FST – 103 CROP SCIENCE EXPERIMENT NO. 1davjalandhar.com/dbt/fst/SOP-Lab Manual/BFST SEMESTER -...

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FST – 103 CROP SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Aim: To study the different types of crops.

Theory: Crop Science is the branch of science dealing with study of various agronomic

practices, control of pests and insects, soil, climate and improved varieties with reference to a

particular crop.

Different types of crops are:

1. Cereal Crops: Wheat. Maize, rice etc.

2. Pulse crops: Green gram, soyabean, black gram etc.

3. Commercial crops: Sugarcane

4. Fruit Crops: Apple, mango, kinnow etc

5. Vegetable crops: Potato, cabbage, etc

On basis of cropping season the crop classification is as follows:

Kharif crops:The Kharif crop is the summer crop or monsoon crop in India. Kharif crops are

usually sown with the beginning of the first rains in July, during the south-west monsoon

season. Major Kharif crops of India include Millets (Bajra and Jowar), Paddy

(Rice), Maize, Moong(Pulses), Groundnut, Cotton, Soyabean, Sugarcane, Turmeric etc.

Rabi Crops: The Rabi crop is the spring harvest or winter crop in India. It is sown in

October last and harvested in March April every year. Major Rabi crops in India

include Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Sesame, Peas etc.

Zaid Crop: This crop is grown in some parts of country during March to June. Prominent

examples are Muskmelon, Watermelon, Vegetables of cucurbitacae family such as bitter

gourd, pumpkin, ridged gourd etc

BOTANICAL NAMES OF VARIOUS CROPS

CEREALS

Rice - Oryza sativa

Wheat - Triticum aestivum, Triticum durum

Maize - Zea Mays

MILLETS

Jower - Sorghum Vulgare

Bajra - Pennisetum typhoides

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Ragi - Eleusine coracana

PULSES

Gram - Cicer aietenum

Red gram - Cajanus cajan

Black gram- Phaseolus mungo

Green gram- Phaseolus aureus

EDIBLE OILS

Ground nut - Arachis hypogea

Rape & mustard- Brassica sp

Til (seasame) - Sesamum indicum

Coconut - Cocos nucifera

TUBER CROPS

Potato - Solanum tuberosum

Tapioca - Manihot utilissima

FRUITS

Mango - Mangifera indica

Banana - Musa paradisiaca

Apple - Malus sp

Grapes - Vitis vinifera

Citrus - Citrus sp

VEGETABLES

Brinjal - Solanum melongens

Tomato - Lycopersicon esculentus

Okra - Hibiscus esculentus

Onion - Allium cepa

Sugar cane - Saccarum officinarum

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EXPERIMENT NO.2

Aim: Identification of vegetables.

Theory: Punjab is a leading state in terms of production of vegetables. The total area under

vegetable crop is 1.58 lakh hectares with the production of 27 lakh tonnes. The annual

productivity of the state is 16.8 MT/ha as compared to the average nationl productivity of 14

MT/hectares. The major vegetables grown in the state are cauliflower, peaas, potato, onion,

chilies, tomato, brinjal.

MUSKMELON:

Muskmelon grows well under warm climate and it can’t tolerate frost conditions. The optimum

temperature for its germination is 27-30ºC. It is sown in the month of Feb & March.

Two improved varieties of muskmelon are:

Punjab Anmol

Punjab hybrid

WATERMELON:

It is a warm season crop and requires preferably a dry weather with abundant sunshine. The

optimum temperature for germination is 18-25 ºC.

Improved variety is Sugar baby.

PUMPKIN:

It is a warm season crop and requires preferably a dry weather and warm sunshine. The soil pH

should be preferably between 6.0-7.0. It is sown in the month of Feb – March.

Improved variety is Punjab Samrat.

BOTTLE GOURD

It requires a warm climate with a temperature range between 18-30 ºC. It is sown in the month of

Feb-March, June-July & Nov-Dec.

Two improved varieties are:

Punjab Long

Punjab Komal

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BITTERGOURD

It requires a warm humid climate. It is sown in the month of Feb-March & June-July

Two improved varieties are:

Punjab -14

C-96

CUCUMBER

It requires a warm climate with a optimum growth temperature range between 25-26 ºC. It is

sown in the month of Feb-March. Improved varieties is Punjab Naveen

TOMATO

It requires a warm season crop and requires a relatively long growing season with plenty of

sunshine and a day temperature range between 20-28 ºC. It is sown in first week of November

for main season crop and in the last week of December for spring season crop. It is ready for

harvesting in 100-120 days.

Improved varieties are:

TH-2312

TH-1

Punjab Upma

Castle Rock

BRINJAL

It requires long & warm growing season. It is very sensitive to frost. It is sown in the month of

October and is ready for harvesting in 60-70 days.


Punjab Neelam

Punjab Jaamunigola

Punjab Sadabahar

Punjab Nagina

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LADYFINGER

It is grown in warm and humid climate with an optimum temperature for germination is 29 ºC. It

is sown in the month of Feb-March and June-July.


Punjab 7

Punjab padmini

PEA

It is a cool weather loving crop and can germinate even at a temperature of 4-5 ºC. The optimum

germination takes place at 20-25 ºC. It is sown in the month of mid October- mid November.


Matar ageta-6

Mithi Phali

Punjab-89

CAULIFLOWER

The optimum temperature for growth is about 23 ºC. It is sown in the month of June/july for

early variety, Aug-Sept for main season variety and October to first week of November for late

sowing varieties.


Punjab Katki

Giant Snowball

Snowball-16

CABBAGE

It grows best in cool climate so called as cool or winter season crop. It is grown in the month of

September-october.


Pride of India

Drum Head Early

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Drum Head Late

CARROT

It requires relatively long growing season. Optimum temperature for growth is 7-24 ºC. It is

sown in the month of August-september as well as October- November.


PC-34

Selection-21

POTATO

Potato is raised when the day temperature is below 30 ºC and the night temperature is not above

20 ºC. The highest tuberization is obtained when the day and night temperature are about 20 ºC

and 14 ºC respectively.

It is sown in the last week of September upto mid of October and is ready for harvesting in 80-90

days.


Kufri Ashoka

Kufri Badshah

Kufri Chandramukhi

Kufri Jawahar

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EXPERIMENT NO.3

Aim: Identification of fruits

Theory: In Punjab state, kinnow, guava, mango, pears, grapes and litchi are the major fruit crops

while lemons, plum, pomegranate and banana are the minor fruit crops. Kinnow covers the

maximum area of cultivation and it is grown over 39000 hectares of land with an annual

production of 875,000 MT.

KINNOW (MANDARIN) & LEMON (CITRUS FRUITS):

The citrus fruits containing kinnows, oranges and lemons are grown in the districts of

Hoshiarpur, Faridkot and ferozepur. They are rich source of vitamin C and the rind of fruit is rich

in pectin. Citrus fruits in Punjab are planted in the month of Feb-March for spring season

planting and from mid of August to end of October for monsoon season planting.

Recommended varieties for kinnow are kinnow and local.

Recommended varieties for Lemon are Eureka, Punjab Baramasi & Punajb Galgal.

MANGO:

Mango is a rich source of Vitamin A, B1 & B2 and it is the choicest fruit among most of the

people in India. It is grown in wide varieties of soil provided that the soil is deep and free from

any hard pan. It is planted in the month of August to September and the major varieties for

mango are:

Langra, Dusheri & Alphonso

PEAR:

Pear is a rich source of proteins, vitamins & minerals. It is successfully grown over in wide range of soils

ranging from sandy loam to clay loam soils provided that the soil is deep, well drained, fertile, free from

any hard pans. It is planted in the month of January and planting may continue up to mid of February.

Recommended varieties are:

Punjab Nakh, Punjab Gold, Punjab Beauty, Leconate.

PEACH:

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Peaches are highly values as table fruit for its attractive color. Peaches can be processed as canned

fruits. It is used in preparation of Jams, Juices and marmalades. They are good source of low calorie diet.

It is sown in sandy loam, well drained soils with a soil pH between 6.0-8.0. It is planted in the month of

end of December to end of January. Recommended varieties are:

Partap, Florida prince, Shan-E-Punjab & Sharbati.

PLUM:

Plum is a minor fruit crop of Punjab. It is a rich source of Vitamin A and is used in preparation of

squashes. It requires 300 chilling hours for its growth. It is grown in deep sandy loam soils with good

drainage system and free from alkaline and saline conditions.

It is planted in the month of January.


Satluj purple & Kala Amritsari.

GRAPES:

These are fair source of minerals like potassium, calcium and B- vitamins. Grapes require long, hot dry

and rainless summer with adequate sunshine followed by a cold winter. Rains and moist weather

conditions may spoil the crop & also favours the spread of fungal diseases. It is sown in sandy loam well

drained soils. Planting is done in mid of January up to first fortnight of April.


Flame seedless, Punjab purple, beauty seedless.

GUAVA:

It is an important fruit crop of Punjab and ranks third after citrus and mango. It is grown in almost all

districts of Punjab. It is a rich source of Vitamin C. It is also known for controlling high blood pressure

conditions. It is a prolific bearing plant & bears twice a year, once in monsoon season & once in winter

season. It is a hardy plant and can be grown in poor, alkaline and ill drained soils. It is grown in feb-

march & august- September.


Punjab Pink, Allahabad safeda & Arka Amulya.

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LITCHI:

It is grown successfully in sub mountainous Punjab parts i.e. Hoshiarpur, Ropar, Gurdaspur & Pathankot.

It requires 200-300 chilling hours for its growth. It is grown in deep fertile, medium textured soils free

from any hard pan and salinity. The preferred soil pH is between 7.5 -8.5. It is grown in the month of

September.


Dehraduni & Calcuttia.

PAPAYA:

It is rich source of Vitamin A & Vitamin C. It requires warm & humid temperature for its growth. It is

highly sensitive to frost conditions and it is grown in well drained fertile soils. Planting is done in the

month of September to October.


Punjab Sweet & Honey Dew.

POMEGRANATE:

It is used for its cool and refreshing juice. The root and rind of the fruit is used for slimming, control of

diarrohea & dysentery. It is grown in hot dry season with sufficient irrigation facilities. It is planted

during the month of December.


Ganesh & kandhari.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM: To study different pulse crops

Soybean: Soybaen is a high value crop with multiple food, feed and industrial uses. Edible oil, Soymilk

and its products, antibiotics and fresh green beans are some of its major uses.

Improved varieties are SL-744 & SL-525

Moong (Green Gram): It is considered to be the hardest of all pulse crops. It requires hot climate and

can tolerate drought also. It gives best results when sown in well drained loamy to sandy loam soils.


PAU 911

ML 818

ML 613

Mash (Urd): It is sown in hot and humid season i.e. July to October. It gives good results in all soils

ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay soils except in saline- alkaline soils.


Mash 114

Mash 338

Arhar: It is grown over wide range of soils provided that the soil is well drained and fertile. Saline,

alkaline and water logged soils are unfit for its cultivation.

Improved varieties:

PAU 881

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AL 201

AL 15

Gram: Gram is as important rabi pulse crop of Punjab. It is sown in winter season but severe cold and

frost are injurious to it. It is a crop of low rainfall areas but gives good returns in irrigated conditions as

well.

Improved varieties:

For Desi Gram: PBG 5, PBG 1, PDG 4 and PDG 3.

For Kabuli Gram: BG 1053 & L 550

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM: Study of weeds and their control

Definition: A plant is termed as weed when it has one or more following characters:

1) Little or no medicinal or nutritional value.

2) Very high growth rate or ease of germination.

3) Exhibits competition to crop for space, light, water and nutrients.

Effects of weeds:

1) Weeds can compete with productive crops or convert the productive land into unusable land.

Weeds exhibits competition to crop for space, light, water and nutrients.

2) Weeds can serve as a host to insects, pests and disease causing microorganisms.

3) Weeds are often poisonous, distasteful, produces thorns and other damaging body parts.

COMMON WEEDS IN DIFFERENT CROPS:

1) Gulli Danda/ Sitti: It is the most common weed in the wheat crop which effects the overall

production of wheat by consuming the soil nutrients which were meant for wheat crop. It can

be checked by the spray of Isoproturon.

2) Bathu: It is a broad leaf weed which is common in wheat crop. Its growth can be checked by

spray of 2,4-D sodium salt.

3) Kandiali Palak: It is a hardy broad leaf weed which is present in wheat crop and it can be

checked by application of algrip.

4) Jaundhar: It is a wild oat common in wheat crop. Its growth can be checked by application of

avadex.

5) Ghrilla: It is a common weed in rice crop. It is a broad leaf weed and can be checked by

application of Algrip.

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6) Itsit: It is a braod leaf weed common in maize crop. The growth of itsit can be checked by

application of Atrataf.

7) Dila: It is also a form of broad leaf weed which is most common in sugarcane. It can be

controlled by application of 2,4-D sodium salt.

8) Makra: It is a most common weed in desi cotton and can be controlled by application of

trifluralin.

9) Button Booti: It is a newly found broad leaf weed in wheat crop and can be checked by

application of algrip.

10) Besides these other common weeds found in crops are:

Khabbal Gha

Bermuda Grass

Kaon Makki

Bans Patta

Weed Control:

Weeds can be controlled by both chemical method and cultural method.

Cultural method of weed control: Culturally weed scan be controlled by manual method called as

Hoeing (with khurpa or kassi) or by sowing of plants at closer spacing.

Chemical method of weed control: In this method , the growth of weeds can be checked by application

of chemicals which are termed as weedicides or herbicides.

Examples:

Algrip, Atrataf, 2,4-D Sodium salt, Trifluralin, Avadex, Isoproturon.

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EXPERIMENT NO.6

Aim: To study the nutrient composition of various fertilizers.

Theory:

The most commonly used fertilizers in different crops are as follows:

Urea

Superphosphate

Muriate of Potash

Zinc Sulphate

Ferrous Sulphate

Copper Sulphate

Gypsum

Farmyard Manure

The nutrient content of different fertilizers is given in tabular form which is as follows:

Fertilizer N (%) P2o5 (%) K2o (%) Others

Ammonium

phosphate

20.5 -- -- --

Ammonium

chloride

25 -- -- --

Urea 46 -- -- --

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Super phosphate -- 16 -- --

Diammonium

phosphate

18 46 -- --

Urea Ammonium

Phosphate

26 28 -- --

Nitrophosphate 20 20 -- --

Sulphated

Phosphorus

13 33 -- 15 (Sulphur)

Sulphate of

potash

-- -- 48 --

Muriate of

Potash

-- -- 60 --

Mangnese

Sulphate

-- -- -- 30 (Mn)

Zinc Sulphate

(Heptahydrate)

-- -- -- 21 (Zn)

Ferrous Sulphate -- -- -- 19 (Fe)

Fertilizer N (%) P2o5 (%) K2o (%) Others

Zinc Sulpahte

(Monohydrate)

`-- -- -- 33 (Zn)

Copper sulphate -- -- -- 24 (Cu)

Gypsum -- -- -- 16 (S)

Farmyard

Manure (Oven

Dry )

0.5-1.5 1.2-1.8 1.2-2.0 sufficient

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EXPERIMENT NO.7

Aim: Computation of doses of different fertilizers for different crops.

Name of crop Fertilizer (Kg/ Acre)

Urea DiAmmonium

phosphate

Super

Phosphate

Muriate of

Potash

Wheat 110 55 155 20

Gram (Desi) 13 -- 50 --

Gram ( Kabuli) 13 -- 100 --

Sunflower 50 -- 75 40

Summer moong 11 -- 100 --

Rice 110 27 75 20

Basmati rice 110 27 75 20

Maize (PMH-1, Parbhat,

Pb Sweet corn-1)

110 55 150 20

Maize (Kesri, PMH2) 75 27 75 15

Moong Dal 11 -- 100 --

Mash 11 -- 60 --

Arhar 13 35 100 20

Soyabean

28

-- 200 --

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Groundnut 130 -- 12 --

Sugarcane 13 -- 50 17

Mango 500 gm -- 1000gm 1000gm

Kinnow 1920gm -- 2750gm --

Papaya 1.25 kg -- 2.5 kg 416 gm

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FST – 104 FUNDAMENTALS OF FOOD NUTRITION

Aim – Introduction to nutrition

Theory - Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for

the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains

essential nutrients, such as fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance

is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to

provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

Functions of food:-

1. provides energy to do work.

2. provides material for growth of the body.

3. provides material for repair of damaged cells and tissues in our body.

4. regulates body processes to maintain life.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharide (e.g. glucose, fructose,

galactose), disaccharide (e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose) and polysaccharide

(e.g. starch, fibre). Carbohydrates must be reduced to the simplest form of

glucose (through digestion) before your body can make use of them.

Carbohydrates should make up at least 55% of your total energy intake.

The brain is a special part of the body that depends primarily on glucose for its

energy and requires about 100 g/day of glucose for fuel. In some situations, the

body can compensate for decreased levels of carbohydrates by using

alternative energy pathways such as burning fatty acids.

Protein

Protein is important for the production, maintenance and repair of tissues in the

body. When energy intake is insufficient, protein intake must be raised. This is

because ingested proteins are preferentially directed towards glucose (sugar)

synthesis and oxidation. The tissues and organs in the body are made up of

protein and protein compounds. Enzymes (biological

catalysts), antibodies and hormones also consist of protein. The building

blocks of protein are called amino acids. The body can make all of the 20

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amino acids except eight, which are termed essential amino acids. These are

isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan

and valine. Histidine is essential only for infants. The number and nature of

amino acids present in a particular protein determines that protein’s

characteristics.

Animal products tend to have the highest amount of proteins, followed by

legumes (beans), cereals (rice, wheat, corn) and roots. Animal protein

(from meat, eggs, fish, and milk) contains all the essential amino acids and is

normally referred to as ‘complete’ or ‘high biological value’ protein.

Fats

Fats are a concentrated and rich source of energy. It is recommended that your

total fat intake is no more than 30% of your energy (calorie/kilojoule) intake.

Polyunsaturated fat should be less than 10% of energy, and saturated fat and

Trans fat together should be less than 10%. The rest of your fat intake should

consist of monounsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fats are found mainly in nuts,

avocados, olive oil, canola oil, rapeseed oil, peanut oil, flaxseed oil, sesame oil,

corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, etc.

Vitamins

Vitamins constitute a group of nutrients that are needed in small quantities.

Like amino and fatty acids, most vitamins cannot be made in the body and

must be obtained from dietary sources. Only vitamin Dcan be manufactured by

the body. Essential vitamins are grouped into two families: water soluble and

fat soluble. Water soluble vitamins can dissolve in water (thiamine, riboflavin,

niacin, vitamin C, folic acid). These cannot be stored by the body and need to

be consumed every day. Fat soluble vitamins can dissolve in a fat medium

(vitamins A, D, E, K). These are taken into our bodies when we consume fat-

containing foods. Vitamins are needed for various reasons, including the

formation of hormones and blood cells. They generally act as coenzymes. An

inadequate supply of vitamins in our diet leads to the development of diseases.

Eg. milk, butter, cheese, egg yolk and fish-liver oil.

Minerals

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Minerals are essential, acting as cofactors of enzymes (i.e. enzymes would not

exist or function without minerals). Some of the minerals necessary for health

are Calcium, Iron, Zinc, P, Mg, Na,etc. Sources include meats, oysters and

other seafood, milk, egg yolk, green leafy vegetables etc.

Water

For adults, 1–1.5 mL water per kcal of energy expenditure is usually sufficient

to allow for normal changes in physical activity, sweating, and dietary solute

load. Water losses consist of 50–100 mL/day through faeces (stools), 500–

1000 mL/day by evaporation, and approximately 1000 mL/day through urine.

If external losses increase, we must increase the amount of water we ingest. In

special circumstances such as diarrhoea and vomiting, water requirements

further increase.

Roughage

Roughage is a general term used to identify a carbohydrate contained in many

different types of foods. Sometimes referred to simply as dietary fiber, it is

understood to be an essential part of any healthy diet plan. Its main function is

to add bulk to the diet, which in turn aids in the digestion process and healthy

function of the bowel system. Eg – salad, fruits, and vegetables, half crushed

wheat (porridge).

Deficiency disease - any illness associated with an insufficient supply of one

or more essential dietary constituents. The main diseases are -

Iron Deficiency – anemia (reduced amount of red blood cells)

Vitamin A Deficiency – night blindness

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Deficiency - Thiamine

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Deficiency – pellagra

Vitamin D and Ca Deficiency – Rickets & osteomalacia

Vitamin C deficiency – Scurvy

Iodine Deficiency - Goitre

Protein Deficiency – PEM (Protein Energy Malnutrition) such as Kwashiorkar

and Marasmus

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Aim – To study the diet chart of infant

Theory - Nutrition is defined as the processes by which an animal or plant

takes in and utilizes food substances. Essential nutrients include protein,

carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and electrolytes. Normally, 85% of daily

energy use is from fat and carbohydrates and 15% from protein. In humans,

nutrition is mainly achieved through the process of putting foods into our

mouths, chewing and swallowing it. The required amounts of the essential

nutrients differ by age and the state of the body, for example: physical activity,

diseases present (e.g. prostate cancer, breast cancer or weakened bones –

known as osteoporosis), medications, pregnancy and lactation.

Dietics: - It is a practical application of principle of nutrition. It includes

planning of meals for all human beings.

RDA: - The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) refer to the

recommended daily levels of nutrients to meet the needs of nearly all healthy

individuals in a particular age and gender group.

The actual amounts of each nutrient required to maintain good health in specifi

c individuals differ from person to person. Infancy is the period of rapid

growth. There are some RDA charts specified for an infant. Recommendation

of energy intake of infants is based on breast milk intake. These allowances

would form guidelines in feeding children who do not get sufficient breast

milk. Usually the breast milk would be sufficient to meet the calorie

recommendation up to 5-6 months and later require supplementation with other

food stuffs besides milk in order to fulfill not calories but also other nutritional

requirements. Allowances for infants should be made for the rapid growth. The

allowances for the first 6 months are met by milk proteins. Later the child has

to be supplemented with other sources of protein.

Food exchange list - It is a system of determining a daily food plan based on

units, or exchanges, of various food types. The nutrient content of each item on

the list is calculated according to its serving size, so that items in the same

category have approximately the same nutritional value.

.

A grouping of foods in which the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and calories are

similar for the serving sizes listed. One serving size of a food in a category can

be exchanged for one serving size of any other food in the same category,

which is why a serving is called an exchange.

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Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from Diabetes

mellitus

Theory - Diabetes mellitus (or diabetes) is a chronic, lifelong condition that

affects your body's ability to use the energy found in food. There are three

major types of diabetes: type 1 diabetes, type2 diabetes, and gestational

diabetes. Body breaks down the sugars and carbohydrates into a special sugar

called glucose. Glucose fuels the cells in the body. But the cells need insulin, a

hormone, in bloodstream in order to take in the glucose and use it for energy.

With diabetes mellitus, either the body doesn't make enough insulin or it can't

use the insulin it produces, or a combination of both.

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is also called insulin-dependent diabetes. It used to be called

juvenile-onset diabetes, because it often begins in childhood.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition. It's caused by the body attacking

its own pancreas with antibodies. In people with type 1 diabetes, the

damaged pancreas doesn't make insulin.

This type of diabetes may be caused by a genetic predisposition. It could also

be the result of faulty beta cells in the pancreas that normally produce insulin.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type2 diabetes used to be called adult-onset diabetes, but with the epidemic

of obese and overweight kids, more teenagers are now developing type 2

diabetes. Type 2 diabetes was also called non-insulin-dependent diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is often a milder form of diabetes than type 1. Nevertheless,

type 2 diabetes can still cause major health complications, particularly in the

smallest blood vessels in the body that nourish the kidneys, nerves, and eyes.

Type 2 diabetes also increases your risk of heart disease and stroke.

Diet: - The diet most often recommended is high in dietary fiber, especially

soluble fiber, but low in fat (especially saturated fat) and low in sugar.

Recommendations of the fraction of total calories to be obtained

from carbohydrate are generally in the range of 40 to 65%, but

recommendations can vary as widely as from 16 to 75%

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Caloric meal: - Complex carbohydrates, or those that are rich in fiber, should

constitute between 45 and 65 percent of your daily caloric intake. Fats should

provide only about 25 to 35 percent of your daily calorie intake. Protein should

provide about 12 to 20 percent of your daily calories.

Moderate exercise: - moderate exercise such as walking will help to increase

the caloric needs and avoid development of obesity.

Insulin and other diabetic drugs:-Drugs used in diabetes treat diabetes

mellitus by lowering glucose levels in the blood. There are different classes of

anti-diabetic drugs, and their selection depends on the nature of the diabetes,

age and situation of the person, as well as other factors. Diabetes mellitus type

1 is a disease caused by the lack of insulin. Insulin must be used in Type I,

which must be injected.

Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a disease of insulin resistance by cells. Type 2

diabetes mellitus is the most common type of diabetes. Treatments include (1)

agents that increase the amount of insulin secreted by the pancreas, (2) agents

that increase the sensitivity of target organs to insulin, and (3) agents that

decrease the rate at which glucose is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

Oral anti diabetic drugs - are effective in Type II.

Mechanism of action of anti diabetic drugs:

· Stimulating insulin release by pancreatic beta cells

· Acts on the liver to reduce gluconeogenesis and causes a decrease in insulin

resistance

· Reduces glucose absorbance by acting on small intestine to cause decrease

in production of enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates

· Reduce insulin resistance by activating PPAR-γ in fat and muscle.

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Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from Diarrhoea.

Theory – Diarrhoea is the condition of having at least three loose or

liquid bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result

in dehydration due to fluid loss. If blood is present it is also known

as dysentery.

TYPES: -

Acute diarrhoea.

Diarrhea can be classified by several methods with duration of the symptom

being foremost. Diarrhea lasting less than 2 weeks is considered acute. This

phenomenon is most likely caused by an infectious agent, such as bacterial,

parasitic or viral invasion, or by a non-infectious agent such as dietary

indiscretion.

Treatment –

1. Bed rest

2. Therapy by suitable drugs prescribed by physician.

3. Correction of water & electrolyte losses.

Diet- The fluids should contain water, salt, and sugar. Diluted fruit juices and

flavored soft drinks along with salted crackers and broths or soups may also be

acceptable. Boiled starches and cereals (eg, potatoes, noodles, rice, wheat, and

oats) with salt are recommended if you have watery diarrhea; crackers,

bananas, soup, and boiled vegetables may also be eaten.

· As a rough guide, drink at least 200 mls after each bout of diarrhoea (after

each watery stool (faeces).

· Avoid fatty, spicy or heavy food at first. Plain foods such as wholemeal

bread and rice are good foods to try eating first.

· Fluids should be given at rates of 50-200 mL/kg/24 hr, depending on the

patient’s hydration status

· Orange juice with glucose (200ml) one in every 4 hours.

Chronic Diarrhoea: -

Diarrhea lasting longer than two weeks but resolving within a month is known

as persistent diarrhea. This is typically a slower to resolve infection or

continuing use of an offending agent. Chronic diarrhea, on the other hand, lasts

longer than four weeks.

8

Treatment –

1. Bed rest


Diet –

1. Barley water mixed with equal amount of milk with added sugar (5%)

should be given once in every 2 hours and the amount should be 200-300 ml.

2. Fruit juice should be given once in every 4 hours for 2 days.

When condition improves bread, milk, pudding, banana, apple should be

included in diet along with dilute milk.

Weaning Diarrhoea: -

A condition occurring in a background of poor sanitation, which affects infants

6 -24 months of age, and represents a major cause of infant

mortality in developing nations.

Treatment –

1. Bed rest


Diet –

Feed of reconstituted skimmed milk (200ml) once in 3 hours. Orange juice

100ml once in 4 hours till diarrhea stops. When the diarrhea stops the child

should be fed on full fat, milk, fruit juices, milk pudding and bread till it

regains normal health.

9

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from

glomerulonephritis

Theory - The glomeruli are structures in your kidneys made up of tiny blood

vessels. These knots of vessels help filter blood and remove excess fluid. If

your glomeruli are damaged, your kidneys will stop longer work properly, and

your body can go into kidney failure. Conditions that damage the glomeruli are

collectively referred to as glomerulonephritis (GN).

Glomerulonephritis is a serious illness that can be life threatening and requires

immediate treatment. Sometimes this condition is called nephritis. There can

be both acute (sudden) glomerulonephritis and chronic (long-term)

glomerulonephritis.

Types-

Diffuse glomerulonephritis a severe form of glomerulonephritis with proliferati

ve changes in more than half the glomeruli, frequently withepithelial crescent f

ormation and necrosis; it is often seen in cases of advanced systemic lupus eryt

hematosus.Symptoms of acute nephritis include the

suddenonset of edema and dyspnea as a result of the overloading of the circulat

ory system by retained fluids; a decrease in the volume of urine,accompanied b

y an excess of urinary protein and blood; and the appearance under the microsc

ope within the urinary sediment of renalepithelium, leukocytes, erythrocytes, a

nd protein casts of the renal tubules.

Dietary Requirements:

Protein - Since glomerular filtration declines during the onset of 3 to 6 days,

nitrogen accumulation will occur. Therefore, limitation of protein is necessary.

People can properly take more fruits, vegetables and dessert, etc. Eat less fish,

meat and egg. Main food has no limitation. Besides, if urea nitrogen is over

60mg, protein intake is 0.5g.kg -1.0g.kg per day. Or you can choose milk and

egg as well as other high quality protein foods so as to reduce unnecessary

amino acid intake. If the conditions get improved, you can increase protein

10

intake moderately. When blood urea nitrogen is normal, there is no limitation

on protein.

Vitamin - People should eat various vitamin rich foods, especially foods with

vitamin B and C. Eat more fruits and vegetables.

Mineral intake - For patients with edema and high blood pressure, they should

restrict salt intake according to their own medical conditions. High sodium

foods like pickle, milk curd and salted eggs as well as other canned products

are restricted.

Fat and Cholesterol - A low fat, low cholesterol diet should be followed to

avoid further elevation of cholesterol levels associated with membranous

nephritis and to lower the risk of cardiovascular events. Saturated fats should

be avoided as well as foods high in cholesterol. This includes foods such as

eggs, whole milk, butter, fatty cuts of meats and fried foods.

Type II nephritis – there is increase in permeability of globular membrane so

there is no retention of urea & other nitrogen waste product so the total volume

of urine excreted may be normal or slightly reduced. The nutritional

requirements are: -

Calorie: The calorie intake should be adequate i.e 2000Kcal for adult male &

1700Kcal for adult female so as to prevent breakdown of tissue proteins.

Protein – The daily loss of albumen in urine may be about 10-12g depending

upon the severity of albumen urea. 100-120g protein/ day should be

recommended.

Fat – Fat intake should be about 60-70g/day.

Vitamins: - Intake of vitamin should be adequate of 1 multivitamin tablet per

day should be recommended.

Minerals: - The diet should provide all the adequate amount of minerals.

Carbohydrates: - Carbohydrates will supply a major part of calorie

requirements so calories should be supplied in the form of carbohydrates rich

food.

Fluid: - The fluid intake should be 1.5-2L/day.

11

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from peptic ulcer

Theory: - Peptic ulcer disease refers to painful sores or ulcers in the lining of

thestomach or first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum. an ulcer is

the end result of an imbalance between digestive fluids in the stomach and

duodenum. Most ulcers are caused by an infection with a type of bacteria

called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).

Factors that can increase risk for ulcers include:

· Use of painkillers called non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),

such as aspirin, naproxen (Aleve, Anaprox, Naprosyn, and

others), ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil, some types of Midol, and others), and many

others available by prescription; even safety-coated aspirin and aspirin in

powered form can frequently cause ulcers.

· Excess acid production from gastrinomas, tumors of the acid producing cells of

the stomach that increases acid output.

· Stress: - Stress due to serious health problems such as those requiring

treatment in an intensive care unit is well described as a cause of peptic ulcers,

which are termed stress ulcers.

· Diet: - Dietary factors such as spice consumption, excessive drinking of

alcohol and smoking or chewing tobacco are considered to cause ulcers.

· Serious illness

· Radiation treatment to the area

Symptoms

· A gnawing or burning pain in the middle or upper stomach between meals or at

night

· Bloating

· Heartburn

· Nausea or vomiting

In severe cases, symptoms can include:

· Dark or black stool (due to bleeding)

· Vomiting blood (that can look like "coffee-grounds")

· Weight loss

· Severe pain in the mid to upper abdomen

12

Principles of treatment: -

· Acid suppression is the general pharmacologic principle of medical

management of acute bleeding from a peptic ulcer.

· Medical therapy may aim to reduce the aggressive factors acid and pepsin by

compounds that neutralize the acid or inhibit the secretion of acid.

· Psychological distress should be addressed to ensure successful treatment.

Compared with healthy people, patients with ulcers are particularly likely to

respond to stress by producing more stomach acid, as much as 10 to 20 times

the normal levels. Depression, anxiety, and ongoing stressful life

circumstances have been shown to decrease ulcer healing, whereas

psychologically stable individuals who develop an ulcer during a stressful

period tend to remain free of symptoms after treatment.

· Exercise may decrease the risk for gastritis and ulcer disease. Exercise

reduces acid secretion, and some evidence suggests it significantly decreases

the risk for ulcer and for severe bleeding in persons with ulcers.

· Factors that increase risk should be avoided. These include tobacco use,

alcohol, nonsteroidal anti–inflammatory medications (e.g., ibuprofen),

aspirin, and steroids.

· Antacid therapy to reduce acid production is the most common treatment.

There are several types of antacids, including over–the–counter antacid

medications.

Nutritional Requirements: -

· High–fiber diets: A large study at the Harvard School of Public Health

found that high–fiber diets were associated with reduced risk of developing

ulcers. Over a six–year period, the risk was 45 percent lower for those with

the highest fiber intake, compared with those with the lowest. Food sources

of soluble fiber (oats, legumes, barley, certain fruits and vegetables) were

especially protective, resulting in a 60 percent lower risk in this group.

However, supplementation with dietary fiber in the form of wheat bran had

no effect on ulcer recurrence. Similarly, high–fiber diets appeared to have no

benefit on ulcer healing rates compared with diets low in fiber.

· Diets high in vitamin A: In the same Harvard study, total vitamin A intake

(from food and supplements) was associated with lower risk. The risk was 54

percent lower among persons consuming the most vitamin A, compared with

those consuming the least.

13

· Green tea: Several studies show that regular green tea consumption is

associated with a 40 to 50 percent lower risk for gastritis. Cellular tests

suggest that the catechins in green tea may act as antioxidants and

antibacterial to suppress the H. pylori bacteria.

· Avoiding alcohol: The relationship between alcohol and gastritis and ulcers

is complex and may be related to the amounts consumed. Chronic alcohol

abuse favors H. pylori infection and also slows the rate of healing in existing

ulcers.

· Avoiding coffee: Coffee, in either it’s caffeinated or decaffeinated forms,

stimulates acid production, and some studies have suggested a close

association between coffee intake and symptoms. However, it is unclear

whether coffee consumption increases or decreases the risk ofH.

pylori infection.

14

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from anaemia

Theory - Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough

healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of

red blood cells and binds oxygen.

Types:

1. Iron deficiency anemia

2. Anemia due to deficiency of folic acid

3. Anemia due to deficiency of Vit. B12

Iron deficiency anemia - It is caused by insufficient dietary intake and

absorption of iron, or iron loss from bleeding. Bleeding can be from a range of

sources such as the intestinal, uterine or urinary tract. The most significant

cause of iron-deficiency anemia in developing world children is parasitic

worms: hookworms, whipworms, and roundworms. Worms cause intestinal

bleeding, which is not always noticeable in faeces, and is especially damaging

to growing children.

Causes: -

· increased iron demand / loss or decreased iron intake

· heavy or long menstrual periods

· insufficient production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, then ferrous and

ferric iron salts will precipitate out of solution in the bowel which are poorly

absorbed.

· Increased requirements i.e during pregnancy.

Symptoms

· Breathlessness

· Pale yellow skin

· Poor appetite · Restless legs syndrome

Treatment:

Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for men over the age of 19 and

women over the age of 51 are 8 mg per day; for women ages 19 to 50, the

15

RDA is 18 mg per day.(2) In the typical American diet, major sources of

iron are meat, poultry, fish, nuts and seeds, legumes and bean products,

green leafy vegetables, raisins, whole grains and fortified cereals.

Eating more ascorbic acid, which is common in fruits, vegetables and

fortified cereals, can improve iron absorption.

Megaloblastic anemia:

The cause of megaloblastic anemia are deficiency of folic acid in pregnant

women and to lesser extent in pre-school children.

Symptoms:

· fatigue

· muscle weakness

· loss of appetite/weight loss

· diarrhea

· nausea

Treatment:

Megaloblastic anemia caused by a lack of folic acid may be treated with oral

or intravenous folic acid supplementation. Dietary changes also help boost

folic acid levels. Foods to include in your diet are oranges, leafy vegetables,

peanuts, lentils, and asparagus. In addition to this folic acid should be given

in adults i.e folic acid(5mg daily once) & ferrous sulphate tablets (0.2mg

thrice a day) for 10 days &folic acid (2mg daily once) &ferrous sulphate

(0.2g daily once or thrice a day) from 11th

to 60th day should be given. In

case of pre-school children, folic acid 1-2mg orally daily is recommended.

Pernicious Anemia (due to deficiency of vitamin B12)

It is caused by lack of intrinsic factors in stomach with constant failure in the

absorption of vitamin B12 in intestine. Its absorption from intestine required a

factor called Intrinsic factor secreted by stomach. Intrinsic factor binds

vitamin B12 which results in formation of Intrinsic factor vitamin B12

complex.

Instrinsic factor is a glycoprotein present in gastric juice.

16

Symptoms-

It causes red blood cells to become larger and less efficient at carrying

oxygen.

· a loss of appetite

· a sore tongue and mouth

· depression

· diarrhoea

Treatment:

Foods high in vitamin B12 include:

red meat, animal products such as cheese and eggs, yeast extract, fortified

bread, fortified breakfast cereals and salmon ARE RICHEST SOURCE OF

vitamin B12 and fresh milk , milk powder, cheese are fair sources of vitamin

B12. Folic acid (5mg daily once) & ferrous sulphate tablets (0.2mg thrice a day)

is given until anemia is cured.

17

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from jaundice

Theory: Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin, mucous membranes,

and the whites of the eyes caused by increased amounts of bilirubin in the

blood. Jaundice is a sign of an underlying disease process. It may be due to the

following causes:

Haemolytic – due to excessive breakdown of RBC’s

Obstructive – Due to obstruction of bile flow by tumors or swelling of ducts

Hepatocellular – this is due to the primary damage to parenchymal cells other

than by viral infestation or by toxin drugs. The most common cause of

jaundice is viral infection of liver which is called viral hepatitis.

Forms of jaundice: -

· Most severe forms of viral hepatitis is precoma or coma

· Severe jaundice

· Mild moderate jaundice

Dietary requirements:

The requirement for various dietary nutrients for an adult can be discussed as:

Calories:- in an adult of 60kg body weight about 1000kg calorie are supplied

during the hepatic precoma & coma and these are supplied by nasogastric tube

feeding or intravenous glucose

Proteins: - the quantity of protein in diet depends upon the severity of disease.

In case of hepatic precoma & coma, proteins are not given to patients & only

the carbohydrates are given by nasogastric tube feeding. When jaundice is mild

60-80g of proteins are permitted. In case of severe jaundice 40g protein will be

sufficient.

Fats: - fat intake will depend upon the severity of disease. In the hepatic

precoma & coma due to severe hepatocellular failure fats are not metabolized

by liver. In case of severe jaundice about 30g of fat in a day is permitted. In

mild to moderate jaundice about 50-60g of fat may be given daily.

Carbohydrates – there are main source of calories in the diet for the patients

suffering from hepatitis. Intravenous glucose is indicative in the early phase of

hepatitis with severe nausea & vomiting. In case of severe jaundice, fruit

18

pudding, porridge containing sugar can be administrated. In case of mild to

moderate jaundice cereals are the main source of carbohydrates.

Vitamins: - multivitamin tablets providing the daily requirement of all

vitamins are given.

Minerals: - the serum level of sodium & potassium should be maintained at

normal level by adding these salts to the food.

Diet for patients in precoma & coma stage of viral hepatitis

Parenchymatic or parental feeding

When patients suffer from severe nausea & vomiting intravenous

administration of 10% glucose should be maintained at a slow rate of 10

drops/minute and a total of 2000-2500ml of fluid providing 800-1000kg

calories per day should be given.

Naso-gatric feeding

When nausea & vomiting stops nasogastric feeding should be started. The

daily requirements of all vitamins can be mixed in 200ml of juice to be

administered at 3 hours interval by the nasogastric tube starting from 6:00a.m

to 12:00p.m or till midnight.

19

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from tuberculosis

Theory – Pulmonary tuberculosis is an inflammatory disease of lungs with

cough & mild fever. There is moderate increase in BMR and breakdown of

tissue protein. Since, it is disease of long duration, it is essential to provide

high calorie diet and high protein in addition to treatment with drugs.

Treatment: - It consist of

1. bed rest

2. administration of suitable drugs

3. provision of high calorie & high protein diet

Nutritional requirement:-Diet is an important factor in rapid recovery of

tuberculosis. There is marked increase in nutritional requirement of protein,

calorie, vitamin and minerals during this disease the nutritional requirement are

briefly discussed below:-

Calorie: - There is increase in energy requirement due to rise in body

temperature. Therefore, calorie intake should be increased by about 10%.

Protein: - During the disease there is an increased breakdown of tissue protein

due to infection the intake of proteins should be increased by about 50% over

daily requirements and the proteins should be of high nutritive value.

Vitamin A: - The metabolism of vit. A & ascorbic acid is adversely effected.

Moreover, the drug used in the treatment is antagonistic against vitamin B6.

Hence, the intake of vitamin B6 should be increased. The vitamin requirement

can be met by intake of multivitamin tablet along with the food rich in vitamin.

Minerals: - It is essential to make sure that daily requirements of calcium,

phosphorus, iron and other minerals are provided by the diet. Daily intake of

one tablet containing essential minerals will help to make up mineral

deficiency in diet.

20

Aim – Planning of diet of a patient suffering from Coronary

Heart Disease

Theory - Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disease in which a waxy

substance called plaque (plak) builds up inside the coronary arteries. These

arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to your heart muscle. When plaque builds up

in the arteries, the condition is called atherosclerosis. The buildup of plaque

occurs over many years.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) starts when certain factors damage the inner

layers of the coronary arteries. These factors include:

· Smoking

· High levels of certain fats and cholesterol in the blood

· High blood pressure

· High levels of sugar in the blood due to insulin resistance or diabetes

· Blood vessel inflammation

Major Risk Factors

· Unhealthy blood cholesterol levels. This includes high LDL cholesterol

(sometimes called “bad” cholesterol) and low HDL cholesterol (sometimes

called “good” cholesterol).

· High blood pressure. Blood pressure is considered high if it stays at or above

140/90 mmHg over time. If you have diabetes or chronic kidney disease, high

blood pressure is defined as 130/80 mmHg or higher. (The mmHg is

millimeters of mercury—the units used to measure blood pressure.)

· Smoking. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels, lead to unhealthy

cholesterol levels, and raise blood pressure. Smoking also can limit how much

oxygen reaches the body's tissues.

· Insulin resistance. This condition occurs if the body can't use its own insulin

properly. Insulin is a hormone that helps move blood sugar into cells where it's

used for energy. Insulin resistance may lead to diabetes.

· Diabetes. With this disease, the body's blood sugar level is too high because

the body doesn't make enough insulin or doesn't use its insulin properly.

21

· Overweight or obesity. The terms “overweight” and “obesity” refer to body

weight that’s greater than what is considered healthy for a certain height.

· Metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is the name for a group of risk

factors that raises your risk for CHD and other health problems, such as

diabetes and stroke.

· Lack of physical activity. Being physically inactive can worsen other risk

factors for CHD, such as unhealthy blood cholesterol levels, high blood

pressure, diabetes, and overweight or obesity.

· Unhealthy diet. An unhealthy diet can raise your risk for CHD. Foods that are

high in saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, sodium (salt), and sugar can

worsen other risk factors for CHD.

· Older age. Genetic or lifestyle factors cause plaque to build up in your arteries

as you age. By the time you're middle-aged or older, enough plaque has built

up to cause signs or symptoms. In men, the risk for CHD increases after age

45. In women, the risk for CHD increases after age 55.

· Family history of early heart disease. Your risk increases if your father or a

brother was diagnosed with CHD before 55 years of age, or if your mother or a

sister was diagnosed with CHD before 65 years of age.

Treatment: - It consist of

1. bed rest

2. administration of suitable drugs as prescribed by the physician. Drugs help

to reduce the pain & blood cholesterol level & also prevent thrombosis.

3. modification in diet: Diet is most important factor in treatment of CHD.

Various modification in diet for the treatment involves:

a) Calories: calorie intake should be adequate to meet requirements & persons.

It may be necessary to reduce calorie intake as increased intake may lead to

overweight and increased lipids in plasma.

b) Fat: Fats should consist of veg. oil rich in essential fatty acid as this will

help to lower blood cholesterol level.

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FST – 103 CROP SCIENCE EXPERIMENT NO. 1davjalandhar.com/dbt/fst/SOP-Lab Manual/BFST SEMESTER -...

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