From: Leach, B.F. and Davidson, J.M. The archaeology of ... · Biauricular breadth, nasio-occipital...

BBiioollooggiiccaall ccoommppaarriissoonnss ooffmmaallee NNaammuu ccrraanniiaa::AA mmuullttiivvaarriiaattee ccrraanniioommeettrriiccssttuuddyyM. Pietrusewsky

Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Hawai‘i

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This study uses craniometric data to examine the historical-biological relationships between aselect number of prehistoric inhabitants from the Namu burial ground on Taumako Island andmodern and near modern cranial series from surrounding regions of the Pacific.

Altogether, 198 burials were identified at Namu and the majority were excavated. The individualburials are described in Appendix 2; the age and duration of the site are considered in Chapter6, Appendix 11 and Appendix 12.

All data used in the present analysis were recorded by Pietrusewsky in 1987 in the Departmentof Anatomy and Structural Biology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, where thesearchaeological human remains are currently stored. Stepwise discriminant function analysis andMahalanobis’ generalised distance are applied to cranial measurements recorded in the 12 mostcomplete male specimens from Namu that were available for study in 1987 and 27 male cranialseries from Polynesia, Micronesia, New Guinea, and island Melanesia.

Brief consideration is also given to six female crania from Namu and a more limited range ofcomparative female crania from elsewhere in the Pacific.

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Because multivariate statistical procedures do not tolerate missing variables, 12 of the mostcomplete Namu male crania were selected for the present study. For these 12 individuals, a totalof 12 measurements were found to be in common. Measurements that feasibly might have beenaffected by the reconstruction of these specimens were avoided.

The individual measurements for each of the twelve male crania are given in Table A13.1. Themeans and standard deviations of these same measurements for the Namu series are given inTable A13.2. Information, including the number of crania and their origin for the comparativecranial series used in this study, is given in Table A13.3. The majority of the cranial series usedin this analysis represent modern and near modern crania from the Pacific region.

From: Leach, B.F. and Davidson, J.M. The archaeology of Taumako: A Polynesian outlier in the Eastern Solomon Islands.

New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, pp 455-475.

456 The Archaeology of Taumako

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Multivariate statistical procedures

Two multivariate statistical procedures, stepwise discriminant function analysis andMahalanobis’ generalised distance statistic (Mahalanobis 1936), are applied to a total of 12standard cranial measurements recorded for male crania in this study (see Table A13.1 for theexact measurements used). A more detailed discussion of these methods is provided byPietrusewsky (2000).

Stepwise discriminant function (canonical) analysis

The major purpose of discriminant function, or canonical, analysis is to maximise differencesbetween groups by producing a linear array of weighted variables, referred to as discriminantfunctions or canonical variates, from the original measurements (Tatsuoka 1971). Typically, thefirst few functions, or canonical variates, account for most of the variation among groups. In thisanalysis, the original measurements were selected in a stepwise manner such that, at each step,the measurement that adds most to the separation of the groups was the one entered into thediscriminant function in advance of the others (Dixon and Brown 1979: 711). This procedureallows identification of those variables that are most responsible for the observed differentiationbetween individuals of the various groups. Interpretation of discriminant functions and thepatterns of group separation is based on an inspection of standardised canonical coefficientvalues.

At the end of the stepping process, each individual specimen is classified into one of the originalgroups based on the discriminant scores it receives through the calculation of posterior (regularclassification) and/or typicality (jackknifed classification) probabilities (Van Vark and Schaafsma1992: 244–255). Jackknifed classification represents a common cross-validation procedure inmultiple discriminant analysis, where cases are classified without using misclassified individualsin computing the classification function. The ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ classification results providea general guide for assessing the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the original series. Anotheruseful feature of this procedure is that it allows group means to be plotted on the first fewcanonical variates, thus allowing visualisation of intergroup relationships. The computer programBMDP-7M (Dixon 1992; Dixon and Brown 1979) was used to perform the stepwise discriminantfunction analysis, while two-dimensional and three-dimensional plots were made using theSYGRAPH module of SYSTAT (Wilkinson 1992).

Mahalanobis’ generalised distance

Mahalanobis’ generalised distance, or the sum of squared differences, provides a singlequantitative measure of dissimilarity (distance) between groups, using several variables whileremoving the correlation between the variables (Mahalanobis 1936). The significance of thesedistances was determined using the method of Rao (1952: 245), a procedure recommended byBuranarugsa and Leach (1993: 17).

The average linkage within group clustering algorithm, or Unweighted Pair Group MethodAlgorithm, UPGMA (Sneath and Sokal 1973), was the clustering procedure used to construct thediagram of relationship, or dendrogram, using Mahalanobis’ distances in this analysis. This latteralgorithm combines clusters so that the average distance among all cases in the resulting clusteris as small as possible and the distance between two clusters is taken to be the average amongall possible pairs of cases in the cluster. The NTSYS-pc computer software program was usedto construct the dendrograms (Rohlf 1993).



457Appendix 13: Multivariate craniometric study

RReessuullttss

Figure A13.1: Plot of 28 group means on the first two canonical variates using 12 cranialmeasurements. See Table A13.3 for explanation of abbreviations.

The results of applying stepwise discriminant function analysis and Mahalanobis’ generaliseddistance to 12 cranial measurements recorded in 1152 male crania, the largest number ofmeasurements comparable to all 28 series, are presented next.

Stepwise discriminant function analysis

A summary of the measurements (Table A13.4), ranked according to the F-values (tests ofequality of group means using classical one-way analysis of variance) received in the final stepof discriminant function analysis, provides an indication of the discriminatory power of theoriginal variables. Among the variables that are ranked the highest in this analysis (i.e., theycontribute the most to the discrimination produced) are the biauricular breadth, maximumcranial breadth, and nasio-occipital length.




Eigenvalues, which represent the amount of variance accounted for by each function or variate,

Figure A13.2: Plot of 28 group means on the first three canonical variates using 12 cranialmeasurements. See Table A13.3 for explanation of abbreviations.

expressed as the percentage of total dispersion, and level of significance (Rao 1952: 323) for thetwelve canonical variates are presented in Table A13.5. The eigenvalues provide an indicationof the proportion of dispersion accounted for by each canonical variate. In this analysis, the firstthree canonical variates account for 72.5% of the total variation. The first ten eigenvalues aresignificant at the 1% level, indicating significant heterogeneity for these canonical variates.

Canonical coefficients, those values by which an individual’s measurements may be multipliedto obtain its score, for 12 measurements, for the first three canonical variates are given in TableA13.6. Biauricular breadth, nasio-occipital length, maximum cranial length, and maximum cranialbreadth (those variables with the highest coefficients regardless of sign), are the most importantvariables in producing group separation in the first canonical variate. Maximum cranial length,biauricular breadth, maximum cranial breadth, and nasio-occipital length are most responsiblefor group separation produced in the second canonical variate. Nasio-occipital length, maximumcranial length, bistephanic breadth, and maximum cranial breadth are primarily responsible forthe discrimination produced in the third canonical variate.

A summary (Table A13.7) of the group classification results, regular and jackknifed, indicatesthat the Chatham Islands, Hawai‘i, Tonga-Samoa, Admiralty, Guam, Namu, Dawson Strait, andTuamotu are among the series having the best classification results (i.e., more than 39% of thecases are correctly assigned to their original group using jackknifed results). The poorestjackknifed classification results (fewer than 12% of the cases correctly classified to their original




group) are found for Marquesas, Caroline Islands, Fly River, New Ireland, Solomon Islands,

Figure A13.3: Diagram of relationship (dendrogram) based on a cluster analysis (UPGMA) ofMahalanobis’ generalised distances using 12 cranial measurements recorded in 28 male groups.

Gambier Islands (Mangareva) and Marshall-Gilbert Islands.

Using the jackknifed classification results, the most frequent (first ten if applicable)misclassifications for each of the 28 groups are given in Table A13.8. Examining the Namu series,five of the original specimens are reclassified as Namu, three as Fiji, and one each as EasterIsland, Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, and New Ireland. The groups that have the highestnumbers of crania reclassified to Namu include Fiji (5), Loyalty Islands (5), New Caledonia (4),Easter Island (4), Fly River (3), Purari Delta (3), and Caroline Islands (2). In these same results,none of the Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Ireland, New Britain, Admiralty Islands,Sepik, or Biak Island specimens is reclassified as Namu.

Two major clusters emerge when the 28 group means are plotted on the first two canonicalvariates (Fig. A13.1). All the Polynesian cranial series and Guam form one of the two groups.The remaining cranial series, representing New Guinea, island Melanesia and the CarolineIslands, form a second constellation. Namu is a marginal member of this second cluster of cranialseries. The Marshall-Gilbert and Admiralty Islands separate out as outliers in this representation.

The plot of the group means on the first three canonical variates (Fig. A13.2) demonstrates theserelationships even more strikingly. Namu’s position hovers closest to that of Santa Cruz, LoyaltyIslands and Purari Delta and is well removed from any of the Polynesian series, which grouptogether on the opposite side of this plot.




Mahalanobis’ generalised distance

The matrix containing the distances for all 28 groups is presented in Table A13.9. The tensmallest distances for each of the 28 groups, shown in Table A13.10, give detailed informationon biological relatedness that is not always evident in the diagrams that result from clusteringalgorithms. Using distance size as a measure of closeness, the groups closest to the Namu seriesinclude Fiji, Easter Island, Loyalty Islands, Biak, and Santa Cruz. With the sole exception of theEaster Island series, none of the groups closest to Namu is from Polynesia. Of the cranial seriesin this study, Namu is among the ten closest distances only to Easter Island and Fiji.

Applying the UPGMA clustering algorithm to the distances for 28 groups results in thedendrogram shown in Figure A13.3. Two major clusters are evident in this diagram ofrelationship. The Polynesian cranial series and one from Guam occupy one of two majorbranches. Namu is a peripheral member of a second branch that includes all of the cranial seriesfrom New Guinea and island Melanesia, and two from Micronesia (Caroline andMarshall-Gilbert Islands).

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The results of this new multivariate analysis of male cranial measurements provide context forunderstanding biological relationships of those buried in the Namu cemetery on Taumako, aswell as broader relationships among the modern inhabitants of the Pacific Islands.

As demonstrated in earlier multivariate analyses (Hanihara 1992a, 1992b; Stefan and Chapman2003; Pietrusewsky 1990, 1994, 1996, 2005, 2006a, 2006b), the results of this new analysis reveala marked separation of cranial series that derive from New Guinea and island Melanesia fromthose that represent Polynesia. This division is consistent with separate ancestry of the moderninhabitants of the two regions.

The male cranial series from the Namu burial site is closest to cranial series from neighbouringregions of island Melanesia such as Santa Cruz, Fiji, and Loyalty Islands and is most removedfrom those found in Polynesia.

The Micronesian cranial series are variable, with some (e.g., Guam) showing affinities withPolynesians, and others (e.g., Marshall-Gilbert and Caroline Islands) revealing biologicalsimilarities with Melanesia.

Only six female crania from Namu were able to be measured and comparable female data fromthe Pacific are limited. However, a comparison of the Namu female cranial measurements(Tables A13.11 and A13.12) with female data presented by Pietrusewsky et al. (1998) indicatesthat the Namu series is nearly identical to a female skeleton from WKO-013B, at Koné, NewCaledonia, and to a series from Fiji. With the exception of Easter Island, the female crania fromNamu are very different from Polynesian cranial series, a finding that agrees with themultivariate analysis of male craniometric data.

Acknowledgments

Permission to study the Namu skeletal remains in 1987 was provided by Dr Philip Houghtonand the Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, University of Otago, Dunedin, NewZealand. At the University of Hawai‘i, my thanks to Rona Ikehara-Quebral, Rhea Hood, andKaren Kadohiro, who assisted in the analysis of data and preparation of this report. Billie Ikedais responsible for the figures in this paper.




TABLE A13.1Cranial measurements (mm) and indices for 12 adult males from Namu.

The measurement source is given with a capital letter followed by the name ornumber of the measurement in that source, if available. H=Howells 1973b;M=Martin and Saller 1957; O=Olivier 1969. R = right; L = left. Measurementsselected for multivariate analysis are italicised.

Burial NumberMeasurement (mm)/Index 1 13 16 24 37 44 148 169 179 181 183 185Maximum cranial length, M-1 200 203 188 191 190 191 193 189 200 190 193 192Nasio-occipital length, M-1d 197 200 183 189 183 182 190 180 198 189 190 187Basion-nasion, M-5 108 - 108 105 95 - - - 112 - - -Basion-bregma, M-17 158 - 138 141 138 - - - 146 - - -Maximum cranial breadth, M-8 130 134 122 127 135 130 122 130 118 125 126 122Maximum frontal breadth, M-10 111 116 105 110 114 112 108 112 108 110 113 109Minimum frontal breadth, M-9 98 96 88 100 95 96 90 93 98 90 95 96Bistephanic breadth, H-STB 108 107 102 106 110 108 105 108 104 105 105 101Bizygomatic breadth, M-45 - - 124 137 - - - - - - - -Biauricular breadth, M-11b 120 117 111 123 116 117 112 117 115 120 130 108Minimum cranial breadth, M-14 - - 80 97 82 72 - - - - 82 -Biasterionic breadth, M-12 115 109 106 106 114 110 105 109 104 109 112 105Basion-prosthion, M-40 - - 101 - - - - - - - - -Nasion-alveolare, M-48 - - 68 - 62 - - - - - - -Nasal height, H-NLH - - 51 - 48 - - - - - - -Nasal breadth, M-54 - - 28 - 25 - - - - - - -Orbital height, M52 - - 37 - 34 - - - - - - -Orbital breadth, M-51a - - 44 - 43 - - - - - - -Bijugal breadth, M-45(1) - - 112 - 113 120 - - - - - -Alveolar length, M-60 - - 54 - - - - - - - - -Alveolar breadth, M-61 - 84 65 - - - - - - - - -Mastoid height, H-MDL 23 27 27 28 30 35 26 27 23 26 27 21Mastoid width, H-MDB 28 21 14 24 17 24 18 21 22 21 23 23Bimaxillary breadth, M-46 - - 100 - 91 106 - - - - 116 -Bifrontal breadth, M-43 107 - 104 110 105 109 106 - 107 - 102 109Biorbital breadth, H-EKB 96 - 96 97 95 100 94 - 96 - - 97Interorbital breadth 29 - 25 - 25 31 26 - 29 - 30 30Malar inferior length, H-IML - - 35 - 24 - - - - 33 - -Malar Maximum length, H-KML - - 49 - 41 - - - - - - -Cheek height, H-WMH - - 24 - 24 27 22 - 23 25 - 23Foramen magnum length, H-FOL - - - 36 35 - - - - - - -Nasion-bregma chord, M-29 124 115 111 117 113 127 113 109 109 117 118 115Bregma-lambda chord, M-30 133 123 124 119 117 114 120 114 117 116 124 123Lambda-opisthion chord, M-31 103 - 120 102 104 - 101 104 104 - 92 -Bimaxillary subtense, H-SSS - - 17 - 25 22 - - - - - -Nasio-frontal subtense, H-NAS 20 13 13 17 13 15 15 - 18 - 12 19Cranial capacity 1617 - 1367 1434 1466 - - - 1441 - - -Cranial index (O) 65 66 65 66 71 68 63 69 59 66 65 64Height-length index 79 - 73 74 73 - - - 73 - - -




TABLE A13.2Means and standard deviations of cranial measurements for 12 adult males fromNamu. See Table A13.1 for measurement sources. Measurements selected formultivariate analysis are italicised.

Measurement (mm)/Index N Mean SD RangeMaximum cranial length, M-1 12 193.3 4.9 188–203Nasio-occipital length, M-1d 12 189.0 6.6 180–200Basion-nasion, M-5 5 105.6 6.4 95–112Basion-bregma, M-17 5 144.2 8.4 138–158Maximum cranial breadth, M-8 12 126.8 5.2 118–135Maximum frontal breadth, M-10 12 110.7 3.0 105–116Minimum frontal breadth, M-9 12 94.6 3.7 88–100Bistephanic breadth, H-STB 12 105.8 2.6 101–110Bizygomatic breadth, M-45 2 130.5 9.2 124–137Biauricular breadth, M-11b 12 117.2 5.8 108–130Minimum cranial breadth, M-14 5 82.6 9.0 72–97Biasterionic breadth, M-12 12 108.7 3.6 104–115Basion-prosthion, M-40 1 101.0 - 101–101Nasion-alveolare, M-48 2 65.0 4.2 62–68Nasal height, H-NLH 2 49.5 2.1 48–51Nasal breadth, M-54 2 26.5 2.1 25–28Orbital height, M52 2 35.5 2.1 34–37Orbital breadth, M-51a 2 43.5 0.7 43–44Bijugal breadth, M-45(1) 3 115.0 4.4 112–120Alveolar length, M-60 1 54.0 - 54–54Alveolar breadth, M-61 2 74.5 13.4 65–84Mastoid height, H-MDL 12 26.7 3.6 21–35Mastoid width, H-MDB 12 21.3 3.7 14–28Bimaxillary breadth, M-46 4 103.3 10.5 91–116Bifrontal breadth, M-43 9 106.6 2.6 102–110Biorbital breadth, H-EKB 8 96.4 1.8 94–100Interorbital breadth 8 28.1 2.4 25–31Malar inferior length, H-IML 3 30.7 5.9 24–35Malar Maximum length, H-KML 2 45.0 5.7 41–49Cheek height, H-WMH 7 24.0 1.6 22–27Foramen magnum length, H-FOL 2 35.5 0.7 35–36Nasion-bregma chord, M-29 12 115.7 5.5 109–127Bregma-lambda chord, M-30 12 120.3 5.4 114–133Lambda-opisthion chord, M-31 8 103.8 7.7 92–120Bimaxillary subtense, H-SSS 3 21.3 4.0 17–25Nasio-frontal subtense, H-NAS 10 15.5 2.8 12–20




TABLE A13.3Locational details for series of crania used in this study.

Abbreviations of locations

AIM, Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland, New Zealand; AMS, The Australian Museum,Sydney, Australia; AUK, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; BAS,Naturhistorisches Museum, Basel, Switzerland; BER, Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany;BLU, Anatomisches Institut, Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; BPB, B.P. BishopMuseum, Honolulu, U.S.A.; BRE, Über-see Museum, Bremen, Germany; CAN, CanterburyMuseum, Christchurch, New Zealand; CHA, Anatomisches Institut der Chairté, HumboldtUniversität, Berlin, Germany; DAS, Dept. of Anatomy, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia;DUN, Dept. of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; DRE, Museum fürVölkerkunde, Dresden, Germany; FRE, Institut für Humangenetik und Anthropologie,Universität Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany; GOT, Institut für Anthropologie,Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; HON, Honokahua, Maui, Hawai‘i, U.S.A.; LEP,Anatomisches Institut, Karl Marx Universität, Leipzig, Germany; NMV, National Museum ofVictoria, Melbourne, Australia; OTM, Otago Museum, Otago, New Zealand; PAR, Museé del’Homme, Paris, France; QMB, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia; ROM, Instituto diAntropologia, University of Rome, Rome, Italy; SAM, South Australian Museum, Adelaide,Australia; SIM, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.,U.S.A.; TKO, University Museum, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; TUB, Institut fürAnthropologie u. Humangenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; WEL, NationalMuseum of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand; ZUR, Anthropologisches Institut,Universität Zürich, Zürich, Germany.

Cranial series

Polynesia

TGS Tonga-Samoa N=19 (BER-3; AMS-2; DRE-1; PAR-1; BPB-4; AIM-2; AUK-5; SIM-1) Fourteenskulls are from Tonga and five are from Samoa. Included in the Tongan series are three fromPangaimotu excavated by McKern in 1920; two from To-At-1, 2 excavated by Janet Davidson in1964; and five from To-At-36 excavated by Dirk Spennemann in 1985/6. The remainder are frommuseums in Berlin, Paris and Sydney. Although the exact dates for a few are not known, themajority are believed to be prehistoric.

EAS Easter Island N=50 (BER-5; DRE-9; PAR-36) Most of the skulls in Paris were collected byPinart in 1887 at Vaihu and La Perouse Bay, Easter Island. The exact dates are not known.

HAW Hawaii N=60 (BPB-20; HON-20; SIM-20) An equal number of skulls have been randomlychosen from three different skeletal series: Mokapu (Oahu), Honokahua (Maui), and Kauai. Allare presumed to be prehistoric (pre-1778).

MRQ Marquesas N=63 (PAR-49; LEP-1; BLU-1; BPB-12) The skulls are from four islands in theMarquesas Islands: Fatu Hiva, Tahuata, Nuku Hiva and Hiva Oa. The exact dates are notknown.

NZ New Zealand N=50 (BRE-3; PAR-21; SAM-1; AIM-13; GOT-1; ZUR-5; DRE-6) Arepresentative sample of New Zealand Maori skulls from the North and South Islands of NewZealand. The exact dates are not known.




CHT Chatham Islands N=45 (DUN-8; OTM-2; WEL-4; CAN-10; AIM-3; DRE-5; AMS-2; DAS-3;GOT-4; PAR-4) The Moriori skulls are from the Chatham Islands, New Zealand. The exact datesare not known.

SOC Society Islands N=44 (PAR-33; BPB-11) These skulls are from Tahiti in the Society Islands.The exact dates are not known.

TUA Tuamotu Archipelago N=18 (PAR-18) The majority of these skulls are from Makatea. Theexact dates are not known.

GAM Gambier Islands N=7 (PAR-7) Most of these skulls were collected by Dumoutier from anabandoned cemetery on Mangareva Island around 1874.

Island Melanesia

FIJ Fiji N=42 (BER-1; SAM-3; QMB-1; DRE-4; FRE-3; CHA-1; BPB-11; PAR-7; AMS-3; DUN-6;SIM-2) These skulls are from the major Fijian Islands including the Lau Group. The exact datesare not known.

VAN Vanuatu N=47 (BAS-47) Most of the skulls were collected by Felix Speiser in 1912 fromMalo, Pentecost, and Espiritu Santo Islands. The exact dates are not known.

LOY Loyalty Islands N=50 (BAS-43; PAR-7) The skulls are from Mare, Lifou, and Ouvea Islandsin the Loyalty Islands group. The exact dates are not known.

NCL New Caledonia N=50 (BAS-34; PAR-16) These skulls are from several coastal and inlandlocations. The majority were collected in the late nineteenth century. The exact dates are notknown.

SCR Santa Cruz Islands N=46 (SAM-4; AMS-2; BAS-40) The skulls in Basel were collected byFelix Speiser in 1912 (Speiser 1928). The exact dates are not known.

SOL Solomon Islands N=49 (DRE-3; BER-1; NMV-1; QMB-3; AMS-16; DAS-10; BAS-14; GOT-1)The skulls are from New Georgia (5), Guadalcanal (9), San Cristobal (7), and other locations inthe Solomon Islands. The exact dates are not known.

NBR New Britain N=50 (CHA-20; DRE-30) The skulls in Dresden were collected by A. Baesslerin 1900 and those in Berlin by R. Parkinson in 1911. These were collected from trading posts nearRabaul on the Gazelle Peninsula and probably represent Tolai people (see Pietrusewsky 1990:236–237; Howells 1973b: 24–25). The exact dates are not known.

NIR New Ireland N=53 (AMS-4; BER-2; BLU-6; DRE-18; GOT-15; QMB-1; SAM-6; TUB-1) Mostof the skulls in Dresden were collected by Pöhl in 1887–1888 from the northern end of the island;those in Göttingen were collected during the Südsee Expedition in 1908. The exact dates are notknown.

ADR Admiralty Islands N=50 (DRE-20; GOT-9; CHA-6; TUB-15) These skulls are from Hermit,Kaniet and Manus in the Admiralty Islands. The exact dates are not known.

SEP Sepik River N=50 (DRE-33; GOT-10; TUB-7) The skulls in Dresden were collected by OttoSchlaginhaufen in 1909 from various locations along the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea. Theexact dates are not known.




BIK Biak Island N=48 (DRE-48) Most (45) of the skulls were collected by A.B. Meyer in 1873 onBiak Island (Mysore), Geelvink Bay, Irian Jaya. The exact dates are not known.

FLY Fly River N=42 (DRE-35; QMB-7) Most of the skulls in Dresden were collected by Websterin 1902 along the Fly River of Papua New Guinea. Many are decorated and have engravedfrontal bones (see Pietrusewsky 1990: 235–236 for further details). The exact dates are not known.

PUR Purari Delta N=50 (DRE-50) Decorated (engraved) skulls obtained by Gerrard and Websterbetween 1900 and 1902 are from along the Purari River and the Purari Delta region, Papua NewGuinea. The exact dates are not known.

DCX D’Entrecasteaux Islands N=26 (FRE-21; DRE-4; QMB-1) Skulls are from Fergusson (16) andNormanby (10) Islands in the D’Entrecasteaux group, Papua New Guinea. The exact dates arenot known.

DAW Dawson Strait Islands N=48 (ROM-48) Skulls are from the islands of the Dawson Straits(between Normanby and Fergusson Islands of the D’Entrecasteaux Islands), and were collectedby L. Loria on a voyage to Papua New Guinea in 1889–1890. The exact dates are not known.

NAM Namu N=12 (DUN-12) Present study.

Micronesia

GUA Guam N=46 (BPB-42; PAR-4) Pre-Spanish Chamorro skulls associated with latte structurescollected in the 1920s by Hans Hornbostel along Tumon Beach, Tumon Bay, Guam, in westernMicronesia. The majority represent prehistoric (pre-1521) Chamorro.

CAR Caroline Islands N=24 (TKO-7; DRE-9; PAR-4; GOT-3; AMS-1) The skulls are from Kosrae(1), Pohnpei (16) and Chuuk (7) in the central and eastern Caroline Islands, Federated States ofMicronesia. The exact dates are not known.

MRG Marshall/Gilbert Islands N=13 (PAR-6; GOT-3; FRE-3; BER-1) The skulls are from theMarshall Islands (7) and Kiribati (6) in eastern Micronesia. The exact dates are not known.




TABLE A13.4Summary ranking of cranial measurements according to F-Values received in thefinal step of discriminant function analysis (28 male groups, 12 measurements).

Step No. Measurement†¶ F-Value DF§ Probability‡1 Biauricular breadth (M-11) 45.136 27/1125 *2 Maximum cranial breadth (M-8) 15.915 27/1124 *3 Maximum cranial length (M-1) 11.499 27/1123 *4 Nasio-occipital length (M-1d) 10.120 27/1122 *5 Bregma-lambda chord (M-30) 7.705 27/1121 *6 Nasion-bregma chord (M-29) 6.236 27/1120 *7 Mastoid height (H-MDL) 6.210 27/1119 *8 Bistephanic breadth (H-STB) 4.463 27/1118 *9 Minimum frontal breadth (M-9) 5.336 27/1117 *

10 Maximum frontal breadth (M-10) 3.989 27/1116 *11 Biasterionic breadth (M-12) 3.846 27/1115 *12 Mastoid width (H-MDB) 2.855 27/1114 *

† M = Martin and Saller (1957)¶ H = Howells (1973b)§ Degrees of freedom between/degrees of freedom within.‡ Probability, * = 0.01

TABLE A13.5Eigenvalues, percentage of total dispersions, cumulative percentage of dispersion,and level of significance for 12 canonical variates resulting from stepwisediscriminant function analysis (28 male groups, 12 measurements).

Canonical Eigenvalue % Dispersion Cumulative DF† Probability¶Variate - - % Dispersion

1 1.56807 48.1 48.1 38 *2 0.48720 14.9 63.0 36 *3 0.31151 9.5 72.5 34 *4 0.27143 8.4 80.9 32 *5 0.16498 5.0 85.9 30 *6 0.12776 3.9 89.8 28 *7 0.11223 3.5 93.3 26 *8 0.08825 2.7 96.0 24 *9 0.06112 1.9 97.9 22 *

10 0.04174 1.2 99.1 20 *11 0.02015 0.7 99.8 18 n.s.12 0.00787 0.2 100.0 16 n.s.

† DF = degrees of freedom = (p+q-2), (p+q-4)¶ Probability, * indicates ≤ 0.01 when eigenvalues are tested for significance according tocriterion χ2 = [N-0.5*(p+q)]*loge(λ+1), where N = total number of crania, p = number of variables,q = number of groups, λ= eigenvalue (distributed approximately as chi-square Rao 1952: 373).




TABLE A13.6Canonical coefficients of 12 cranial measurements for the first three canonicalvariates (28 male groups). See Table A13.1 for source of measurements.

Canonical VariateMeasurement 1 2 3Maximum cranial length (M-1) 0.08212 -0.18148 0.22786Nasio-occipital length (M-1d) 0.10452 -0.12558 -0.30092Maximum cranial breadth (M-8) 0.07440 -0.14244 0.08645Maximum frontal breadth (M-10) -0.04367 -0.02403 0.07671Minimum frontal breadth (M-9) -0.05198 0.06621 0.07944Bistephanic breadth (H-STB) 0.05414 -0.00096 -0.09468Biauricular breadth (M-116) 0.14291 0.14408 0.03082Biasterionic breadth (M-12) -0.04496 0.02848 -0.01329Mastoid height (H-MDL) 0.00777 0.01339 -0.06058Mastoid width (H-MDB) -0.00103 -0.04037 -0.02909Nasion-bregma chord (M-29) 0.04323 0.02045 -0.06319Bregma-lambda chord (M-30) -0.06051 0.00732 0.04624

TABLE A13.7Classification results (regular and jackknifed) arranged by groups with the bestto the poorest results showing the percentage of correctly assigned cases.

Regular Classification Results Jack-knifed ResultsGroup % Group %Gambier Islands 71.4 Chatham Islands 57.8Tuamotu Archipelago 66.7 Hawai‘i 50.0Chatham Islands 64.4 Tonga-Samoa 47.4Marshall-Gilbert Is 61.5 Admiralty Islands 44.0Tonga-Samoa 57.9 Guam 43.5Hawai‘i 55.0 Namu 41.7Guam 54.3 Dawson Strait Is 39.6Admiralty Islands 50.0 Tuamotu Archipelago 38.9Namu 50.0 D’Entrecasteaux Is 34.6Dawson Strait Is 47.9 Santa Cruz Islands 30.4D’Entrecasteaux Is 38.5 Purari Delta 28.0Santa Cruz Islands 34.8 Loyalty Islands 24.0Purari Delta 34.0 New Britain 22.0Loyalty Islands 32.0 Easter Island 20.0New Britain 30.0 Fiji 19.0Easter Island 28.0 Sepik River 18.0Fiji 21.4 Biak Island 16.7New Zealand 20.0 New Caledonia 16.0Vanuatu 19.1 New Zealand 16.0Society Islands 18.2 Society Islands 13.6Sepik River 18.0 Vanuatu 12.8Biak Island 16.7 Marquesas 12.7Caroline Islands 16.7 Caroline Islands 12.5New Caledonia 16.0 Fly River 9.5New Ireland 15.1 New Ireland 9.4Marquesas 12.7 Solomon Islands 2.0Fly River 11.9 Gambier Islands 0.0Solomon Islands 6.1 Marshall-Gilbert Is 0.0



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TABLE A13.9Mahalanobis’ distances for 28 male groups using 12 cranial measurements (alldistances are significant at 1% level unless otherwise indicated).

* distances significant at 5% level, ** distances not significant at 1% or 5% level.

TogSam Easter Hawaii Marque NewZea Chathm Societ Tuamot Gambie FijiTogSam 0.00 9.43 4.30 6.78 7.14 10.31 7.14 10.05 10.99** 11.08Easter - 0.00 7.23 3.04 1.83 7.76 4.64 7.75 2.56** 3.23Hawaii - - 0.00 3.06 5.31 5.53 5.20 7.96 6.54 11.64Marque - - - 0.00 2.18 5.45 1.29 2.95 2.13** 7.24NewZea - - - - 0.00 4.64 3.64 5.50 3.06** 4.75Chathm - - - - - 0.00 8.53 12.99 5.21* 11.85Societ - - - - - - 0.00 1.89** 3.75** 7.03Tuamot - - - - - - - 0.00 7.16** 12.61Gambie - - - - - - - - 0.00 6.22*Fiji - - - - - - - - - 0.00

Vanuat Loyalt NewCal SanCrz Solomo NewBrt NewIre Admira Sepik BiakTogSam 10.69 15.03 10.17 18.26 9.84 12.45 8.71 10.16 14.15 11.88Easter 4.24 4.60 2.62 6.12 4.14 4.83 4.61 7.88 8.35 4.05Hawaii 11.34 15.21 10.45 19.20 10.66 13.45 10.65 6.62 13.74 12.12Marque 7.60 9.46 6.43 12.42 7.60 9.66 8.13 6.57 11.05 6.76NewZea 3.76 5.44 2.48 5.97 3.29 4.84 4.03 4.76 5.70 4.08Chathm 10.13 14.07 9.78 17.08 12.24 12.62 13.15 10.77 15.19 12.79Societ 7.55 9.08 6.24 11.46 7.61 10.17 8.15 6.61 10.15 5.97Tuamot 11.14 13.34 8.88 14.05 10.02 13.03 10.41 8.83 12.17 9.25Gambie 8.30 7.86 5.29* 10.75 9.29 10.59 10.18 10.36 12.44 7.34Fiji 2.72 1.96 3.08 3.94 2.80 3.77 3.18 6.88 5.14 1.55Vanuat 0.00 2.23 2.13 3.65 1.47 0.48** 1.68 4.96 3.50 1.40Loyalt - 0.00 1.96 2.29 2.33 2.96 4.29 8.26 4.88 2.46NewCal - - 0.00 2.24 1.81 2.60 2.81 6.89 4.01 2.94SanCrz - - - 0.00 2.56 3.47 3.73 8.99 2.95 2.97Solomo - - - - 0.00 1.38 0.88** 3.98 1.91 2.06NewBrt - - - - - 0.00 1.36 6.21 3.71 2.23NewIre - - - - - - 0.00 3.96 2.15 1.76Admira - - - - - - - 0.00 2.84 4.34Sepik - - - - - - - - 0.00 2.79Biak - - - - - - - - - 0.00




TABLE A13.9 continued

Fly Purari Decast Dawson Guam Caroln MrsGil NamuTogSam 11.86 17.27 17.34 15.04 4.48 8.75 9.09 20.40Easter 6.02 7.43 9.24 7.70 5.45 2.99 5.01 4.25Hawaii 11.90 16.80 15.44 14.93 5.41 10.87 9.10 19.23Marque 8.66 11.63 12.74 11.78 5.63 6.27 4.96 11.49NewZea 5.06 6.83 7.96 8.30 5.24 2.54 2.03** 9.20Chathm 13.96 16.77 20.10 20.77 8.09 12.72 10.47 19.95Societ 7.85 10.53 12.30 11.55 6.81 6.00 4.83 12.17Tuamot 10.87 13.70 13.18 12.79 9.57 7.71 5.61** 17.09Gambie 9.99 12.54 14.32 13.01 7.18 6.96** 6.26** 8.87**Fiji 2.69 3.40 7.10 5.67 9.92 2.80 5.05 3.08**Vanuat 3.73 3.90 6.08 5.06 7.46 2.60 4.29 7.11Loyalt 4.53 3.90 6.51 6.30 9.56 2.51 5.36 4.36NewCal 3.81 4.64 5.54 5.42 5.81 1.24** 3.28* 6.47SanCrz 3.28 2.30 4.15 5.14 14.41 2.31 4.52 5.70Solomo 1.73 2.08 3.22 3.75 7.99 1.13** 3.15* 7.07NewBrt 4.02 3.90 5.44 4.32 8.75 2.83 5.46 7.07NewIre 1.93 3.06 3.62 2.44 8.86 1.58** 3.19* 7.58Admira 3.91 5.60 4.68 5.85 11.41 5.94 3.61* 14.05Sepik 1.45 1.86 1.43** 3.08 14.30 3.37 2.90* 10.79Biak 2.19 2.60 4.61 3.21 10.84 2.05* 2.71** 4.71Fly 0.00 0.92** 2.40 3.38 13.40 2.92 3.59* 7.38Purari - 0.00 3.19 4.89 16.58 3.92 5.32 7.15Decast - - 0.00 1.71* 16.79 4.65 4.98* 9.98Dawson - - - 0.00 14.78 4.05 5.21 7.38Guam - - - - 0.00 7.11 9.61 15.75Caroln - - - - - 0.00 1.78** 5.94*MrsGil - - - - - - 0.00 10.17*Namu - - - - - - - 0.00




TABLE A13.10The smallest Mahalanobis’ distances and level of significance† for 28 male cranialgroups using 12 measurements (all distances are significant at 1% level unlessotherwise indicated).

Tonga-Samoa Easter Island Hawai‘i MarquesasHAW 4.302 NZ 1.827 MRQ 3.064 SOC 1.287GUA 4.479 GAM 2.563** TGS 4.302 GAM 2.131**MRQ 6.784 NCL 2.621 SOC 5.202 NZ 2.183NZ 7.140 CAR 2.994 NZ 5.309 TUA 2.951SOC 7.143 MRQ 3.041 GUA 5.406 EAS 3.041NIR 8.705 FIJ 3.230 CHT 5.530 HAW 3.064CAR 8.749 BIK 4.046 GAM 6.544 MRG 4.961MRG 9.091 SOL 4.135 ADR 6.617 CHT 5.451EAS 9.427 VAN 4.244 EAS 7.226 GUA 5.629SOL 9.843 NAM 4.246 TUA 7.965 CAR 6.269

New Zealand Chatham Is Society Is Tuamotu IsEAS 1.827 NZ 4.640 MRQ 1.287 SOC 1.887**MRG 2.030** GAM 5.212* TUA 1.887** MRQ 2.951MRQ 2.183 MRQ 5.451 NZ 3.640 NZ 5.502NCL 2.480 HAW 5.530 GAM 3.746** MRG 5.609**CAR 2.537 EAS 7.762 EAS 4.639 GAM 7.157**GAM 3.056** GUA 8.091 MRG 4.832 CAR 7.705SOL 3.293 SOC 8.534 HAW 5.202 EAS 7.754SOC 3.640 NCL 9.777 BIK 5.973 HAW 7.965VAN 3.759 VAN 10.125 CAR 6.005 ADR 8.830NIR 4.025 TGS 10.310 NCL 6.244 NCL 8.875

Gambier Is Fiji Vanuatu Loyalty IsMAR 2.131** BIK 1.554 NBR 0.480** FIJ 1.957EAS 2.563** LOY 1.957 BIK 1.396 NCL 1.964NZ 3.056** FLY 2.688 SOL 1.465 VAN 2.227SOC 3.746** VAN 2.718 NIR 1.678 SCR 2.294CHT 5.212* CAR 2.796 NCL 2.130 SOL 2.335NCL 5.286* SOL 2.803 LOY 2.227 BIK 2.456FIJ 6.217* NAM 3.080** CAR 2.595 CAR 2.505MRG 6.263** NCL 3.082 FIJ 2.718 NBR 2.962HAW 6.544 NIR 3.179 SEP 3.500 PUR 3.895CAR 6.965** EAS 3.230 SCR 3.648 NIR 4.295

New Caledonia Santa Cruz Is Solomon Is New BritainCAR 1.238** NCL 2.241 NIR 0.875** VAN 0.480**SOL 1.810 LOY 2.294 CAR 1.125** NIR 1.362LOY 1.964 PUR 2.299 NBR 1.376 SOL 1.376VAN 2.130 CAR 2.314 VAN 1.465 BIK 2.227SCR 2.241 SOL 2.557 FLY 1.727 NCL 2.603NZ 2.480 SEP 2.953 NCL 1.810 CAR 2.834NBR 2.603 BIK 2.970 SEP 1.906 LOY 2.962EAS 2.621 FLY 3.282 BIK 2.057 SCR 3.474NIR 2.814 NBR 3.474 PUR 2.083 SEP 3.706BIK 2.937 VAN 3.648 LOY 2.335 FIJ 3.768




TABLE A13.10 continued

New Ireland Admiralty Is Sepik River Biak IslandSOL 0.875** SEP 2.837 DCX 1.433** VAN 1.396NBR 1.362 MRG 3.612* FLY 1.449 FIJ 1.554CAR 1.580** FLY 3.911 PUR 1.859 NIR 1.756VAN 1.678 NIR 3.963 SOL 1.906 CAR 2.049*BIK 1.756 SOL 3.979 NIR 2.149 SOL 2.057FLY 1.934 BIK 4.341 BIK 2.790 FLY 2.188SEP 2.149 DCX 4.683 ADR 2.837 NBR 2.227DAW 2.444 NZ 4.759 MRG 2.896* LOY 2.456NCL 2.814 VAN 4.961 SCR 2.953 PUR 2.602PUR 3.059 PUR 5.595 DAW 3.085 MRG 2.706**

Fly River Purari Delta D’Entrecasteaux Is Dawson Strait IsPUR 0.924** FLY 0.924** SEP 1.433** DCX 1.708*SEP 1.449 SEP 1.859 DAW 1.708* NIR 2.444SOL 1.727 SOL 2.083 FLY 2.395 SEP 3.085NIR 1.934 SCR 2.299 PUR 3.191 BIK 3.214BIK 2.188 BIK 2.602 SOL 3.220 FLY 3.375DCX 2.395 NIR 3.059 NIR 3.616 SOL 3.750FIJ 2.688 DCX 3.191 SCR 4.152 CAR 4.046CAR 2.916 FIJ 3.403 BIK 4.607 NBR 4.316SCR 3.282 LOY 3.895 CAR 4.647 PUR 4.888DAW 3.375 VAN 3.895 ADR 4.683 VAN 5.056

Namu Guam Caroline Is Marshall-Gilbert IsFIJ 3.080** TGS 4.479 SOL 1.125** CAR 1.784**EAS 4.246 NZ 5.242 NCL 1.238** NZ 2.030**LOY 4.359 HAW 5.406 NIR 1.580** BIK 2.706**BIK 4.706 EAS 5.452 MRG 1.784** SEP 2.896*SCR 5.701 MRQ 5.629 BIK 2.049* SOL 3.148*CAR 5.940* NCL 5.812 SCR 2.314 NIR 3.185*NCL 6.472 SOC 6.814 LOY 2.505 NCL 3.278*NBR 7.068 CAR 7.112 NZ 2.537 FLY 3.592*SOL 7.075 GAM 7.180 VAN 2.595 ADR 3.612*VAN 7.115 VAN 7.458 FIJ 2.796 VAN 4.293

† Where the quantity (ni nj/ni+nj) D2ij is distributed as chi-square with p degrees of freedom (ni=

sample size of group i; nj = sample size of group j); D2ij = square of the generalized distance

between groups i and j, and p = number of variables.

* distances significant at 5% level, ** distances not significant at 1% or 5% level.




TABLE A13.11Cranial measurements (mm) for six adult females from Namu.

See Table A13.1 for measurement sources.

Burial NumberMeasurement (mm)/Index 15 23 25 57 85 146Maximum cranial length, M-1 193 175 178 178 188 179Nasio-occipital length, M-1d 189 173 173 175 186 176Basion-nasion, M-5 - - 94 101 103 97Basion-bregma, M-17 - - 131 126 144 137Maximum cranial breadth, M-8 - 129 120 121 128 126Maximum frontal breadth, M-10 117 108 104 103 113 103Minimum frontal breadth, M-9 100 95 87 90 98 87Bistephanic breadth, H-STB 112 106 101 101 108 97Bizygomatic breadth, M-45 - - - - 125 117Biauricular breadth, M-11b 118 115 104 103 112 107Minimum cranial breadth, M-14 85 - 68 64 76 77Biasterionic breadth, M-12 109 107 96 96 100 98Basion-prosthion, M-40 - - - 95 96 -Nasion-alveolare, M-48 - - - 58 63 -Nasal height, H-NLH - - - 48 54 -Nasal breadth, M-54 - - - 27 28 -Orbital height, M52 - - 34 31 35 -Orbital breadth, M-51a - - 39 39 43 -Bijugal breadth, M-45(1) - - 103 104 110 -Alveolar length, M-60 - - - 51 57 -Alveolar breadth, M-61 - - 57 57 61 -Mastoid height, H-MDL 24 20 25 28 29 20Mastoid width, H-MDB 17 19 14 20 19 15Bimaxillary breadth, M-46 - - - 90 96 -Bifrontal breadth, M-43 104 101 96 99 106 94Biorbital breadth, H-EKB 95 93 88 91 95 87Interorbital breadth - 24 24 26 27 24Malar inferior length, H-IML - - 30 28 28 -Malar Maximum length, H-KML - - 41 46 48 -Cheek height, H-WMH - - 20 22 24 -Foramen magnum length, H-FOL - - 33 34 37 36Nasion-bregma chord, M-29 118 112 107 102 120 108Bregma-lambda chord, M-30 123 116 122 110 116 111Lambda-opisthion chord, M-31 102 98 94 92 102 95Bimaxillary subtense, H-SSS - - - 21 26 -Nasio-frontal subtense, H-NAS 15 18 11 15 15 10Nasion-gnathion, M-47 - - 100 99 117 -




TABLE A13.12Means and standard deviations of cranial measurements for six adult females from Namu.

Measurement (mm)/Index N Mean SD RangeMaximum cranial length, M-1 6 181.8 7.0 175–193Nasio-occipital length, M-1d 6 178.7 7.0 173–189Basion-nasion, M-5 4 98.8 4.0 94–103Basion-bregma, M-17 4 134.5 7.8 126–144Maximum cranial breadth, M-8 5 124.8 4.1 120–129Maximum frontal breadth, M-10 6 108.0 5.9 103–117Minimum frontal breadth, M-9 6 92.8 5.6 87–100Bistephanic breadth, H-STB 6 104.2 5.5 97–112Bizygomatic breadth, M-45 2 121.0 5.7 117–125Biauricular breadth, M-11b 6 109.8 6.1 103–118Minimum cranial breadth, M-14 5 74.0 8.2 64–85Biasterionic breadth, M-12 6 101.0 5.7 96–109Basion-prosthion, M-40 2 95.5 0.7 95–96Nasion-alveolare, M-48 2 60.5 3.5 58–63Nasal height, H-NLH 2 51.0 4.2 48–54Nasal breadth, M-54 2 27.5 0.7 27–28Orbital height, M52 3 33.3 2.1 31–35Orbital breadth, M-51a 3 40.3 2.3 39–43Bijugal breadth, M-45(1) 3 105.7 3.8 103–110Alveolar length, M-60 2 54.0 4.2 51–57Alveolar breadth, M-61 3 58.3 2.3 57–61Mastoid height, H-MDL 6 24.3 3.8 20–29Mastoid width, H-MDB 6 17.3 2.4 14–20Bimaxillary breadth, M-46 2 93.0 4.2 90–96Bifrontal breadth, M-43 6 100.0 4.6 94–106Biorbital breadth, H-EKB 6 91.5 3.4 87–95Interorbital breadth 5 25.0 1.4 24–27Malar inferior length, H-IML 3 28.7 1.2 28–30Malar Maximum length, H-KML 3 45.0 3.6 41–48Cheek height, H-WMH 3 22.0 2.0 20–24Foramen magnum length, H-FOL 4 35.0 1.8 33–37Nasion-bregma chord, M-29 6 111.2 6.9 102–120Bregma-lambda chord, M-30 6 116.3 5.4 110–123Lambda-opisthion chord, M-31 6 97.2 4.2 92–102Bimaxillary subtense, H-SSS 2 23.5 3.5 21–26Nasio-frontal subtense, H-NAS 6 14.0 3.0 10–18Nasion-gnathion, M-47 3 105.3 10.1 99–117




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From: Leach, B.F. and Davidson, J.M. The archaeology of ... · Biauricular breadth, nasio-occipital...

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