEthnic groups Moor 30 percent Mixed Moor, black 40 percent Other (including Fulani and Wolof) 30 percent Languages Arabic (official), Fulfulde, Soninke, Wolof, French Religious affiliations Muslim (Islam is the official religion; almost all Sunni Muslim) 100 percent.

MAURITIUSEthnic groups Indian Mauritian 68 percent Creole 27 percent Chinese Mauritian 3 percent French Mauritian 2

percent Languages English (official), Creole, French, Hindi, Urdu, Hakka, Bhojpuri, other.Religious affiliations Hindu 52 percent Christian 28 percent Muslim 17 percent Buddhist, other 3 percent.

MEXICOEthnic groups Mestizo (Native AmericanSpanish) 60 percent Amerindian 30 percent European ancestry 9 percent Other 1 percent.Languages Spanish (official), various indigenous languages, English. Religious affiliations Roman Catholic89 percent Protestant 3 percent Nonreligious 3 percent Other 5 percent

MONGOLIAEthnic groups Mongol 90 percent Kazakh 4 percent Chinese 2 percent Russian 2 percent Other 2 percent. Languages Khalkha Mongolian 90 percent Turkic, Russian, English, other Mongolian dialects 10 percent. Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 3 i percent Tibetan Buddhist (Lamaist) 23 percent Atheist 9 percent Muslim 5 percent Nonreligious 30 percent Other 2 percent.

MOROCCOEthnic groups Arab, Berber, mixed ArabBerber 99 percent Other 1 percent Languages Arabic (official), Derija (Moroccan Arabic), Berber dialects, French.Religious affiliations Muslim 98 percent Christian 1 percent Nonreligious and other 1 percent.

MOZAMBIUEEthnic groups Makua, Yao, Makonde, Tonga, Tsonga, Chopi, Shona, Nguni, others.

Languages Portuguese (official); Swahili, indigenous dialects, including Makua, Ronga, Tsongan, and Muchope Religious affiliations Indigenous beliefs 55 percent Christian 30 percent Muslim 15 percent.

MYANMAREthnic groups Burman 68 percent Shan 9 percent Karen 7 percent Arakanese (Rakhine) 4 percent Chinese 3 percent Mon 2 percent Indian 2 percent Other 5 percent.Languages Burmese (official); minority ethnic groups have their own languages.Religious affiliations Buddhist 73 percent Indigenous beliefs 12 percent Protestant 6 percent Muslim 3 percent Hindu 2 percent Other 4 percent.

NAMIBIAEthnic groups Black 86.0 percent White 6.6 percent Mixed 7.4 percent NOTE: About 50 percent of the population belongs to the Ovambo group and 9 percent to the Kavango group. Other ethnic groups include (with approximate share of total population) Herero 7 percent, Damara 7 percent, Nama 5 percent, Caprivian 4 percent, San or Khoikhoi 3 percent, Baster 2 percent, and Tswana 0.5 percent.Languages Although English is the official language, most Namibians speak at least one indigenous language at home. Afrikaans and German are also spoken.Religious affiliations Christian 90 percent Other or nonreligious 10 percent.

NEPALEthnic groups Newar, Bihari, Tibetan,

Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Thakali, Bhutia, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa. Languages Nepali (official), English, almost 20 other languages divided into numerous dialects.Religious affiliations Hindu (Hinduism is the official religion) 86 percent Buddhist 8 percent Muslim 4 percent Other 2 percent.

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY SPACE RELATIONSHIP- 7th largest country (AREA) Total Area = 32, 87, 263 Sq Km. (i) 3, 214 Km= North to South (ii) 2, 933 Km= West to East-Latitudinal extent 8°4'N to 37°6'N-Longitudinal extent 68°7'E to 97°25'E (For mainland) -Southern most point Indira point or Pygmalion Point (Andaman and Nicobar Island) 64°5'N-Indian Ocean is encircled by 46 countries (27 littoral including Australia, 7 island states and 12 landlocked countries).- Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separates it from Sri Lanka-Coastline is 6,100 Km (along main land mass) and 7,516 Km

-Border DistancesChina India 4, 225 KmIndia Pakistan 4, 090 KmIndia Bangladesh 3, 910 Km India Myanmar 1, 450 Km Boundary Lines:Durand Line: Pakistan and AfghanistanMac Mohan Line: India and ChinaRadcliff Line: India and PakistanMaginot Line: France and GermanyHindenburg Line: Poland and Germany

Order Niesse Line: Poland and Germany38th Parallel: North and South Korea 49th Parallel: USA and CanadaMannerheim Line: Finland and Russia

 

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION-PreCambrian (600 Million Years ago)Archaean Gneissic and Granites. Igneous Activities, subsequent Metamorphism andfolding of the Arrival.Dharwarian Group (Bijawars)Igneous activities and intrusions.-Cambrian.Calcareous and Arenaceous deposits (Cuddapah and Vindhvanbasins).Gondwana system (carboniferous) permacarboniferous glaciation and extensive glaciofluvial deposition. -MidMesozoic.Fracturing of Gondwanaland, further uplift of Vindhyan sediments formation of western ghats.-Cretaceous.Lava flow and formation of Deccan Trap.-Tertiary.Collision of the Indian plate with Eurasian plate leading to Himalayan orogeny. -Oligocene.Himadri (Greater Himalayas)Rajmahal Garo gap or the Malda gap and upheaval of IndoGanga divide (Potwar Plateau).

 

INDIAN EARTHQUAKES-The intensity of the earthquake is measured by Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale which is expressed in Roman

numerals from I to XII (I Feeble, XII Catastrophic). -Based on intensities of the earthquakes recorded on MM Scale, the Indian Standards Institute has divided India into 5 Seismic Zones:

Zone I: Intensity V or below (Feeble)Zone II: Intensity VI (Strong) Zone III: Intensity VII (Very Strong)Zone IV: Intensity VIII (Destructive)Zone V: Intensity IX or above (Catastrophic)- Another popular scale is Richter scale.It has 9 divisions starting from 1 to 9 with feeblest at magnitude of 3.5 and most catastrophic known at a maximum of 8.9.-According to seismological studies, about 2/3 rd of India is earthquake prone.-The whole country is divided into three Seismological Zones:Himalayan Zone. Most prone (J and K, HP, Uttaranchal, Nepal Bihar Border, Bihar, North EasternStates). This zone is seismic due to plate tectonics. Himalayas have not yet attained isostatic equilibrium and are still rising.Indo Gangetic Zone. To the south of the Himalayan zone. Most earthquakes in this zone lie in 6 6.5 on Richter scale. This zone is called the zone of comparative intensity and it is more harmful because of high population density. Peninsular Zone Stable mass. It is the zone of minimum intensity.- Other isolated regions including reservoir induced seismicity e.g. Koyna, Idduki.

NDIAN VULCANICITY-At present no active volcanoes except on the Barren Island (A/N Islands).

- The geological evidences show 6 areas of vulcanicity:1. Dharwar Basalt traces found in Dalma (Bihar)2. Cuddapah Cuddapah, Bijapur and Gwalior area.3. Vindhyan Malani (Jodhpur), Kirana (Punjab)4. Palaeozoic Kashmir, N.Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. 5. Mesozoic Raj Mahal Hills (Jharkhand), Abor Hills (Arunachal Pradesh).6. Cretaceous Lava flow and formation of Deccan Trap

HOT SPRINGS- Hot springs are associated with the area of volcanic activity (present or past).- Water from hot spring contains minerals viz. sulphur, borax etc.-Areas:J and K: Kashmir Valley, Vardhman Valley, Ladakh Valley, and Puga Valley. Himachal Pradesh: Kullu, Kangra and Sutlej Valley., Manikaran (near Kullu) and near Jwalamukhi (Kangra). Bihar/Jharkhand: Rajgir, Hazaribagh and Santhal ParganaMadhya Pradesh: Hoshangabad, Gwalior, and ChhindwaraGujarat: Tawa (Panch Mahal), Uni (Vadodara). Maharashtra: Thane Uttaranchal: Sahasradhar (Dehradun), Gangotri and Yamunotri.Rajasthan: Talbrich (Alwar), Naraini (Jaipur). Haryana: Sohana

PHYSICAL SURFACEPhysiographic distribution can be expressed in percentage of total area

as follows: 10.6 % Mountains 18.5% Hills 27.7% Plateaus 43.2% PlainsIndian physiography can be divided into four major categories: 1. The Northern Mountains2. Great Plains3. Peninsular Uplands4. Indian Coasts and Islands

The Northern MountainsIt can be divided into Himalayas and the Purvanchal (North Eastern Highlands) Himalayas can further be divided into Western, Central and Eastern Regions, Western Himalayas consists of:Kashmir Himalayas include Karakoram, Laddakh Plateau, Kashmir Valley and Pir Panjal Range.Punjab Himalayas include Kangra, Lahul and Spiti (Longitudinal Valleys).Kumaon Himalayas include Gangotri, Yamunotri and Badrinath.- Central Himalayas consist of Nepal Himalayas. -Eastern Himalayas consist of Bhutan, Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas and Arunachal Pradesh except Tirap district, -All the three regions that is Western, Central and Eastern Himalayas can further be classified into:Siwaliks (outer Himalayas), Himachal (Lesser Himalayas), and Himadri (Greater Himalayas).

WESTERN HIMALAYAS 1.Siwaliks of Western Himalayas include Jammu Hills2.Himachal of Western Himalayas include Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, Nag Tigga, Mussorie Range and flat structured Valley (Doons Dehradun, Kothri, Patli)3. Himadri (Bahirgiri) of Western

Himalayas include snowbound ranges and glaciers of Jammu and Kashmir, Zauskar range having mounts Nanga Parbat, Mt. Kamet, Nanda Devi, Gurla Mandhata and passes Burzil and Zoji La (J and K) and Bara Lacha La and Shipki La(H.P).

CENTRAL HIMALAYAS 1.Siwaliks of Central Himalayas include Dhang, Dundwa and Churia Ghati2.Himachal of Central Himalayas include Mahabharat Range and Valley of Kathmandu. 3.Himadri of Central Himalayas include some of the highest peaks include: Mt. Everest, Dhaulagiri, Makalu, Manaslu, Annapurna.

EASTERN HIMALAYAS 1.Siwaliks of Eastern Himalayas include Miri, Abhor, Mishmi in Arunachal along with Gorges of Tista and Raidak2. Himachal is very indistinctly present in the eastern Himalayas.3. Himadri includes Bhutan, Sikkim, Darjeeling and Arunachal Pradesh. It also includes passes Nathu La and Jelep La- Siwaliks (6001500m): These are characterized by fault scarps, anticlinal Crests and Synclinal Hills. Himalayan Rivers have formed deep gorges in them, - Himachal or Lesser Himalayas (10004500m): Linear Longitudinal Ranges with Orthoclinal structural plan (steeper southern and gentler northern slopes) which gives it a Hogback type look. - Himadri or Greater Himalayas (45006100m): Orthoclinal structural plan.

BHANGER1. Trans Himalayas: Karakoram (abode

of largest glaciers in the world Siachen, Baltoro, Biafo, Hisper and Rimu of Pakistan, It also contain ranges like Mt. K2 and Gasherbrum) and Ladakh range, uplands, Madhya Bharat Pathar, Bundelkhand uplands, Malwa plateau, Vindhyan scarpland and range. 2. Deccan Plateau including Satpura and Maikal Range, Maharashtra Plateau. Tejangana.Plateau and Karnataka Plateau (Malnad and Maidan). 3.Western Plateau: including Baghelkhand Plateau, Chhotanagpur Plateau and Garhjat Hills, Mahanadi Basin and Dandkarnya Region. 4.Eastern Ghats: including Khondlite, Charnokite, Madugula Konda Range, Cuddapah Kurnool Region, Nallamalai, Velikonda, Shevroy and Javadi Hills.

TERAIIt lies south of Bhabar and runs parallel to it - 2030 km wide -Composed of comparatively finer alluvium-Underground stream of the Bhabar reemerge on the surface and give birth to marshy areas.- Most part of the terai area is reclaimed for agriculture.5. Western Ghats this can be divided into regions lying north of 16°N and South of 16°N.

Indian Coasts and IslandsIt includes:1. Eastern Coastal Plains2. Western Coastal Plains3. Andaman and Nicobar Islands4. Lakshadweep Islands.

More on Great Plains:

-The great plain extends for 3200 Km between the mouths of. Ganga and Indus all along the foot of the mountains with a width varying between 150 300 Km.-Great Plains are classical examples of an aggradational plain which resulted form an infilling of initial depression by the incessant work of the Himalayan rivers.- Generally the plain is recognized as consisting of 4 division each characterized by surface relief and known as Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar and the Khadar.- Marusthali i.e. desert proper: Arid Region.Rajasthan Bagar i.e. Semi Desert: Semi Arid Region Western Marusthali is land covered by shifting sand dunes locally known as the Dhrian. (To the south of Jaislmer, a number of playa lakes occur which are called Ranns and are characterized by centripetal drainage).Bagar contains salt soaked playa lakes locally known as Bagar is drained by a number of short streams originating from the Aravalli .Fertile tracts in Bagar are known as Rohi. Commonest type of dune in Thar U Shaped Parabolic Dunes.These are few simple longitudinal dunes (siefs) locally know as Bhits.Large numbers of depressions occupied by alkaline lakes are called Dands or Dhands.The altitude of the Punjab plain varies from 300m in the North to 200m in the South. Doab of 5 rivers in Punjab1. Sindh Sagar Doab Indus and Jhelum2. Chaj Doab Chenab and Jhelum3. Rechna Ravi and Chenab4. Bari Beas and Ravi5. Bist (Jalandhar Doab) Beas and

Sutlej.Broad flood plains of Khadar flanked by bluffs are called Dhaya in Punjab. The northern part of the PunjabHaryana Plain adjoining the Siwalik Hills has witnessed intensive erosion leading to gully formation by network of streams called Chos. - Like N.Bihar, the south Bihar plains also has swamps and marshes called Jal near Patna and Tai in east of Mokama.-The Ganga delta has its seaward face more influenced by the tidal activity than by the waves with the result that the indented coastline has a maze of sandbanks, mudflats, mangrove swamps, islands and forelands-Ganges Deltaic Tract:Extends for 430 kmsWidth 480 Kms

Geography Notes: 

 

More on the Himalayas:Mt. Everest 8848mGodvin Austen (K2) 8611 mKanchenjunga 8598mMakalu 8481mDhaulagiri 8172mMansalu 8156mNanga Parbat 8126mAnnapurna 8078mGasherbrum 8086mNandaDevi 7817mKamet 7756mGurla Mandhata 7728m

 

More on Peninsular Plateau:-General Elevation: 600-900m -fit remained above the sea level for a

larger part of the geological history,

- Aravalli Range: Oldest Relict Mountains Length 700km General elevation (400-600m) Reduced to the level of alluvial plains near Delhi and continues up to Haridwar under alluvium.Widens southward Passes: Barr, Pipli Ghat, Dewair, and Desuri. Highest peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722m)Hill station: Mt. Abu. Of Rajasthan Uplands: Drained by Banas 250-500 m high Ancient crystalline rocks of Madhya Bharat Pathar: Ancient Vindhyan sediments through which Chambal river has cut deep and wide valley and has formed Ravines and Badlands.-Bundelkhand Uplands: Old erosional surface Granitic and gneissic rocks of Malwa Plateau: Mostly of lava Rolling surface and flat topped hills-Vindhyan Scarpland and Ranges: Series of tablelands separated from each other by a prominent sand stone scarp. General elevation (300650m) Strong sandstones of the Kaimur, Rewa and the Bhander series are the principal scarp makers.-Satpura Range: Between Narmada and Tapti Extends through the Mahadeo Hills to the Maikal rangesMostly occupied by Deccan Trap Rises to 900-1000m. Peaks: Astamba Dongar (1325m) and Dhupgarh (13 50m) (it is the highest peak of Madhya Pradesh). Widens considerably in the central part (Mahadeo Hills in north and Gawaligarh Hills in south)-Maharashtra Plateau: Formed of plateau basalt Rolling plains with intervening shallow valleys, -Telangana Plateau: Unlike the Maharashtra plateau, which is made of

Deccan basalt, the plateau of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are carried out of Archaean Gneissic Rocks.Surface of the plateau is dotted with low hills and shallow depressions. In such a depression, the twin city of Hyderabad and Secunderabad is located.-Karnataka Plateau: Northern portion drained by Krishna and its tributaries. Mysore Plateau loftiest and most well defined plateau in South Asia.Physiographically Mysore Plateau can be divided into Malnad and Maidan. Malnad this comprises hilly Western Ghats with average elevation of 1000m. Dissected into valleys and covered with dense forests.

WEST COASTAL PLAIN► Located between the western ghats and the Arabian sea coast► Narrow plain width 54Km► Drained by several short and swift streams which are unable to form deltas► There are several lagoons especially in the southern part of this plain.► The western plain has indented coast which supports many ports.Mt is a submerged coast and hence tilting has left no scope for depositional action of the rivers.Maidan Area of rolling plains with low granitic hills

-Baghelkhand Plateau: East of Maikal range and norh of Mahanadi basin and bounded by Son on north. Antclinal hills and synclinal valleys of sandstones and limestone; occur to the south. Singauli basin is considerably dissected.

-Chhotanagpur Plateau: Topography is

marked by roundel granitic hills (exfoliation domes) and elevated terraces of older flood plains. Plateau is deeply dissected around it, edges giving rise to steep escarpments locally known as Ghats. Higher plateaus have flat laterite capped summits know as Pats.The Garhjat Hills in Orissa extend from southern border of the Ranchi Plateau upto the Mahanadi river.

- Mahanadi Basin (Chhattisgarh basin)Low lying tract with elevation of 600 to 100m and surrounded by hills in all sides, Dandkaranya Fegion: Lying south of Chhattisgarh basin and drained Indravati river.

- The peninsular plateau continue into North East as Shillong Plateau, the gap separating these two plateaus is known as Rajmaha Garo

 

EAST COASTAL PLAIN-Located between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal coast-Comparatively broader (average width 80100Km)-Big rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery have formed large deltas- Lagoons are comparatively less in this plain-The eastern plain has more or less a straight coast where good ports are lacking.-Mostly of emergent type, characterized by offshore bars, fine sea beaches, sand ridges and lagoons.Western Coastal Plain: -This straight coast is quite indented and is marked by caves (small sheltered recess in '

the coast) and creeks (small tidal inlets or estuaries of small streams)Gujarat plains built up of alluvium of the Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and the Tapti rivers.Only on the Malabar Coast it is that there are a number of lakes, lagoons and backwaters locally called the Kayals. Eastern Coast: f From N to S, the coastal plains are known as the Utkal, Andhra and the Tamil Nadu Plains it has lakes, like Chilka, Koleru, and Pulicat.-The islands of Srisailam, Srirangapattamand Sivasamudram are found in the Kaveri basin.More on Western Ghats:- Length 1600Kni- These block mountains were formed due to the down warping of a part of the land into the Arabian Sea. Up to 16° N latitude they are mainly composed of basalt- Harishchandra, Mahabaleshwar, Kalsubai and Salher are important peaks in this region. Thalghat and Bhorghat are the important passes for roads and railways -South of Goa they are composed of granites and gneisses and have more rugged topography.-Average elevation is 1220 m. Few peaks are above 1500 m like, Kudremukh (1892) and Pushpagiri (1714) fin the Nilgiris the Eastern Ghats join the Sahyadris (W Ghats) to form a mountain knot where highest point is Doddabetta (2637m) South of Nilgiri lies the Palghat Gap which connects Tamil Nadu with Kerala South of Palghat, Anaimudi (2695m) is a knot, which is joined by three hills, viz. the Anaimalai hills (1800-2000m) in the north, the Palni hills (9001200m) in the N.E. and the

Cardamom or Elamalai hills in the south, The Anaimalai constitutes a series of plateau with rolling topography. Here hill slopes support tea, coffee, cinchona and Kodaikanal hill station (2195m) is located on the southern edge of the Palni hills, Tambraparni has it source near Agastya Malai forming a series of waterfalls (Bajiatirtham and Papanasam)

 

More on Eastern Ghats:Depict True Mountain characteristic between Mahnadi and Godavari (peaks Nimalgiri (Koraput), Mahendragiri (Ganjam) Dominant rocks: Khondalites (metamorphosed sedimentary) and Charnokites (intursive rocks resembling granites)Between the Krishna River and Chennai they continue as the Kondavidu hills mainly composed of Quartzites and Slates.The Nallamalai (9001100m) and Palkonda hills are composed of Cuddapah and Kurnool formations. Their continuation is to be seen in the Javadi, Shevroy and Biligiri Rangam hills of Salem and Coimbatore.Nilgiris (blue mountains) provide the converging site for three mountain ranges: the Sahyadri joining opposite of the Makurti peak; the Southern Ghats across the Palghat in the south and the Eastern Ghats in the north eastern corner.

Rivers of India1. Indus: Rises Tibet, Near Mansarovar lake. Direction of flow West and Northwest and falls into Arabian Sea Drainage Area 11,65,000 km2, India

has a share of32,190 km2

2. Jhelum: Rises Verinag at the foothills of Pirpanjal. Direction of flow Northwards from direction and meets Chambal near Sawai Madhopur.

3. Son: Originates from the Amarkantak Plateau. It merges into Ganga as its right bank tributary near Ramnagar.

4. Ramganga: It rises in the Kumaoun Himalayas. Enters the Ganga plain near Kalagarh. It joins the left bank of the Ganga near Kannauj.

5. Sarda: It rises in the Eastern Himalayas and is known as Kali in Himalayas, the Sarda in Pilibhit and Kheri districts and Chauka before it joins the right bank of the Ghaghara near Bahramgaht. The Sarda runs along the IndoNepal boundary and leaves Himalayas at Brahmdeo.

6.Ghaghara: Rises in Karnali, is of Himalayan origin and crosses the western part of the Nepal Himalayas and joins Ganga near Chapra (Bihar) as its left bank tributary. The Rapti joins Ghaghara's left bank at Barhaj.

7.Gandak: Rises near China, Nepal boundary and enters Champaran (Bihar) and joins the left bank of the Ganga at Sonepur.

8.Kosi: Rises in Nepal and joins the left bank of Ganga at Karagola near Bhagalpur. The rivers is notorious for shifting its course, leads to floods and hence known as the 'Sorrow of Bihar'

9.Damodar: Rises in the Palamu dist,

in Chota Nagpur plateau (Jharkand). It is better known as the 'Sorrow of Bengal' and joins the Bhagirathi, Hugly in West Bengal

10.Brahmaputra: Tsangpo, runs to the South along the eastern blank of Namcha Barwa and crosses the Assam Himalayas, under the name of Dhiang and enters Assam valley and called Brahmaputra.Tributaries are Subanshi, Bharati, Manas on the right bank and Dibang, Luhit BariDihing, Dhansiri, Kapili on the left bank, Drainage area: 3,40,000 km2 in India. In Bangladesh it is known as Meghna

11.Cauvery: Rises Brahmagiri range of Western Ghats (Coorg dist.) (Karnataka). Direction of flow: to Bay of Bengal ( East, South East); It is called 'Ganga Daksin'. Tributaries: on left bank: Ilemavati and Shinusha, Arkavati. On right bank: Kabani, Bhavani and Amaravati. Drainage area: 87,900km2

12.Krishna: Rises Near Mahabaleshwar, Western Ghats (Maharashtra). Direction of flow: flows through Satara and Dangli districts of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka and southern Andhra Pradesh, Tributaries: Kaya, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Tungbhadra. Drainage Area: 2,51,830km2

13.Godawari: Rises inTrimbak plateau near Nasik (Maharashtra) and flows eastward in the gorge upto Nasik town. Direction of flow: It drains eastern and south easternIt is the longest river in Indian Peninsula. Tributaries left bank Darna,

Penganga, Wardha, Wenganga, Indravati, Sabri, Pravara, Purna, Manpla, Maner, Pranhita. Right bank: Manjra.

14.Mahanadi: Rises in Dandkaranaya and Southern part Chhattisgarh. Direct on of flow: after flowing northwards, it receives Sheonath in bank a little above Sheonarayan. Tributaries Sheonath, Hasdeo, Mand on left bank and Jank, Ung Tel on right bank. Drainage area: 1,41,600km2

15.Narmada: Rses in Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh. Drainage area: 98,786 km2 Tributaries: Burhner Tawa, Sher, Dudli, Shakkar, Hiran, Tedoni, Brrna, Anjal, Machak, Kundi, Joi, Karyan. The famous wasrfall 'Dhuandhar' is on Nirmada River near Jabalpur. The river forms an Estuary at the mouth of the sea.

16.Tapti: Rses: in Multai (Betul dis) M.P (Satpura Range). Tributaries: Gomai, janjal, Arunavati. Left bank; Veghar, Girna, Puma, Pujhara. Drainage area 65,145m2

17.Luni Rises in Annasagar in Ajmer cst.(RajasJfian). Drainage are: 42,240km2 This river drains into Rann of Kutch. Tributaries Bandi, Sutri, and Jawai

18.Sabarmati: Rises in JaiSamand lake in Udaipur dist,(Rajasthan), Drainage area: 21,674km2 Tributaries Wakal, Harrow, Neshwa, Hathmati.

19.Subarnrekha: Rises: Interposed between Ganga and Mahanadi. Drainage area 19500km2

20.Mahi: Rises in Aravallis in Udaipur dist. Direction south southwest into the Gulf of Cambay

21.Pennar: Rises in Kolar dist (Karnataka). Direction flows through a gorge of Cuddappah and enters the sea near the city of Nellore.

22.Ken: Rises in Vindhyas in M.P. Direction flow northwards to join Yamuna.

Lakes and Lagoons- Largest fresh water lake in India Wular (Jammu and Kashmir)- Largest fresh water lake in Rajasthan Jaisamand- Largest lake in Rajasthan Sambhar- Asia's largest brackish water lake Chilka (orissa)Some important LakesPulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh,

Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh,

Loktak Lake Manipur,

Lonar Lake Maharashtra,

Nakki Lake Mount Abu (Rajasthan),Deedwana Lake Deedwana (Rajasthan),Panchbhadra Lake Rajasthan,

Dal Lake Srinagar (J and K),

Lingtzi Tang Jammu and Kashmir,Tso Murari Jammu and Kashmir,Govind Vallabh Gagar U.P,

Pichola Lake Rajasthan,

Sukhna Chandigarh,

Ashtamudi Kerala.

Sources of Irrigation- Mainly three types of sources are used for irrigation purposes in India. These are Wells (including tube wells),Tanks and Canals.- 55.68% of the total irrigated area is irrigated by Wells (Including tube well and pumping sets)-Canals irrigate about 32.04% of the total irrigated land- Tanks contribute 5.8%, and 6.47% is contributed by other sources.- Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of tube wells in the country.

Top 5 states using Tank irrigation Tamil NaduAndhra PradeshOrissaMaharashtraKerala

Top 5 states using Canal irrigation

Jammu and Kashmir: 94.3%Assam : 63.3%Haryana : 49.8%Orissa : 45.4%Karnataka : 41.3%

Top 5 states using Well irrigation GujaratUttar Pradesh Rajasthan Punjab Maharashtra

Total Irrigated land area under Canals (in ,000 Hectares)Uttar Pradesh : 3,075Madhya Pradesh : 1,796Andhra Pradesh : 1,539Rajasthan : 1,497

Haryana : 1,375

Total Irrigated land area under Tanks (in, 000 Hectares)Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Orissa West Bengal

Canals- Punjab and Haryana Upper Bari Doab (Ravi) Western Jamuna Canal (Jamuna)Sirhind Canal (Sutlej) Bhakra Canal (Bhakradam) Nangal Canal (Nangal dam) Upper Bari Doab (Jamuna) of Uttaranchal and Uttar PradeshLower Ganga Canal (Ganga) Upper Ganga Canal (Ganga) Eastern Jamuna Canal (Jamuna)Agra Canal (Jamuna) Sharda Canal (Sharda) (longest canal of U.P) Betwa Canal (Betwa) -BiharSon Canal (Son)Triveni (Triveni)-Madhya Pradesh and ChhattisgarhMahanadi Canal (Mahanadi) Waiganga Canal (Waiganga) Tandula Canal (Tandula) -Rajasthan: Indira Gandhi Canal (Satluj, Beas), Jawai Project (Jawai)- West Bengal Maymurakshi Project Kangabasti-Maharashtra: Pravara river Canal (Pravara) Nira Canal (Yelwandi) Mutha Canal (Mutha)- Andhra Pradesh Kurnool Cuddappah Canal Pochampad Project Kadam ProjectBukingham Canal Longest navigable canal in India. (Godawari Cauvery Delta) - Tamil Nadu Grand Anicut Canal Vadavar Canal Lower Bhawani Manimutthar Parambikulu Aliyar

- Orissa Taldanda Canal Hirakund Project- Kerala Periyar Project Malam Puzhar- Karnataka: Ghatprabha Valley Scheme Bhadra Project Malprabha Project- Gujarat Mahi project Kadana project Dantiwada Project Ukai Project

ClimateThe climate of India belongs to the 'Tropical monsoon type'. Although a sizeable part of the country lying north of the tropic of Cancer falls in the northern temperature zone but the shutting effects of the Himalayas and the existence of the Indian Ocean have played significant role in giving India a distinctive characteristics of Salient features of the Indian climate:1. Seasonal Reversal of windsWinter season Winds blow from NE to SWSummer season Winds blow from SW to NE2. Formation of Alternatively High and Low Pressure Areas over the land.Winter season due to low temperature conditions high pressure area is formed. Summer season Intense heating of the land leads to the formation of thermally induced low pressure cell over NW part of the country.3. Seasonal and Variable RainfallOver 80% of annual rainfall is obtained during the five month of the rainy season.There is variability in rainfall so far time and place are considered.There is considerable spatial variation in the general distribution of rainfall.4. Plurality of Seasons That is constantly changing weather conditions

5. Characterized by National Calamities.-The word 'Monsoon' is derived from the Arabic word 'Mausim' Monsoon is flow pattern of the general atmosphere circulation over a wide geographical area, in which there is a clearly dominant wind in one direction in every port of the region concerned, but in which this prevailing direction is reversed (or almost reversed) from winter to summer and from summer to winter."

Concepts of the origin of Monsoon1. Thermal concept: From Classical Theory of Hally (1686)- Generated by the differential seasoned heating of continental and oceanic areas. High pressure is developed over the continent (near Lake Baikal and Peshawar), where low pressure over southern Indian ocean. Therefore outflow of air from the high pressure land areas to the low pressure areas resulting into NE Monsoon

2. Aerological Concept - Given by a German Meterologist R. Seherhag (1948)According to him the changes in the direction of winds at all levels in the atmosphere are directly related to the temperature changes in the air above the friction layer.

3. Dynamic Concept-Propounded by Flohn (1951): Based on the dynamic origin of monsoons. According to him monsoon is the seasonal migration of planetary winds and presure belts following the sun. Over the land the annual temperature changes are relatively larger because of which the

seasonal shifts of temperature and pressure belts amount to many degrees. 4 Due to the shifting the major part of the Indian subcontinent comes under impact of Equatorial Westerlies. During winter due to southward shifting of pressure and wind belt (he planetary system of northeast trade winds is established over the region. Hence this theory explains the existence of monsoon not by the temperature, contrasts between land and sea, but by the annual migration of thermally produced planetary winds and pressure belts.

4. Recent Concepts (a) Jet StreamsJet streams are high altitude geostrophic winds (i.e. blowing parallel to equator) blowing between middle latitude at high speed in a meandering course.During winter season the upper air westerly jet streams are positioned in Asia. These are bifurcated in two branches due to Tibet Himalayan obstruction. North branch blows north of Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Southern branch blows south of the mighty mountainsThe southern branch inscribes an anticyclone (Clockwise) arc across Afghanistan followed by a cyclonic (Anticlockwise) are along the southern flank of the Himalayas. A high pressure system gets formed south of the jet stream over Afghanistan and NW Pakistan where air tends to subside leading to atmospheric stability and dry conditions there by causing NE winter monsoons. The jet stream helps disturbances in the NW of the subcontinent, which tend to

follow paths immediately beneath the jet stream. These disturbances move long the eastern Mediterranean and into NW India appearing here as waves rather then as well developed frontal cyclones.During summer season as sun falls vertically over the Tropic of Cancer the polar surface high pressure is weakened and upper air circum polar whirl shift northward as a result of which the upper air westerly jet are also withdrawn from southern slopes of the Himalayas.The removal of jet stream to north of the Tibetan plateau results in reversal of the curvature of How of free air to the north and north west of the subcontinent. This event may well be the trigger that sets off the 'burst' of the monsoon.

(b) Tibet Plateau4 In 1973, the Monsoon Expedition (MONEX) was organized under the joint auspices of the erstwhile Soviet Union and India. Experiments concluded that summer time heating of Tibetan Highland plays a dominant role in the origin of Monsoon circulation. 4 Due to its protected height Tibetan plateau receives 23°C more insolation than the neighboring areas. The plateau affects the atmosphere in two ways (a) as a mechanical barrier and (b) as a high level heat sources. Infact the plateau accentuates the northland displacement of the jet stream. 4 The summer time heating of the Tibetan Plateau makes it a high level heat source, which produces thermal anticyclone over this region, thereby weakening the western subtropical jet stream south of the Himalayas and

intensifying the move of S.W monsoon.

(c) Effect because of oceanEl Nino a warm ocean current appears along the Peru coast in December. It replaces the Peru or Humboldt Cold Ocean current flowing over this region during normal years. Under normal times the layer over the eastern Pacific is cool and shallow, while over the western Pacific it is warm and deep. Such conditions are helpful for strong southwest monsoons. The appearance of El Nino reverses the conditions (warm condition over eastern Pacific and cold in western Pacific). Since El Nino represents large atmospheric perturbations to which the ocean responds with warm of colder surface temperature, it lands to extreme events, such as drought, flood and poor monsoons. The Southern Oscillation is the name ascribed to a seesaw pattern of meteorological changes that are often observed between the Pacific, the pressures over the Indian Ocean tend to be low, and vice versa. The oscillation was discovered by Sir Gilber Walker and is therefore also known as "Walker circulation". The oscillation has a period varying from 27 years. The intensity of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the difference in sea level pressures of Tahiti and Port DarwinEl Nino Southern Oscillations

(d) The Somali Current: It is one of the few currents, which reverse its direction with the overlying wind. Summer Flows northward Winters Flows southward

Weather conditions

Cold Weather Season Southerly branch of the jet stream occupies its position south of the Himalayas, which is accompanied with the restoration of light northeast trade winds (monsoons) to the surface, withdrawal of the inter tropical convergence zone, formation of anti cyclonic cell over north western India and dry weather prevailing, over most of the areas in the country

 

Temperature conditions: General increase of temperature from North to South, Isotherms run almost parallel to the latitudes (in January the 21 °C isotherm runs through the middle of the country connecting Tapti estuary to the Mahanadi delta) in the east. West India Punjab, Haryana West U.P and Northern Rajasthan Less than 15°C.

 

In South India the isotherm, tend to bend southward and run parallel to the coast. The western coast is warmer than the eastern one by about LT C. This season is characterized by the inflow of depression from the west and the North West. These low pressure systems originate in West Asia near the Mediterranean Sea and are known as Western Disturbances. Their average frequency is four to five depressions per month and highly intensified Between December and February. (Rainfall due to these disturbances is highly helpful for RABI crops) Fine weather, clear skies, low

humidity, absence of rainfall, low temperature and a large diurnal variation in it are the usual features of the winter season.

-North East parts of India also get some rainfall during this season.A low pressure area occupies the northern parts of the Bay of Bengal during October, which moves southward and get deflecting towards, the coromandal coast thereby producing rains on this coast. The presence of inter tropical convergence and the easterly depression are responsible for these rains. Hot and Dry Weather is characterized by low pressure system high temperature, unstable pressure and wind circulation. -The dust storms of Punjab and Haryana, the Loos of UP, the Norwesters (Kalbaisakhis) of W. Bengal and cyclonic depressions of the eastern coast produce a stormy and turbulent weather.

-The rains caused by thunderstorm in Karnataka are called 'Cherry Blossoms'. These are beneficial for coffee plantation. Elsewhere in South India they are known as 'Mango Showers'- Dry and dusty westerly winds flow in the northern western parts of the country which make the outdoor life difficult are known as Loo. The Wet Season: The southern branch of the western jet is withdrawn from south of the Himalaya thereby leading to the formation of a dynamic depression over the surface thermal low. The ITC shifts northwards allowing equatorial westerlies to in the subcontinent.

- Indian subcontinent receives bulk of

its rainfall (around 80%) from the southwest- The Arabian Sea current causes rainfall all along the Western Coast, Western Ghats, Gujarat, Maharashtra, parts of M.P and Rajasthan.- While crossing the Sahyadris (Western Ghats), the monsoonal current produce heavy rainfall on the windward and scanty rainfall on the leeward side thereby producing a rain shadow area. The rainfall is also erratic on the leeward side, which results in frequent drought in Maharashtra and Karnataka

-The Tamil Nadu coast goes dry in this season.- The Arabian Sea branch meets the Bay of Bengal branch over ChhotaNagpur Plateau producing copious rainfall.-Absence of moutain barrier in Kutch, parallel position of the Aravalli, effect of the hot and dry air results in failure of Arabian Sea branch to produce adequate rainfall. The Bay of Bengal branch, obstructed by the eastern hill is deflected westward towards the Ganga Plain. Entrapped in the valleys of Meghalaya, the current produces very heavy rainfall [Cherapunji (1087cm) and Mawsynram (1141 cm)]

- The weather is also affected by a number of cyclonic depressions entering the country through the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. About 20 to 25 such depressions develop during monsoon period.- With the exception of J & K and Parts of Tamil Nadu, most of the country receives heavy rainfall.Season of Retreating Monsoon- South West begins to retreat from

the second or third week of September.

- Unlike the Sudden burst, the retreat is highly gradual. -The southerly branch of the jet stream returns to its winter position by October and this isaccompanied by the restoration of light North East trade winds to the surface.- Cloudiness and moisture are low except in the southern parts of the Peninsula.- It is this retreating monsoon which brings rain to the Tamil Nadu coast as North East Monsoon.

SOIL WEALTHThe Indian council of Agricultural Research has indentified eight main types of soil in the country.Soil cover in India (%)1.Alluvial Soil 43.42.RedSoil 18.63.BlackSoil 15.24.Lateritic Soil 12.25. OtherSoil 17.9

The main soil types are: ALLUVIAL SOIL: It covers 15 lakh Km2 SOIL WEALTHThe Indian council of Agricultural Research has indentified eight main types of soil in the country.Soil cover in India (%)1.Alluvial Soil 43.42.RedSoil 18.63.BlackSoil 15.24.Lateritic Soil 12.25. OtherSoil 17.9The main soil types are: ALLUVIAL SOIL: It covers 15 lakh Km2 of area.- Greater parts of Rajasthan, Punjab,

Haryana, U.P, parts of Assam, Orissa, W.Bengal, valleys of Narmada and Tapi- Depth of soil exceeds 600m below the ground surface- Divided into newer and older; finer and newer alluvium is called Khadar -Khadar is light coloured and is less kankary - Bhangar: older alluvium more clayey in composition and generally of dark colours; also becomes Alkaline and is called Bhurs;- Khadar soils are more sandy in composition that Bhangar soils1.The fertility of the soil is because of the following reasons: Lit is due to more mixing up the debris from the rocks of the Himalayas rather that the prevalence of nitrogenous matters or humus.2.These soils are composed of material drawn from different rocks and therefore contain a great variety of salts. 3.These soils are very fine grained, highly porous and light so that they are easily tilled and are therefore the best agricultural soils of the country.Crops: rice, sugarcane, tobacco, banana, cotton, wheat, jute, maize, oilseeds and vegetables.RED and YELLOW SOIL: It covers about 6.1 lakh km2 of area.- Western Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Chotanagpur plateau of Jharkhand. Scattered patches can be found in Birbhum (W.Bengal), Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda, Hamirpur (U.P), Udaipur, Chiltisgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara and Bhilwara dist. (Rajasthan)-The colour is mainly due to ferric oxides occuring as thin coatings on the

soil particles while the iron oxide occurs as haematite or as hydrous ferric oxide, the colour is red and when it occurs in the hydrate form as limonite the soil gets a yellow colour-These soils are poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and lime contents and are acidic like laterite.- Red soils develop generally on metamorphic rocks - It is sandier and less clayey- It is rich in potashBLACK OR REGUR SOILS: - It covers an area of 5,46,000 Km2

-Tracts in A.P, Maharashtra (Tapi, Godavri, Bhima and Krishna), Karnataka (Bijapur, Gulbarga, Bidar, Belgaum, Dharwar and Raichur), Gujarat (Surat, Bharuch, Vadodra), M.P (Narmada, Vindhya and Satpura plateau), Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan (Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar); U.P(Jalawn, Hamirpur, Banda and Jhansi) -The black colour is due to the presence of titaniferous magnetite compound of iron and aluminum silicate. It is also believed that black colour is due to admixture with humus on cultivation.-These are rich in iron, lime, calcium and magnesium carbonate and alumina. Black soils are poor phosphorous and nitrogen -The soil is clayey and fine texture with dark colour Crops: cotton, wheat, chilies, linseed, jawar, Virginia tobacco, castor, millets- It develop cracks in hot weather- Black soils are ideal for dry farming due to their moisture retentive quality.-It becomes sticky due to high percentage of clay and so difficult to plough.

 

LATERITIC SOILS:- It covers an area about 1.26 lakh km2

-Laterite is a typical soil of the tropical regions which receives heavy seasonal rainfall.- Iron and aluminum compounds dominate in its composition- It is found in W.Bengal (Midnapur, Burdwan, Birbhum and Bankura), Orissa (Cuttack and Ganjam), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Satara, Kolaba, Kanara dist.), Karnataka (Shimoga, Hasan, Kadur, Mysore), Kerala (Malabar) -The soils are generally poor in nitrogen, potassium and organic matters -Fertilizers are necessary -Cannot retain moisture while in plains they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily retain moistureCrops: rice, ragi, sugarcane, cashewnuts

SALINE OR ALKALINE SALTS:- It covers an area of 68,000 km2

- Tracts in Rann of Kutch, Sundarbanns, Bihar, UP, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra- It is known by different names: Thur, Reh, Kallar, Rakar, Usar, Kari and Chopan -Texturally they are sandy to loamy sand-Alkaline soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen- Peaty saline soils are called Kari in Kerala- Main salts: calcium, sodium and magnesium these soils can be reclaimed by providing good drainage applying lime or gypsum and cultivating salt resistant crops (like berseem, rice and sugarcane) -These soils are utilized in the cultivation of a

wide variety of crops like rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco etc.

MOUNTAIN SOILS: It is of three types a) Brown Forest Soils: height 900-1800m; rich in humus and are fertileb) Podzol: 1800m (height); thick coniferous forest, maize, wheat and orchids: phosphoric contentc)Alpine Meadow Soil: sandy loam-These soils are silty loam to loam in texture and dark brown in colour-These are found in hills of deccan, eastern ghats, western ghats, valley and hill slopes of Himalayas etc.-These are deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime

DESERT SOILS:- It covers an area of 14,200km2

- Tracts in Rajasthan, Haryana, south of Punjab, Thar desert occupies and area of 1,06,000 alone-Clay content is poor and is less than 8%-These are reddish brown- Sandy soils are called Bhur -Rich in phosphates and poor in nitrogen- Contains high content of soluble salts but low moisture content-The soil is sandy to gravelly -These soils may be reclaimed with the proper development of irrigation facilities For example, the Ganganagar district benefited by the Indira Gandhi Canal has become a leading producer of cereal and cotton.Crops: millets, jawar bajra jowar and coarse grains

PEATY AND MARSHY SOIL -These soils occur mainly in the western parts of Kottayam districts and parts (peaty) of Alappuzha dist. of Kerala -Soil are

black and heavy and highly acidic.-Highly saline, rich in organic matter but deficient in phosphate and potash. -Marshy soils are found in the coastal regions of Orissa, W.Bengal and Tamil Nadu; Central portion of North Bihar and in Almora district of Uttaranchal.-Marshy soils are the result of water logging anaerobic condition of the soils, and the presence of iron and varying amount of organic matter.

 

SOIL EROSION:

Factors influencing soil erosion RainfallSlope of topographyVegetationTillageNature of the soil Soil moisture Wind velocity

Causes of soil erosionDeforestationFaulty cultivation methodsShifting cultivationOvergrazingDiversion of natural drainage channels by railway embankments and roads Lack of proper surface drainageForest firesEffects of Soil Erosion Loss of top soil Harmful effects of erosion on organic matter and soil structure.Decline in soil capacity Depostion of sand and gravel on agricultural land Flooding of streams

Methods to check soil erosion a) Biological Measures Improving the existing surface cover Strip cropping Crop rotation Stubble mulching

Vegetative binding Using organic manures Other measures(checking overgrazing, reducing surplus cattle, stripping shifting cultivation and taking preventative measures against forest fires)b) Mechanical Measures: Contour tillage, Contour bunding ,Terracing, Constructing proper drainage channels and plugging the gullies, Basin lifting, Water harvesting, Scientific slope management.

Forest Cover (areawise Km2) 1.Madhya Pradesh 1,31,1952.Arunachal Pradesh 68,6023.0rissa 46,9414. Maharashtra 46,1435.Andhra Pradesh 43,2906.Karnataka 32,4037.Bihar 26,5248.Assam 23,8249.Jammu & Kashmir 20,44010.Mizoram 18,77511.Manipur 17,41812.Meghalaya 15,65713.Nagaland 14,22114Gujarat 12,57815.Himachal Pradesh 12,52116. Kerala 10,33417.Punjab 1,38718.Goa 1,25519.Haryana 1,604

Forest Cover (% of the total area)1. Mizoram 89.062.Nagaland 85.783.Arunachal Pradesh 81.924Manipur 78.045Meghalaya 69.806Goa 33.907.Assam 30.378 Orissa 30.159Madhya Pradesh 29.58lO.Kerala 26.59

11.Himachal Pradesh 22.4912.Karnataka 16.8913.Andhra Pradesh 15.7414.Bihar 15.2515. Maharashtra 14.9916Jammu & Kashmir 09.2017. Gujarat 06.4118.Punjab 02.7519. Haryana 01.37- Botanical survey of India (1890) Kolkata -Zoological survey of India (1916) Kolkata- Forest survey of India (1981) Dehradun. Its four zonal offices are located at Bangalore, Kolkata, Nagpur, Simla.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES-To preserve the genetic diversity in representative ecosystem- So far 13 Biosphere Reserve have been set up 1.NandaDevi: Uttaranchal 2.Nilgiris:Tamil Nadu Kerala, Karnataka3.Lokrek: Meghalaya 4.Great Nicobar: Nicobar Island5.Gulf of Mannar: Tamil Nadu 6.Manas: Assam 7.Sunderbans: West Bengal 8.Simlipal: Orissa 9,Dibru Daikhowa: Assam lO.Dehang Debang- Arunachal Pradesh11.Kanchenjunga: Sikkim 12.Agasthyamalai: Kerala - Three of them are recognized on world network of Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO Nilgiris, Sunderban, Gulf Of Mannar

WETLANDSJammu and Kashmir Wular, TsomurariHimachal Pradesh Chandratal , Pong dam, Renuka, Punjab Harike, Konili, Ropar Rajasthan Keoldeo. Sambhar, Pichola

Others: Gujarat Nalsarovar, Maharashtra Ujni, Kerala Ashtamudi, Vembanad, Sastham Kotta Chandigarh: Sukhna, Madhya Pradesh Bhoj, Bihar Kabar, West Bengal East Calcutta Wet land, Orissa Chilka, Gahirmatha, Andhra Pradesh Kolleru, Manipur Loktak, Tamil Nadu-Point Calimere

CORAL REEFSFour coral reefs have been indentified for conservation and management. These are: Gulf of Mannar (fringing reef) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (fringing reef)Lakshdweep Islands (atoll reef) Gulf of Kutch (platform reef)

MANGROVESSalt tolerant forest ecosystems found mainly in the tropical and sub tropical inter tidal regions of the world Northern Andaman and Nicobar Islands Sunderbans (W.Bengal) Bhitakanika (Orissa) Mahanadi delta (Orissa) Coringa Krishna estuary (Andhara Pradesh) Godavari delta (Andhara Pradesh)Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu] Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu) GoaGulf of Kachchh (Gujarat) Coondapur (Karnataka) Vembanad (Kerala) Achra Ratcagiri (Maharastra)

Multipurpose Projects

1. Bhakra Nangal Project- it is the largest in India on Sutlej River. It's a joint venture of Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan.- it has five purposes:Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal

Nangal hydel channelPowerhouse of 1,204 MWElectric transmissionBhakra canal system for irrigationBhakra Dam is near Roopnagar, Ropar dist. The dam is 226m in height, 518m in length, 312m in width; behind it is Govind Sagar Lake. Nangal Dam13 km from Bhakra dam, its height is 29m, length 305m, and width 121m.- Nangal Hydel Channel 64.4km long, 42.65m wide and 6.28m deep- Powerhouse of 1204 MW first near Gangunal. Second Kotla, third near Roopnagar and fourth and fifth near Bhakradam.- Bhakra canal 171 km long, maximum water at Haryana (46.7%), then Punjab (37.7% and then Rajasthan (15.6%)

 

2. Damodar Valley Project- Damodar is a tributary of Hughly river in Bengal and has four dams. It was setup on 19th Feb 1948 on the recommendation of W.L. Vordouin, the person who setup TVA in America. The four dams are: Tilaiya dam on Basakar River; started in 1950 and completed in 1953. Its length is 366m, and maximum width is 30m. It is the only concrete dam in the area. It has two power stations of 2,000 KW each.-Konar dam on Konar River is in Hazarihagh. 3549 m long, maximum height 49m, completed in 1955. It supplies electricity to Bokaro Steel Project. Maithan dam on the confluence of Basakar and Damodar Rivers, 994m long and maximum height is 49m, completed in 1958, capacity is 60 MW.-Panchet hill dam on Damodar river, completed in 1959, dam is 2545m long

and maximum height is 49m, generates 40MW. In addition, three more dams have not being completedBel, Pahari and Bokaro. Durgapur Barrage23km from Raniganj, stores irrigation water of 4 DVC dams, it is 83 lm long and 12m high.

3.Hirakud Dam: 61m high, 4801m long, on Mahandi rivers(orissa)- It is the largest dam in India and one of the largest dams of the world with the gross storage capacity of 8100 Million cubic meters.-Two more dams have been built on Mahanadi Tibrapar and Naraj

4. Kosi Project- It was started in 1955 with give objectives:IrrigationFlood controlPower generationLand reclamationFishing and Navigation- There are three units at this Kosi ProjectA barrage near Hanumannagar (Nepal), 1149m long 72m high, Constructed in 1965.Flood embankments, built 1959, 270km Eastern Kosi canal, 43.5km long, a powerhouse of 20 MW, has been installed, which is shared by both India and Nepal.

5. Rihand Valley Project -934m long. 92m high dam on river Rihand a tributary of Son), near Pipri in Mirzapur-Govind Ballabh PantSagar, is the largest map made reservoir in India.-One more project has been built at Ovea on Rihand River.

6. Chambal Valley Project

- It is a joint venture of M.P and Rajasthan started in 1954 on Chambal River (tributary of Yamuna)- In the first stage the dam was 64m high and 514m long, was called Gandhi Sagar Dam, it is in chaurasigarh near Bhanpura, built in 1960.- In the second stage, one more dam was built which was 54m high and 1143m long was named Ranapratap Masonry Dam. It is 56km from Rawatbhata.- In the third stage, the dam was 548m long and 45m high called Jawahar Sagar dam at Kota Dam, constructed in 1971.

7 . Tungbhadra Multipurpose Project- It is a joint venture of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh- The dam is 50m high and 2,441m long on Tungbhadra River (a tributary of Krishna)- It is built in Bellary dist. of Karnataka- There are canals on both sides of the dam.-There are three power stations here.

8. Gandak Project- Joint venture of Bihar and U.P- This project has 7.47m long and 9.81m high barrage at Bhansolotan in Valmikinagar in Bihar-The project was completed in 196667- Head Regulator is at Triveni -The barrage has four canal two each for India and Nepal

9. Narmada Valley Project- Narmada originates near Amarkantak Plateau (M.P)- It is the fifth largest river in India.-The project aims to have 29 major

and 3,000 small dams -The project was concieved in 194546.-The largest project is Sardar Sarovar Project has the capacity of 77 lakh hectare and will provide is irrigation to 17.92 lakh hectares in Gujarat. -Two power stations will produce 1,450 MW of hydroelectricity- Second major project is Narmada Sagar project started in 1984.

10. Nagaraiuna Sagar Project- Started in 195556, the dam is on Krishna River in Nalgonda dist- Its height is 124.7m and length is 1450m.- It has two canals Jawahar on the right and Lai Bahadur canal on the left- The powerhouse has two units, 50 MW each.

11. Vyas Project (BEAS)- It is a joint venture of Punjabi, Haryana and Rajasthan- It has two parts, Beas Sutlej link and Pong dam- Beas Sutlej is 61 m high and is in Pandoh (H.P), and Pong is 116m, high at Dhauladhar in Pong near Beas.

12.Ramganga Project- Ramganga is a tributary of Ganga- Aim of the project is to provide irrigation facilities to about 6 lakh hectares of land in western U.P, to supply 20 cusecs of drinking water to Delhi and to control the floods in western and central U.P- This project includes:A 625.8m long and 125.6m high earth and rock filled dam across the Ramganga river and a Saddle dam of height 75.6m across the Ghuisot steam near Kalagarh in dist of Garhwal Across the river a 546m long weir at

HereoliA feeder canal, 82km in length originating from Hereoli River Remodelling of 3388km of existing dam and 3880km long new branch canals A powerhouse on the river at its right bank with an installed capacity of 198 MW.

13. Mayurakshi Project- Mayurakshi is a tributary of the Hugh River- Purpose behind this project is four foldCreate irrigation potential Generate power Contral floods and Control erosion- A barrage is constructed across the Mayurakshi River at Tilpara.-Two irrigational canals are attached with the Tilpara barrage with total length of 1367 km and providing irrigation in West Bangal and Bihar 4,000 KW of electricity is supplied to Birbhum, Murshidabad and Santhal Pargana, which is generated by this project.

Multipurpose Projects

 

 14. Indira Gandhi Canal Project- It is the world's largest irrigation project to provide irrigation to semi arid and arid regions of Rajasthan.- Water from Pong barrage built over Beas River is being utilized.- Indira Gandhi canal once completed will provide irrigation to about 12.51akh hectares of land in Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Ganganagar dist of Rajasthan.- It has two stages, in the first stage construction of the Rajasthan feeder,

189 km long Rajasthan main and about 3,183km long distribution have been taken. The second stage comprises the construction of the remaining part of the Rajasthan main canal and 5,409km long distributaries.

 

15.Pochampad Project -This irrigation project is the second largest project in Andhra Pradesh.- It involve 812m in length and 43m of height masonry dam on the Godavari River in Adilabad district.-The storage capacity of the dam is 230.36 cross m3 -A canal of length 112.63km will provide irrigation facilities in Karimnagar and Adilabad districts

16. Tehri Dam Project- Alaknanda is the river on which this dam is being constructed in Tehri district of Uttranchal- Motives behind this project is to collect the flood water of the Bhagirathi and the Bhilangana rivers in a large reservoir behind the dam Hydroelectricity generation, To provide irrigation facilities to agricultural land in the westem U.P.-Tehri dam has a distinction of highest rock fill dam in the country-2,70,000 hectares of agricultural land in western U.P and Delhi with the supply of 300 cusecs is going to be facilitated by this project2,400 MW is the installed capacity of power generation A concrete dam at Kateshwar, 22km away from the Tehri dam will impound water released by the Tehri dam, from where another 400 MW of electricity will be

generated.

 

17.Farraka Barrage Project -River Navigation and to augment the water flow river is the main objective of this project. A barrage across the Ganga River, 2,240 in length to maintain 271akh cu sec of flood discharge60,000 cusec of floodwater flow to be maintained by a barrage across the Bhagirathi river length will be 213 m. A feeder canal 38.38km in length to divert 40,000 cusecs of water to Hugh River Providing infrastructure to develop river navigation and To build a rail cum road bridge to connect West Bengal with North East India.

18. Machkund Project-It is a joint venture of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa- A dam of height 54m and 410 m in length, has been constructed on Machkund river- Project includes a powerhouse with 115 MW as the installed capacity

19. Parambikulam Project-This Project is a joint venture of Kerala and Tamil nadu- Under this project 185 MW of electricity will be generated and 1.01 lakh hectare of land will be irrigated- Water of 8 small rivers would be utilised

20. Mahi Project- It is on Mahi River, which has its origin in Vindhyas in Dhardis of M.P.- Is stage 796 m in length and 21m of height dam is being constructed at Banakbori village. This stage also has 74km long canals to irrigate 1.86

hectares of land.- 2nd stage construction of a dam of 1,430m in length and 58 m high to irrigation 80,000 of area near kodana.- A generation of 40 MW of electricity with irrigation of 2.75 lakh hectares of land is going to be done by this project.

21. Kakrapara Project-Project is in Gujarat on Tapti River.-Project involves a dam 14 m high and 621m long- 2.27 lakh hectares of land will be irrigated with the help of two canals of 505 km and 837 km in length.

22. Koyna Project- In Maharashtra, on Koyna river- Project involves construction of a dam 250 m in height

23. Hansdev Bango Project- Project involves construction of a 85m high stone dam on Hansdev river in M.P-It will irrigate 3.28 lakh hectares of land and also be used for industrial purposes

24. Bargi Project- It is on river Bargi near Jabalpur in M.P.- It is a multipurpose project once completed will irrigate 2.45 lakh hectares of land. 25, Bhima Project- This project includes construction of two dams -One dam on river Pabna near Pune in Maharashtra, whichj will be 1,319 m long and 42m high.- Other dam with a length of 2467m and a height of 56.4m will be constructed on river Krishna in Sholapur district of Maharastra.

Some other Projects are:- Jayakwadi Project: on Godavri in Maharashtra.- Ukai Project: on River Tapti in Gujarat.- Puma Project: on River Puma in Maharashtra.- Periyar Project: on River Periyar in Kerala.- Saharawasi Hydel Project: near Jog water falls in Karnataka.- Tawa Project: on Tawa River. M.P.- Mata Teela Dam: on River Betwa, Jhansi; U.P, -Kunda Project: Tamil Nadu.- Sabrigiri Project: Kerala.- Balimela: Orissa.- Salal: on River Chenab- Kalindi: Karnataka- Idduki: Kerala- Bhadra: on River Bhadra, Karnataka.- Kukadi: Maharashtra- Naptha Jhakri: Himachal Pradesh.- Dulhasti: Jammu and Kashmir on river Chenab.- Girna: on river Girna, Maharashtra- Jawai Project: on River Jawai, Rajasthan- Jakham Project: Rajasthan- Parwati Project: River Parwati, Rajasthan- Orai Project: River Orai, Rajasthan- Singrauli Super Power Project: Uttar Pradesh

 

Hydroelectric Plants- AndhraPradesh: lower silent, upper Sileru, Machkund, Nizam, Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar, Shri Sailam (Krishna)- Bihar: Kosi-Gujarat: Ukai (Tapi), Kadana (Mahi)- Punjab and Himachal Pradesh: Bhakara Nangal on Satluj, Dchar on

Beas, Giri Bata, Andhra, Binwa, Rukti, Rongtong, Bhabanggar, Bassi, Baira Siul, Chamera, Nathpa Jhakri on Sutlej (biggest hydel power project in India)- Jharkhand: Subarnarekha, Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya (all three under DVC)- Karnataka: Tungbhadra, Sarawati, Kalinadi, Mahatma Gandhi (Jog fall), bhadra, ShivaSamudram(Kaveri), Shimasapur, Munirabad, Lingnamakki- Kerala: Idduki (Periyar), Sabrigiri, Kuttiaddy, Sholayar, Sengulam, Pallivasal, Kallada, Neriamangalam, Parambikulam Aliyar, Poringal, Ponniyar- Madhya Pradesh: Gandhi Sagar (Chambal), Pench, Bargi (Narmada), BansagarTons- Maharashtra: Koyana, Bhivpuri(Tata Hydroelectric works), Khopli, Bhola, Bhira, Purna, Vaiterna, Paithon, Bhatnagar Feed.- Orissa: Hirakund (Mahanadi), Balimela.- Rajasthan: Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar (Chambal)- Uttar Pradesh: Rihand, Khodri, Chibro (Tons).- Uttaranchal: Tehri Dam (Bhagirathi)-Tamil Nadu : Pykara, Mettur, Kodyar, Sholayar, Allayar. Sakarpathi, Moyar, Suruliyar, Papanasam.- West Bengal Panchet. -Jammu and Kashmir Lower Jhelum, Salal (Chenab), Pool Hasti ,and Karrah.-North Eastern States: Nagaland Dikhu, Doyang , Tripura Gomuti, Manipur Loktak, Assam Kopi, Meghalaya Khandong and Kyrdemkulai, Mizoram Selrui and Barabi, Arunachal Pradesh Ranganadi.

(TRANSPORT) Road Transport- India has one of the largest road networks in the world aggregating to

about 3.3 milion kilometres.-43.5% of the total roads is surfaced roads.- Roads are classified into six classes according to their importance:1.Golden Quadrangle Superways, 2. National Highways, 3. State Highways, 4. Border Roads, 5. Major District Roads 6. Rural Roads including other district roads.

- NATIONAL HIGHWAYS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (NHDP)Target to be completed by 2007Estimated cost of Rs. 54,000 Cr.Project being implemented by National Highways Authority Of India (NHAI) NHDP has two components:

 

1.Golden Quadrilateral comprises the National Highways connecting the four metro cities, viz. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The component has a total length of 5846km and is scheduled for substantial completion by December 2003.

2.The North South Corridor comprises the National highways connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari including KochiSalem spur and the East West Corridor comprises the National Highways connecting Silchar to Porbander.The project has a total length of about 7300km and is scheduled for completion by December 2007.-National Highways These are primary road systems, which are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). The total length of the National Highways is 57,700 km. 1 constitutes only two

percent of the total road length but carry 40% of the total road traffic. Some important National Highways are:NH 1 Delhi to Amritsar o NH 2 Delhi to Kolkata 2£y-NH 6 passes through Sambalpur, Raipur and Nagpur and is the second longest trunk route.- NH 7 passes through Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Madurai and is the longest one with the total length of 2369 km.

State Roads- Constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department.- Roads linking state capital with different district headquarters are state roads. -These roads constitute 5.6% of total length of all roads. Other Roads- These are classed as rural roads and interlink rural areas and village with towns.- More than 93% of the total roads belong to this class. Types Length (,000 km) All 2,465.9, Surfaced 1,394.1, National Highways 34.8, State Highways 137.1- Density of all roads (length of roads per 1000 sq. km of area)Lowest in Jammu and Kashmir (10 km)Highest in Kerala (375 km) National Average (75 km)- Density of metalled roads: National average (42.4 km) Goa has the highest density (153.8 km)Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest density (3.7 km)-Length of surface roads (statewise in descending order): MaharashtraUttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu

Kerala West Bengal-Length of unsurfaced roads (statewise in descending order): OrissaMadhya Pradesh Uttar PradeshMaharashtraAndhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Assam Bihar Rajasthan Karnataka West Bengal- Total Length of Roads (statewise in descending order): Maharashtra Orissa Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Kerala Karnataka Rajasthan Gujarat Bihar-Length of National Highways (statewise in descending order): Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Assam Bihar Tamil Nadu Karnataka West Bengal Orissa Gujarat

 

RAIL TRANSPORT- Indian Rail transport is largest in Asia and fourth largest in the world.-The first train was started in 1853 from Mumbai to Thane.-At present it covers the route of 62,759 km.- 12, 670 trains run everyday connecting 6,867 stations. -23% of the total route is electrified.-There are in all 16 railway zonesZONES HQsCentral -Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji T)Eastern- Kolkata

Northern- DelhiSouthern- ChennaiWestern- Mumbai (Churchgate)North East- GorakhpurN.E Frontier - Malegaon (Guwahati)South East- KolkataSouth Central -SecundrabadEast Coast -BhubneshwarEast Central- HajipurNorth Central - AllahabadNorth Eastern - JaipurSouth Western - BangaloreWest Central - JabalpurBilaspur - Bilaspur

Railways:

-Units manufacturing rolling stocks run by Indian Railways are:1.Chittaranjan locomotive works: Chittaranjan (W.Bengal).2.Diesel locomotive works: Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). 3.Integral Coach factory: Perambur (Tamil Nadu). 4.Rail Coach factory: Kapurthala (Punjab). 5. Wheel and Axle plant: Bangalore.6.Diesel Component works: Patiala (Punjab). Two other units are: 1.M/s Jessops (Kolkata), 2.BharatEarth Movers Ltd, (Bangalore)- Railway Track Density:

1.High Density (-25 km/ lOOOsq.km): Delhi, Punjab, Bihar, W. Bengal, Haryana, Assam, Chandigarh, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat2.Medium Density (1525 km/ 1000 sq.km): this covers the western part of the peninsula incorporating Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Rajasthan.

3.Low Density (515km/ 1000 sq.km):

eastern part of the peninsular India. Orissa and Madhya Pradesh (undulating topography, low population density and poor economic development have led to low density of rail network.).

4. Very Low Density (<5 km/ 1000 sq.km): Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Nagaland, and Tripura. The states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and UTs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Daman and Diu are devoid of rail lines.Besides the hilly regions of the north, Rajasthan desert (west of Jodhpur) , forested and hilly tracts of the North East and the tribal areas of the central India are other such low density areas.- Public UndertakingsFive undertakings that come under Ministry of Railways are:1. RITES: Rail India Technical and Economic Services Ltd.2. IRCO: Indian Railways Construction Company Ltd.3. IRFC: India Railway Finance Corporation Ltd.4. CONCOR: Container Corporation of India Ltd.5. CRIS: Centre for Railway Information System. Besides these five undertakings, Research, Design and Standard Organisation (RDSO) at Lucknow is the R&D wing of Indian Railways.

WATER TRANSPORT- Inland Waterways Cheapest means of transport. India has 14, 500 km of navigable waterways.The Inland Water Ways Authority of India was set up in 1986 for the regulation, maintenance and

development of National Waterways. There are three National waterways in the country: NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia -1620 km.NW : Sadiya to Dhubri (Brahmaputra) 891km. NW3TRottapuram to Kollam (west coast canal) 205km. -Apart from these three ten other waterways have been proposed.- Navigable. Waterways in length (in descending order) Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Assam Kerala Bihar

SEAWAYSThe vast coastline of India is about 7516 km.Over two million sq. km of Exclusive Economic ZoneIndia has 12 major ports and 184 minor and intermediate ports.-Major Ports in India:1. Mumbai:Natural harbour.Biggest port.Handles petroleum products and cargo.

2. Nhavasheva (J.L NEHRU):Off the Mumbai port.Developed to release pressure of the mumbai port. Highly mechanised.

3. Kandla (Gujarat)Developed to release pressure on Mumbai after partition and loss of Karachi.It is a tidal port.

4. Marmagao (Goa)Natural harbourExport handle iron ore, fish products, coconut and spices. Import handle fertilizers, chemicals, food articles etc.

 

5,New Mangalore (Karnataka): Caters to export of iron ore from Kudremukh Also handles fertilisers, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea etc

6. Cochin (Kerala) Handles crude petroleum and petroleum products along with raw materials and fetilizers Caters to the needs of south western Tamil Nadu, South Karnataka and Kerela

7. KolkataA riverine portIt is a tidal port and requires constant dredging of the Hooghly River.In order to maintain a minimum level of water to ensure its navigability, water is supplied from the Farrakka barrage on Ganga.

8. HaldiaConstructed to remove the congestion at Kolkata port It handles petroleum and its product, Engineering goods, Machines, Chemicals, Iron and Steel, Jute and Tea etc.

9. Paradip (Orissa)It handles coal and Iron ore

10. Vishakhapatnam (A.P)It is the deepest, landlocked and protected port,

11. ChennaiOne of the oldest and an artificial port on the east coast It handles Iron ore, Fertilizers, Petroleum and its produts and general cargo.Because of the shallow waters near the coast, it is suited for large ships.

12. Ennore (Tamil Nadu) Developed to minimize pressure on Chennai port.

13. Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) Deals with food grains, Edible oils, Sugar, Chemicals, Petroleum products and Coal.

 

AIR TRANSPORTAirport Authority of India (AAI) provides for safe efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication services in the India Air Space. The Authority manages 11 international and 112 domestic Airports.It also manages 28 passenger terminals at defense airfields. International Air Ports are:Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji International Air Port), Delhi (Indira Gandhi International Air Port), Kolkata (Subhash Chandra Bose), Chennai (Meenambakkam), Trivendrium (Thiruvananthpuram, Ahmedabad (Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Air Port), Cochin (Needumbassery I.A), Goa (Dabolim LA), Guwahati (Lokpriya Gopinath Bardoloi LA), Hyderabad (Rajiv Gandhi LA), Amritsar, Banglore. Civil Aviation Training College (Allahabad) provides training on various operational areas.National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) at Delhi is managed by AAI.Indira Gandhi Rastriya Udan Academy at Fursat Ganj in U.P is an autonomous body under Ministry of Civil Aviation. It imparts training to the parts.

BIRD SANCTUARYName-Bharatpur- Rajasthan

Nal Sarovar- GujaratKhijadiya - GujaratRatan Mahal- GujaratGhatprabha - KarnatakaAdichunchagiri -KarnatakaRanganthitoo - KarnatakaVettangudi -Tamil NaduPoint Calimere- Tamil NaduVedantangal - Tamil NaduPulicat- Andhra PradeshKolleru - Andhra PradeshNeelapattu-Andhra PradeshSultanpur- HaryanaChandraprabha- Uttar PradeshChilka- OrissaPakhiralaya - W.Bengal

 

NATIONAL PARKS- Jammu and Kashmir : Dachigam, Kishtwar, Hemis high altitude-Himachal Pradesh: Great Himalayan-Uttaranchal: Valley of flowers, Rajaji, Corbet, Nandadevi- Uttar Pradesh: Dudhwa- Rajasthan: Desert (Tihar), Sariska, Nahargarh, Keoldeo Ghana, Ranthambore- Madhya Pradesh: Panna, Satpura, Pench, Bandhavgarh, Kanha„Fossil- Chhattisgarh : Sanjay, Kangar valley.- Gujarat: Marine, Velvahar, Gir, Vansada-Goa: Bhagwan, Mahavir- Maharashtra: Sanjay Gandhi, Nawegaon, Tadoba, Indravati, Panch.- Karnataka: Bannerghata, Nagorhole, Bandipur -Kerala:Eravikulam, Periyar, Silent Valley- Tamil Nadu: Guindy -Orissa: Simlipal- Jharkhand: Palamu- Sikkim: Kanchenjunga, Neora valley,

Singalila- Assam: Kaziranga, Manas- Meghalaya: Balphakaran, Nokrek- Manipur: Sirohi, Keibul Lamjao- Arucachal Pradesh: Namdapha-Andaman and Nicobar: Saddle peak, Button, Mt. Harriett

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIESNames StatesRenuka -Himachal PradeshKinwat -MaharashtraBor -MaharashtraNagzira- MaharashtraRatnagiri- MaharashtraRanibennur- KarnatakaMudumalai - Tamil NaduAnnamalai - Tamil Nadu ,Mandanthruai - Tamil NaduKalakad -Tamil NaduKanwal -Andhra PradeshSrisailem- Andhra PradeshPocharam- Andhra PradeshEturnagaram -Andhra PradeshPakhal -Andhra PradeshNandankannan- OrissaLothian Islands- W. BengalParmadan- W. BengalSaznakhali -W. BengalBethuadhari- W. BengalHazaribagh- JharkhandJaldapara- W. BengalMahananda- W. BengalOrano -AssamSonai Bupai- AssamDampa -Mizoram

Some more facts:-Kaziranga in Assam is famous for one horn Rhinocerous-Periyar in Kerala is famous for Elephants-Sunderbans are well known for Bengal Tigers-Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat is the

habitat for Wild Ass Asiatic Lions are found in Gir forests-Siberian Cranes migrate to some of the wetlands in Northern India including those like Keoladeo Ghana in Rajasthan and other in U.P and Bihar -Hemis High Altitude is the largest national park in India -Madhya Pradesh is also known as Tiger state -Corbett was the first national park in India-Some important conventions and conferences for the conservation and protection of organisms have been held since 1970. Some are:- Man and Biosphere convention (UNESCO) 1970 -Ramsar (Iran) convention for wet lands and waterfowl habitat 1971-CITES for endangered species! 973- FAO for genetic resource material 1983- Rio convention by UNCED 1992- In India the Wild Life Protection Act came into force in 1972.- Some other projects to protect different species are Project tiger (1.4.1973) Girjion project (1972) Crocodile breeding project (1.4.1975)Rhinoceros project (1987) Snow leopard project (1988) Project elephant (1988) The Central Directorate of WildLife Preservation and the WildLife Institute of India, Dehradun are the nodal agencies initiating and monitoring the programs and projects concerning wildlife.

HUES OF INDIAN HUMAN GEOGRAPHYThe diversity that is found in India is hard to find anywhere else in this world. Whether it is physiograpic divisions or the different aspects of

India's population, India since time immemorial has been successful in evolving a unique distinction of its own on the world map. Here we have attempted to facilitate you with the colourful picture of India.

 

Racial Groups Of India

1 .Negroids: Structure: Negro race is characterised by; a) Short stature, b) dark, brown skin, c) wooly hair, d) Bulbous head, e) broad flat nose, f) protrusion of jaw.Today, they are found in Andaman Islands and also at Urali region of Nilgiris, Khadurs of Kochi, and Pulyans of Palni Hills. The Angami Nagas of north coast and Badgis of Rajmahal are very similar to Negros. They were probably the earliest arrivals into India.

2.Proto Australoids: They came after Negroids. Structure: a) black skin colour b) wavy to curly hair, c) broad and flat nose, d) fleshy and everted lips, e) proganthous jaws. They are mostly found in the hilly and forested tracts of central and southern India and tribal groups in India. Important tribes are: Veddhas, Malveddhas, Irulas, Santhal, Kol, Bhil, Kurumba, Munda, Kherwar, Malpahari, Chenchus, Malayan etc. The main difference between Proto Australoids and Negroids is that the latter don't have wavy hair.

3. Mongoloids: China and Mongolia is considered as their original homeland. Structure:a) broad head, b) high cheek bones, c)

long flat nose with little or no hair on the body, d) slanting eyes.In India, Mongoloids can be divided into two sub groups: - Paleo Mongoloids: These are further divided into a) broad headed and b) long headed. They are found in Assam Himalayas and Myanmar border. -Tibetan Mongoloids: Found in Sikkim, Bhutan and Trans Himalayan regions. The tribes of Mongoloid race are: Garo, Khasi, Lepchas, Jaintias, Chakmas, Daffla.

4. Mediterraneans: Structure: a)dark skinned b) long hair c) medium structured d)more body hair e) low skull and long chin.They were probably the chief architects of Indus valley civilisation. Dravidians are Mediterranean

5.Brachycephals: They are broad headedThey are of three types a) Alpinoids: are found in Baluchistan, Sindh, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu,b) Dinarics: in Ganga valley,c) Armenoids: are found in Chitral, Gilgit, Kashmir and Nepal.In India Coorg, Parsis and Kayasthas of Bengal are Brachycephals.6.Nordics: They came latest and spoke Aryan language.

- Scheduled Tribes of India: Angamis -NagalandAo - NagalandApatani – Arunachal PradeshBadagas -Niligiris (T.N)Baiga - Madhya PradeshBakkarwals- J & KBhils - M. P and RajasthanBhotias- Uttranchal

Bhuia- M. PBirhars - Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and OrissaChenchus-Andhra PradeshGaddis - Himachal PradeshGaro - MeghalayaGonds - M. PGujjars - J&K, H. PIrula - Tamil NaduJaintias - Meghalaya and AssamJarawas- Andaman and Nicobar Is,Kanikar- Tamil NaduKatkari- M. PKharia- M. PKhasa -UttaranchalKhasis -MeghalayaKhonds -OrissaKol -M. P, MaharashtraKolam- Andhra PradeshKolas -Tamil NaduKuki- ManipurLahaulas- Himachal PradeshLepchas- SikkimLushai -MizoramMurias- M. P and ChhattisgarhMikirs - AssamMoplas- KeralaMunda -Jharkhand, W. BengalNaga- NagalandOraon- JharkhandOnge- Andaman and Nicobar Is.Sabra- M.PSanthal -JharkhandSema- NagalandSentinelese- Andman and Nicobar Is.Shompens – Andman and Nicobar Is.Todas - Tamil NaduUralis - KeralaVarlis - MaharashtraYurva - Tamil Nadu

Scheduled Castes- In 1991 there were 138 million persons constituting 16.48% of India's total population under the category of

scheduled castes.- Top 5 states with highest population of Scheduled castes (% of India's total SCs population)Uttar Pradesh ...21.18West Bengal ...11.60Bihar ...9.09Tamil Nadu ...7.75Andhra Pradesh ...7.65-Territories of Lakshdweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands do not have Scheduled Castes population.

Population-Total population of India (as on March 1st 2001) 1,027 million. Males (531.3 million), Females (495.7 million)- India supports 16.7% of the total world's population.- India's 'Decadal Growth' of population (19912001) = 21.34% (Inter census period 1961-1971 marked the maximum decadal growth of population at 24.8%). - Statewise lowest decadal growth rate of population is shown by Kerala (9.42%) and highest has been registered that of Nagaland (64.41%).- The percent decadal growth rate has declined during the census decade 19912001 as compared to the previous census decade i.e. 1981-1991.- Among the states/UT's which have not shown any decline in their percentage decadal growth rate during intercensal period of 19912001 as compared to previous census decade are: Harayana, U.P. Bihar, Sikkim, Nagaland, Manipur, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, Dadar and Nagar Haweli. -Decadal Growth (1991 2001) - Population density in 2001 is 324 persons/sq.km.

Most Densely Populated (in descending order): West Bengal Bihar Kerala U. P Punjab Tamil Nadu Haryana Goa Assam Jharkhand Maharashtra Tripura Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Gujarat Orissa Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Chhattisgarh Nagaland Himachal Pradesh Manipur Meghalaya Jammu and Kashmir Sikkim Mizoram Arunachal Pradesh

- Density of Population (North Eastern state)

Assam Tripura Nagaland ManipurMeghalayaSikkimMizoramArunachal Pradesh

- Percentage of state's population to the total population of India. Uttar Pradesh 16.17 Maharashtra 9.42 Bihar 8.07 West Bengal 7.81,Andhra Pradesh 7.37Tamil Nadu 6.05Madhya Pradesh 5.88Rajasthan 5.20Karnataka 5.14Gujarat 4.93Orissa 3.57Kerala 3.10Jharkhand 2.62Assam 2.59Punjab 2.37Haryana 2.05Chhattisgarh 2.03Delhi 1.34J and K 0.98Uttaranchal 0.83

Himachal P. 0.59Tripura 0.31Manipur 0.23Meghalaya 0.22Nagaland 0.19Goa 0.13Arunachal P. 0.11Pondicherry 0.09Chandigarh 0.09Mizoram 0.09Sikkim 0.05Andaman andNicobar Islands 0.03Dadar and Nagar Haveli 0.02Daman and Diu 0.02Lakshdweep 0.01

- State wise population (North eastern states) Assam Tripura Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Sikkim

- Most Populated Districts: Midnapore (West Bengal) 24 Parganas (West Bengal) MumbaiThane Pune

-Least populated Districts: Mahe (Pondicherry) Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) LahulSpiti (HP) Upper Siang (Arunachal Pradesh) Yanam (Pondicherry)

- Salient features of Indian Demography1. Population too large for area2. Overwhelming proportion of rural population3. Ethnic diversity4. Lopsided age structure

-Causes of Rapid Growth of Population1. High birth rate and declining death rate

2. Near universal incidence of marriage3. Early marriage of girls4. Economic backwardness5. Want of male child6. Climatic factor (tropical climate leads to early puberty)7. Conservative social institutions lead to early marriages of women

- India's population growth during the 20th century can be chartered into four distinct phases:1. 1901 -1921: Stagnant Population2. 1921-1951: Steady Growth 3. 1951-1981: Rapid Growth 4. 1981-2001: High Growth with definite signs of slowing down

- Million plus Cities in IndiaCity Population (in m)Greater Mumbai ...16.37Kolkata ...13.22Delhi ...12.79Chennai ... 6.42Bangalore ... 5.69Hyderabad ...5.53Ahmadabad ...4.52

SettlementsSpecial Attributes of villages (1991):1. Number of Villages (state wise in decreasing order) Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Bihar Orissa Maharashtra West Bengal Rajasthan2. Rural Population (State wise in decreasing order) Uttar Pradesh Bihar Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil NaduOther places satisfying all the three under mentioned conditions:

-Town1. Population greater than 50002. Having at least 75% of the male working population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits3. The density of population exceeds 400 per square km. -All towns and urban agglomerations are grouped into six classes according to population size.Urban centres with less than one lakh is called a town

- City Urban centres with population of more than one lakh.

-Metropolitian Cities Cities accommodating population between one to five million

- Mega Cities Cities with more than ten million population.

-Urban Agglomeration An urban agglomeration may consists of:A town and its adjoining outgrowth, Two or more contiguous turns with or without their outer growthA city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous pattern.

-Conurbation: An Urban reason consisting of huge Metropolis and a number of small towns

- Phases of Urbanization:1. Period of slow Urbanisation 1901-19312. Period of medium Urbanisation 1931-19613. Period of rapid Urbanisation 1961 onwards

What is Urbanization? The term

urban is referred to towns of cities having marked secondary and tertiary functions along with municipality or notified area committee.[ Urbanization on the other hand a process of population increase in urban areas.

Urban Regions of India:Year Population residing in Urban Areas.1901 10.9%1941 14.1%1951 17.6%1961 18.3%1971 20.21%1981 23.7%1991 26.0% Entire urban regions of India can be divided into six zones Regional Urban Geography

Himachal Pradesh: total urban population is 74,44,824.It has 55 urban centres smallest is Naina Devi (500), largest is Shimla (1,09,840). Chamba is most dense (4,000 people/sq. km.; least dense is Narkanda (300). only 10% of total population resides in urban areas, important urban centres are: Shabatha, Dagshai, Jutosh, Kassanti, Solan, Yole, Dalhousie etc.Chamba is situated on Ravi and Kullu Manali on Beas. Shimla is at the altitude of 2205 m.In 1861, it was made the summer capital of India.

Madhya Pradesh: has 433 towns and 15 million people live in urban areas which is 15% ofthe total population of M.P. important cities are Indore (it is the best and most well planned city and has 10,86,000 people), Bhopal (10,63,000), third is Jabalpur (88,000),

Murwara, Mahalda, Balaghat, Narsinghpur, Ambikapur, Umaria, Kaimur (all these are mining and industrial towns and cities). Chhattisgarh:Most important city is Raipur, Bhilai, Rajhara and Nandini. There are some planned cities like Panchsheel Nagar, Shankar Nagar.

Maharashtra:Total population 40 million; 4 crore live in urban areas i.e. 25% of the total population; it has 291 urban centres; earliest towns are Paithan, JunnarKarad, Deogiri. Market towns are Sholapur and Barsi (Bhima Valley), Satara in Krishna Valley, Nandurbar, Bhulia (Tapti Valley). towns during MarathasSangli, Kurundwad, Miraj, Ichalkaranji, Phattan, Bhor, Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Pune, Mumbai.Greater Mumbai has largest population (1 crore,26 lakh) than Kalyan, Thane, Udhampur, Navi Mumbai.

Orissa:42 lakh population in urban areas.Has 119 urban centers & 1011 % people live in urban areas.Important industrial towns Rourkela (Sundargarh dist.), Hirakud (Sambalpur dist.), Balagir.Mining towns areDhenkanal, Kyonjhar and Mayurbhanj.Historical townsBhubneshwar, Cuttack and Konark. Commercial towns Sonpur, Besllanguntha, Jharsuguda, Kalahandi and Korapat.

Tamil Nadu:260 urban centres, 190 million population in urban areas, important towns are centred around Nilgiri &

Vellore, Salem and Chennai (54 lakhs).

Gujarat:14 million urban areas, 225 urban centres.Important centres are Vadodra, Rajghat, Jamnagar, Bhavnagar, Ahemdabad & Surat.Port city is Kandala. Religious centres are Dakor, Dwarka & Somnath. Gandhinagar is on Sabarmati river.

Karnataka:254 urban centre, 14 million people.Oldest towns: Vatapi, Pampapur, Gokhran, Singeri, talakad, Halebid, Bilm.Fort towns: Belgaun, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Kalyani Jalikot, Devanbali, Parvada, Shinaripur, Hosadwarja. industrial towns: Mandya, Godag, Jainagar, Gandhingar. Banglore has 41 lakh people.

Andhra Pradesh: 18 millions in urban areas, 213 urban centres, historical cities are Kurnool, Mothagudam, Sirpur, Mancheriyal etc.Hyderabad is the largest urban centre (40 lakh), then Vizag. Uttar Pradesh: 28 million, 702 urban centres; highly urbanized sector is Yamunapur (30.4%). Kanpur has largest population (19.62 lakh), Lucknow (15.92 lakh), then Varanasi (9.29 lakhs), then Agra, Allahabad and then Meerut.

Punjab:60 lakh in urban, 119 urban areas, 30% population in urban areas.Ambala is highest urbanized, then Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jallandhar, Patiala, then Gurudaspur.

Rajasthan:

10 million in urban areas, 214 urban areas; Largest population in Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner, Ajmer, Udaipur, Alwar, Bhilwara, Ganganagar

Jammu and Kashmir: 49 urban centres, 23.89% of population in urban areas. Anantnag, Baramula, Sopor in Srinagar Valley; Mirpur, Udhampur, Poonch and Leh are also urban areas.

West Bengal: 27.39% in urban areas, 19 million, 160 urban centres.

Manipur: 27% in urban areas, 30 urban centres; Imphal is largest.

Assam: 221 urban centres, 25 lakh in urban centres.

Analysis:Class V 2.6%; 735 towns. Class VI 0.30%; 196 towns. India has 35 such cities whose population is more than 10 lakh or 1 million. Western India is more urbanized than Eastern India. Southern India is more urbanised than Northern India.

Energy resources

► Oil pipelines 7.5 thousand km. in India;first pipeline was laid in Assam in Nunmati to Barauni, 1167 km., now extended to Kanpur; second in Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura in U.P., 12.56 km. , it is being extended to Panipat and Jalandhar and finally to Koyali in Gujarat; third is Mumbai to Pune; fourth is from Rajbandh to Maurigram in W.Bengal; HEP: Tamil Nadu: Mettur, Pykara,

Papnasham, Kadamparai, Pandiyar, Kodayar, Kundah and Periyar projects. Punjab: Bhakra dam, Ganguwal and Kotla projects on Sutlej river, Pong dam on Vyas, U.P.: Bahadurabad, Mohammadpur Chitura, Salwa, Bhola, Plara, Sumera, Sardar Sarovar, Ramganta, Matatila dam near Jhansi on Betwa, Rihand project on R. Rihand. Kerala, 100% electricity is generated through hydro electric projects Idukki, Kuttyadi, Sabargiri, Sholayar, Manantvadi, Chalkudi, Puyankutti, lower Periyar, Pallinsal. Maharashtra: Lonavala grid (which has 3 powerhouse is in Khopoli, in Vjbhpuri and third in Bhira, Konya project (tributary of Krishna), Puma, Vaitarna.In Orissa are Hirakund, Bhimakund, Rengali and In Himachal Pradesh Mandi project in Jogindernagar, Pando project on Vyas river. In J&K Chenab, Sind, Jhelum and Salal projects.

► Thermal Power: Maharashtra Chola and Trombay, Kolhapur Diesel Turbine, Uran Gas Turbine, Chandelpur, Bhusawal, Khaparkheda, Dhabol and Ujjahi.In Gujarat: Banas, Gandhinagar, Kuchchh, Sabarmati, Wanakbori, Kawas, Sikka, Malwa, Uttran, Shahpur, Porbandar, Kandla,Ahmedabad, Dhuvaran.In U.P. are Obra in Mirzapur, Harduaganj at Aligarh, Renusagar, Rosa, Jawaharpur, Unchahar, Rihand, Kanpur, Mau in Ajamgarh, Gorakhpur, Dohrighat, Moradabad, Tundla and Bahraich.West Bengal Bundel, Calcutta, Durgapur, Murshidabad, Kalaghat, Titagarh, Mejia, Santhaldih.MP/Chhattisgarh: Korka in Bilaspur,

Bishrampur, Vindhyachal, Busingpur, Badhghat, BALCO pinch, Satpura.T.N.: Neyvelli, Mettur, Ennore. Andhra Pradesh: Ramgudam, Kothagudam, Nellore, Vijayavada, Bhodrachalam and Manuguru.In Bihar are Muzaffarpur, Barauni, Tenughat and Bokaro. Punjab: Bhatinda and Rupnagar; in Haryana Panipat, Faridabad and Yamunanagar. Rajasthan: Kota, Palna, Sawai Madhopur and Banswara. Karnataka: Raichur; Assam Namrup, Bonaigaon and Chandrapur; Orissa Talchar; Delhi Badarpur, Indraprastha and Rajghat. In NonConventional Energy Sources: In India, solar energy was commercialized in 1983. In India, solar energy is generated @ 20 M.W. per mt. per year.

► Thar deserts has been declared as the biggest powerhouse of the earth by 2010 generating 10,000 m.w

► The first two projects of 100 kw. have been started in Kalyanpur and Saraisadi in Mau of U.P. and in Gurgaon (Haryana).

Wave Energy: Largest in Vinzingzam in Tiruvanantpuram in Kerala, then in Andaman Nicobar.

Atomic Power Plants1. Tarapur-Maharashtra - Atomic Power Plant, in India based on U.S. Design 2.Rawatbhata Rajasthan. Based on Canadian design 3,Kalpakkam TamilNadu only Atomic

Power Plant located in coal rich region 4.Narora Uttar Pradesh only Atomic Power Plant used for Agricultural Purpose. 5. Kakrapara Gujarat 6.Kaiga Karnataka 7.Kudankulam Tamil Nadu (Fuel Supplied by Russia) More on Power of The breakup of Electricity generation through different sources is as follows:

Thermal 82.0 %Hydroelectric 14.9%Nuclear Power 3.4%

- Region wise domination of sources of power is as follows:HYDROELECTRICITYKarnataka Meghalaya Kerala Nagaland Himachal P. Tripura J and K SikkimTHERMAL POWERDelhi Jharkhand Haryana Chhattisgarh Punjab M.P. Assam Gujarat W. B U.P. Bihar MaharashtraNUCLEAR POWER Rajasthan (This state being deficient in both coal and waterhead, Nuclear energy contributes around 54% of its total commercial energy) Nuclear Power: Atomic energy Institute was established at Trombay in 1954.It was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre' (BARC) in 1967. At present production of nuclear energy is facilitated by ten units located at six centres:Tarapur (Maharashtra)Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)Kalpakkam (T.N)Narora (U.P)Kakrapara (Gujarat)Kaiga (Karnataka)Nuclear electricity

Nuclear Power Plant- Year of

Completion- Capacity (M.W.)Tarapur- 1969 -320Ranapratap Sagar in Kota- 1972, 1980- 440Kalpakkam nearChemul -1984, 1986 -470Narora near Bulandshahar- 1989, 1991 -440Kakrapara in Gujarat- 1992- 220.

Mineral Resources► The Geological Survey of India is working since 1851 and has taken considerable interest in locating and harnessing mineral resources.The Indian Bureau of mines is at Nagpur.► Statewise production of minerals in India:MP / ChhattisgarhJharkhandGujaratMaharashtraAndhra PradeshOrissaAssamRajasthanUP/UttaranchalW. BengalTamil NaduKarnatakaKerala► India is deficient in the following minerals: Silver, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Mercury, Gold, Tungsten, Platinum, Graphite, Asphalt, Potash, Sulphur, Cadmium, Bismuth, Molybdenum and Petroleum.► Mineral belts in India: Chota Nagpur BeltMidland Belt (Chhattisgarh, MP, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra)Southern Belt (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu)Western Belt ( Rajasthan, Gujarat and

Maharashtra) South Western Belt (Karnataka, Goa and Kerala) Himalayan Belt (valuable minerals in pockets and vaults of 'stratic faults')The Indian Ocean (manganese nodules, phosphorite nodules, and barium sulphate concretions). Phosphorite nodules are mainly found near the Andaman Is. The Arabian Sea is richer in phosphate than the Bay of Bengal.► The new mineral policy came in 1993. Under the new policy the need was felt to liberalize the mineral sector and open it for the private investors to promote better mineral development.

Iron Ore► India produces four types of iron ores Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite and Siderite.► Total iron ore reserves2,158.3 crore tonnes.► Largest reserves Jharkhand, Orissa, Karnataka, MP/ Chhattisgarh, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu.► Statewise production of iron ore: MP/Chhattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.► Areas:1.Jharkhand: Noamundi and Gua mines and other areas in Sighbhum, near Daltonganj in Plamau. Also found in Ranchi, Dhanbad, Hazaribagh and Santhal Pargana Districts. 2.Karnataka Bellary, Chitradurga, (Bababudan hills) Chikmaglur, Bijapur, Dharwad, Tumkur, Uttar Kannada, Dakshin Kannad and Shimoga. 3.0rissa:Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and Sundargarh. 4.Andhra Pradesh: Anantpur, Khammam, Krishna, Kurnool,

Cuddapah.and Nellore. 5.Maharashtra: Chandrapur and Ratnagiri. Also in Bhandara.6.Rajasthan: Bhilwara, Udaipur and Jhunjhunu.7.Tamil Nadu: Salem, North Arcot, Nilgiris and Dharmapuri.8.Other areas: Gujarat (Junagarh, Bhavnagar and Vadodara); Haryana (Mahendergarh); J&K(Rajauri, Jammu and Udhampur); Damiida series of Jharkhand and W. Bengal; Uttaranchal (Garhwal and Nainital); UP (Mirzapur and Sonbhadra); H.P.(Kangra and Mandi).

Manganese► Occurs mainly in the Dharwar system of rocks.► Pyrolusite is the main ore.► India is the third largest producer after Russia and Ghana. ► Distribution of ore (statewise): Karnataka, Orissa, MP/Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Jharkhand.► Statewise production: Orissa, Karnataka, MP/Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Bihar/ Jharkhand.► Areas:Orissa: Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.Karnataka: Bellary, Uttar Kannad, Shimoga, Tumkur, and BelgaumMP: Balaghat, Chhindwara, Jabalpur and Jhabua. The belt is the continuation of the Nagpur Bhandara belt. Maharashtra: Nagpur Bhandara Belt and Ratnagiri. Andhra Pradesh: Associated with Khondalite rocks. Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam.Jharkhand: Birmitrapur near Chaibasa,

Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Gaya and Munger.Gujarat: Vadodra, Panchmahal, Banaskantha and Sabarkantha.Rajasthan: Banswara and Udaipur.W. Bengal: Medinapur.

Bauxite:► Ore of aluminum metal.► Used in aeroplanes, automobiles, electrical.► Chief places: Amarkantak plateau comprising Sarguja, Raigarh.and Bilaspur, Maikal Range including Shahdol, Durg and Balaghat and Katni and Jabalpur in M.P; Ranchi, Palamau, Lohardaga and Muri (Jharkhand); Ratnagiri, Thane, Satara, Kolhapur in Maharashtra; Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Amreli and Jamnagar (Gujarat), Kalahandi and Koraput (Orrisa).Two types of Bauxite: one found at Panchpatmali (largest) second found at Gandhamardan.► Largest reserves: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bihar, Jharkhand.► Largest producers: Orrisa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P. Chhattisgarh. Lead► It occurs in the pre Cambrian rocks and the Vindhayan sediments.► Rajasthan produces about 80% of the countries total production.Mainly from the Zawar region of Udaipur. Other areas in Rajasthan include RajpuraDariba area of Bhilwara and Aimer, Alwar, Banswara and Sawai Madhopur.► Orrisa: Sambalpur, Kalahandi, and Sundargarh.► Andhra Pradesh: Cuddapah, Guntur, Kurnool andNalgonda.► Largest producers : Rajasthan, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Sikkim.

Zinc► Chief ore: Sphalerite (ZnS)► Largely used for galvanizing or coating iron and steel► Zawar in Udaipur(Rajasthan) is the main area . This area has two main zones of mineralization:(1) Pipli Khan to Barla Khan;(2) Mochia Magra, Balaria.► Bhilwara, Ajmer, Alwar and Sawai Madhopur areas of Rajasthan, Bhotang of Sikkim, Riasi of J&K and Almora and Tehri Garhwal of Uttaranchal also produces Zinc.► Rajasthan and Sikkim are the largest producers.► India imports zinc concentrates from Australia, Peru Mexico, Canada, Russia and Zaire.

Copper Ore► Mosabani and Rakha in Singhbhum district (Jharkhand).► Rangpo (Sikkim) and Gharwal district (UP).► Khetri Belt (Aravalli Range) in Jhunjhunu, the Kho Dariba near Alwar, Delwara and Debari of Udaipur and the sikar district of Rajasthan.► Agnigundala (Guntur), A.P.► Malanjkhand (Balaghat) M.P.► MP (36%), Rajasthan (35.4%) and Bihar (27%).► Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) incorporated in 1967 as a public sector enterprise, is the leading producer of primary copper in the country.At present, it has four main units (1) Khetri copper complex in Rajasthan, (2) Indian Copper Complex in Jharkhand, (3) Malajhkhand Copper project in Madhya Pradesh and (4) Taloja Copper Project in Maharashtra.

Limestone► (CaCo3), it is either composed of calcium carbonate or double carbonate of calcium and magnesium.► M.P. is the largest producer (25%).► Limestone is mainly used in cement industry.► In M.P. areas are Jabalpur, Bilaspur, Betul, Raigarh, Raipur, Damoh, Durg, Sagar and Rewa.► Second is Andhra pradesh (18%), Cuddappah, Kurnool, Guntur, Krishna, Nalgonda, Adilabad, Warangal, Mahboobnagar.► Third is Rajasthan (10.5%): Jhunjhunu, Banshara, Bundi, Jodhpur, Sirohi, Ajmer, Bikaner, Kota, Tonk, Alwar, Dungarpur, Sawai Madhopur, Chittor, Pali, Nagaur and Udaipur.► Fourth is Gujarat (9.5%), Kutch, Surat, Kheda, Junagarh and Panchmahal.► Fifth is Karnataka (9%), Gulbarga, Chitradurg, Tumkur, Mysore, Shimoga, Bijapur, Belgam.► In addition are Sikkim (8%), Maharashtra (7.8%) (Chandrapur, Nanded and Ahmadnagar), Orissa (2.5%) Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Kalahandi.

Dolomite► Limestone with 10% more magnesium is called dolomite► It is mostly used in fertilizer industry.► Largest producer is Orissa (48.43%): Birmitrapur, Sundargarh, Koraput, Sambalpur, Gangapur (Sukra).► Second is M.P. (21%), Balaghat, Bastar, Bilaspur, Durg, Chhindwara, Hoshangabad, Jabalpur and Jhabua.► Third is Gujarat (14%), Bhavnagar and Vadodra dist.► Fourth is Bihar (5.85%), Chaibasa,

Banjari in Rohtas and Palamu.

Magnesite► Its an alternative produce of deunite (or peridotite).► Tamil Nadu is the largest producer: chalk hills near Salem, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, north Arcot, Nilgiri, Periyar;► Second is Karnataka: Hassan, Mysore and Kodagu.► Third is Rajasthan: Ajmer, Udaipur, Pali.► Fourth is Uttaranchal: Almora; fifth is Himachal Pradesh: Chamba; sixth is J&K: Udhampur.

Kyanite► It occurs in metamorphic aluminous rocks.► Largest producer is Bihar (55%), Lapsaaburu, Kharsawan, Ghagidih, Badia, Bakra, Mohanpur, Jagannathpur, Bhakar, Hathiland, Singpura, Dauntauri, Padampur.► Second is Maharashtra (41%) Bhandara andNagpur;► Third is Karnataka (2.9%), Chikmaglur, Chitradurg, Mandya, Mysore, Dakshin Kannada, Shimoga.

Sillimanite► Largest producer is Karnataka, Hassan, Mysore, Dakshin Kannada.► Second is Maharashtra, Bhandara.► Third is Meghalaya, Khasi hills; fourth is Orissa, Ganjam. Gypsum► Jamsar near Bikaner richest 28% of total.► Also found at Sermur (H.P), Uri (J&K).► 9/10th produce Rajasthan.► Important consumer of Gypsum is Cement industry.

Phosphate

► India is poor in phosphate minerals, viz. apatite and rock phosphate.► Apatite deposits are located in Singhbhum and Vishakapatnam dist., West Bengal.► Recently it has been found at Udaipur (Rajasthan)► Rock phosphate: Jhabua (M.P.), Jaisalmer, Nainital.► Tunisia and Jordan are the leading suppliers.► Rajasthan produces 65.4%, and U.P.20.2%.

Common Salt► Heavy chemicals namely Caustic Soda Chlorine and soda ash other sources are salt lakes Sambhar, Didwana, Pachbhadra► Gujarat is the largest producer.► Maharashtra 711%.► Tamil NadiTT620% (second).► Kharaghoda is the leading centre of salt industry of the Raina.

Sulphur► A sulphuric acid plant in Sindri► Pyrites: found at Amjor near Rohtas (Bihar). Ingaldhal in Chitradurga (Karnataka), Taradevi (Shimla), Saladipura (Sikar, Rajasthan).► Ores of Zinc, Lead and Copper have compounds of sulphur in it.

Gold► Hutti Mines and Kolar Gold Fields(Karnataka)► Ramagiri: Andhara Pradesh, Wynad: Kerala, Nilgiri: TN

 

Mica► Leading supplier in the world, 4/5th producer.

► A nonconductor of electricity.► Nothern fringe of Bihar Plateau: Kodarma, Giridih, Domchanch.► Bihar produces 57%. Nuclear

► Uranium: mined at Jaduguda (Bihar).

► ThoriumKerala (south of Quilon) also rich in Monazite, Ilmenite rutile, Sillimanite.

► Uranium, the only atomic fuel used for the generation of nuclear power at present is available in India but deposits of Pitchblende (the principle source of Uranium) are poorer than those of Monazite (chief source of Thorium).

► Natural Thorium is not a fissile metal. It is first converted into Uranium 233. India has been able to convert Thorium into Uranium.► A factory for processing Monazite has been constructed at Alwaye in Kerala.

Atomic Minerals:1. Uranium► Singbhum, Gaya, Hazaribagh, Saharanpur's sedimentary rocks in U.P,► The greatest source of Uranium is monagite sand.► India produces only 2% of world uranium.

2. Thorium► Also derived from monazite which contains 10% thoria and 0.3% Urania.► It is found in Kerala, Bihar, Tamilnadu and Rajasthan.

3. Beryllium Oxide► It is used as moderator in nuclear

reactors.

4. Lithium► Found in spodumene and lepodolite.► In Bihar and Bastar (M.P).

5 Zirconium► Found in Kerala, Ranchi and Hazaribagh.

Agriculture► The new seed policy came in 1988.There are three types of seeds: Breeder seeds of the primary stage, Foundation seeds of the intermediate stage and the certified or the quality seeds that is actually distributed.Total seed production is presently hovering around 100 lakh quintals.National seeds corporation (NSC), State Farm Corporation of India (SFCI), State seed Corporations and State seed certification agencies are the primary agencies working in the seed sector.

Maize is a kharif crop.► Require about 80 to 95 days to mature.► Average yield: 1606 kg/hectare.► U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, M.P., Punjab are important maize producing zone.► Karnataka highest yield 2943 kg/h.

Jowar (Sarghum vulgare)► Temperature: 26°33°► Rainfall: less than 100 cm (30cm100cm)

Rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis)► Many species of this give milk like juice called latex which on drying or coagulating gives new rubber.► The principle source of rubber is the Hevea tree (also known as Para

Rubber Tree) native to the Amazon region in South America.► Rubber plantation was first introduced in 1902 in India on the banks of the Periyar.► Temperature: 21°C 35°C.► Rainfall: 200cm to 400cm► Alluvial soil► Kerala produces 91% and Tamil Nadu: 5%.► Synthetic rubber: raw materials used are Benzene and Ethyl alcohol.► Plant set up at Borada.► Process: wet process called Plantation or Parchment Dry Process called Cherry or Native Method.► Production: Karnataka (Chikmanglur first plantation, Hassan, Shimoga, Coorg, Mandi); Kerala (Palaghat, Kottayam and Trivandrum) Tamil Nadu (North Aracot to Tirunvelli).► Trade: India exports USA, Canada, Europe, Australia.► India occupies the 12th position in coffee production.

Jute (Corchorous Capsularies)► Production yearly 40% of the world jute.► It is also called Brown Paper of wholesale trade.► Temperature 27°C34°C► Humidity: 8090%► Rainfall: 170200 cm► Soil: Sandy, clayey, alluvial soil► Sowing: Mar.-Apr.► Harvesting: July-Sept.► Jetting: It is a microbiological process; it loosens the outer bark and facilitating removal of fibre from stalk.► Yield : 1300 kg/hr.► Variety: JRO7835, (Basudev)► Production : West Bengal (2/ 3rd), Assam, Bihar

Cotton (Gossypium)► Largest area under cultivation in world 40% of total cultivation area.Produces only 8-10% of total world production.► 4th important after USA, China, Russia.► It is a subtropical crop.► Required temperature: 21°C27°C.► Rainfall: 50 cm to 80cm.► Precaution : frost free period 200 days.► Soil: Regur or Black; clayey soils containing lime and phosphates.► Area: mainly in the area west of 80°E Meridian.► Production : as a Kharif crop► Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, UP, MP (April/May to Oct.); Tamil Nadu (sown in Jan.).► Best Cotton: Sudan and Egypt.► Ginning: which consists of separating the seeds from the raw material.► Variety: Hybrid4, introduced in Gujrat, DHC32.► Yield: 265 kg/hr.► Production: Gujarat 15.4% (24.9%), Maharashtra19.4%, Punjab21.5% (16»3%) and Karnataka 7.8%.

Agriculture 

Tobacco► Rainfall: 50- 80cm.Soil: Sandy Loam soil should be rich in Potash, Nitrogen, Magnesium, Phosphoric Acid.► India has 17% of total area under cultivation.► Variety: Nicotiana Tabaccum and Nicotiana Rustica.► Flues: Virginia tobacco is procured in special chambers known as Barns with artificial heat passing through metal

pipes called Flues. Hence it is known as Flues cured Virginia tobacco.► Export: second largest exporter after USA.► Area : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra in the Deccan, Bihar, Orissa, UP, West Bengal.► Production : Average 1000 leaf/ha Andhra Pradesh largest producer, Guntur heart of tobacco trade.► Exported to UK, EEU.► Two important ports : Madras and Kakinada.

Sugarcane (Saccharum Officinarium)► Belongs to grass family.► Contains canesugar (Sucrose).► It is basically a tropical crop.► Temperature: 20°30°, not above 50°C, not less than 20°C► Rainfall75cm 120cm.► Soil clay loams, Alluvial; should be rich in Nitrogen, Phosphoric and Potash.► Setts : All commercial plantations are made of stalk cuttings of two or three joints.► Ratoon crops : After the first crop has been cut , the stem begins to grow again.► Average Yield : 65375 kg/ ha Highest in Tamil Nadu► Production : UP the largest producer, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana.

Tea (Camellia tea)► India is the leading producer and leading exporter.► Varieties: Black tea leaves are dried in the sun and then fermented; Green tea far east China and Japan, there is no fermentation.► Climate: temp. 13°c and 35°c; rainfall 150250 cm.; protection against

long dry weather.► Soil: Sandy loams are best; iron in soil is beneficial.► Cultivation : Assam 54.7%; Assam 24.3%; Tamil Nadu9.2%.► Production: Assam21.48%; W.Bengal21.48%; Tamil Nadu13.32% and Kerala8.34%.► Export: Britain chief buyer, Russia, USA and Australia.

Coffee (Coffea)► Oldest among the plantation.► It is the highland crop of the Tropics.► Temperature : 15°C 28°C► Protection : sensitive to cold and frost and to be protected from hot dry winds.► Sun rays are injurious.► Varieties : Arabica, Robusta and Coffee Liberica (75%)► Rainfall 125 cm 200 cm.► Height of the crop 910 mts.► Plucking time :Coffee Arabica between Oct.-Nov. ; Coffee Robusta between Jan-Feb.► Production (state wise) Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil nadu, Andhra pradesh.► Yield (state wise) Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.

OILSEEDSSesamum (Sesamum Indicum)► It is both a Kharif crop (N. India) and Rabi (S. India).► Seed contains 46%52% oil.► Light and Sandy soils and Black Cotton soils.► Temperature21°c23"c.► Rainfall4050cm.► India produces l/3rd of the total production.► Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P., Tamil Nadu.

Groundnut (Arachis Hypogea)► Leading in the world.► Needs tropical climate.► Susceptible to frost.► Khrif Crop (N. India), Rabi (S. India).► Rainfall50-100cm.► Sandy Loams.► Sown in June-July and harvested in four months.► Deccan Plateau and Gujrat.► Highest yield in Gujarat.► Temperature20°c25°c.

Rapeseed and Mustard seed► Rapeseed is also known as Sarson, Toria and Taramira.► Mustard seed is also known as Rai.► It is a Rabi corp.► Alluvial soil.► Rainfall2540cm.► Maturity7590 days.► Leading producers : U.P.; Rajasthan; Punjab and Haryana.

Agriculture

Linseed► India produces 10% of the world production.► It is a rabi crop.► U.P.; M.P.► Clay Loams as well as Clayey Black soils of the Central and Peninsular India.► Rainfall: 4575cm.► Oil seed contains 33% 47% of oil.

Castor seed (Ricinus Communis)► India produces 1/5th of the total world production.► It is a tropical and subtropical crop.► It is both a Rabi (S. India) and Kharif (N. India) Crop.► Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh (67%)► Temperature : 20°c26°c.

► Rainfall: 5075cm.► Soil : Deep loamy soils.► Sown in June-July .► Maturity : 6months.► Seed Contains 35%-38% oil.

Safflower► It is a Rabi crop.► Seed contains 24% to 36% oil.► Solis : Alluvial Loams and Black soils.► Maharashtra (2/3rd); Karnataka; Andhra Pradesh (leading producer).

Sunflower► Introduced in 1969.► Photo intensive crop.► Annual rainfall less than 50cm.► Rabi and Kharif crop.► Maturity; 90100 days► Loam soil.► Sown during mid Dec.-mid Feb.► Harvested in mid July-August.► Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Soyabean► Warm Temperature to cool temperature.► Temperature : 21°c13°c.► Rainfall: 100cm.► Oil content only 20%.► Very rich in protein.► M.P., U.P.► Kharif crop.► Rizobium : a nitrogen fixing bacteria.► Fariable Loams : PH value 6.0 to 6.5.► Sown in June.

Niger► A kharif crop.► Sown hiJimeJ_uly.► Harvested in DecJan.► Mainly produced in Orissa M.P. Maharashtra

► Soil : deep regur.

Cotton Seed► A substitute of Olive oil.► Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, M.P, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, Gujarat (24.44%).

Ragi► A millet crop and kharif crop.► Karnataka is the chief producer.

Pulse► Gram (tur) Red gram, Urd (Black gram) and Moong (Green gram).► It is a Kharif crop.► Khisari and Masur are Rabi.► Crop are Leguminous and fixes nitrogen in the soil.

 

Millets (Sorghum, Jowar, Bajra and Ragi)► In India Sorghum is known as Jowar; Milo in Africa and Kaoling in China.► Temperature: 27°c 32"c► Rainfall: 50-120cm.► Deccan area

Gram► Winter season► U.P; M.P; Rajasthan; Haryana 4/5th of total production.► In Bengal, Gram is most important pulse contributing about 40% of the total production.► Rabi crop.► Rainfall: moderate (50100 cm.)► Seeds sown in mid Oct. to beginning of Nov.► Matures in 150 days.

Tur► Rainfall more than 120 cm.

► Kharif crop.► Maharashtra, M.P, U.P.

ENERGY RESOURCES

Lignite► Lignite or Brown coal occurs in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu, Palu fields in Rajasthan, Raisi in Kashmir and Gujarat.► India is the 7th largest producer of Lignite.Places where Lignite is produced:(1) Raniganj(2) Jharia(3) Bokaro(4) Karanpura(5) Giridih(6) Thalchar (Orissa)(7) Kanan Valley (M. P.) (8)Wardha Valley (Maharashtra)(9)Singarem (Andhra Pradesh) (10) Nayveli (Tamil Nadu).► Lignite Tamil nadu has 91% of reserve and 80% of production, Neyvelli, South Arcot, Jayamkond acholapur (in Trichi distt.), Manargudi.

 

Coal► Amounts to 60% of total electricity generated.► 65% of the commercial needs of energy.► Raniganj coal field is the oldest in India (1814).► Indian coalfield belongs to two geological era Gondwana and tertiary. Gondwana category accounts for 99.5 % of the total reserve.► Gondwana category is inferior to the tertiary coal.► Tertiary coalfield is found in the Northeast and J&K.

► Jharia largest in India.► Per capita production of Coal180 kg.► Important coalfields Jharkhand : Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura, Ramgarh, Auranga, Hutar, Daltonganj, Deogarh and Rajmahal. W.Bengal : Raniganj, Barjora and Darjeeling.Andhra Pradesh : Godavari valley (Singareni coalfields) MP/ Chhattisgarh: Singrauli, Korba, Chirmiri, PenchKanha Tawa valley, Hasdo Arand, Jhilmili and Mohpani etc.Maharashtra : Chanda, Kamte, Umrer and Bander. Orissa Talcher and IB river► Coal reserve (statewise) Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, W. Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, UP, Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.► Largest Mine reserves Jharia, Raniganj, Godavari valley.North Karanpura, Singrauli and Talcher.► Statewise production MP/ Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, W. Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh.► Utilisation of coal in various industries (in sequence) : Power, Steel, Cement, Fertilizer, Chemical and Paper.► In order to increase the availability of indegenous coking coal for steel plants , new coal washeries are being set up and capacities of existing coal beneficiation plants are being increased.► There are around eighteen coal washeries in the country .Seven washeries ( Dugda, Bhojudih, Patherdih, Lodna, Sudamdih and Munidih) produce high grade coking coal. Similarly Kargali, Kathera, Sawang, Gidi, Barora and Nandan washeries manufacture medium grade

coking coal. Durgapur I washery is under W.Bengal government and those of Jamdoba and W. Bokaro is under Tata Iron and Steel Co., that of Nawrozabad under Western coalfield limited and Lodna and Durgapur II under the Bharat Coking Coal Ltd.► Problems of coal mining: poor quality coal uneven distribution transport bottleneck obsolete methods of mining, power shortage recession in coal mining environmental pollution wastage of coal.Peat► Found in Nilgiri hills, Jhelum and Ganga delta in W. Bengal.

Petroleum► It is also called mineral oil.► Oilfields in North east India(a) Digboi north east of Tipam hills in Dibrugarh distt., it is the oldest oilfield.(b) Naharkatiya fields 32 km. from started in 1953. (c)Moranhugugan started in 1956, 40 km. southwest of Naharkatiya.(d)Rudrasagar, Sibsagar, Lakura, Galeki, Badarpur, Barhola and Anguri are newly discovered oilfields.(e)In Arunachal Pradeshoilfields are in Manabhum, Kharsang, Charali. (f) In Tripura, oilfields are in Mamunbhang, Baramura, Dcntamura Subhang, Manu, Ampibagar Amarpurdambura.► In Western India Gujarat(a) Ankleshwar 80 km. of Vadodara, J.L. Nehru called Ankleshwar as fountain of prosperity;(b) Khambat or Lunej (near Ahmadabad) field started in 1958; (c) Ahmadabad and Kalol.► New oilfields are Kosamba, Mahesana, Sanand, Kathana, Olkad, Dholka, Arjol, Khadi, Sandkhurd,

Siswas, Nandsan, Bhandarat, Sabhasam and Vadesar.► Offshore oilfields of India(a)Mumbai high, Sagar Samrat is its platform; (b) Bassein;(c) Aliabet near Bhavnagar.► Production is largest in Mumbai high (62%), Gujarat (20%), Assam (16.5%), then in Tamil Nadu (1%).► Oil refineries in private sector (a)Reliance Petroleum in Jamnagar.(b)International Petro Parmar in Surat;(c)Ashok Leylands in Daitori in Orissa;(d)Essar Petro in Vadimar, Gujarat;(e)Black Gold in Vyag; (f)Petrodyne in Karaikal, Pondichery;(g)Jindal ferro Alloy in Vizag; (h)Portmardi TIDCO in Tuticorin, T.N.(i)Abon LLyod Chales in Tuticorin; (j)Moplac Udyog in Haldia.► Joint venture refining (a)Mangalore refining; (b)Bhakat Oman's Bina in M.P;(c) H.P. Oman's Devgarh in Matra;(d) IOCKNPC in Daitari, Orissa.

Manufacturing IndustriesCotton Textile Industry► First modern cotton Textile mill was set up in 1818 at Fort Gloster near Calcutta. Second important was founded in 1854 in Bombay by C.N. Devar.► Third mill in 1861 in Shahpur (Ahmadabad), then Calico mill in 1863 also in Ahmadabad.► Till 1875: 76, 46 mills were set up out of which 60% were located in Bombay alone.► Till 1940, mills rose to 271, in 1926 it rose to 334, till 1939 389 and till 1945 they rose to 417.

Present Scenario:► Cotton industry is the largest organised modern industry in India in which about 16% of Industry capital and about 20% of industrial labour is engaged.► Till 31 March 1996, there were 1569 cotton mills in India: 188 were in public sector, 146 in cooperative sector and 1.235 in private sector. Distribution:► Highest is Maharashtra in Cotton textile Production 42.49%, but in Cotton Yarn Maharashtra produces only 16.65%. In Maharashtra there are total 122 mills out of which 63 mills are in Mumbai, so Mumbai is called Cottonopolis. Causes:1. Mumbai enjoys humid climate which is essential for cotton industry because thread does not break so frequently.2. Mumbai has a big port which helps in import of machinery.3. Cheap hydro electricity.4. Black cotton soil in the hinterland provides cotton as the basic raw material.5. Better communication.6. Facilities for washing .► Other centres in Maharashtra are Sholapur, Pune, Kojjiapur, Satara, Nagpur, Aurangabad, Amravati and Jalgaon.► Second highest Gujarat, which produces 23.5% of cloth and 8% of yarn of India.► It has 118 mills, out of which 73 are in Ahmadabad, other mills are in Surat, Vadodra, Rajkot, Porbandar, Maurvi and Bhavnagar.

► Third is Madhya Pradesh7.07% of cloth and 1.82% of yarn production in

India. Centres are Gwalior, Ujjain, Indore, Dewas, Ratlam, Jabalpur and Bhopal.► Fourth is Tamil Nadu 6.18% of total cloth but highest in India in cotton yarn production 34.21%.T.N. has 439 mills in which 200 are in Coimbotore, therefore called Manchester of South India.► Other areas are Chennai, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Perambur, Tuticorin.► Fifth is West Bengal 3.87% of total cloth and 2.94% of cotton yarn.► Most important centre is Murshidabad, others are in Howrah, Hugli, Syampur, Shrirampur and Panihar.► Sixth is U.P. 3.86% of the cloth, but 7.835 of cotton yarn.► Kanpur is the largest centre and called Manchester of U.P., out of 52 mills in U.P, Kanpur has 10.► Others are Moradabad, Varanasi, Agra, Bareilly, Aligarh, Modinagar, Saharanpur, Rampur, Etawa, Lucknow and Mirzapur.► Seventh is Pondicherry2.61% of Cotton Textile and 1.16% of yarn.► Eighth is Rajasthan2.34% of textile and 3.62% of yarn. Centres are Pali, Beawar, Vijaynagar, Kishangarh, Ganganagar, Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur, Kota and Ajmer.► Ninth is Karnataka 2.28% of cloth, 4.68% of yarn. Centres are Bangalore, Belgam, Mangalore, Chitradurg, Gulbarga, Chenapatnam and Mysore.► Orissa : 2.03% of cloth and 1.87% of yarn.► Punjab: 1.78% of cloth, 5.91% of yarn; Amitsar, Ludhiana and Fagwara are centres.► Kerala: 1.09% cloth; 2.03% yarn;

centres are Kollam, Trichur, Tiruvanantpuram and Alleppey.► Bihar: 0.34% of textile, 0.19% of yarn. Centres are Gaya, Patna, Bhagalpur.► Andhra Pradesh: 0.33%of cloth, 5.20% in yarn. Centres are Hyderabad, Sikandarabad, Guntur, E. Godawari and Udaigiri.

► Problems of Cotton Textile Industry (in hierarchy):1. Shortage of raw cotton: due to 1947 partition, as Sindh was an important centre of cotton.2. Obsolete machinery.3. Erratic power supply.4. Low productivity of labour.5. Stiff competition, especially with China.6. Silk mills.► India exports cotton textile highest to U.S, then to Russia and then to U.K.

Manufacturing Industries:

Jute Industry► It is second most important after cotton► First Jute Mill in 1855 in Rishra.► In 1859, first power loom was started. Till 1884, they rose to 24, further 76 in 191819 and 112 in 1947.► In partition, 81% of jute output went to East Pakistan► Today, there are 73 mills in India, out of which 85% are between Naihati and Calcutta Distribution:► First in W. Bengal; out of 73, 56 mills are in W.Bengal, produces 14%.► Second is Andhra Pradesh10% of total production.► In W. Bengal, centres are Balli, Rishra, Serampore, Budge Budge, Shamnagar, Saikia, Bansberia,

Uluberia, Titagarh, Agrapora, Birlapure. Causes of Mills in Bengal (in hierarchy):1.The Ganga Bhrahmaputra delta grows about 90% of India's jute and therefore provides raw material to jute mills.2. Coal is easily obtained from Raniganj.3. Abundant water is available for processing, washing and dyeing of jute.4. Humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.5. Calcutta is a big city of import and export.6. Population is high so labour is cheap.

► Mills in Andhra Pradesh are at Guntur, Ongole, Eluru, Vishakhapatnam, Nellimorala (near Ongole), Chellivelsa and Eburu.► Mills in U.P are at Kanpur and Gorakhpur► Mills in Bihar are in Purnea, Katihar,Samastipur, Gaya.► In M.P., Raigarh; in OrissaCuttak.► Problems of Jute Mills: The overall demand for jute product is decreasing in international market.The input coast for jute product in India is quite high. Basically jute is export oriented industry, in the international market they have developed substitute of jute.► The greatest importer from India is USA, Canada, Australia, Russia, Czech. Republic and U.K.► 60% of the total production was exported, now, it is only 20%.

Woolen Textile► First woolen modern industry is Lal

imli, near Kanpur in 1876.► Dhariwal in Punjab in 1881, Mumbai in 1882 and Bangalore in 1886.► Today there are 621 big and small mills in India.► Distribution:1. Punjab has 297 mills, maximum in Dhariwal, other centres are Amritsar, Ludhiana and Kharar.Causes: hydroelectricity Bhakara Nangal dam; water from Kashmir and Kumoun region.2. Maharashtra has 31 mills largely in Mumbai.3. U.P. has 37 mills mainly at Kanpur (birth place of woolen industry), Shajahnpur, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Agra4. Gujarat has 10 mills : important centers are Jamnagar, Ahmadabad and Vadodara.5. Harayana: 160 small mills in Panipat, Gurgaon, Faridabad and Bahadurgarh.6. Rajasthan: 72 small mills at Bikaner, Alwar, Bhilwara, Sikar, Nagaur, Pushkar and Ajmer.7. Karnataka: mills at Bangalore, Bellary.8. West Bemgal: at Howrah and Hooghly

► Woolen Carpets: India has 240 units; 90% ofthe production is exported to USA, Britain, Canada and Australia.► Hosiery: Ludhiana is the largest.► Problems of woolen textiles: 1.Shortage of raw wool (a) productivity of Indian sheep is very low: 0.86 kg/annum, whereas in Australia 4.08 kg/ annum.(b)the quality of wool is not good.2. lack of market; lack of modern equipments.3. fluctuating export market.

Silk Textile► There are 4 variations of silk: mulberry, tassar, muga and irie.Distribution:1 .Karnataka: 70% of mulberry silk of the country; impotant centres are Mysore, Banglore, Kolar, Mandya, Tumkur, Belgaun and Kodagu. 2.West Bengal: 13% of total silk mainly mulberry; important centres are Murshidabad, Bankura, 24 Parganas and Bir Bhum.3. J&K: 10% at Anantnag, Baramullah, Jammu and Udhampur.4.Bihar/Jharkhand: 8% of total silk; largest producer of tassar silk; important centres are at Patna, Gaya, Palamu, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur and Ranchi.5. M.P./Chhattisgarh : 2.5% of total silk; at Balaghat, Bastar, Bilaspur and Sarguja.6. U.P.: below 2% ; Mirzapur, Pratapgarh, Shajahanpur.7. Punjab: Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jullandhar, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur.8.Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Tiruchurapalli, Dharampur, Nilgiri, Salem, Tanjore, Tirunelveli.9. Assam: Golpara, Kamrup and Nangaon.10. Maharashtra: Pune, Nagpur, Sangli.Chandrapur and Sholapur.► Exports to USA, Russia and Saudi Arabia.

Synthetic Fibre:► Travancore Rayons ltd. is at Raipuram, Kerala in 1950.► National Rayon company is at Mumbai.► Sirsilk Ltd. Hyderabad.► There are 6 types of Synthetic fibres:(a)Rayon: centres at Kagajnagar (A.P.),

Junagarh (Gujarat), Raipuram (Kerala), Udhana (Gujarat), Birlagram (H.P.), Nagada (M.P), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalyan, Pimpri, Pune, Goregaun (Maharashtra), Mettupalayam (T.N.), Kanpur (U.P), Triveni (W.B)(b) Nylon Filament Yarn Unit : at Kota, Pimpri, Pune, Bhosari, Mumbai, Nagpur, Modinagar, Vadodara, Chennai, Banglore, Barauni, Triuvananthpuram, Kanpur, Ujjain and Calcutta.(c) Nylon Stable Fibre: at Kota and Mumbai.(d) Nylon Tyre Cord Unit: at Kota, Mumbai, Chennai, Kalyan, Kanpur, Goregaon, New Delhi, Udhna(e) Polyster Staple Fibre : Thane, Ahmedabad, Vadodra,, Gaziabad, Mandi, Kota.(f) Polyster filament YarnUnit: Mumbai, Kota, Pimpri, Pune, Modinagar, Ujjain, Udhna andVadodara.

METALLURGYIron and Steel:► First modern unit was established in 1830 at Porto Novo in T.N. but the real beginning of modern factory was in 1907 named TISCO in Jamshedpur (formerly Sakchi); IISCO in 1919atBurnpur (W.B);► Mysore Steel Works Bhadrawati 1923, now called Visvesaraya Iron and Steel Works.► Second Five Year Plan came up with 3 plants 1. Bhilai; 2. Rourkela; 3. Durgapur.► India is the tenth largest producer in the world.► In 1973, SAIL was established, it started to manage following industries: Bhilai; Durgapur; Rourkela; Bokaro; Burnpur; Alloy Steel Plant at Durgapur

and Salem Steel Plant; Visvesraya Iron and Steel Ltd. in 1989.► Top 10 Steel plants are:1. TISCO (1907) by Jamshedji Tata; causes for its establishment:High grade haematite ore was available from Nauwa Mundi mines of Singbhum and Gurumahisani mines in Mayurhanj.Coal was available in Jharia and Raniganj.Manganese from Joda mines of Keonjhar dist. of Orissa. Dolomite, Limestone and fireclay was available at Sundargarh (Orissa).Sufficient water from Suwarnarekha river. Better transport and high population density in Bihar. TISCO's storage is at Gopalpur (Orissa).

2. IISCO: it has three plants, Kulti in 1864; Hirapur 1908; Burnpur 1937, all in W.B.; all these merged to become IISCO in 1937.Why IISCO was formed: iron ore is available from Guna mines in Singhbhum and from Gurumahisani, from Mayurbhanj.Gets power from DVC and coal from Raniganj. Connected to Calcutta. Cheap labour.

3. Visvesraya Iron and Steel Ltd:Earlier name was Mysore ISCO, established in 1923. Located at Bhadravati, Shimoga dist. in Karnataka. It was put under state control in 1962 and named Visvesarya Iron and Steel Ltd. Why at Bhadrawati: Bhadrawati valley is 13 km. wide, as a result of which enough land is available. High grade haematite iron is brought from Kemang Gundi mines, Chikmaglur. Availability of power from Saraswati power project. Limestone is

available at Bhundi Guda.Shilong and Chitradung supply Manganese.

4. Bhilai Steel Plant: 1957, in Durgadist. of M.P; in collaboration with USSR. Why at Bhilai:Rich hematite iron are from Dhalli Rajhara mine. Coal is obtained from Korba and Kargali fields. Limestone was from Nandini mines.Bhandhara (Maharashtra) and Balaghat (M.P.) supply Manganese.Korba Thermal Power supplies electricity. Dolomite from Bilaspur.

5. Rourkela Steel Plant: Hindustan Steel Ltd. is the plant in Sundergarh dist. of Orissa, set up in collaboration with W. Germany in 1959. Why in Rourkela: Iron ore from Sundergarh and Keonjhar.Coal from Jharia and Thalcher.Hydro electricity from Hirakud.Manganese from Barajmada. Dolomite from Baradwar.Limestone from Purnabani.

6. Durgapur Steel Plant: in Burdwan dist. (W.B), established in 1959 with the help of U.K.; project was started in 1962.Why at Durgapur:Iron ore from Bolani mines in Mayurbhanj.Coal from Jharia and Raniganj.Limestone from Birmitrapur in Sundergarh distt. Manganese from Keonjhar. Dolomite from Birmitrapur. Kolkata Asansol rail network.Manganese from Keonjhar.

7. Bokaro: collaboration with USSR, started production in 1972.Why Bokaro:

Iron ore from Kiriburu (Orissa).Coal from Jharia. Limestone from Palamu. Electricity from DVC. Fourth Five Year Plan:

 

8. Salem Steel plant 1982, became commercial.

 

9. Vishakhapatnam Steel project (Rashtriya Ispat Nigam) 1982, Coastal location.

 

10. Vijaynagar Steel Plant. Paradeep Steel Plant.

► Consumption of steel:20 kg. per capita; while the world average is 143 kg.► Production:Maximum on the basis of crude steel; maximum saleable steel; maximum pig ironBhilai.Then comes Bokaro in crude and saleable steel. Second in pig iron is IISCO; Third is Rourkela in crude and saleable.Third in pig iron is Durgapur.

► Problem of Indian Iron and steel Industry:Huge capital investment is required.Lack of technology Low productivity. Low potential utilization like strike, energy crisis, raw material crises. Heavy demand. 

Aluminum Industry► Aluminum smelting is the second important metallurgical industry after

iron and steel in India.► About 50% of total aluminum in India is consumed in the generation and distribution of electricity.► 20% used for utensils and industrial ware; building and architecture5%; transport12%; packing 8% and miscellaneous5%.► Per capita consumption of aluminium in India is 500gm whereas in America it is 5.9 kg.► In 1937, Aluminium Corporation of India was formed at Jay Kay Nagar in W.Bengal.► In 1943, Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDAL) started and the plant was set up in Allupuram (Kerala).► During 2nd FYP, two more plants were established: (1) Indian Aluminium Company, estd. in Hirakud (Orissa); (2) Hindustan Aluminium Corp. (HINDALCO), Renukut (U.P.)► In 1965, BALCO established at Korba in M.P.► Another plant was established at Ratnagiri in 1975.'► In 1965, MALCO (Madras Al Company Limited) was established in Mettur.► In 1981, NALCO (National Al Comp. Ltd.) was established at Daman Jodi, near Jaypore at Koraput Dist. of Orissa.► NALCO is the largest► In 198889, another unit was set up at Ankul in district Dhenkanal (Orissa).

► The production cost is quite high in India because: (1) costly electricity; (2) interruption in the supply of bauxite; (3) inadequate supply of electricity; (4) inadequate supply of some rawmaterials like petroleum, coke, cryolite, caustic soda and aluminium fluoride.

Copper Industry► In 1924, Indian Copper Company (ICC) was set up► In 1924, a plant was set up in Singhbhum (Ghatshila), Bihar.► In 1967, Hindustan Copper Limited came into being, took over the work of ICC in 1972, since then, the HCL is sole major producer of copper in India.► Copper is produced at two units: 1. Maubandhar, near Ghatshila; 2.Khetri in Jhunjhunu district, Rajasthan.► Maubandhar receives copperore from Mausabani, Rakha, Dhobani, Rajdah, Tampohar, Turamdih.► Khetri copper complex at Khetri has been erected by HCL, production started from 1974 onwards.► It receives copper ore from Khetri, Kolihan, Chandmari, Dariba (Alwar),etc.► Malanjkhand mines at Balaghat, M.P. also supplies copperore to Khetri.► A new project is comingup in Agnigundala in Guntur, AP.► Per capita copper consumption in India is 250 gm.► Presently, India produces only l/12th part of its requirement rest is imported from Zambia, Zaire, Chile and USA

Zinc Industry► At present, four zinc smelter are there in the country: Alwaye, Debari, Chanderia (Rajasthan) and Vishakhapatnam.► Jawar near Udaipur has the largest reserve of zinc core.► Rampura Agucha of Bhilwara dist.► India produces half of its requirements and imports rest.► Hindustan Zinc Limited was set up in 1965.

Lead Industry

► First lead smelting plant was set up at Tundu near Dhanbad in 194243.

ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES Machine Tools► In 1930s, Kirloskar Bros. Ltd. but, the first large scale modern factory was Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd (HMT) in 1953 at Bangalore with Swiss collaboration.It has multiunit: Pinjore (in Haryana), 1963.Kalamessary in Kerala (1964) Hyderabad (1965).Ajmer (grinding unit).. ► Another is Heavy Machine Tools Plant at Ranchi, in 1966 wiuTCzech. assistance.► Third is, Parag Tools Limited at Secunderabad.► National Instrument Factory, Calcutta.► The Instrumentation Limited at Kota and Palaghat.

Heavy Mechanical Equipments► Heavy Engineering Corporation, Ranchi, 1958.► Mining and Allied Machinery Corp. Ltd. at Durgapur.► Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd., setup in 1947.► Triveni Structural Ltd. at Naini, Allahabad with the assistance of Austria.► Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels Ltd. established in 1956 at Vishakhapatnam.► Messers Jessop & Co. Ltd., Calcutta.► Richardson & Cruddas Ltd. Mumbai.► Larsen & Toubro Ltd., Powai, Mumbai.

Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry

► 1956, Heavy Electricals Ltd.► 1964,Bharat Heavy Electricals; later both merged to form BHEL.► BHEL exports boilers to Malaysia, Libya and Egypt.► It has six units: Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram (near Hyderabad), Bangalore, Jammu and Haridwar.► Electric fans: Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Secunderabad.

Railway► Chittaranjan Locomotives Works (CLW), Chittaranjan, Burdwan dist., W. Bengal, 1950. It produced first engine in 1952.► Diesel Locomotives Works at Varanasi, 1964.-The Tata Engineering and Locomotive Works (TELCO), Jamshedpur in 1952.► The Integral Coach Factory at Perambur near Chennai with Swiss collaboration in 1955.► Bharat Movers, Bangalore.► Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala, 1958.

Shipbuilding► India ranks second in Asia next to Japan in Shipbuilding► Hindustan Shipyards, Vishakhapatnam, setup by M/ S Scindia Steam Navigation Company, 1941. It produced first ship in 1948.► Cochin Shipyard Ltd., Kochi, 1976.► Garden Reach Workshops, Kolkata.► Mazgaon Dock, Mumbai, builds esp. for Indian Navy.► Goa Shipyards, builds fibreglass boats.

Automobile► First started by General Motors India Ltd. Mumbai, 1928.

► Ford Motors in 1930, Chennai.► Daewoo, 1995 (Korea), Noida.► Premier Automobiles, Kurla Mumbai, 1947.► Hindustan Motors Ltd., Kolkata, 1948.► Maruti Udyog Ltd., Gurgaon, 1983.► TELCO, famshedpur.► Hyderabad.► Pithampura, M.P.► Asron, Ropar in Punjab.► Surajpur Light Motor Vehicle (Ghaziabad).► Mobikes Dharuhara (Haryana); Akundi, (Pune); Hosur (Tamil Nadu); Faridabad.► Scooters Lucknow; Satara; (Akundi) Pune; Panki; Odhav► India ranks second in two wheelers after China.

Aircrafts► 1940; Hindustan Aircraft Ltd., Bangalore.► 1964, it merged with Aeronautics India Ltd. to form Hindustan Aeronautic Ltd. (HAL) in Bangalore.► HAL has three divisions: 1. MIG Complex, Nasik; 2. Koraput; 3.Hyderabad. Bicycles► First manufacturing factory was set up in 1940, Mumbai.► India exports bicycles to Pakistan, Afghanistan and Srilanka.► Main centres: Mumbai, Asansol, Sonepat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.

Sugar Industry:► India is the 2nd largest after Cuba, but India is the largest producer of Gur and Khandsari.► First factory set up in 1840 in North Bihar with Dutch help.► Difference between sugar industry

of North and South India:Previously, north India used to produce 90% of lndia's sugar but now it is reduced to 3040%, because:Peninsular India has tropical climate which gives higher yields per unit area as compared to north.The sucrose content is also higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane in south India. The crushing season is also much longer in south (78 months, Oct. to May) than in north (4 months, Nov. to Feb.). The cooperative sugar mills are better managed in south than in north.Most of the mills in south are new which are equipped with modern machinery.► Problems of sugar industry: 1.Low yield of sugarcane, 67 tonnes/hectare while in Java, it is 90 and in Hawaii 121 tonnes/ hectares. 2.Short crushing season. 3.Low rate of recovery, are 10%, while in Java and Hawaii, it is 1416%, highest recovery rate is in Gujarat followed by Maharashtra. 4.High cost of production. 5.Small and uneconomic size of mills. 6. Old and obsolete machinery. 7. Low per capita consumption, only 9.2 kg. per year per capita, while in cuba it is 72.2 kg.

Cement Industry► Mainly made from limestone and clay.► A mixture composed of 21 3rd limestone, with low magnesium content and 1/3rd clay.► Iron oxide and bauxite is also added to make cement.► Bauxite assists quick setting of cement; Gypsum is also added for the same.► On an average 250 kg. of coal is required to produce 1 tonne of cement

which is 40% of the total cost.► 6065% cost is in limestone, 2025% silica and 512% in alumina.► 4 kg. gypsum, 0.4 kg. bauxite and 0.2 kg. clay is required to produce one tonne of cement.► Limestone deposits used for cements: Assam Shivsagar, Naogaon Meghalaya E and W Khasi hills and Jaintia hills. Jharkhand: Palamu, Singhbhum, Shahabad. M.P / Chhattisgarh: Satna, Siddhi, Jabalpur, Durg, Bilaspur, Raipur, Bastar. Rajasthan: Jaipur, Ajmer, Pali, SawaiMadhopur, Jhunjhunu, Bundi, Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Sirohi and Banswara. Gujarat: BanasKantha, Amreli, Junagarh, Kheda,Panchmahal, Kutch.Maharashtra: Chandrapur, Yawatmal, Nanded.Andhra Pradesh: E.Godavari, Nalgonda, Khammam, W.Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Cuddappah. KarnatakaShimoga, Gulbarga, Bijapur. T.N.: Salem ,Coimbator, Tiruchurapalli, Ramnathpuram,Tirunavelli. U.P.: Mirzapur, Dehradun. J&K :Jammu and Anantnag. Growth of Cement Industry :► First in 1904, in Chennai.► Second in 191213, Indian Cement Company Ltd., set up in plant at Porbander.► 1915 Katni Cement Co., at Katni (M.P).► 1916, Lakheri, Killick Nickson's Bundi Portland Cement Co. established a plant.► In 1922,-23, 6 new plants came at Dwarka (Gujarat), Japla (Bihar),

Banmore, Mehgaon, Kymore (all in MP), Shahbad (Karnataka).► In 1934, 10 out of 11 companies merged into Associated Cement Companies (ACC).► Dalmia Cement Group started establishing plants after 1937.► The factories: 1. Dalmianagar (Bihar), 2. Dalmiachakari Dadri (Haryana).► By 1948, there were 18 cement factories in India.► Today, India ranks 4th after China, Japan, and USA.► By 2010, India is likely to become 2nd next to China.

Paper Industries► In India paper is made from: 6062% bamboo (a cellulosic raw material); 79% sabai grass; bagasse; rice and wheat straw; eucalyptus; pine; mulberry.► Chemical used: caustic soda, soda ash, sodium sulphate, chlorine, calcium bisulphate, sulphuric acid, raisin and clay, lime, ferric alumina, ammonium.► One tonne of paper production requires 3.54 tonnes of coal.Development:First factory 1816, in Chennai; second 1832, in Serampore, both failed. Third factory 1870, Royal Bengal Paper Mills, Bellyganj, near Kolkata. 1879 Lucknow, 1882Titagarh 1887 Pune 1892Raniganj 1892 Kaukinara 1918Naihati By 195051, there were as many as 17 mills News Print:► first factory (1955), Nepanagar in Hoshangabad (M.P).► Second factory (1981), Mysore Paper Mills, Shimoga, Karnataka.► Third is 1982, Hindustan Paper Mills, Vellore, Kottaiyam, Kerala.

► Fourth, 1985, Tamil Nadu News Print and Paper Ltd., Pugalur in Tiruchirapalli.► Till 1996, there were 26 news print mills were there in India.► Per capita paper consumption in India is 3 kg., in .European country 300 kg. Trade:► Pulp and waste paper is imported from Norway, Sweden, Canada, Holland.► Paper board, Newsprint is imposed from Poland, Sweden, Czech Republic, Slovakia Republic and Canada.► Problems of Paper Industry: 1. Scarcity of raw materials because of degradation of forest; 2.Costly unconventional raw material.3.Growing consciousness for the preservation of forests and maintenance of ecology balance and biodiversity. 4.Very low rate of consumption, population 16% of world, paper production 1% of world.5.Small size of uneconomic manufacturing units.

Fertilizer Industry:► Indian soils being generally deficient in fertilizing elements, namely P and K.► 1906, first superphosphate factory was set up at Ranipet in T.N.► In 1951, Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI), set up a plant at Sindri.► Public Sector Fertilizer Co.FCI incorporated in 1961; it has 4 units:a. Sindri;b. Gorakhpur;c. Talcher;d. Ramagundum (A.P).NFL established in 23 Aug. 1974, has 5 units:a. Nangal: Calcium almunium nitrate and Urea;

b. Bhatinda; c. Panipat;d. Vijaypur.It is largest producer of Nitrogenous fertilizer.Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd.(FACT) has three units:a. Udyog Mandal;b. Two units at Kochi.Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd. it is a gas based fertilizer plant at Thai.Hindustan Fertilizers Corp. Ltd.(HFCL): it has 5 units at Namrup (Assam), one at Durgapur (W.B), one at Barauni.Madras Fertilizers Ltd.: it is a joint venture of India and Iran; established at Manali near Chennai.Pyrites Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd. (PPCL): set up in March 1960, units at Amjher (Bihar, manufactures super phosphate), Salodipura (Rajasthan for exploration and production of Pyrites), Mussorie (Uttaranchal where mining of rock phosphate ore is done).Project and Development India Ltd. (PDIL): formerly Fertilizer Planning and Development India Ltd., famous for engineering.► Cooperative Sector: IFFCO (Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Ltd.) has 24,000 cooperative societies, incorporated in 1975; has four units:a. Kalol (Gujarat); b. Kandla (Gujarat); c. Phulpur (U.P); d. Anola (U.P).Krishak Bharti Cooperative Ltd. (KRIBHCO) started in 1985; has a gas based urea ammonia plant at Hazira (Gujarat).► Private SectorIEL (Kanpur); SRC (Kota); DCM (Delhi); NF(Broach) Coromandal(Vishakhapatnam) ZACL (Goa); EID (Pary of Ennore); GSFC (Vadodra); SBIC (Tuticorin); MFC

(Mangalore).► Imports 1/4th ofthe requirements, from USA, Russia, Canada, Japan.► India imports largely Nitrogenous fertilizers then Potash, then Phosphate (NKP).► Nitrogenous Fertilizer is produced by Gujarat (19.9%); U.P (14.5%); T.N (11.8%); Punjab (9.6%); Maharashtra (8.0%); Bihar (5.4%).► In Phosphatic Fertilizer (P205), highest is Gujarat (31.7%), T.N. (23.1%), then Maharashtra (14%). Leather► First tannery was set up in Kanpur in 1867, then Chennai and Kolkata, Agra, Bangalore, Mokama, Phulbari (Orissa); Sherbang (Gujarat), Kapurthala (Punjab), Paldavaram (Tiruchirapalli), Perambur and Alluru.► The Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI) is situated at Chennai.► India exports to USA, UK, Germany, Japan, Russia, Australia.

Plastic► Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore, Vadodara, Vapi, Amritsar, Coimbatore, Amritsar, Barauni, Pimpri, Boniagaon, Kanpur, Mettur, Durgapur.► Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology (CIPET), Chennai.► Exports to UAE, Kuwait, Egypt, Kanya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia.

Drugs and Pharmaceuticals► Public Sector Units: India Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd (IDPL): Established in 1961 (5th April); has 5 plants:1. Rishikesh synthetic drugs.2. Chennai surgical instruments.3. Gurgaon formulations.4. Muzaffarpur drugs and chemicals

(intermediate) IDPL has 3 subsidiaries: 1. Rajasthan Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (RPDL), Jaipur; 2. U.P Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (UPDL), Lucknow; 3.Orissa D&P Ltd., BhubaneshwarHindustan Antibiotics Limited in 1954:1. Maharashtra Antibiotics and Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Nagpur;2. Karnataka A&P Ltd., Bangalore;3. Manipur A&P Ltd, Imphal Bengal Immunity Limited (BIL), Kolkata.Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (BCPL), Kolkata.Smith Stanistret Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (SSPL), Kolkata.

Pesticides► Hindustan Insecticides Ltd:1. Udyog Mandal, Kerala;2. Rashayani, Maharashtra and Delhi.► Subsidiary: Southern Pesticides Corporation (SPC) at Kavour.HIL produces BHC, DDT, Malatheon, IndoSulphan

Dye Stuff► First unit was Associated Research Lab. (AR Lab.), 1947, Pune.► Atul Products, 1947, Balsar.► Amar Dyechem, 1954.► Indian Dye Stuff Ind., 1954.► Alic Ind., 1956.► Suhrid Gaigi.► Kallu Chem: Bayer, Hoechst, Ghai, Sandoz India, Kolshed, 1961.

Glass► First factory was established in 1941 in UP.► Rawmaterial used: sodaash, feldspar, limestone, dolomite, manganese dioxide, barium oxide, sulphur and copper.► Distribution:

UP: 100 factories; important centres are: Ferozabad(Agra), Bahzoi, Naini, Hirangau, Shokohabad, Hathras, Sasni, Jaunpur.West Bengal: 34 factories; important places: Kolkata, Howrah, Raniganj, Belgachia, Belgharia, Bellur, Sitarampur, Rishra, Durgapur, Asansol (gets sandstone from Mangalghat and Palaghat). Maharashtra: 22 factories; Important centres: Mumbai, Talegaon, Satara, Nagpur, Kolhapur (bottles).

Ceramics► China clay is found in Rajmahal Hills (Bihar).► First factory established in Patharghat (Bihar).► Second, Barn & Co. Raniganj (W. Bengal).► Centre: Wankaner, Thanagarh, Ranipet, Roopnarayanpur, Jabalpur, Nazarbagh, Gwalior, Jaipur.► India exports to: Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait; imports from: China & Japan.

Chemical industries: Sulphuric Acid► Fertilizer, synthetic fibre, plastic, paint, dyestuff.► India imports 90% of its requirement.► Important Centre: Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat.Nitric Acid► Used in fertilizer and explosives.► Main producer: FCL's Trombay UnitAlkalies► Common salt, limestone, coal.Soda ash► Okhla, Mithapur, Dharandhar► Used in glass, paper, soap, detergents.Caustic Soda

► Detergents, textiles, soaps, paper and pulp.► Mettur is the largest centre. Benzene► Comes from naphtha, coal.► Centre: Koyali, BombayPetroleum Naphtha, Durgapur (coal gas).► Used in dyestuff. Match► First factory was established in Ahmedabad in 1921.► Western India Match Co. (WIPCO) 1923; has 5 units: produces 65% of India's production:1.Baraeli; 2.Kolkata; 3.Chennai; 4.Ambarnath, Mumbai; 5.Dubri, Assam.Concentration and Distribution:W.Bengal: Jharia, Raniganj Tamil Nadu: Ramnathpuram, Tirunavelli, Chennai, Chingalput.Maharashtra: Pune, Thane, Chanda, Mumbai. Gujarat: Ahmedabad, Petlad, AmbarnathUP: Barelli, Meerut, Allahabad, Varanasi Karnataka: Shimoga Kerala: Thiruvanathpura A.P.: Hyderabad, Warrangal Assam: Dubri Rajasthan: Kota Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh: Bilaspur, Jabalpur.

LAC► The insect, Cerria Laca produces Laca; it lives in trees.► Climatic requirements: temp. 12°C and rainfall-150cm.► Stick lac is its crude form (like resin).► Main producer: FCL's Trombay Unit.

Livestock► Highest livestock population: UP, Rajasthan, MP, Andhra Pradesh.► Highest cattle density W. Bengal 173/sq km; all India average: 59/sq km.

► Buffalos: Haryana 76/sq km; Punjab 91/sqkm; all India average density: 21/sq km.► Sheep: Jammu and Kashmir (highest): 42/sq km; all India average: 15/sqkm.► Goats: W.Bengal 123/sq km; all India average density 29/ sq km.► Female Buffalos (milk and dry) Chandigarh: 114/ sq km.; Punjab 41 sq km. and all India average 111 sq km.

Cattle► India has largest number in the world, total 20% of world.► Maximum cattle is in MP -14% of total Indian cattle.► Second is UP; third is Bihar; fourth is West Bengal; fifth is Maharashtra.► Sixth Orissa; seventh Karnataka and eighth Rajasthan.► Average yield of cow is 1 It. per day, whereas New Zealand produces 3040 It. per day, therefore Indian cow is called 'TeaCup Cow'.► Highest density is in W. Bengal (173 cattle/sq. km.), then UP, Bihar, Assam, Kerala, Orissa.► Minimum in Nagaland.► Milch breed cattle in India are Gir, Sindhi, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Thar Parkar and Deoni.► Gir is in Saurashtra, Sindhi in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, Red Sindhi in Sindh (Pakistan), Sahiwal in Pakistan, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, Deoni is found in Andhra Pradesh.► Drought breeds include Nagori in Jodhpur, Haryana, U.P and M.P.► Bauchaur in Bihar, Mahi in M.P., Kenkatha or Kenwariain Banda dist. of U.P, Kherigarh in Kheri dist. of U.P, Halikar and Amritmahal in Tumken, Hassan and

Mysore.► Khillari in Sholapur and Satara, Bargur and Kangyam in Coimbatore, Siri in Darjeeling and Sikkim.► Dual purpose breed i.e both Milch and drought breeds are Thar Parkar in Sindh , Gujarat and Rajasthan, Mewati in Mathura, Bharatpur and Alwar, Kankrej in Gujarat, Rath in Haryana, Nimari in Narmada (M.P), Dhangi in Nasik, Ahmadnagar, Thane, Claba, Gaobao in Chindwara, Wardha and Nagpur, Ongole in Nellore and Guntur.► Overall density of cattle is 59 per sq. km.

Buffalo►10% of the total buffalo of the world is India and it is 18% of total livestock of India.► Highest density of buffalo is in Punjab (104), Haryana (98), U.P (68).► All India density of Buffalo is 25 per sq. km.► Highest number of Buffaloes are in Andhra Pradesh,M.P., Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Bihar, Gujarat, Punjab. Name of Breed and Place l.Murrah (draught breed): Rohtak, Hissar, Gurgaon. 2. Bhadwari: Agra and Etawa, some parts of M.P and Rajasthan; 3. Jafrabadi: Gir in Gujarat; 4. Surti: Gujarat; 5. Nagpuri: Nagpur; 6. Nilirani: Ferozpur (Punjab); 7. Mehsana (Gujarat)► There are 7 cattle breeding forms in India :Suratgarh (Rajasthan), Dhamrod (Gujarat), Alamadhi (T.N.), Chiplima (Orissa), Simligurhi (Orissa), Andesh Nagar (U.P), Hisargatha (Karnataka).► Important fodder production termology centres are at Hissar, Kalyani (W Bengal), Gandhinagar, Alamadhi, Suratgarh and Shehoma

(J.K.).

Sheep► All India average is 15%.► India has 6th position in the world.