Full Biology Notes

8/17/2019 Full Biology Notes

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BBIIOOLL GG Y Y


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What is Biology?

Bios logoslife The study of

The study of life or living things

Biology is …

It’s a scientific

study

It is derived from 2 Greek words :


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The importance of Biology• Improved understanding on functions of

organisms

• Improved understanding on causes of disease

• !inding treatment for diseases

• Improved understanding on ecology

• Better management on environment pro"lems

• Improved #uality and production of food


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The .ifferent !ields of 'tudy in

Biology

$natomy

Bacteriology

Biochemistry

Biotechnology

Bacteriology

%ytology

)cology

Genetic

*arine "iology

,hysiology

+oology

*icro"iology

Ta/onomy

)ntomology

*orphology

0rnithology-istology


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1o" or %areers elated to Biology

The following are all biologist in different ways:

Doctors Biotechnologists

Nurses Forensic Scientists

Dentists Nutritionists

Physiotherapists Farmers

Veterinarians

Horticulturalists &

Foresters


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The characteristics of living things?

• %ell is "asic unit of life

• They are highly organised

• They response to stimuli

• 3utrition 4 they feed to o"tain energy

• espiration 4 they "reak down food to o"tain energy

• *eta"olism 4 they are capa"le to increasing in si5e and

num"er

• eproduction 4 they produce offspring

• )/cretion 4 they e/pelled wastes

• They are a"le to adapt to different environments


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The levels of organisation in an organism

'u"6atomicparticles

$toms

*olecules

0rganelles

%ells

Tissues

0rgans

systems

*ulticellular

organisms

'pecies

,opulation

%ommunity

)cosystem

Biosphere


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T-) '%I)3TI!I% I37)'TIG$TI03

• Biologist employ the scientific method to makecertain discoveries a"out living things

• The scientific method re#uires the use of

scientific skills which are science process skills and manipulative skills

SPS0"serving8 classifying8

inferring8 interpreting

data8 controlling

varia"les


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'cientifics Investigation

The 'cientific *ethod:

• Defining the problem

• Making hypothesis

• Planning the experiment

• Controlling variables

• Conducting the experiment

• Recording the results

• nalysing the results

• !nterpreting the data

• Drawing conclusion

• Prepare the report


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-ow to identify a pro"lem?

0"serving a specific phenomenon and

#uestioning

-ow to form a hypothesis?

• Interpretation "ased on an o"servation

• *aking an inference

• !ormulating a logical e/planation to the

o"servation


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-ow to plan an investigation?

• eviewing availa"le related information

a"out the investigation

• .etermining the reagents and e#uipment

re#uired

• .etermining the financial and time

limitations

• Writing out the protocols of the e/periments

in the investigation

• %onducting preliminary research on the

hypothesis


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9 types of varia"les that are encountered in an e/periment

*anipulated varia"le

esponding varia"le

fi/ed varia"le

An independent variable,

which is set at differentvalues, to test a hypothesis.

A dependent variable, which

is the outcome of an

experiment, due to changes in

manipulative variable.

A parameter that may affect

the outcome of an experiment

should be kept constant

throughout the experiment.


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-ow to record data efficiently?

• Ta"ulation of comple/ data

• Graphical presentation of data8

especially important in showing theconnection "etween manipulative

and responding varia"les

• .iagrammatic presentation with

clear la"elling


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-ow to analyse and interpret data for all the

data collected in an e/periment?

• $ccurate calculation

• .etermine the association "etweenmanipulative and responding varia"les

• %ompare with previous reports

• )/plore any hidden information

• nderstand the limitations of the

e/periment conducted


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-ow to make conclusion?

• ;eep in short and simple


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The typical format for the report of an experiment.

• Title• 0">ective

• -ypothesis8

• 7aria"les

• *aterials and $pparatus

• Techni#ue

• ,rocedure

• esults• .ata analysis

• .iscussion

• %onclusion


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@ 'teps of 'cientific Investigation

Identify aproblem Form a

hypothesis Plan the

experiment

Identify &

ontrol

variablesonduct the

experiment

ollect data

!nalyse data

Interpret

data

"ra#

conclusion

$rite areport


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Writing a Report

%. b'ective

(. Problem

). *ypothesis

+. ,ariables

-. aterial and !pparatus

/. Techni0ue

1. Procedure2. 3esult

4. "iscussion

%5. onclusion


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Hypothesis

• The higher the AAAAAA8 the higher the AAAAAAA

• The lower the AAAAAA8 the lower the AAAAAAA

• The longer the AAAAAA8 the higher the AAAAAAA

• The fittest student has the shortest recovery

time after vigorous e/ercise


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Variables:

*anipulated

7aria"le

esponding

7aria"le

!i/ed

7aria"le

Subjects

Time taken for

the pulse rate

return to normal

The rate of steps

height of the bench

age of subject


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Techniques

:onduct the step test to measure the

pulse rate of the sub!ects at one"

minute intervals until the pulse ratereturns to normal.

How you handle the responding variable


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Proceure:

*easure the pulse rate of each

student in your group "efore the test

The pulse rate of each student is

measured "efore the test

• onduct experiment 6passive form7

• "esign experiment 6active form7


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!ell"tructure

an #unction


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• $ll living things are made up of "asic units

called cells

• %ells vary in shape8 si5es and content

depending on their function

• $ light microscope is usually used to

help us o"serve microscopic cells


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• The living component of a cell is calledprotoplasm

• Protoplasm 8 cytoplasm 9 nucleus

• ,rotoplasm surrounded "y plasmamembrane

• ,lant cells have an outer "oundary calledthe cell #all


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$nimal cell

,lant cell


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!ell Parts an"tructures

• With electron microscopes8 scientists are a"le to seethe cellular components of a cell in greater detail

• The cytoplasm contains structures called organelles

• 0rganelles perform specific function which ena"le the

cell to function as a unit of life


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$

n i m a l c e l l


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,

l a n t c e l l


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• ontrols cellular

activities

• 3ucleus mem"rane

controls inflow and

outflow of material to

and from nucleus• 3ucleolus acts as site

of ri"osome

construction

• %hromosome carries

hereditary information


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• $cts as a medium#here biochemical

reactions and most

living processes

occur #ithin the cell

• ,rovides the

organelles with

su"stances o"tainedfrom e/ternal

environment


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• 'eparates the content

of the cell from its

e/ternal environment• 3egulates the

movement of

substances enteringand leaving the cell

• $llows the e/change

of nutrients8

respiratory gases and

wastes products

"etween the cell and

its environment


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• %hlorophyll captures theenergy of sunlight and

converts light energy into

chemical energy duringphotosynthesis

• The green pigment of

chlorophyll gives plantstheir colour


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• 'tores chemicals

such as organicacids" sugar" amino

acids" mineral salts"

oxygen" carbondioxide and so on

• egulates water

"alance in plantcells


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• *aintains the shape of plant cells

• ,rovides mechanical strength and support toplant cells

• ,rotects plants cells from rupturing due to the

movement of e/cess water into the cells


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• !orms a network of

transportation within

the cell

3ough endoplasmic reticulum


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• 'ite of proteins synthesis

• They are either "ound to the

endoplasmic reticulum or lie free in

the cytoplasm


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• The sites of cellular

respiration

• ,rinciple site of

energy production

• )nergy generated orreleased in the form

of !TP 6adenosine

triphosphate7.


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• !unctions as a processing: packaging

and transport centre of car"ohydrates8

proteins and glycoproteins

• These materials will "e mem"rane6"ound

and secrete through vesicles


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• $s a digestive

compartments

• In certain unicellularorganisms8 lysosomes

fuse with food vacuoles

and dispense their

en5ymes into thesevacuoles to digest the

contents of the vacuoles

(ysosomes


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!o$parison o%

an &ni$al !ell' a Plant !ell


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#oth has nucleus" cytoplasm"

mitochondrion" ribosome" cell

membrane" rough endoplasmicreticulum" smooth endoplasmic

recticulum and $olgi apparatus

Similarities

$nimal %ell ,lant %ell

$nimal %ell ,lant %ell"iff


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$nimal %ell ,lant %ell"ifferences

.o not have fi/ed shape 'hape -ave a fi/ed shape

.o not have cell walls %ell walls -ave cell walls

.o not have vacuoles If

present8 vacuoles are usuallysmall and numerous

7acuoles -ave a large centralvacuole

.o not have chloroplasts %hloroplasts $ll green plants have

chloroplast which contain

chlorophyll

-ave centrioles centrioles .o not have centrioles

%ar"ohydrate is stored in the

form of glycogen!ood storage

%ar"ohydrate is stored in

the form of starch


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The (ensity o%Organelles in

"pesi)c !ells

Th " f ll i h ll i


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• The num"er of organelles in each cell variesaccording to type of organism and nature of thecell

!or e/ample8

• more active cells will possess moremitochondria than less active cells

• $"undant chloroplasts are found in thepalisade mesophyll cells than other parts ofthe leaves


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e#uire energy to propel through the uterus

towards the !allopian tu"es8 so that

fertilisation can take place

'perm cells

-igh density of


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%ontract and rela/ to

ena"le movement and

flight

*uscle cells

-

i g h d e

n s i t y o f A A A

A A A


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e#uire large amounts of energy

during active cell division to produce

new cells

%ells in meristems

-igh density of AAAAAA

* h ll li d ll


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*esophyll palisade cells

$"sor" sunlight during photosynthesis

-igh density of AAAAAA


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!ellOrganisation

; i ll l i i hi h


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• ;nicellular organisms are organisms which

consist of single cell

• $lthough simple8 they are a"le to perform all

vital functions and living processes within a cell

• They can feed8 respire8 e/crete and move

• They are sensitive to e/ternal and internal

conditions8 and are a"le to reproduce and

grow


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moeba sp%

*abitat


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$moe"a sp

*abitat

• (ive in freshwater lakes8 are

also a"undant in damp soil


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=iving=iving

processes ofprocesses ofamoeba sp.amoeba sp.

!eeding (ocomotion

eproduction

espiration

)/cretion

esponses to

stimuli

http://method%20of%20feeding%20in%20amoeba.ppt/http://locomotion%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://reproduction%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://respiration%20of%20amoeba%20sp.ppt/http://excretion%20of%20amoeba%20sp.ppt/http://responses%20to%20stimuli%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://responses%20to%20stimuli%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://responses%20to%20stimuli%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://excretion%20of%20amoeba%20sp.ppt/http://respiration%20of%20amoeba%20sp.ppt/http://reproduction%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://locomotion%20of%20amoeba.ppt/http://method%20of%20feeding%20in%20amoeba.ppt/


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!ell"pecialisation in

$ulticellular

organis$s

%ell The smallest unit of life capa"le of carrying out all


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%ell

Tissue

0rgan

'ystem

0rganism

p y g

the functions of living things

group of cells of the same type that perform a specific function in organism

'everal types of tissue that carry out aparticular function

&everal organs working together to

perform a function

$ll the systems make up a

multicellular organism


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!ell organisation in the%or$ation o% tissues*

organs an syste$s in

ani$als

S f th h ll d th i f ti


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Some of the humans cells and their functions

%ell !unction

*uscle cell ble to contract and relax and areinvolved in movement

White "loodcell

!nvolves in defence of the body againstdiseases

ed "lood cell Transports oxygen

3erve cell Receives and sends out nerve impulses

'perm 'ertilises the ovum


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There are ma>or types of tissues in animals:

• )pithelial tissues

• *uscle tissues

• %onnective tissues

• 3erve tissues


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Epithelial Tissue

• !orm a skin surface and protect the

tissue "eneath it• !orm a lining layer for tu"es or lines the

cavities of the "ody

• ,rotect against infection8 mechanicalin>uries and dehydration

• ndergo changes to form glands


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uscle Tissue

• Most abundant tissue in the body

'mooth muscle 'keletal muscle %ardiac muscle

• %ontraction and

rela/ation for

involuntary "ody

activities


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onnective tissue

• -old the "ody together

• !or e/ample8 "one8

cartilage8 "lood8tendons8 ligament


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> Ti


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>erve Tissue

• Transmits and coordinates messages

around the "ody


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cellstissuesorganssystems

Breaks down

l f d i t"yste$s


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.iscards to/ic

waste products,roduces off

spring

$"sor"s and transports

o/ygen and discards

car"on dio/ide

comple/ food into

simple

su"stances for

easy a"sorption

"y "ody cells

"yste$s


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Transports food

su"stances8

o/ygen8 hormones

and others to the

entire "ody

.efends the "ody

against disease

,rovides "odily

support and

protection to solf

internal organs

,roduceshormones that

control the "odily

activities


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'kin surface to

protects the tissue"eneath it

%oordinates and

controls all "odily

activities related to

impulses and reactions

-elps in movement

of the "ody


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!ell organisation in

plants

Some of the plants cells and their functions


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Some of the plants cells and their functions

%ell !unction

,arenchymacell

!or support and storage

Cylem Transports water and mineral salts

'ieve tu"eelement

Transports organic product ofphotosynthesis

%ompanioncell

egulates the meta"olic activity of sievetu"e element

)pidermal cell!or protection and covering of other cells"eneath

Tissues of plants


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Tissues of plants

*eristemictissue

permanenttissue

)pidermaltissues

Groundtissues

7asculartissues

• 'mall cell8 thin walls8 large

nuklei8 dense cytoplasm8 no

vacuole• Doung8 actively dividing

• !orm a layer to cover8

protect entire surface of

plant and reduces water

loss

• ,rovides support

and strengthens

the plants

• Transports

water8 food and

support


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Bears flowers8fruits8 "uds and

leaves

$nchors the plant8

a"sor"s water and

mineral8 stores food


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Excretion ofExcretion of AmoebaAmoeba sps

p..


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Excretion ofExcretion of AmoebaAmoeba spsp..

• #he contractile vacuole isinvolved in osmoregulation.

• $ater diffuses into the cell and fills the contractile vacuole.

• $hen the vacuole is filled to itsmaximum si%e, it contracts to

expel its contents.

Loco$otion


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Loco$otion

• $moe"a sp moves "y cytoplasmic

pro'ection8 that is8 by extending its

pseudopodia or (false feet) and anchoring

the tips to the ground

pseudopodium


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Phagocytosis


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Binary )ssion • $se/ual

reproduction

• When food a"undant8

"inary fission

• When the amoeba reaches a ma/imum

si5e8 the nucleus

divides into two and

the cytoplasm

constricts8 forming

two new amoeba

3espiration of !moeba sp.


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p p

• )/change of o/ygen and car"on dio/ide

occurs through the plasma mem"rane

02

02

%02

%02

Responses to stimuliResponses to stimuli


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Responses to stimuliResponses to stimuli

• Amoeba sp. reacts by retreating from adverse

stimuli such as bright light and acidic solution.

• In contrast, favourable stimuli such as contact

with food , cause it to move towards the stimuli.

Food

=ight

acids


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MOVEMENT OFSUBSTANES AROSS T!E

"#ASMA MEMBRANE

The necessity %or $o+e$ent o% substances


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across the plas$a $e$brane

• $ll movement of su"stances go through the cellmembrane8 which is also known as the plasmamembrane

• The necessity for the movement of su"stancesacross a plasma mem"rane are:

a= %ells need nutrients and o/ygen

"= %ells produce waste product which e/it through theplasma mem"rane

c= The plasma mem"rane control the types and theamounts of su"stances needed "y the cell at anyone time

?xternal environment


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%ytoplasm

3ucleus

,lasma

mem"rane

ell

*ovement of su"stances

out of the cell

*ovement of su"stances

into the cell

Figure ).%@ ovement of substances in and out of the cell

The structure of theplasma membrane


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plasma membrane• 'inger and 3icholson proposed the fluid mosaic model in

EF2 to e/plain the structure of the plasma mem"rane• The fluid mosaic model is the currently accepted model of the

cell mem"rane• The "asic unit of the plasma mem"rane is the phospholipid

molecule

• The phospholipid molecule consists of:

a= $ polar molecule carries an une#ual distri"ution of electriccharge This une#ual distri"ution of electric charge produce apolar molecule which can attract other polar molecule such aswater molecules

b7 *ydrophilic means water6lovingH or attracted to watermolecule

c7 *ydrophobic Awater6hatingH8 or repelling water molecules

• ,hospholipid units


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0ne layer of phospholipid form over another to produce aphospholipid "ilayer

• In this phospholipid "ilayer the:

a= -ydrophilic heads points outwards facing water molecule on"oth sides

"= -ydropho"ic tails points inwards8 away from water molecules

• 0ther molecule present in the plasma mem"rane are:

a7 holesterol molecules which fit in "etween the phospholipidmolecules8 making the plasma mem"rane more rigid andstable

b7 arrier protein and channel protein which assist and controlthe movement of water6solu"le ions and certain moleculesacross the mem"rane

c7


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$e$brane, "ermeabilit$ of the phospholipi% bila$er.&. "ermeable means allo'in( somethin( to pass throu(h.

). The plasma membrane is selecti*e permeable or semi+permeable as it allo's onl$ certain substances to passthrou(h it but not others.

,. The phospholipi% bila$er is permeable to-a Small non+polar /h$%rophobic molecules that are lipi%+

soluble0 such as fatt$ aci%s0 (l$cerol0 steroi%0 *itamin A0 10

E an% 2.b Small unchan(e% molecules0 such as 'ater0 ox$(en an%

carbon %ioxi%e. These molecules are small enou(h tos3uee4e throu(h bet'een the phospholipi% (aps b$simple %i5usion or osmosis %o'n their respecti*econcentration (ra%ients.

6. The phospholipi% bila$er is not permeable to-a #ar(e polar molecule0 that are not soluble in lipi%0 such

as (lucose0 amino aci%s0 nucleic aci%s an% pol$sacchari%es.b 7ons /char(e%0 re(ar%less of si4e0 such as- !80 Na80 !O,+0

2 80 a980 an% M(98

−

3+−

3

Types o% transport across

http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/


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the plas$a $e$brane-1. Solute move across the plasma membrane by two main

process:a) Passive transport- which does not require a cell to use

energy, and

b) Active transport- which requires a cell to use energy tomove molecules through its cell membrane.. Passive transport consists o!:a) Simple di!!usion and

b) "acilitated di!!usion #aided by carrier protein orchannel protein o! the plasma protein).$. %smosis is the special name given to simple di!!usion

o! water molecules through a semi-permeablemembrane.

Simple %i5usion



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Simple %i5usion

&. Simple %i5usion is the ran%om mo*ement of ionsor molecules from a re(ion of their hi(hconcentration to a re(ion of their lo'concentration %o'n a concentration (ra%ient untilan e3uilibrium is achie*e%.

). Molecules ha*e :inetic ener($0 mo*e ran%oml$0an% colli%e 'ith each other.

,. There are more collision in a re(ion of hi(hconcentration than in a re(ion of lo'concentration.

6. Ran%om collision of molecules sprea% themolecules out0 %o'n the concentration (ra%ient.

&oncentration gradient = difference inconcentration of a particular substance inone region compared to another region

Factors a5ectin( the rate of%i5usion



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%i5usion

Factor E5ect on the rate ofsimple %i5usion

1i5usion(ra%ient

The steeper0 the hi(herthe rate

Si4e ofmolecules orions

The smaller the si4e0 thehi(her the rate

Temperature The hi(her thetemperature0 the hi(herthe rate

1i5usion

me%ium

Rate in (as ; rate in

li ui% ; rate in soli%


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.istilled water

,otassium

manganate


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#acilitate i.usion

< #acilitate i.usion is the $o+e$ento% speci)c $olecules /or ions0 acrossthe plas$a $e$brane-

< #acilitate i.usion is assiste eitherby pore proteins or by carrier protein*an the irection o% $o+e$ent iso1n the concentration graient o%

the $olecules concerne-< 2o energy require-

The function of poreprotein an% carrier protein-


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protein an% carrier protein-

a "ore protein /channel proteini. har(e ions /such as Na80 2 80 a980 an% M(98cannot %i5use across the non+polar center ofthe phospholipi%s bila$er.

ii. "ore proteins open up pores or channel acrossthe membrane to allo' entr$ or exit.

iii. Each pore or channel is speci=c an% 'ill onl$allo' one particular t$pe of ion throu(h

b arrier proteinsi. The$ allo' lar(er polar molecules /such as su(ar

an% amino aci%s to pass throu(h.ii. A particular protein attaches itself to the bin%in(site of a carrier protein.

iii. Then the carrier protein chan(es shape an%%eli*ers the molecule across the plasma

membrane.

O"3O"I"

http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/http://bylayer%20phospholipids.ppt/


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O"3O"I", Os$osis is the $o+e$ent o% 1ater

$olecules %ro$ region o% high 1aterconcentration to lo1 1ater concentration

through a se$i4per$eable $e$brane-, Os$osis is the i.usion o% 1ater only an

not o% the substances that issol+e in

1ater-

&!TIV5 TR&2"PORT


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• Active transport is the movement of particles across theplasma membrane against the concentration gradient, that

is from a region of low concentration to a region of highconcentration.

• Energy is provided by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)molecules.

• Active transport also reuired a specific carrier protein tocarries molecules in or out of the cell.

• Active transport only ta!e place in living organisms.

• E"amples of active transport in biology#a) Absorption of dissolved mineral salt by root hairs.

b) Absorption of glucose and amino acids by cell in the smallintestine.

HYPOTONIC, HYPERTONIC ANDISOTONIC SOLUTION


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ISOTONIC SOLUTION

1. ‘ISO’ $eans the sa$e as an tonicity re%ersto the strength /concentration o% solute0 o%the solution- T1o solution are isotonic i%they ha+e the sa$e solute concentrations-

2. ‘HYPER’ $eans $ore than- "olution & ishypertonic to solution B i% solution & has ahigher solute concentration than solution B-

3. ‘HYPO’ $eans less than- "olution & ishypotonic to solution B i% solution & has alo1er solute concentration than solution B

-ypertonic solution Isotonic solution -ypotonic solution emains of cell


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surface mem"rane

Crenation: ed

"lood cell shrinksand turns HspikyH

ed "lood cell 'wells up Haemolysis: ed"lood cell finally "urst

CRENATION AND HAEO!"#I# O$ RED %!OOD CE!!

$A%E&'% E*A+$E + T*E A-E&- A+/

0-&&/ AP--A1E% 02 %3P-E /44'%&+


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0-&&/ AP--A1E% 02 %3P-E /44'%&+ In the lungs8 capillary "lood takes in o/ygen from the

alveolar air space

2 $lveolar o/ygen diffused across the alveolar walls

and the capillary walls into the capillary "lood8 down

the o/ygen concentration gradient9 The "lood circulation system takes the o/ygen rich

"lood away and replaces it with "lood low in o/ygen8

"ut high in car"on dio/ide

%ar"on dio/ide from the capillary "lood diffused

across the capillary and the alveolar walls into the

alveolar air spaces8 down the car"on dio/ide

concentration gradient

Inhaled and e/haled air


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02 %02

0/ygenated "lood.eo/ygenated

"lood

ed "lood cell

%apillary wall

$lveolus wall

$ir sac

G&"5O6" 57H&2G5 BY "I3PL5 (I##6"IO2

I2 TH5 &LV5OL6"

THE EFFECT OF


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HYPOTONIC,

HYPERTONIC ANDISOTONIC SOLUTION

ON PLANT CELL ANDANIMAL CELL

"RESERVAT7ON OF FOO1 US7N> SA#T ORSU>AR

1 Food goes bad due to bacterial and fungal activities


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1. Food goes bad due to bacterial and fungal activities .2. To make food last for a long time, we preserve them.

3. Here, we shall look at how osmosis help us preserve ourfood4. concentrate salt solution has a high concentration of

salute !"a # and $l% ions& and ver' low concentration of water molecules.

(. )hen we leave food in a concentrated salt solution or the water molecules within the food cells a drawn out b'osmosis, making the food reall' *dr'+ .

. )ithout water bacteria and fungus cannot survive

-. The same reason goes for wh' we use sugar to preserveour food, too.. The onl' different is in our concentrate sugar solution,

sugar molecules from the high concentration of solute, witha ver' low concentration of water molecules.


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Hypotonic*Hypertonic '

Isotonic "olutions

Isotonic $ solution which has the same water


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Solution $ solution which has the same water

potential than another solution

HypotonicSolution

$ solution which has a higher waterpotential than another solution

HypertonicSolution

$ solution which has a lower waterpotential than another solution

A solution in &hich the concentration ofsolutes is '''' the concentration ofsolutes in another solution(


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The e.ects o%

hypotonic* hypertonic' isotonic solutions

on an ani$al cells

ed "lood cell


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@ 3a%l @JK 3a%l 9@ 3a%l

Solutions Observation Discussion Condition

W t diff i tThe condition is


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Hypotonic

solution

• Water diffuses intothe cell by osmosis.

• The cell swell upand eventuallyburst

known ashaemolysis.

Isotonicsolution

• Water diffuses intoand out of the cell

at equal rates.

• No net movement ofwater.

The cell retaintheir normal

shape.

Hypertonicsolution

• Water diffuses outof the cell by

osmosis.

• The cell shrinks.

The red blood

cell is said tohave undronecreanation.


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The e.ects o% hypotonic* The e.ects o% hypotonic*

hypertonic ' isotonichypertonic ' isotonic

solutions on an plantsolutions on an plantcellscells

,lant %ell


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.istilled

water

@K*

sucrose s

@*

sucrose s

Solutions Observation Discussion Condition o!cell

• "ater di!!uses into The cell is said


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Hypotonicsolution

"ater di!!uses intothe lare centralvacuole by osmosis.

• The lare centralvacuole e#pands$causin the cell toswell.

The cell is saidto be turgid

Isotonicsolution

• "ater di!!uses intoand out o! the cell ate%ual rates.

The cell retaintheir normalshape

Hypertonicsolution

• "ater di!!uses out o! thelare central vacuole byosmosis.

• &oth the vacuole andcytoplasm lose water tosurroundins and shrink.

• The plasma membrane

pulls away !rom the cell

This condition is

calledplasmolysis.

The plant cell becomes flaccid and less turid.

When a plasmolysed plant

ll i i d i


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cell is immersed in a

hypotonic solution againL

Water is taken up "y osmosis and

the cell "ecome turgid again The

cell is said to have undergone

deplasmolysis

The stem of a

mustard green is


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One of the strips is placed in distilled water , another in

&'( sucrose solution and the third in )*( sucrose solution.

What will happen after 20 minutes?

The portion

which is cut

)pidermal

layer

mustard green is

cut longitudinally to

e#ual strips

Obser+ations


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*ustard green strips

)pidermallayer

)pidermal

layer

.istilled

water

Ksucrose

solution

9@sucrose

solution


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The 5.ects &n

&pplications O% Os$osisIn 5+eryay Li%e

Wilting o% Plants


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g

• ,ro"lems can arise if chemical fertilisers

are added in e/cess to the soil

• The soil solutions "ecomes hypertonic to

the cell sap of the root hair cells

• $ater moves out of the plant by

osmosis

• When flaccidity spreads throughout the

plant8 #ilting occurs

Preser+ation o% #oo


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• !ood can "e preserved "y using salt orsugar

• When salt or sugar is added to the food8 it

creates a hypotonic condition for themicroorganisms that spoil the food

• $ater passes out from the

microorganisms into the concentratedsolution This results in slower growth of

the microorganisms or even death

BI0(0GD !0* %-$,T) K


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%-$,T) K

?==

"I,ISI>

*!PT?3 + @ *?I!= PSITI> F T*? ?==


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#EARN7N> OUTOMES


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• State the element in the cell

• List the chemical compounds in

the cell• Explain the importance oforganic compounds in the cell

• Explain the importance of waterin the cell

E#EMENTS 7N E##S


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• All living & non-living things are made up ofelements.

• At least 25 elements have een found to eessential to living organisms.

• !" #" $ & % mae up aout '() of the chemicalcomposition of living matter.

• *a+or elements , !" $" %" #" !a" " S" " %a"!l & *g.

• /race elements , oron 01" chromium 0!r"coalt 0!o" copper 0!u" fluorine 03"iodine 04" iron 03e" manganese 0*n"moldenum 0*o" selenium 0Se" silicon 0Si"tin 0Sn" vanadium 06" & 7inc 08n.


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o% only one 8in o% ato$ 1hich

cannot be bro8en o1n into si$plersubstances by a che$ical reaction-

carbohyrates* lipis* proteins*

nucleic acis ' 1ater-


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• CARBOHYDRATES9 A ma+or common energ source in cell. 0:gglucose :; T*? ?==S


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• LIPIDS9 Sources & storage of energ 0:g => T*? ?==S


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• PROTEINS9 /o form the structure of cell0protoplasm

9 /o form connective tissues such as

tendons" ligaments & muscle covering9 /o form the protein molecules in theplasma memrane

9 /o uild up muscles for movement

9 /o snthesise en7mes" hormones"antiodies" haemogloin

9 /o produce new cells

IP3T!>? F 3I P;>"S I> T*? ?==S


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• NUCLEIC ACIDS9 !ontain C, H, O, N & P.

9 4ts asic unit structure is nucleotidewhich consist of a sugar" a phosphate & anitrogen ase.

9 /wo tpes , DNA 0deoxrionucleic acid &RNA 0rionucleic acid

9 4mportance ,• !arr genetic information

• ?irect protein snthesis

• ?etermine the traits which are inherited fromthe parents

• !ontrol all the core activities thatcharacterise life such as chemical reactions &growth


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IP3T!>? F $!T?3 I> T*? ?==S


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• 4norganic compound

• 4mportance ,9 As a ma+or component of protoplasm9 As a transport medium within cells & etweencells

9 Allows chemical changes to tae place in

solution9 As a medium for iochemical reactions in thecell

9 As a universal solvent to dissolve respiratorgases & allow diffusion during gaseousexchange at alveolus & cells

9 /o provide support especiall in non-woodplants when cells are turgid & hdrostaticseleton in some animals

9 !omponent of luricants & secretion 0snovialfluid" digestive +uices" mucus & sweat

*!PT?3 + @ *?I!= PSITI> F T*? ?==


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!3B*"3!T?S


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• %ontain the element car"on8 hydrogen &o/ygen

• 9 main groups : monosaccharides8

disaccharides & polysaccharides

onosaccharides


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• Basic "uilding "locks• 'imple sugar as glucose8 fructose &

galactose

• %onsist of single chemical group made upof a ring of car"on8 hydrogen & o/ygen

atoms

• educing sugars• %an "e detected "y using BenedictHs test

"isaccharides


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• %omple/ sugars• %onsist of two monosaccharides com"ined chemically through

condensation

• *ono M mono disaccharides M water

• )g: maltose


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y

• (arge comple/ sugar • *any monosaccharides are >oined

together to form long chain of simple

sugar called polymers• )g : starch8 glycogen & cellulose


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%-$,T) : %-)*I%$( %0*,0'ITI03 0! T-) %)((


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• )lements : %8 -8 08 '8 3 & ,

• (arge & comple/ molecules


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• *onomer : amino acid

• *olecules of amino acids are >oinedtogether through condensation

• $mino acids are >oined together "y peptidebond

• $mino acid M amino acid dipeptide Mwater

4 ,olypeptides are formed when manymolecules of amino acids are >oined togetherto form long chains of aa

• ,olypeptides "roken down through a series ofhydrolysis reactions to "ecome dipeptides & finallyamino acids

• 2@ amino acids found in the proteinsof living cells


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• Two types of aa :• )ssential amino acids : cannot synthesised

"y "ody cells

• 3on6essential amino acids : can "esynthesised "y "ody cells

• !ood that contain all the essentialaa are called st class protein


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• Primary structure : a long straight

chain of polypeptide• &econdary structure : coiled to form

heli/ or pleated sheet

• Tertiary structure : heli/ or pleatedsheet is folded in various ways to

form glo"ular protein

• *uarternary structure : foldedprotein chains are >oined together to

form a single protein


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*!PT?3 + @ *?I!= PSITI> F T*? ?==


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#EARN7N>OUTOMES


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OUTOMES• /o state the elements inlipids.

• /o state the main tpes oflipids.

• /o state the components of fats& oils.

• /o explain the formation &

readown of fats & oils.• /o compare & contrast saturatedfats & unsaturated fats.

, 5le$ents : C, H & O


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, Types o% lipis : fts, oils, !"es,

p#osp#olipi$s, steroi$s %c#olesterol, testosterone,oestroen, proesterone'

, #ats ' oils are place in acategory calle trilyceri$es.

, categories o% lipis :(onolyceri$es, $ilyceri$es,trilyceri$es

• 3ats solid in roomtemperature 0high


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p gmelting point

• #ils li@uid in roomtemperature 0lower

melting point

• /riglceride made up

of one glcerol & =fatt acids.


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• : lcerol B : fatt acid

monoglceride B : water


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• : lcerol B 2 fatt acids diglceride B 2 water

• : lceride B = fatt acids triglceride B = water

• /he formation of fats & oilsinvolves the reaction ofcondensation etweenglcerol & fatt acids

< In the presence o% en;y$es* three%atty acis beco$e co+alentlybone to one glycerol ' prouces


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bone to one glycerol ' prouces

$olecules o% 1ater-


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SATURATE1 ? UNSATURATE1FATS

S d f i


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• Saturated fats , contain

saturated fatt acids 0do nothave an doule ond etweenthe caron atoms S#L4? 3#C*A/ C##* /E*ECA/DCE" 2;#!

0utter

• Dnsaturated fats , containunsaturated fatt acids 0at

least one doule ond etweenthe caron atoms L4D4? 3#C*A/ C##* /E*ECA/DCE" 2;#!0corn oil" palm oil


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OM"AR7SONSATURATE1 FAT UNSATURATE1 FAT


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SATURATE1 FAT UNSATURATE1 FAT

"I3IL&RITI5"BOTH are triglycerie ' contain %atty acis-

i.erences

!ontain saturate %atty aci !ontain unsaturate %attyaci

Its !arbon chain contains$a=- nu$- o% hyrogen

Its carbon chain is notsaturate 1ith hyrogen-

"ingle bon bet1eencarbon ato$s

/4c4c40

&t least > (ouble bonbet1een carbon ato$s

/4c?c40

OM"AR7SON /cont.


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i.erences

"oli at roo$te$perature

Liqui at roo$te$perature

High $elting point Lo1 $elting point

Increase the le+el o%cholesterol in the bloo

(ecrease the le+el o%cholesterol in the bloo

Increase the ris8 o% heart

iseases

(oes not increase the

ris8 o% heart iseases5=a$ple : ani$al %ats

/lar* butter05=a$ple : +egetable oils

/pal$ oil* corn oil0


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@A!OOO

*!PT?3 + @ *?I!= PSITI> F T*? ?==


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#EARN7N> OUTOMES• /o state what en7mes are


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/o state what en7mes are.

• /o explain wh en7mes are needed inlife processes.

• /o list the general characteristics ofen7mes.

• /o relate the name of en7me tosustrate.

• /o state sites where en7mes are

snthesised.• /o state the meaning of intracellularen7mes & extracellular en7mes.

EN@ME ? 7TS RECU7REMENT 7N #7V7N>"ROESSES

• Metabolism , iochemical processes in


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pthe cells

• 4nvolves a series of chemical reactions0complex compound can be synthesised from simple sustances or broken down.

4ts control en7mes.

• ENZYMEs , organic catalst that increasethe rate of a iochemical reaction

• A proteins which function asbiocatalyst.

• #rganisms depends on en7mes for theiochemical processes in the cells


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• Enale iochemical reactions to tae place@uicl in the cells where the internalenvironment such as temperature ma notfavourale for chemical reactions

• Substrate , the sustance that is acted upon an en7me.

• Ce@uired for ,9 ?igestion" snthesis of sustances"contraction of muscles" respiration" etc.

!ARATER7ST7S OFEN@MES

>- "pee up the rate o% bioche$ical


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p preactions-

< Increase the rate at 1hich che$ical r=nsoccur

< 3uch $ore e@cient than inorganic co$poun

A- Proteins prouce by li+ing cells

- 2ot estroye change by the r=n

C- 5.ecti+e in s$all a$ount-

D- The action is e=tre$ely speci)c-< 5ach r=n nee its o1n speci)c en;y$e

< 5ach en;y$e only act on one substrate baseon loc8 ' 8ey hypothesis-

!ARATER7ST7S OF EN@MES/cont.

E !an 1or8 in either irection /re+ersible


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E- !an 1or8 in either irection /re+ersible

r=n0F- (enature by high te$perature

< C4Eo! enature

< Lo1 te$p- less acti+e

< Opti$u$ te$p- D4Co!

- "ensiti+e to pH-< 3ost acti+e at pHF

< "o$e en;y$es require speci)c aciic

/pepsin0al8aline conition /trypsin0

J- &.ecte by inhibitors< Inhibitors slo1 o1n stop en;y$e acti+ity

< 5=a$ples : cyanie* lea ' $ercury

!ARATER7ST7S OF EN@MES/cont.

>-"o$e en;y$es require co%actors


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>-"o$e en;y$es require co%actors

< "o$e en;y$es only 1or8 in the presenceo% other che$icals ? co%actors

< 5=a$ples : copper /II0 ion /!uA


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na$e o% substrate on 1hich they act-

< 5=a$ples :< 3altose $altase

< "ucrose sucrase

< Lactose lactase

< Protein protease< Lipis lipase

< &$ylu$ /starch0 4 a$ylase

< "o$e en;y$es 1hich cannot be na$e

this 1ay because na$es o% these en;y$esha+e been use %or a long ti$e-D 5=a$ples : rennin* pepsin* erepsin* trypsin

S7TES OF EN@MES@NT!ES7S

• *ade protein snthesis within thell


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cells.

• Located at the ribosomes in theprotoplasm of the cells.

• ?epends on the ?%A code.

• ?%A C%A mC%A leaves thenucleus enters into ctoplasm

inds with the riosomes C%Aassemles the a.a into specificproteins modified to ecomeen7mes.

ETRAE##U#AR

EN@MES


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EN@MES• Intracelllar en!"mes F produced the cell & function within the cell.

• Examples , en7mes that are involvedin respiration 0mitochondria & inphotosnthesis 0chloroplast

• Extracellular en7mes Fsecreted out of the cell &


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functions outside the cell.

• Examples , salivar amlase"

trpsin" & lipase are producedin the pancreas & transportedto the duodenum.

• roduction of extracellularen7mes

FATORS AFFET7N>EN@ME AT7V7T@


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pH level• rotein are denatured changes inthe p$ level of the reaction medium.

• *ost en7mes are effective in onl anarrow p$ range.

• /he optimum p$ , the particular p$ atwhich the rate of reaction isfastest.

Temperature

< Lo1 te$perature* the rate o% en;y$e reactionis lo1-


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concentration are eptconstant" the rate of en7mereaction increases directlproportional to the amount of

sustrate present until alimiting value.

• /he rate of en7me reaction

does not increase even thoughthe GsustrateH increase.

Concentration o# En!"me

• p$ value" temperature" t t t ti


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sustrate concentration areept constant.

• Ceaction increases directlproportional to the Gen7meH

until it reaches a limitingvalue.

• An increase in the en7me

concentration does not increasethe rate of reaction.

USES OF EN@MES 7N 1A7#@#7FE ? 7N1USTR@


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A""#7AT7ON

EN@MES USES

(aily proucts Rennin

Lactose

To coagulate $il8proteins in cheese

prouction

To prouce lactose4%ree $il8-

3eat inustry Trypsin

Papain

To igest ' tenerise$eat* 1hich $a8es iteasier to coo8 the$eat ' shortens

A""#7AT7ON

EN@MES USES

Ba8ing α4a$ylase To brea8o1n starch


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ginustry

your into sugars inthe $a8ing o% breas' buns-

Prouction o%%ruit 9uices

α4a$ylase

&$yloglucosiase

Glucoseiso$erase

Pectinase

To prouce %ructosesyrup %ro$ cornstarch- 6se as %oorin8 s1eeteners-

To igest the pectin

in plant cells 'increase the +olu$eo% %ruit 9uices-

A""#7AT7ON

EN@MES USES

Bre1ing α4a$ylase To igest starch into


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ginustry

y

y$ase

gsugars

To con+ert sugarsinto alcohol

5=traction o%

agar %ro$$arinesea1ee

!ellulase To brea8o1n plant

cell 1alls %ro$sea1ees- 3a8es iteasier to e=tract agar%ro$ sea1ees-

Biologicaletergent

&$ylase

Protease

Lipase

To be use in ish1ashers ' in 1ashingpo1ers-

A""#7AT7ON

EN@MES USES

Leather Protease To re$o+e hair ' to


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inustry so%ten leather to$a8e bags* belts 'shoes-

Paperinustry

&$ylase To igest starch intos$aller $olecules to)ll spaces bet1eencellulose )bres toprouce s$ootherpaper-

3eicine 3icrobial trypsin To issol+e blooclots

A""#7AT7ON

EN@MES USES

Genetic Ligase To prouce G3O to


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engineeringg

Restrictionenonuclease

pincrease %ooprouction*hor$ones 'phar$aceuticalproucts-

%)(( .I7I'I03%oncept map

E## 17V7S7ON


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%onsist of

0ccur in

(ead to

3itosis 3eiosis

!ontrolle $itosis6ncontrolle $itosis

$eiosis I $eiosis II

Testis* o+ary an anther

' e / u a l

r e p r o d u c

t i o n ' e / u

a l

r e p r o d u c

t i o n 3 o n 6

d i s > u n c t i o

n

3 o n 6

d i s > u n c t i o

n

!loning/ase=ual reprouction*regeneration* healing0

&+antages anisa+antages o% cloning

c anc er

2 a d i o

a c t i v e a n d

% a r c i n

o g e n i c

s u " s t

a n c e

%omprises of

(ead to(ead to

considering

'u"divides into

%ause "y

*IT0'I' N *)I0'I'


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• b'ectives• Students should be able to@

• Identify and descri"e the stages of the cell cycle

• Identify8 using prepared slides8 the phases of plant andanimal mitosis

• .escri"e the phases of mitosis

• .escri"e the events of karyokinesis and cytokinesis

• Identify and descri"e the phases of meiosis

• %ompare and contrast mitosis with meiosis

• .escri"e spermatogenesis and oogenesis

itosis

• *itosis is a division of the nucleus to produce


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two new daughter cells containingchromosomes identical to the parent cell

Significance of mitosis

• Growth6 allows a 5ygote to produce more cellin order to grow

• epair and replacement6 allow the multicellular

organism maintain its tissues8 e/ample skincells and "lood

• $se/ual reproduction6 clone

Phases in the cell cycle

• The cell cycle divided into two ma>or phases


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a Interphase" *itosis

• Interphase is the period "etween division8

divided into 9 su" phases


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into main phases "ased on the appearance

and "ehavior of the chromosomes

,rophase

2 *etaphase

9 $naphase

Telophase


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Prophase

?arly prophase


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?arly prophase

• %homatids condense and "ecome visi"le in alight microscope

• 3ucleolus disappears

• ,aired centrioles move to opposite ends of thecell

=ate prophase• 3uclear mem"rane disappears

• 'pindle form

etaphase• 'pindle fi"res are fully form

• 'ister cromatids line up at the spindle


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'ister cromatids line up at the spindle

e#uator • $t the end of metaphase8 the centromers

divide

!naphase

• $naphase "egin with the separation of the

centromers

• The sister cromatids are drawn to opposite

poles of the cell "y contraction of spindle

fi"res

Telophase

, Telophase begin 1hen the t1o sets o%


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Telophase begin 1hen the t1o sets o%

aughter chro$oso$es ha+e reache thet1o poles o% the cell-

, The spinle )bres isintegrate* the

nuclear $e$brane %or$s aroun each seto% aughter chro$oso$es an thenucleoli reappear

, The chro$oso$es uncoil an beco$eless +isible uner the light $icroscope

, In plant cells* the stages o% $itosis aresa$e- Only cyto8inesis in plant cells is


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$ar8ely i.erent-, & clea+age %urro1 oes not %or$-

Instea* $e$brane4enclose +esicle

gather at a plant cells equator bet1eenthe t1o nuclei-

, Vesicle %use to %or$ a cell plate

$to:inesis

!yto8inesis is the process o% cytoplas$ic


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!y o es s s e p ocess o cy op as c

i+ision to %or$ t1o aughter cells-, !yto8inesis usually begins be%ore nuclear

i+ision is co$plete-

, !yto8inesis in ani$al cells an plant cellsare i.erent-

, &ni$al cells* the cytoplas$ contracts to

pull the plas$a $e$brane in1ars*%or$ing groo+e calle a clea+age %urro1


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eiosis• n a diploid cell, chromosomes occur as pairs

(homologous chromosomes)


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(homologous chromosomes).

• 3eiosis is a process to convert a diploid cell to a haploid

gamete and cause a change in the genetic information

to increase diversity in the offspring

• 3eiosis involves two successive nuclear division that

produce four haploid cells. The first division (meiosis ) is

the reduction division5 the second division (meiosis )

separates the chromatids.


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The e5ects of uncontrolle%mitosis in

li*in( thin(s


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• 3utation is the change in the /+A structure of thecell.

• This change in the /+A corrupts the coded geneticinstructions for mitosis control.

• This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non6

stop division of cells, producing a mass of newdaughter cells, called tumour.

!auses o% cancer

>- Genetic4 so$e %or$s o% cancer li8e prostate*colon* breast* s8in* o+ary are suspecte to be


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y p

inherite %ro$ the parentsA- !arcinogens4 these are che$icals 1hich a.ect

genetic acti+ity an cause cancer* e-g- o%carcinogen a iesel e=haust* cigarette s$o8e* hairyes* soot* arsenic* ben;ene an %or$alehye-

- Raiation4 e=cess e=posure to =4ray* ga$$a4raysan ultra +iolet rays lea to increase cancer ris8-

C- &ge4 so$e cancers are %oun pri$arily in youngpeople /e-g- leu8e$ia0* 1hile so$e cancers /e-g-

colon cancers0 are %oun $ostly in oler aults-D- Viruses4 so$e +iruses /such as the 5B an HIV4>0cause cancer-

%loning %loning is the process of the making %lones

are genetically identical cells produced from a


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single parent cell "y mitotic division8 orthrough ase/ual reproduction

2 genetically identical copies of an original plant

or animal9 We shall study the application of knowledge

on mitosis the cloning of

a= *icro"es"= ,lants

c= animals

< !lone $icrobes using cells culture an %er$enters*< !ell culturea0 You can easily clone $icrobes /bacteria an so$e

%loning of micro"es


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0 y /

%ungi0 in you science laboratory through naturalase=ual reprouction-b0 #irst* gro1 a sa$ple o% $icrobial cells on a soli

nutrient $eiu$ in an agar plate-c0 Then ienti%y* isolate an select strain %ro$ the agar

plate an gro1 it in liqui $eiu$ in a culture as8-< #er$entersa0 #er$enters are +essels use in biotechnology to

gro1 $icrobes on a large scale-b0 3icrobes* li8e yeast are $i=e 1ith a culture

$eiu$ an le%t in a %er$enters to gro1 by $itosis-c0 The %er$enters is constantly stirre* an aerate-0 The en+iron$ental conitions / such as pH* o=ygen*

pressure an te$perature0 are constantly$onitore using pro+es ti ensure the $a=i$u$gro1th o% the $icrobes-

7 Plants can be cloned using tissue culture

%loning in plants6tissue culture


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7. Plants can be cloned using tissue culture.

8. Tissue culture is the process of growing cells artificiallyin the laboratory, it is a modern and efficient way ofcloning plants.

9. Tissue culture produces genetically identical clones.

The main principals of tissue culture-a0 & pieces o% tissue* calle e=plants* its ta8en %ro$ aparents plant /e-g- carrot root or ste$ tissue*0

b0 The pieces o% tissues are sterilise 1ith ilutesoiu$ hypochlorite solution to pre+ent the


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gro1th o% pathogens /such as bacteria an %ungus0-c0 5ach sterile tissue piece is place on to a gro1th$eiu$ /gel containing nutrients an gro1thregulators0-

0 The tissues cells i+ie by $itosis to prouce a

$ass o% loosely arrange uni.erentiate cellscalle callus-e0 !allus is sti$ulate 1ith shoot4sti$ulating

hor$one to %or$ $ultiple shoots-%0 The shoots are separate an each is place in

nutrient $eiu$ 1ith root4sti$ulating hor$one toencourage rooting

g0 Once the roots gro1* the plantlets /little plants0 areplante in sterile co$post to gro1-

%loning of animals

< There are t1o types o% ani$al cloningaccoring to purpose:


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>- Reproucti+e cloning< Proucing an entire ani$al that is genetically

ientical to the parent ani$al< The entire ani$al is prouce %ro$ a single

cell by ase=ual reprouction through $itosis-A- Therapeutic cloning< Is a branch o% $eicine concerne 1ith the

treat$ent o% iseases-< Parts o% a person s8in heart li+er or e+en 9ust

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