Funciones Frith-estudio Práctico

8/9/2019 Funciones Frith-estudio Prctico

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T H E F U N C T I O N S O F P O P U L A R M U S I C PN T H E L I V E S O F A D O L E S C E N T S

by

Isaac Lamont Bickmore

A thesis submitted to the faculty of

The Universi ty of Utah

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Music

n

Music Educat ion

School of Music

The Universi ty of Utah

May 2 1

THE FUNCTIONS OF POPULAR MUSIC

N

THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS

by

Isaac Lamont Bickmore

thesis su

bmitted to

the

facu lt

y

o

The University o Utah

in

partial fulfi llm e

nt

o the requiremen ts for the degree o

Master

o

Music

n

Music ducation

School o Music

The University

o

Utah

May 2 1


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Copyr ight Isaac Lamont Bickmore 2 1

All Rights Reserved

Copyright Isaac Lamont Bickmore 2 1

All Rights Reserved


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THE UNIVRSIY OF UA GRADA SCOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMTTEE APPROVAL

of a esi umied y

ac amont Bikmore

Thi i ba een rea y a memer o e foowing upeoy omiee ad majoiy voe hs ee fou 10e aifao.

r ]

ltD

al : Ie Lien

,


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THE UNIVRSY OF A GRADA CL

FINAL READNG APPROVAL

o the Graduae Council of he ivesiy of Uh:

1 have ead e ess of saa amon Bckmoe in s al formand ve found ba (1) is oa, ctos ad ogpc sye re consse adacceptae; (2) s ustrae maeias cudg ges es and cs are i paceand 3) te a anscp s sasfacoy o e supevisoy coee d s eady forssso o he Grduae coo.

Dae

Appoved fo e MajorDeparen

Roe WazairDa

Appoed fo he Grdae Conci

Caes ightDe oTbe Gdue cboo


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A B S T R A C T

This study determines that a specified group of adolescents' favorite songs fulfill

Frith's functions of popular music; (a) to create a type of self-definition; (b) to provide a

way of managing the relat ionship between one's private and public emotional l ives; (c) to

shape popular memory, organize one's sense of t ime, and intensify a given experience;

and (d) to provide a sense of musical ownership, according to those same adolescents '

own writ ings and a survey on that topic. Sophomores from a high school in the Salt Lake

Valley were given an assignment that included a one-page essay describing what

functions their favorite song performs in their life, and a survey based on Frith's

Fun ctions of Popu lar M usic . The data collected from that assignm ent were analyzed

using a deductive approach described by Mark Abrahamson to determine whether the

functions that the students ascribed to their songs matched Fri th 's functions.

ABSTRACT

This study det ermines that a specified group

of

adolescents' favorite songs

fu

lfill

Frith's functions

of

popular music; (a) to create a lype of self-definition ; (b) to provide a

way

of

managing the relationship between

one's

private and public emotional lives; (c) to

shape popular memory. organize one 's sense

of

time, and intensify a given experience;

and Cd to provide a sense

of

musical ownership, according to those sa

me

ado lescents'

own writings and a su rvey on that topi

c.

Sophomores from a high school

in

the Salt Lake

Valley were given an assignment that included a one-page essay descr ibing what

functions their favorite song performs

in

their life, and a survey based on Frith 's

Functions ofPopuiar Music. The data collected from that ass igrun

en

t were analyzed

u

sing

a deductive approach described by Mark Abrahamson to determine whether the

functions that the students ascribed to their songs matched Frith's functions.


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Dedicated to Les ley Wil l Mo m and Dad

edicated to Lesley Will Mom and Dad


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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

ABS T RACT iv

C H A P T E R

I INT R ODU CT IO N 1

Justification of the Study 1

Purp ose of the Study 2

I I RE V IE W OF L IT E RA T UR E 4

Summary 13

III M ET HO D 14

Pilot Studies 14

Proce dure for Actu al Study 16

IV ANA L YS IS AN D RE S U L T S 2 2

Survey 22

The Essay 31

Summary 44

V S U M M A R Y D I S C U SS I O N C O N C L U S I O N S R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

A N D A P P L I C A T I O N S O F P O P U L A R M U S I C I N T H E

C L A S S R O O M 4 5

Summary 45

Discussion 49

Conclusions 54

Reco mm endation s for Further Research 55

Applications of Popular M usic in the Classroom 59

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT. ..... . .... .... ... ..... ... . .... ... .. .. . IV

CHAPTER

INT

RODU

CTI

ON

.

..

.. .. .

....... . ...

..

Ju st ificat

ion

of

the Stud

y...............

.. .

..................

.. .

............

I

Purpo

se

orthe Study.......

..................................

.. .

............

2

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... .. .. ........ .... ...... ........ 4

Summary.......................

.....

.. .

......

.. ..... ...

...

... ..... 13

II I METHOD

.

..

.

14

Pilot Studies .. . .. . ....................... .. . .........

.......

. .

....

. .. .

..

. . . .. 14

Procedure for Actual Study .. . .. . . ._._............................ .......... 16

IV ANALYSIS AND RESULTS............. ..... .........

22

Survey............................. .. .. .

.....

..................... .... . ... ......

22

The Essay...... ..................... .. . ........ .. . ....... .................. .... . 31

Sum .mary........................ ...............................................

44

V SUMMARY DIS

CUSS

ION CONCL

US

IONS RECOMMENDATIONS

AND APPLICATI

ONS OF

POPULAR MUSIC IN THE

CLASSROOM

......... 45

Sunlmary ...................... . . .

.....

... ... ......... . ........ .......... . ... 45

Discuss

ion

. ..... ... ... ... ... ....... ..... ... ... ... ... ... . .. . ... .. ... ... ... . .. .... 49

Conclu

sions......................................... ...... ...........

.

......

.... 54

Re

comm endations for Further Re search...

.....

.... ... ...

.....

....... ...... 55

Applications of Popular Music in the Classroom.. ............. ......... 59


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A P P E N D I X

A E S S A Y T E M P L A T E 6

B F IR S T S U R V E Y T E M P L A T E 6 4

C F IN A L E S S A Y T E M P L A T E 6 7

D F IN A L S U R V E Y 6 9

E THE FINA L SCRIPT 7

F A N A L Y Z E D E S S A Y 7 4

R E F E R E N C E S 7 6

vii

APPEN

DIX

A ESSAY TEMPLATE

62

B FIRST SURVEY TEMPLATE 64

C FINAL

ESSA

Y TEMPLATE

67

D FINAL SURVEy

69

E THE FINAL

SC

RIPT

72

F ANALYZED ESSAy 74

REFERENCES

76

ll


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CHAP T E R I

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Justification of the Study

The M usic Edu cators Nation al Conferen ce declared in 1969 that: M usic

education must encompass all mu sic (Housewright, Sarig , MacC luskey, & Hughes,

1969,

p.45). In the spirit of that declaration, and because I have found popular music

enriching, educational, and transformative in my life, I wanted to examine the functions

of popular music in the lives of adolescents. The reason that I chose to do this study with

a group of adolescents is because I am a music teacher and I work with adolescents. As a

music educator of adolescents, it is important to understand what my students listen to,

why they listen to it, and, in the case of this study, how that music functions in their lives.

Bucholtz (2002) delves into youth culture from an anthropological standpoint.

She challenges the approach of treating adolescence as a life stage only in the context of

preparing youth for adulthood. She presents evidence supporting the idea that

adolescence does function as a culture, independent in some ways from the culture of

adulthood. She discusses how popular music is one piece of evidence to support that idea.

Frith (1983) writes about the sociology of youth and popular music in a primarily

British context. His book is as much a discussion about youth and teenagers as it is a

discussion about popular music. Rock and roll and its many branches, including hip-hop,

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Justification

o

the Study

The Music Educators National Conference declared in 1969 that: Music

education must encompass all music (Housewright, Sarig, MacCluskey, Hughes,

1969, p.4S).

n

the spirit

o

that declaration, and because I have found popular music

enriching, educational, and trans formative in my life, I wanted to examine the functions

o popular music in the lives o adolescents. The reason that I chose to do this study with

a group o adolcscents

is

because I am a music teacher and I work with adolescents. As a

music educator

o

adolescents, it

is

important

to

understand what my students listen to,

why they listen

to

it, and, in the case o this study, how that music functions in their lives.

Bucholtz (2002) delves into youth culture from an anthropological standpoint.

She challenges the approach o treating adolescence as a life stage only in the context o

preparing youth for adulthood. She presents evidence supporting the idea that

adolescence does function

s

a culture, independent in some ways from the culture o

adulthood. She discusses how popular music is one piece

o

evidence

to

support that idea.

Frith (1983) writes about the sociology

o

youth and popular music in a primarily

British context. His book

is

as much a discussion about youth and teenagers

s

it is a

discussion about popular music. Rock and roll and its many branches, including hip-hop,


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2

rap,

punk rock, grunge, metal , and many others have generally always been considered as

music for teenagers.

Simo n Fri th s s study (1987 ) is an important piece of research about the function

of popular mus ic, including how it functions in society as a who le and in specific groups .

Fri th (1987) identif ies, and provides supporting ev idence for, four sociological functions

of popular mu sic: (a) to create a type of self-definit ion; (b) to provide a way of m anag ing

the relat ionship between on e s private and public emo tional l ives; (c) to shape po pular

mem ory, organ ize on e s sense of t ime, and intensify a given experience; and (d) to

provide a sense of musical ownership. Fri th writes about youth in relat ion to popular

mus ic culture and in relat ion to how mu sic functions in society, but he does not discuss

how these functions are fulfilled in the lives of adolescents specifically in this document.

The analysis of the data collected from this assignment proceeded using a

deductive approach described by Mark Abrahamson (1981) to determine whether the

functions that the students ascribed to their favorite so ngs match ed F ri th s (1987 )

functions.

Purpose of the Study

The purpo se of the present study was to verify wh ether Fr i th s four sociological

functions of popular music do in fact hold true in the lives of a specific group of

adolescents. Part icipants wrote a one-page essay about their favori te song and then

com pleted a survey based on Fri th s four sociological functions of popu lar music. Som e

part icipants divulged information in their writ ing that implied that their favori te songs do

function according to Fri t h s functions. The survey provides information that

rap, punk rock, grunge, metal, and many others have generally always been considered as

music for teenagers.

Simon Friths s study (1987) is an important piece o research about the function

o

popular music, including how it functions in society as a whole and in specific groups.

Frith (1987) identifies, and provides supporting evidence for, four sociological functions

o popular music: (a) to create a type o self-definition; (b) to provide a way o managing

the relationship between one s private and public emotional lives; (c) to shape popular

memory, organize one s sense o time, and intensify a given experience; and (d) to

provide a sense

o

musical ownership. Frith writes about youth in relation to popular

music culture and in relation to how music functions in society, but he does not discuss

how these functions are fulfilled in the lives o adolescents specifically in this document.

The analysis o the data collected from this assignment proceeded using a

deductive approach described by Mark Abrahamson (1981) to determine whether the

functions that the students ascribed to their favorite songs matched Frith s (1987)

functions.

Purpose

o

the Study

The purpose

o

the present study was to verify whether Frith s four sociological

functions o popular music do in fact hold true in the lives o a specific group o

adolescents. Participants wrote a one-page essay about their favorite song and then

completed a survey based on Frith s four sociological functions

o

popular music. Some

participants divulged information in their writing that implied that their favorite songs do

function according to Frith s functions. The survey provides information that


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3

dem onstrates that the part icipants favori te son gs do function ac cording to Fri th s four

functions at varying levels.

demonstrates that the participants favor

e songs do func

o

according to Frith s four

funct ions at varying levels.

3


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CHAPTER II

R E V I E W O F L I T E R A T U R E

There are many studies about the functions of music. These studies regarding both

the sociological and psychological functions of music have been as specific as

researching how music functions in the set t ing of the Civil Rights Movement and as

general as re-answe ring the question W hat psychological functions do es music serve in

everyday l ife? North (19 99) sets out to re-answer that question. He states:

The research findings lead us to conclude that the social functions of music are

manifested in three principal ways for the individual , namely in the management

of self-identi ty, interpersonal relat ionships and mo od. Th is leads us to propose a

new agenda for music psychology which places the social dimension at i ts core,

and which considers the interdisciplinary context; the effects of the

'democratization' of music; the role of theory the relat ionship between theory and

practice; and the implications for research methodology, (p.84)

Other scholars have done studies that examine the functions of music, including

popular m usic, in many different set t ings. There are, for examp le, scholars who have

exam ined the functions of music in the genre of fi lm (Vitouch, 2 001). The purpo se of his

study was to investigate experim entally mu sic context effects on perc eiver s ' plot related

exp ectatio n due to different typ es of film mu sic (p.70 ). He specifically tried not to use

stereotyped st imuli . In other words, he did not use music that people would normally

associate with certain feelings or actions. In Vitouch's (2001) study, 48 part icipants were

presented with one of two music versions (original v. fake score) of the visually identical

f i lm sequence. They then wrote brief continuations of the plot , which were subsequently

CHAPTER

II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There are many studies about the functions o music. These studies regarding both

the sociological and psychological functions

o

music have been as specific as

researching how music functions in the setting o the Civil Rights Movement and as

general as re-answering the question What psychological functions does music serve in

everyday life? North (1999) sets out to re-answer that question. He states:

The research findings lead us to conclude that the social functions o music are

manifested in three principal ways for the individual, namely in the management

o

self-identity, interpersonal relationships and mood. This leads

us

to propose a

new agenda for music psychology which places the social dimension at its core,

and which considers the interdisciplinary context; the effects o the

'democratization' o music; the role o theory the relationship between theory and

practice; and the implications for research methodology. (p.84)

Other scholars have done studies that examine the functions o music, including

popular music, in many different settings. There are, for example, scholars who have

examined the functions

o

music in the genre o film (Vitouch, 2001). The purpose o his

study was to investigate experimentally music context effects on perceivers' plot related

expectation due to different types

o

film music (p.70). He specifically tried not to use

stereotyped stimuli. In other words, he did not use music that people would normally

associate with certain feelings or actions. In Vitouch's (2001) study,

48

participants were

presented with one o two music versions (original

v

fake score) o the visually identical

film sequence. They then wrote brief continuations

o

the plot, which were subsequently


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5

analyzed using quantitative and qualitative content analysis, with the focus on emotional

content. The results of the study indicated that vie we rs '/l isten ers ' an ticipations about the

further development of a sequence are systematically influenced by the underlying film

mu sic, which implicitly co-determ ines the psycholo gical reality of the scen e (p.70).

Lapedis (1999) studied the function and effect of popular music in cinema. In this

study she examines the soundtracks of three films and how popular music functions in the

particular context of each film. She argues that the Thre e-m inute cu lture of Rock and

P o p (p.368) has affected the narrative structure of mainstream cinema. Her study is

important, because it discusses the functionality of popular music, and popular music

song lyrics in the context of film.

Rosenthal (2001) and Rose (2007) both present studies that have to do with the

function of music in the context of socio-political movements such as the civil rights

movement. Rose (2007) specifically discusses how music functioned in the civil rights

movement. Rose bases her examination on the 10 functions of music as described by

Merriam (1964). Rose concludes that Merriam's functions held true in the lives of the

Freedom Singers. Rosenthal discusses how music functions within any movement. He

specifically discusses the functions of popu lar mu sic as mo vem ent mu sic and

concludes that popular music has properties that lend themselves to mobilizing people.

He further concludes that in certain instances mo vem ent m usi c can help educate,

recruit, and/or mob ilize those not already comm itted to strug gle (p.l 1).

Pieslak (2009) examines the function of popular music, particularly rap and metal,

in the lives of soldiers in the Iraq war. Many personal accounts are given of how music is

used by soldiers in different way s. Pieslak describes in detail how mu sic plays a part in

5

analyzed using quantitative and qualitative content analysis, with the focus on emotional

content. The results of the study indicated that viewers' /listeners' anticipations about the

further development

of

a sequence are systematically influenced by the underlying film

music, which implicitly co-determines the psychological reality of the scene (p.70).

Lapedis (1999) studied the function and effect of popular music

in

cinema. In this

study she examines the soundtracks

of

three films and how popular music functions in the

particular context

of

each film. She argues that the Three-minute culture of Rock and

Pop (p.368) has affected the narrative structure of mainstream cinema. Her study is

important, because it discusses the functionality of popular music, and popular music

song lyrics in the context of film.

Rosenthal (200 I) and Rose (2007) both present studies that have to do with the

function

of

music in the context of socio-political movements such as the civil rights

movement. Rose (2007) specifically discusses how music functioned in the civil rights

movement. Rose bases her examination on the 1 functions of music as described by

Merriam (1964). Rose concludes that Merriam's functions held true in the lives

of

the

Freedom Singers. Rosenthal discusses how music functions within any movement. He

specifically discusses the functions of popular music as movement music and

concludes that popular music has properties that lend themselves to mobilizing people.

He further concludes that in certain instances movement music can help educate,

recruit, and/or mobilize those not already committed to struggle p.ll).

Pieslak (2009) examines the function of popular music, particularly rap and metal,

in the lives of soldiers in the Iraq war. Many personal accounts are given

of

how music

is

used

by

soldiers in different ways. Pieslak describes in detail how music plays a part in


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6

the every-day life of a soldier. He describes the use of technology as a factor in how

music plays a bigger role now in the life of a soldier than it has in previous wars.

Pieslak's (2009) work is a descriptive account rather than a study but the information in

his work is valuable to this study because of the personal accounts of soldiers that

describe how music functions in their lives. Many of the soldiers ' accounts imply that

Frith's four sociological functions hold true in their lives.

Cooper (1996) examines the sociological functions of popular love songs whose

themes were epistolary in nature, or relating to or denoting the writing of letters, during a

time of forced separation for many couples, the Second World War. Cooper concludes

that the epistolary form became a standard form for popular music in this era and that it

was calculatedly marketed to a willing population who wanted songs that sounded like

letters from home. People adopted the songs for themselves and used lyrics from them for

their own letters to loved ones. These songs helped to enhance many couples ' long

distance relationships.

McL eod (2006) writes about how gay anthe ms by well-know n homosexual

artists function in the context of sporting events. M cLe od conclud es that gay ant hem s

have thus been successfully co-opted to serve traditional heterosexual masculine leisure

(p.543) He also concludes that rock music can function in ways that it was not intended

to function. Popular music songs can be and have been adopted by groups or individuals

for reasons other than the reasons that artists had for writing the song. One famous

example of this is Charles Manson's use of the Beatles song Helter Skelter Manson

claimed that this song and other songs from the White Album were part of an apocalyptic

prophecy. Paul McCartney has said that the song was written in response to a review of

the every-day life o a soldier. He describes the use o technology as a factor in how

music plays a bigger role now in the life o a soldier than it has in previous wars.

Pieslak's (2009) work is a descriptive account rather than a study but the information n

his work is valuable to this study because o the personal accounts o soldiers that

describe how music functions in their lives. Many o

the soldiers' accounts imply that

Frith's four sociological functions hold true in their lives.

6

Cooper (1996) examines the sociological functions o popular love songs whose

themes were epistolary in nature, or relating to or denoting the writing o letters, during a

time o forced separation for many couples, the Second World War. Cooper concludes

that the epistolary form became a standard form for popular music in this era and that it

was calculatedly marketed to a willing population who wanted songs that sounded like

letters from home. People adopted the songs for themselves and used lyrics from them for

their own letters to loved ones. These songs helped to enhance many couples' long

distance relationships.

McLeod (2006) writes about how gay anthems by well-known homosexual

artists function in the context

o sporting events. McLeod concludes that gay anthems

have thus been successfully co-opted to serve traditional heterosexual masculine leisure

(p.543) He also concludes that rock music can function in ways that it was not intended

to function. Popular music songs can be and have been adopted by groups or individuals

for reasons other than the reasons that artists had for writing the song. One famous

example o this s Charles Manson's use o the Beatles song

Helter Skelter

Manson

claimed that this song and other songs from the White

lbum

were part o an apocalyptic

prophecy. Paul McCartney has said that the song was written in response to a review o


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7

the Who s song I an See for M iles and is an attempt to out-do that song in loudness

specifically using tape echo. The Beatles never claimed to write any proph ecies,

apocalyptic or otherwise.

Scholars have ex amined the relat ionship of words and mu sic and the function that

words add to the music in which they are placed. Fornas (2003) examines the relat ionship

of words and music in the realm of popular music in part icular . He examines nonsense

lyrics, grunts, aural poetry, spoken lyrics, and vocalization. He discusses h ow w ords can

take on different functions when they are sung or presented in the context of music. He

also discusses how w ords are part icularly imp ortant to the function of popular music. He

mentions that when people listen to popular music they do not divorce the lyrics from the

music but they hear it as a whole.

Because the present study deals with the functions of popular music in the lives of

adolesce nts, a review of some of the important l i terature that presents research a bout

adolescence was needed. Adolescence has been studied by many anthropologists as

nothing but a transit ional stage between youth and adulthood, saying nothing about the

contributions of adolescence to culture and how adolescence functions in many ways

outside of the framework of adulthood. B ucholtz (200 2) delves into youth culture from an

anthropo logical standpoint . She challenges the approach of treating adolescence as a l i fe

stage only in the context of preparing youth for adulthood. She presents evidence

supporting the idea that adolescence does function as a culture independent in some ways

from the culture of adulthood. She discusses how popular music is one piece of evidence

to support that idea.

the

Who s

song I an See

or

Miles and is an attempt to out-do that song in loudness

specifically using tape echo. The Beatles never claimed to write any prophecies,

apocalyptic or otherwise.

Scholars have examined the relationship

of

words and music and the function that

words add to the music in which they are placed. Fornas 2003) examines the relationship

of

words and music in the realm

of

popular music in particular. He examines nonsense

lyrics, grunts, aural poetry, spoken lyrics, and vocalization. He discusses how words can

take on different functions when they are sung or presented in the context of music. He

also discusses how words are particularly important to the function of popular music. He

mentions that when people listen to popular music they do not divorce the lyrics from the

music but they hear it as a whole.

Because the present study deals with the functions of popular music in the lives of

adolescents, a review

of

some of the important literature that presents research about

adolescence was needed. Adolescence has been studied y many anthropologists as

nothing but a transitional stage between youth and adulthood, saying nothing about the

contributions of adolescence to culture and how adolescence functions in many ways

outside

of

the framework of adulthood. Bucholtz 2002) delves into youth culture from an

anthropological standpoint. She challenges the approach of treating adolescence as a life

stage only in the context of preparing youth for adulthood. She presents evidence

supporting the idea that adolescence does function as a culture independent

in

some ways

from the culture

of

adulthood. She discusses how popular music is one piece

of

evidence

to support that idea.


16/85

8

There are several studies about musical taste. Johnstone and Katz (1957) examine

musical taste among teenaged girls. The study deals with preference in popular music

within the context of group identity and geographic location in South Side Chicago. The

fieldwork was conducted during the winter and spring of 1954-55 using questionnaires

completed by eight clubs of teenage girls. The questions covered the following: (a)

relative interest in various types of music; (b) preferences in songs in the then-current

'Hit P arad e;' (c) preferences in disk jock eys; (d) preferences in particular kinds of

popular songs; (e) sociometric choices of best friends; and (f) dating. This study is

important, because it outlines the functions of popular music in the lives of adolescent

girls by finding out their preferences through studying their relationships to place and to

other people. Johnstone and Katz's study is similar to the present study, because it

involves using participants ' writing about songs that they prefer, or songs that they

consider to be their favorite songs. The fact that the songs that the participants of

Johnstone and Katz's study chose reflect place and peer group speaks to the validity of

Fri th's functions, particularly the second which is to provide a way of ma naging the

relationship betwe en on e's private and public emotion al lives and the first which is to

create a type of self-definition.

Bradley (2005) prese nts a series of a teenage g irl 's jour nal entries from the year

that Martin Luther King Jr. was shot. She writes about how she would not come to school

if not for her choir class. She discusses the subversive teaching tactics of her choir

teacher who teaches using patriotic Russian hymns and civil rights folk songs. She also

writes about the function of choral music in her teenaged life. She tells about how the

music she learns in class and the discussion about that music help her (a) to create a type

8

There are several studies about musical taste. Johnstone and Katz (1957) examine

musical taste among teenaged girls. The study deals with preference in popular music

within the context of group identity and geographic location in South Side Chicago. The

fieldwork was conducted during the winter and spring of 1954-55 using questionnaires

completed by eight clubs of teenage girls. The questions covered the following: (a)

relative interest in various types of music; (b) preferences in songs in the then-currcnt

Hit

Parade;' (c) preferences in disk jockeys; (d) preferences in particular kinds of

popular songs; (e) sociometric choices of best friends; and I) dating. This study is

important, because it outlines the functions

of

popular music in the lives of adolescent

girls

y

finding out their preferences through studying their relationships

to

place and to

other people. Johnstone and Katz's study is similar to the present study, because it

involves using participants' writing about songs that they prefer, or songs that they

consider

to

be their favorite songs. The fact that the songs that the participants of

Johnstone and Katz's study chose reflect place and peer group speaks to the validity of

Frith's functions, particularly the second which

is

to provide a way

of

managing the

relationship between one s private and public emotional lives and the first which is to

create a type of self-definition.

Bradley (2005) presents a series of a teenage girl's journal entries from the year

that Martin Luther King Jr. was shot. She writes about how she would not come to school

if not for her choir class. She discusses the subversive teaching tactics of her choir

teacher who teaches using patriotic Russian hymns and civil rights folk songs. She also

writes about the function of choral music in her teenaged life. She tells about how the

music she learns in class and the discussion about that music help her (a)

to

create a type


17/85

9

of self-definit ion; (b) to provide a way of manag ing the relat ionship betwee n on e's

private and public emotional l ives; (c) to shape popular memory, organize one's sense of

t ime, and intensify a given experience; and (d) to provide a sense of musical o wne rship,

which are Fri th 's (1987) functions of popular music. Although she does not write directly

abo ut these functions, she uses langua ge that implies that the mu sic in her life fulfills

these functions.

Cam pbell , Connell , and Beegle (2007) aimed to determine the significance of

music and music education to middle and high school adolescents, including those

enrolled and not enrolled in school music progra ms (p.220). The main method for this

study was analysis of essays, statements, and reflections in response to a national essay

contest . Analysis was undertaken using an inductive approach to analyze content through

the triangulation of interpretations by the investigators. They were able to identify five

principal themes through this process within the expressed meanings of music by

adolescents: (a) identity formation in and through music; (b) emotional benefits; (c)

music's life benefits, including character-building and life skills; (d) social benefits; and

(e) posit ive and negative impressions of school music programs and their teachers. This

study is important because the authors provide an example of content analysis of the

writ ings of adolescents. I t is also important because they write about how music functions

in the lives of adolescents.

Fri th (1983) writes about the sociology of youth and popular music in a primarily

British context. He discusses the way different musics seem to attract different groups.

Teenager and youth culture are two terms that are key to Fri th 's discussion about the

sociolog y of you th and pop ular music . Th ese different terms partly reflect different

9

of

self-definition; (b) to provide a way

of

managing the relationship between one s

private and public emotional lives; (c) to shape popular memory, organize one s sense of

time, and intensify a given experience; and (d) to provide a sense

of

musical ownership,

which are Frith's (1987) functions

of

popular music. Although she does not write directly

about these functions, she uses language that implies that the music in her life fulfills

these functions.

Campbell, Connell, and Beegle (2007) aimed to determine the significance

of

music and music education to middle and high school adolescents, including those

enrolled and not enrolled

in

school music programs (p.220). The main method for this

study was analysis

of

essays, statements, and reflections in response to a national essay

contest. Analysis was undertaken using an inductive approach to analyze content through

the triangulation

of

interpretations by the investigators. They were able to identify five

principal themes through this process within the expressed meanings

of

music by

adolescents: (a) identity formation in and through music; (b) emotional benefits; (c)

music's life benefits, including character-building and life skills; (d) social benefits; and

(e) positive and negative impressions of school music programs and their teachers. This

study is important because the authors provide an example

of

content analysis

of

the

writings of adolescents. t is also important because they write about how music functions

n

the lives

of

adolescents.

Frith (1983) writes about the sociology of youth and popular music in a primarily

British context. He discusses the way different musics seem to attract different groups.

Teenager and youth culture are two terms that are key to Frith 's discussion about the

sociology

of

youth and popular music. These different terms partly reflect different


18/85

10

historical moments, part ly different concerns, and they often overlap (p .181). Frith

explains that the term teena ger is a 1950s concept , and that you th and youth

culture are terms from the 1960s. The term teenag er refers mostly to the working-class

you ng , the way that Frith uses it, and that the term yo uth sugg ests the insignificance of

class distinctions at this age, but is usually and implicitly applied to the middle-class

young as it is used in his work. Frith examines both of these terms, teenager and youth, in

the context of popular music particularly in the period from 1950 to 1970. Other topics he

discusses are youth and production, youth and music, the use of music, music and class,

the sociology of taste, subcultures, and girls and youth culture. All of these topics are

discussed in a sect ion of Fri th 's book called Rock Co nsum ption. Fri th consistent ly

focuses on the ways in which popular music functions in the lives of youth in this book.

However, he does not outline or identify a set of sociological functions of popular music

in this work.

Frith (1987) identifies four sociological functions of popular music: (a) to create a

type of self-definition; (b) to provide a way of managing the relationship between one's

private and public emotional l ives; (c) to shape popular memory, organize one's sense of

t ime,

and intensify a given experience; and (d) to provide a sense of musical ownership.

Frith (1987) discusses in detail how each of these functions might work in the lives of

real people . He gives exa m ples of what he m ean s in each case . Frith writes about his first

function, or, to create a type of self-definition; Th e plea sure that po p music prod uces is a

pleasure of identification - with the music we like, with the performers of that music,

with the other people who like it

(p .

140). Frith also mentio ns that the produc tion of

identity is also a production of nonidentity - it is a process of inclusion and exclusion

1

historical moments, partly different concerns, and they often overlap (p.181). Frith

explains that the term teenager

is

a 1950s concept, and that youth and youth

culture are terms from the 1960s. The term teenager refers mostly to the working-class

young, the way that Frith uses it, and that the term youth suggests the insignificance o

class distinctions at this age, but

is

usually and implicitly applied to the middle-class

young

as

it is used in his work. Frith examines both o these terms, teenager and youth, in

the context o popular music particularly in the period from 1950 to 1970. Other topics he

discusses are youth and production, youth and music, the use o music, music and class,

the sociology

o

taste, subcultures, and girls and youth culture. All o these topics are

discussed in a section o Frith's book called Rock Consumption. Frith consistently

focuses on the ways in which popular music functions in the lives o youth in this book.

However, he does not outline or identify a set o sociological functions

o

popular music

in this work.

Frith (1987) identifies four sociological functions o popular music: (a)

to

create a

type ofself-dcfinition; (b)

to

provide a way

o

managing the relationship between one's

private and public emotional lives; (c)

to

shape popular memory, organize one's sense o

time, and intensify a given experience; and (d) to provide a sense

o

musical ownership.

Frith (1987) discusses in detail how each o these functions might work in the lives o

real people. He gives examples o what he means in each case. Frith writes about his first

function, or,

to

create a type o self-definition; The pleasure that pop music produces is a

pleasure o identification - with the music we like, with the performers

o

that music,

with the other people who like it (p.140). Frith also mentions that the production o

identity

is

also a production

o

nonidentity - it

is

a process

o

inclusion and exclusion


19/85

11

(p.140). Frith explains his second function, or, to provide a way of ma nag ing th e

relat ionship between one's private and public emotional l ives.

Love songs are a way of giving emotional intensity to the sorts of intimate

things we say to each other (and to ourselves) in words that are, in

themselves, quite flat. It is a peculiarity of everyday language that our

most fraught and revealing declarations of feeling have to use phrases - T

love/hate you' , 'Help me ' , ' I 'm angry/scared' - which are boring and

banal; and so our culture has a supply of a million pop songs, which say

these things for us in numerous interesting and involving ways. These

songs do not replace our conversations - pop singers do not do our

courting for us - but they make our feelings seem richer and more

convincing than we can make them appear in our own words, even to

ourselves, (p .141)

Frith clarifies his third function.

The third function of popular music is to shape popular memory, to

organize our sense of time. Clearly one of the effects of all music, not just

pop , is to intensify our experience of the present. One measure of good

music, to put it another way, is, precisely, its 'presence', its ability to

' s t o p '

time, to make us feel we are living within the moment, with no

memory or anxiety about what has come before, what will come after,

(p .140)

Frith also explains that this function has much to do with youth and how music does more

than jus t "trigger asso ciated m em orie s, but, rather, that mu sic in itself prov ides our m ost

vivid experience of time pas sing." Fri th gives an explanation of how youth is

experienced. "You th is experienced, that is , as an intense presence, through an im patience

for time to pass and a regret that it is doing so, in a series of speeding, physically insistent

moments that have nostalgia coded into them." (p.140)

Frith explains that he learned of his fourth function through his work as a rock

critic. He describes that through receiving abusive mail from fans of popular musicians of

wh om he has given unfavo rable revie ws, he realized that people did not jus t like the

groups they listened to, they owned them. They did not own them in the sense that they

(p.140). Frith explains his second function, or, to provide a way

of

managing the

relationship between one s private and public emotional lives.

Love songs are a way

of

giving emotional intensity to the sorts

of

intimate

things we say to each other (and to ourselves) in words that are, in

themselves, quite flat.

t

is a peculiarity

of

everyday language that our

most fraught and revealing declarations

of

feeling have to use phrases - I

love/hate you', 'Help me ',

I m

angry/scared' -which are boring and

banal; and so our culture has a supply of a million pop songs, which say

these things for us in numerous interesting and involving ways. These

songs do not replace our conversations - pop singers do not do our

courting for us - but they make our feelings seem richer and more

convincing than we can make them appear in our own words, even to

ourselves. (p.14l)

Frith clarifies his third function.

The third function

of

popular music

is

to shape popular memory, to

organize our sense

of

time. Clearly one

of

the effects

of

all music, not just

pop, is to intensify our experience of the present. One measure of good

music, to put it another way, is, precisely, its 'presence', its ability to

stop time, to make us feel we are living within the moment, with no

memory or anxiety about what has come before, what will come after.

(p.140)

Frith also explains that this function has much to do with youth and how music does more

than just "tr igger associated memories, but, rather, that music in itself provides our most

vivid experience

of

time passing." Frith gives an explanation

of

how youth

is

experienced. "Youth is experienced, that is, as an intense presence, through an impatience

for time to pass and a regret that it is doing so, in a series of speeding, physically insistent

moments that have nostalgia coded into them." (p.140)

Frith explains that he learned of his fourth function through his work as a rock

critic. He describes that through receiving abusive mail from fans

of

popular musicians

of

whom he has given unfavorable reviews, he realized that people did not just like the

groups they listened to, they owned them. They did not own them in the sense that they


20/85

12

had purc hase d the album but as Frith explains ; it is not jus t the record that peo ple think

they own: we feel that we also possess the song itself the particular performance, and its

performer. In 'possessing' music, we make it part of our own identity and build it into our

sense of ourselves

(p .

142).

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a certain group of adolescents'

favorite songs fulfill Frith's functions of popular music according to those same

adolescents' own writings and a survey on that topic. So many adolescents listen to

popular music. Many scholars such as Fri th (1987) bel ieve that popular music is worthy

of study. Additionally, the Music Educators National Conference declared in 1969 that:

M usic education must encom pass al l mu sic (Housew right , Sarig, Ma cClusk ey, &

Hughes, 1969, p.45). Because of these facts it seems important that educators know about

how popular music functions in the lives of their students.

Although most of the reviewed literature has been instrumental in devising the

method of research in the present s tudy, the work of Abrahamson served exclusively as a

guide for the methodolog y therein. Abra ham son (198 3) states, If we begin with a theory

that we wish to test empirically, we will proceed in a deductive mannerfrom the more

general or abstract to the more specific or concrete (p.l46). He describes the difference

between induction and deduction and gives examples of both. The framework that he lays

out is the basis for the way the meaning is drawn from the data in this study using the

deductive approach. Figure 1 describes the process in which one can ei ther deduce or

induce value from a given set of data.

2

had purchased the album but as Frith explains; it is not

just

the record that people think

they own: we feel that we also possess the song itself, the particular performance, and its

performer. In 'possessing' music, we make

it

part of our own identity and build it into our

sense of ourselves (p.142).

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a certain group of adolescents'

favorite songs fulfill Frith's functions of popular music according to those same

adolescents' own writings and a survey on that topic. So many adolescents listen to

popular music. Many scholars such as Frith (1987) believe that popular music is worthy

of

study. Additionally, the Music Educators National Conference declared in 1969 that:

Music education must encompass all music (Housewright, Sarig, MacCluskcy,

Hughes, 1969,

pAS .

Because

of

these facts it seems important that educators know about

how popular music functions in the lives

of their students.

Although most of the reviewed literature has been instrumental in devising the

method

of

research in the present study, the work of Abrahamson served exclusively as a

guide for the methodology therein. Abrahamson (1983) states,

If

we begin with a theory

that we wish to test empirically, we will proceed in a deductive

manner-from

the more

general or abstract to the more specific or concrete (p.146). He describes the difference

between induction and deduction and gives examples of both. The framework that he lays

out is the basis for the way the meaning is drawn from the data in this study using the

deductive approach. Figure 1 describes the process in which one can either deduce or

induce value from a given set

of

data.


21/85

13

Propositions from a Theory

i t

Operational Definitions of Concepts

i t

Assignment of Values to Individual Cases

(| Deductive Path, f = Inductive Path)

Abrahamoff (1983)

Figure 1. Chains of Thought

Summary

Research has been done regarding the functions of popular music as well as the

functions of music in general (Frith, 1983; Frith, 1987; North, 1999). Others have

researched how music functions in specific settings (Cam pbell, Con nell, Beegle, 200 7;

Cooper, 1996; Frith, 1983; Lapedis, 1999; Pieslak, 2009; Rose, 2007; Rosenthal, 2001;

Vitouch, 2001). Research has been done regarding the culture of youth (Bucholtz, 2002).

Others have examined popular music as a part of the culture of youth (Campbell, et al.,

2007 ;

Frith, 1983; Johnsto ne Katz, 1957). Tho ugh the relevant literature exam ines both

the sociological functions of popular music (Frith, 1987) and youth culture (Bucholtz,

2002) ,

even how popular music is an element of youth culture (Campbell, et al., 2007;

Frith, 1983; Johnston e Katz, 1957), the present study exam ines Frit h's functions of

popular music in the lives of a specific group of adolescents.

Propositions from a Theory

j t

Operational Definition s of Concepts

j

t

Assignment of Values to Individual Cases

j

Deductive Path,

t

Induct ive Path)

Abrahamoff (1983)

Figure I. Chains

of

Thought

Summary

13

Research has been done regard in g the functions of popular music as well as the

funct ions of music in general (Fri th, 1983; Frith,

\98

; North, 1999). Others have

researched how mllsic functio ns in specific se ttings (Campbell, Connell , Beegle, 2007;

Cooper, 1996; Frith, 1983 ; Lapedis, 1999; ieslak, 2009; Rose, 2007; Rosenthal, 200 1;

VitOllch, 200 1). Research has been done regarding the culture

of

youth (Bucholtz, 2002).

Others

ha

ve examined popular music as a part of the culture

of

youth (Campbell , et a ,

2007; Frith, 1983; Johnstone Katz, 1957). Though

th

e relevant

li

terature examin

es

both

the soc iological functions of popular music (Frith, 1987) and you th cu lture (Bucholtz,

2002), eve n how popular mus ic is an element of youth culture (Campbe ll , et a

, 2007;

Frith, 1983; Johnstone Katz, 1957), the present s tudy examines Frith s functions

of

popular music in

th

e lives

of

a specific group

of

adolescents.


22/85

CHAPTER II I

M E T H O D

Pilot Studies

Two pilot studies provided important information for the present study. The first

pilot study occurred in the fall of 2007. All students enrolled in a choral class at a high

school in the Salt Lake Valley completed an essay about why their favorite song is their

favori te. Using a quali tat ive analysis process, Abrahamson (1983), I compared the

students ' writ ings and Fri th 's (1987) functions. The quali tat ive analysis consisted of

reading the essays and circl ing and underl ining key words and phrases that matched

Frith 's functions. This approach produced data that did not answer the question of the

study: Do a certain group of adolescents' favorite songs fulfill Frith's functions of popular

mus ic? Because the only data consisted of essays that answered the question, W hy is

your favorite song your favorite son g? This approach produced no concrete evidence as

to how the songs actually functioned in the lives of the participants. The essay part of this

pilot study wo uld ha ve been very useful if it had been cou pled with m ore conc lusive data

that answered the question posed above. An added survey in the second pilot study

provided more conclusive data.

The part icipating teach er for the second pilot study received the following

explanation about the expectat ions for the part icipants: that the students would be writ ing

a one page handwrit ten essay and a survey about their favori te song. (An exact example

CHAPTER

METHOD

Pilot Studies

Two pilot studies provided important information for the present study. The first

pilot study occurred in the fall

o

2007. All students emolled

n

a choral class at a high

school in the Salt Lake Valley completed an essay about why their favorite song s their

favorite. Using a qualitative analysis process, Abrahamson (1983), I compared the

students' writings and Frith's (1987) functions. The qualitative analysis consisted o

reading the essays and circling and underlining key words and phrases that matched

Frith's functions. This approach produced data that did not answer the question

o

the

study: Do a certain group o adolescents' favorite songs fulfill Frith's functions o popular

music? Because the only data consisted

o

essays that answered the question, Why is

your favorite song your favorite song? This approach produced no concrete evidence as

to how the songs actually functioned in the lives

o

the participants. The essay part o this

pilot study would have been very useful i it had been coupled with more conclusive data

that answered the question posed above. An added survey in the second pilot study

provided more conclusive data.

The participating teacher for the second pilot study received the following

explanation about the expectations for the participants: that the students would be writing

a one page handwritten essay and a survey about their favorite song. (An exact example


23/85

15

of the essay template received by the participants is found in Appendix A. The survey can

be found in Appendix B.) I did not catch a few mistakes before the pilot study went

forward. For exam ple, the second to last sent enc e's first word is misspelled ; ple as

should be please.

After I passed out the essay template contained in Appendix A, I read the

following instructions:

I am a music teacher at Nibley Park K-8 School and a Masters Student in M usic

Education at the University of Utah. I would like to know ab out the music that you

listen to.

Please use this paper to tell me why your favorite song is your favorite

song. List as many reasons as you can think offor why that song is your favorite

more than any other song. You can tell me; when you listen to it w hy you listen to

it how you listen to it with whom you listen to it how it makes you feel when you

listen to it or anything else you want to tell me about it. Make sure to tell me the

title of your favorite song and w ho performs it. You can use the back if you need

to.

You will have 15 minutes to write. I will give you 2 minutes to think about

what your favorite song is and why.

I will tell you when your fifteen minutes starts and when you have five

minutes left. If you have any questions raise your hand and I will come and

answer them. Y our two minutes thinking time begins now .

I observed the students during the 15 minutes of writing time. During the 2

minutes thinking time, I watched the clock and waited for the 2 minutes to end. I casually

observed the students during this time as well. I noted that the majority of the participants

used the thinking time that they had been given. It seemed that way to me, because none

of the participants was talking. I noticed that one student was not writing, but when I

looked at him he started. With approximately 8 minutes left, I gave the students a verbal

direction to keep writing and reiterated the directions. One participant came in to the

room 2 minutes after the study had begun and was given the essay template. Another

participant left during the study, and I found out later that she had completed her template

5

o the essay template received by the participants is found in Appendix

A

The survey can

be found in Appendix B.) I did not catch a few mistakes before the pilot study went

forward. For example, the second to last sentence's first word

is

misspelled; pleas

should be please.

After I passed out the essay template contained in Appendix A, I read the

fo llowing instructions:

1 am a music teacher at Nibley Park K-8 School and a Masters Student

in

Music

Education at the University ofUtah. would like to know about the music that you

listen

to.

Please use this paper to tell me why your favorite song

is

yourfavorite

song. List as many reasons as you can think

of

or why that song

is

yourfavorite

more than any other song. You can tell me; when you listen to it why you listen to

it how you listen to it with whom you listen to it how it makes youfeel when you

listen to it or anything else you want to tell me about it. Make sure to tell me the

title

of

your favorite song and who performs it. You can use the back

i

you need

to.

You will have 15 minutes to write. 1 will give you 2 minutes to think about

what your favorite song is

and

why.

1 will tell

you

when your fifteen minutes starts and when you have five

minutes left.

f

you have any questions raise your hand

and

1 will come

and

answer them. Your two minutes thinking time begins now.

I observed the students during the

5

minutes

o

writing time. During the 2

minutes thinking time, I watched the clock and waited for the 2 minutes to end. I casually

observed the students during this time as well. I noted that the majority o the participants

used the thinking time that they had been given. t seemed that way to me, because none

o the participants was talking. I noticed that one student was not writing, but when I

looked at him he started. With approximately 8 minutes left, I gave the students a verbal

direction to keep writing and reiterated the directions. One participant came in to the

room 2 minutes after the study had begun and was given the essay template. Another

participant left during the study, and I found out later that she had completed her template


24/85

16

out in the hall . The classroom teacher gave the verbal cue, Tho se of you wh o are truly

done can work on the other assignment that I gave you. But you should really try to drain

yo ur brains on to that pap er. One particip ant asked if she could hear the essays. I said

that she mig ht be able to hear them later. Th e same participant asked wh at numb er four

meant on the survey. An exact example of the survey given to the part icipants can be

seen in Appendix B.

This pilot study alerted me to several things that needed to change for the actual

study. Aside from basic edit ing in the templates, ch anges n eed to be made in the way the

study is administered. For example, the script needed several changes. A copy of the

finalized script can be found in Ap pe nd ix E. I also realized tha t I nee ded to mentio n to

the participating teacher that the essays would not be returned to the class.

Procedure for Actual Study

ontacting the Teacher

After the second pilot study, I took great care to communicate clearly with the

cooperating teacher. In the actual study, the teacher understood that the students '

complete part icipation was needed and that no other assignments should be worked on

during the approximately 20 minutes during the administrat ion of the study. These

talking points helped prevent miscommunication with the part icipating teacher.

1. To pic of s tudy.

2.

Wh at the students were going to need .

a. Penc il or pen .

3.Wh at was going to happen, exactly?

a. The script was read to the teacher.

6

out in the hall. The classroom teacher gave the verbal cue, Those o you who are truly

done can work on the other assignment that I gave you. But you should really try to drain

your brains on to that paper. One participant asked

i

she could hear the essays. I said

that she might be able to hear them later. The same participant asked what number four

meant on the survey. An exact example

o

the survey given to the participants can be

seen in Appendix B

This pilot study alerted me to several things that needed to change for the actual

study. Aside from basic editing in the templates, changes need to be made in the way the

study

is

administered. For example, the script needed several changes. A copy o the

finalized script can be found in Appendix

E

I also realized that I needed to mention to

the participating teacher that the essays would not be returned to the class.

Procedure for Actual Study

ontacting the Teacher

After the second pilot study, I took great care

to

communicate clearly with the

cooperating teacher. In the actual study, the teacher understood that the students'

complete participation was needed and that no other assignments should be worked on

during the approximately 20 minutes during the administration o the study. These

talking points helped prevent miscommunication with the participating teacher.

l Topic o study.

2 What the students were going to need.

a Pencil or pen.

3 What was going to happen, exactly?

a The script was read to the teacher.


25/85

17

b.

Just so you know exactly what I will be doing with your students, can I

read you a short script of what will go on?

4.

An explanation that during the twenty minutes or so, the students should not be

doing any other work.

5.

An explanation that the students will not get the papers back, so if the participating

teacher wanted the students to get credit for these papers, she would have to make

an accounting of who participated during the study.

6

An expression of thanks.

Participant Writing

All participant writing that is quoted in this document will be italicized and

indented. There are some spelling, and grammatical, errors in the participant samples, but

I have left them intact to demonstrate the unique styles of writing of the individual

participants.

Essay Content Analysis

Ma rk Abraham son (1983) describes a deductive approac h: If we begin with a

theory that we wish to test empirically , we will proceed in a deductiv e manner from the

more general or abstract to the more specific or concrete

(p .146).

In the present study, I

sought to test empirically whether a certain group of adolescents ' favorite songs do in

fact fulfill to some extent these four sociological functions of popular music identified by

Frith (1987) in their lives: (a) To create a type of self-definition; (b) to provide a way of

managing the relationship between one's private and public emotional lives; (c) to shape

popular memory, organize one's sense of time, and intensify a given experience; and (d)

b Just so you know exactly what I will be doing with your students, can I

read you a short script of what will go on?

4

An explanation that during the twenty minutes or so, the students should not be

doing any other work.

17

5

An explanation that the students will not get the papers back, so

if

the participating

teacher wanted the students

to

get credit for these papers, she would have

to

make

an accounting

of

who participated during the study.

6 An expression of thanks.

Participant Writing

All participant writing that

is

quoted in this document will be italicized and

indented. There are some spelling, and grammatical, errors in the participant samples, but

I have left them intact to demonstrate the unique styles

of

writing of the individual

participants.

Essay Content nalysis

Mark Abrahamson (1983) describes a deductive approach:

If

we begin with a

theory that we wish to test empirically, we will proceed in a deductive manner-from the

more general or abstract to the more specific or concrete (p.146). In the present study, I

sought

to

test empirically whether a certain group

of

adolescents' favorite songs

do

in

fact fulfill to some extent these four sociological functions

of

popular music identified by

Frith (1987) in their lives: (a) To create a type

of

self-definition; (b) to provide a way

of

managing the relationship between one's private and public emotional lives; (c) to shape

popular memory, organize one's sense

of

time, and intensify a given experience; and (d)


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18

to provide a sense of musical ownership. Frith defined these functions in such a way that

they are not specific to any genre of popular music or any particular type of person and

are therefore more general or abstract. Because the purpose of this study is to determine

whether certain adolescents ' favorite songs fulfill the four sociological functions of

popular music, the goal of the content analysis of the essays was to find more specific or

concrete examples of exactly how the participants ' favorite songs function in their lives.

To find these concrete examples, I labeled key words and phrases that implied specific

functions and then matched those concrete and specific examples to the more general and

abstract functions described by Frith. (See Appendix F for an example of an analyzed

essay.) For instan ce, Frith 's first function is to create a type of self-definition. Lan guag e

that might imply that a song creates a type of self-definition could include phrases similar

to the following phrases taken from a participant writing from the study: "7

like this song

because it describes me

or

The lyrics describe him helping others and that's what I try

to do

Function two is to provide a way of managing the relationship between one's

private and public emotional lives. Although this function is complicated, students could

tell a story that implies this function such as is found in Bradley's (2005) article. She

describes an entry from an adolescent's journal describing how learning a Russian

patriotic song helps her manage her feelings about her father and her heritage.

I knew it Charlie told us today that some people were worried becau se we

were singing March Over Meadows in mixed chorus - they were afraid he was

trying to turn us all into communists. We talked a lot in class this morning

instead of singing. We talked about why it might be okay to sing March over

Meadows, and whether or not singing it meant we believed the Bolsheviks

were "ri ght" or if we we re jus t singing about som ething that really happened in

history. I think Charlie was trying to make sure we could explain it to our

parents if they asked us about the song. I don't think my mother or father

8

to provide a sense

of

musical ownership. Frith defined these functions in such a way that

they are not specific to any genre

of

popular music or any particular type

of

person and

are therefore more general or abstract. Because the purpose of this study is to determine

whether certain adolescents' favorite songs fulfill the four sociological functions

of

popular music, the goal

of

the content analysis

of

the essays was to find more specific or

concrete examples

of

exactly how the participants' favorite songs function in their lives.

To find these concrete examples, I labeled key words and phrases that implied specific

functions and then matched those concrete and specific examples to the more general and

abstract functions described by Frith. (See Appendix F for an example

of

an analyzed

essay.) For instance, Frith's first function is to create a type

of

self-definition. Language

that might imply that a song creates a type of self-definition could include phrases similar

to the following phrases taken [rom a participant writing from the study:

/ like this son?,

because t describes me, or The lyrics describe him helping others nd that's what / try

to do.

Function two is to provide a way

of

managing the relationship between

one's

private and public emotional lives. Although this function is complicated, students could

tell a story that implies this function such as is found in Bradley's (2005) article. She

describes an entry from an adolescent's journal describing how learning a Russian

patriotic song helps her manage her feelings about her father and her heritage.

I knew it Charlie told us today that some people were worried because we

were singing March Over Meadows in mixed chorus - they were afraid he was

trying to turn us all into communists. We talked a lot in class this morning

instead

of

singing. We talked about why it might be okay to sing March over

Meadows, and whether or not singing it meant we believed the Bolsheviks

were right or if we were just singing about something that really happened in

history. I think Charlie was trying to make sure we could explain it to our

parents

if

they asked us about the song. I don't think my mother or father


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would worry about i t too much. My dad came to the United States in 1929

when he was 19 years old, and I can tell from things he has said that he felt

very confused during W orld W ar II . He hated Hit ler and the Naz is, I kno w, but

he sti ll loved Germ any. H e hated that so many places that he remem bered from

his childhood were destroyed by the All ies. He doesn t have very much family

left in Germany - a lot of them died during the war. He still gets angry

watching movies about the war and the way the Germans are always the bad

guys. Somehow, singing March Over Meadows helped me to see how

confusing it must be for people like my dad. I hope we get to do this song on

our next co ncert, b ut I bet we d on t. . . .(p.3)

This story implies that the song helped her to manage the relationship with

her father, or her private life, and the way she feels about the place and time she

was living in. One participant from the second pilot study wrote,

" ...it really re lates to how you feel like you feel broken inside. N o on e

understands, lots of people say, you know, their fine, their holding on and

everything is ok You are still holding on and I know how that feels. "

Another student from the actual study wrote,

"Sometimes when him and I are fighting I will just lay down, turn my ipod

on and listen to the song makes me feel a lot more happy "

Another part icipant wrote, "Whenever I am mad at that someone, I listen to the

song & it just switches my attitude

around

It's weird how a song can do that. "

These are exam ples that show h ow a part icipant might imply this part icular

function.

The third function is to shape popular mem ory, o rganize on e s sense of

time, and intensify a given experience. For instance, a participant from the pilot

study wrote; "My remembrance of this song are mostly with my friends, driving

somewhere, going to the movies, " implying that it organizes his or her sense of

t ime. Another part icipant wrote; "I listen to this song before a soccer game and

would worry about it too much. My dad came to the United States in 1929

when he was

19

years old, and I can tell from things he has said that he felt

very confused during World War II. He hated Hitler and the Nazis, I know, but

he still loved Germany. He hated that

so

many places that he remembered from

his childhood were destroyed by the Allies. He doesn't have very much family

left in Germany - a lot of them died during the war. He still gets angry

watching movies about the war and the way the Germans are always the bad

guys. Somehow, singing March Over Meadows helped me to see how

confusing it must be for people like my dad. I hope we get to do this song on

our next concert, but I bet we don't. p.3)

This story implies that the song helped her to manage the relationship with

her father, or her private life, and the way she feels about the place and time she

was living in. One participant from the second pilot study wrote,

it really relates to how you feel like you feel broken inside. No one

understands, lots ofpeople say, you know, theirfine, their holding on

nd

everything

is

ok You are still holding on nd I know how that feels. "

Another student from the actual study wrote,

"Sometimes when him

nd

I are fighting I will just lay down, turn my ipod

on nd listen to the song makes me

feel

a lot more happy "

Another participant wrote, "Whenever I am

m d

at that someone, I listen to the

song

&

it

just

switches my attitude around. It's weird how a song can

do

that. "

These are examples that show how a participant might imply this particular

function.

The third function is to shape popular memory, organize one s sense of

time, and intensify a given experience. For instance, a participant from the pilot

study wrote;

"My remembrance

of

his song are mostly with my friends, driving

somewhere, going to the movies, implying that it organizes his or her sense

of

time. Another participant wrote;

J listen to this song before a soccer game

nd

19


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20

some days wh en I get up in the morning. I listen to it because it gets me pumped up

for a game or just for the day, implying that it intensifies a given experience.

Function four is to provide a sense of musical ownership. A part icipant

wrote ; This song is mine and my boyfriend's song. Another part icipant wrote

Something about ha ving everyone know a song kind of bugs me. I feel like it

doesn't really belong to me personally when everyone knows it, thereby implying

that knowing about a song before other people provides a sense of ownership to

the song.

Some part icipants used langu age that implied a function that seem ed to not

fit into any of Frith's functions. The idea of escapism came up numerous times, as

in this essay where a participant wrote,

This song m akes me feel pretty powerful, It's kinda like my escape. B ut I

think pretty much all teens look at any music that way. Music is our escape

it takes us away from our drama-filled lives & gives us a chance to be part

of something amazing.

The Survey

The analysis of the data involved a comparison of each essay with its

corresponding survey, which included direct questions using language from Frith 's

functions, such as the following: This song helps me define

myself,

followed by

five options, strongly agree, mildly agree, not sure, mildly disagree or strongly

agree. Lang uage used in the pilot study did not directly imply F ri th 's functions. To

impro ve the survey for the actual study, I chose lang uage that more closely

resembled the meaning of Fri th 's functions. Each element of Fri th 's functions was

represented by at least one question. Function three has mult iple elements, and so

some days when I

get

up in the morning. I listen to

t

because

t

gets me pumped up

for

a game or just

for

the

day implying that it intensifies a given experience.

Function four s to provide a sense

o

musical ownership. A participant

wrote;

This song

is

mine

and my boyjdend s

song.

Another participant wrote

Something about having everyone know a song kind

of

bugs

me.

I feel like

t

doesn't really belong to me personally when everyone knows it

thereby implying

that knowing about a song before other people provides a sense o ownership to

the song.

Some participants used language that implied a function that seemed to not

fit into any

o

Frith's functions. The idea

o

escapism came up numerous times, as

in this essay where a participant wrote,

This song makes me feel pret ty powerful, It's kinda like

my

escape. But I

think pretty much all teens look at any music that way. Music is our escape

it takes us away from our drama-filled lives

&

gives us a chance

to

be part

of

something amazing.

The

Survey

The analysis o the data involved a comparison o each essay with its

corresponding survey, which included direct questions using language from Frith's

functions, such as the following: This song helps me define myself, followed by

five options, strongly agree, mildly agree, not sure, mildly disagree or strongly

agree. Language used in the pilot study did not directly imply Frith 's functions. To

improve the survey for the actual study, I chose language that more closely

resembled the meaning o Frith's functions. Each element

o

Frith's functions was

represented by at least one question. Function three has multiple elements, and so

20


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21

each element in that function was represented by its own separate question on the

survey. Through finding key phrases that implied sociological function in

participant writing and comparing those phrases with corresponding surveys that

use language from Fr ith s functions I was able to determ ine wh ether the

parti cipa nts favorite songs fulfilled F rith s fun ctions.

articipants

The participants for this study were sophomores (tenth graders) from a public

high school in Salt Lake County enrolled in three sophomore English classes. The total

number of participants was 75. Some students in the classes were not able to participate

in the study, because they did not return signed parent permission forms.

each element

in

that func tion was represent

ed

by its own separate ques tion on the

survey.

Thr

ough finding key phrases that implied soc iological function

in

participant writing and comparing those phrases with

co

rresponding su rveys that

use language from Frith s functions I was ab le to determine whether the

partic

ip

ants favor

it

e so ngs fulfi

ll

ed Frith s funct

io

ns.

articipants

2

The participants for this study were sophomores (tenth graders) from a public

hi

gh school

in

Sa

lt

Lake County e nro

ll

ed

in

th ree sophomore English classes . The total

number of participants was 75. Some students in the classes were not able to participate

in

the study, because they di d not r

et

urn signed parent permission

fo

rm

s


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CHAP T E R IV

A N A L Y S I S A N D R E S U L T S

Survey

The purpo se of this study was to exam ine whet her a group of adolescents favorite

songs fulfill Frith s functions of popular m usic accord ing to those same adolesc ents own

writings and a survey on that topic. The survey was an instrument to determine whether

the particip ant s favorite son gs fulfilled Fri th s functions in their writings. The m eans of

all the answers of the individual questions and the standard deviations for each of the

answers to the individual questions are presented in this chapter. The multiple choice

answ ers for questions 1 through 8 are coded as num eric values from 1-5. The means of

all the answers for each question and standard deviations for each question can be found

in Table 1. Table 2 shows the frequency of responses for questions one through eight,

which use a five-point Likert-type scale for the multiple choice answers, (a) Strongly

Agree (b) Mildly Agree (c) Not Sure (d) Mildly Disagree (e) Strongly Disagree. Table 3

shows the frequency of responses for questions 9a through 9f, which are questions that

asked the participants to rate a statement on a scale from one to six, one meaning that the

statement describes very well how they feel about their favorite song and six meaning

that the statement does not describe at all how they feel about their favorite song.

This surv ey s design yielded concrete information a bout how these parti cipan ts favorite

songs function in their lives; it also revealed whether the functions they implied

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Survey

The purpose o this study was to examine whether a group o adolescents favorite

songs fulfill Frith s functions o popular music according to those same adolescents own

writings and a survey on that topic. The survey was an instrument to determine whether

the participant s favorite songs fulfilled Frith s functions in their writings. The means o

all the answers o the individual questions and the standard deviations for each o the

answers to the individual questions are presented in this chapter. The multiple choice

answers for questions 1 through 8 are coded as numeric value

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