Friendship of Women and Men at Work

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Journal of Managerial PsycholVol. 15 No. 2, 2000, pp. 161-

# MCB University Press, 0268-3

Received April 19Revised August 19

Accepted Septemb19

Friendships of women andmen at work

Job satisfaction and resourceimplications

Dorothy MarkiewiczConcordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Irene DevineRyerson Polytechnic University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Dana KausilasConcordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Keywords Gender, Individual behaviour, Networking, Job satisfaction, Career development

Abstract Interpersonal networks and quality of women and men's close work friendships inthree work settings were investigated to assess potential impact of gender socialization andorganizational structure factors on patterns of interaction within same-sex and opposite-sex work

friendships, and to examine whether friendship quality would predict salary and job satisfactionand if this would differ as a function of the sex of the employee or the friend. Findings indicatethat homophilous ties are stronger than opposite sex ties, which support previous research onrelationships in the work environment. Work context influenced the nature of relationshipsamong women and men. In contrast to research on friendships outside the workplace, work

friendships involving women were not consistently rated as more satisfying and ratings variedacross work settings. Quality of close male friendships was more associated with career success

and job satisfaction than quality of close female friendships.Interpersonal work relationships are important sources of both instrumentaland expressive resources, with subsequent implications for employmentexperiences of men and women. The majority of research examining genderand interpersonal relationships in organizations focused on formal (e.g. work-flow) and informal (e.g. friendship) networks, and described characteristics ofthese networks (e.g. size, density, composition) expected to be associated withwork experiences such as salary and career advancement (e.g. Brass, 1985;Cannings and Montmarquette, 1991). Other research examined potentialimportance of satisfaction with work relationships in predicting general job

satisfaction (e.g. Hodson, 1989; Neil and Snizek, 1988; Summers and DeCotis,1988). The present research extends this focus to an examination of closefriendships of women and men in the workplace. Friendship is defined as avoluntary, reciprocal, equal relationship which is seen as unique and special,and which enhances the sense of self and of the partners (e.g. Wright, 1985).

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

http://www.emerald-library.com

This research was supported by internal faculty research development grants from ConcordiaUniversity, Montreal and Ryerson Polytechnic University, Toronto. The sample of managerswas collected as part of a Concordia psychology honours thesis by the third author, supervisedby the first author.


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Two main goals are addressed. First, we describe characteristics of men andwomen's friendships with their closest same-sex and opposite-sex colleagues.Specifically, we ask whether women and men receive different resources fromfriends at work and whether this differs as a function of the friend's sex.Second, we examine whether the quality of these relationships is associatedwith other work experiences such as salary and job satisfaction. That is, doesquality of work friendships predict salary and/or job satisfaction, and does thisdiffer as a function of sex of the worker or friend?

Two broad theoretical perspectives guide interpretations of differentialexperiences of men and women in the workplace. First, an individualdifferences approach (e.g. Winstead, 1986; Wright, 1989) emphasizes theimportance of sex differences that function as traits across a broad range ofsituations and circumstances. These differences may be attributed todifferential socialization experiences of girls and boys, to sex-linked geneticdifferences, or to other factors resulting in consistent sex differences. Forexample, differences in interpersonal work relationships of women and menwould be attributed to such factors as the greater importance of personalrelationships in the socialization of women than of men. A second generalperspective emphasizes the importance of situational or structural factors (e.g.Ely, 1994, 1995; Ibarra, 1992; Moore, 1990) in determining observed sexdifferences. This approach stresses factors operating in different organizations,which differentially affect women versus men. For example, that women are anumerical minority in power elites of organizations is a structural factor, whichis likely to elicit different responses from men and women regardless ofpersonal traits. Both general views are expected to apply to a consideration of

sex differences in work friendships.Three research areas are reviewed below in formulating hypotheses relevantto qualitative differences of work friendships of women versus men, and theirassociated differences in salary and job satisfaction. The first set of studiesdescribes sex differences in friendships outside the work environment. Thesestudies generally interpret differences as due to sex-role socialization resultingin gender typed patterns of interpersonal relating. The second set of studiesexamines organizational variables and sex differences in interpersonal workrelationships. This set of studies more frequently cites structural factors asimportant determinants of observed sex differences. The third area considers aspecial type of close work relationship, the mentor-protege relationship.

Interpretations of the role of the mentor tend to acknowledge contextual factorsas well as qualitative features of the relationship itself.

Friendships outside the workplaceWhile the importance of family and primary relationships in women'sdevelopment has been stressed for some time (e.g. Baruch et al., 1983; Gilligan,1982; Miller, 1976; Neugarten, 1975), more recently theorists and researchershave explored the role of non-familial friendship relationships. Although thenature of these relationships for women and men have been found to be similar


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and relative investments they make in each of these ties. She notes threefactors, which reduce women's desirability as members of friendship networks.Women are a numerical minority in power elites of organizations. Sex-rolestereotypes lead to unfavorable attributions about work-related competencies.Women are generally lower status in North American (and other) society.These factors lead both men and women to seek men as network members inorder to enhance career advancement and job effectiveness.

Ibarra (1993) also stresses a general tendency frequently and reliably foundin research on interpersonal relationships, the inclination of persons to seek outand to prefer others who are similar to them. Ibarra (1993, p. 61) defines``homophily'' as ``...the degree to which pairs of individuals that interact aresimilar in identity or organizational group affiliations''. Sex is an importantsource of identity group affiliation. She points out that homophilous ties tend tobe stronger, more intimate, and more sought-out in times of stress anduncertainty. However, because of the typical demography of the NorthAmerican organization, ` ...homophilous ties are less available, have lessinstrumental value, and require more time and effort (due to dispersion andturn-over) for women ...than for men''(Ibarra, 1993, p. 68). Thus, considerationof the organizational context in which friendships are embedded leads to thehypothesis that female friendships at work will be experienced as lessdesirable, particularly with respect to instrumental rewards and potentialassistance in career advancement. However, these friendships would beexpected to be a source of socio-emotional support for other women, andperhaps men as well. The extent to which the gender-status factor is salientmight be expected to vary as a function of organizational norms such as

competition, career paths, and extent of the hierarchy. The present study willexamine the extent to which women and men choose to relate, and theirsatisfaction with instrumental and expressive aspects of those relationshipswithin three groups in different work contexts.

Close relationships at workSome studies examined a particular type of work relationship, mentoring, andcareer-enhancing functions provided by mentors (e.g. Kram, 1985; Levinson etal., 1978; Noe, 1988). This set of studies clarified the contribution of mentors topersonal and professional growth of persons in early and middle career stages.In general, employees who experienced intense mentoring relationships

received more promotions and had higher incomes than those who had not(Ragins, 1997; Chao et al., 1992; Dreher and Ash, 1990; Fagenson, 1989; Raginsand Sundstrom, 1989).

Mentors are typically defined as persons with more experience andknowledge who contribute to the careers of less experienced, lessknowledgeable persons, the proteges (e.g. Ragins, 1997). Unlike friendships,these relationships tended to be hierarchical and asymmetrical, with theapparent purpose being the promotion of the protege's career, althoughmentors are also likely to benefit (Ragins, 1997). Two primary functions are to


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provide instrumental aid to career development and psychosocial support(Kram, 1985). Ragins (1997) proposes a third function, role modeling, andrelated to that, identification. Mentors differ in the extent to which they performthese functions, and they may do so to varying degrees depending on therelationship's stage and/or on the career stage of the proteges.

Characteristics of the mentor (e.g. gender, race, and power in theorganization) are likely to influence the mentor's ability to perform differentfunctions. For example, white males are more likely to be able to perform careerdevelopment functions leading to promotion and salary increases, due to theirrelatively greater power in society and in organizations (Dreher and Cox, 1996).Women mentors may be more effective in offering psychosocial support forproteges (Chandler, 1996). Same-gender mentor-protege relationships are morelikely to offer opportunities for identification and modeling, and are associatedwith greater ease of communication and comfort level in interaction (Ragins,

1997). Peer mentoring programs have found similar results with respect to theprovision of both instrumental and psychosocial functions (e.g. Allen et al.,1997). Although most research highlights the benefits of mentoring, someevidence suggests that these relationships may be ineffective or evenproblematic for participants particularly when hierarchical within anorganization (e.g. Beech and Brockbank, 1999).

Extrapolating from research on mentoring relationships to friendships atwork, we hypothesize that male friends would be most able to offer careerdevelopment, instrumental functions to friends. Females are expected to excelat providing psychosocial functions. Finally, same-gender friendships are most

likely to facilitate mutual identification and modeling.An in-depth exploration of the qualitative nature of work relationships otherthan mentoring relationships has rarely occurred. One notable exception is anexploratory study (Kram and Isabella, 1985) which examined peer relationshipsof managers and professionals at different career stages. These researchersnoted the existence of different types of relationships varying in trust, self-disclosure, intimacy, and intensity, and which provided differentdevelopmental functions.

In this study of managers in early, middle, and late career stages, Kram andIsabella identified several types of peer relationships, which provide supportfor personal and professional growth. Based on interviews with 25 pairs of

individuals, three types of relationships and their associated functions wereextracted through a ` grounded theory'' analysis:

(1) information peer;

(2) collegial peer; and

(3) special peer.

These relationships were found to provide career-enhancing and psychosocialfunctions to differing extents.


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tend to be higher status and more powerful in organizations, we predict that thequality of close male friendships would be more likely to predict job success(i.e. salary) and job satisfaction as compared with the quality of closefriendships with women.

Finally, predictions of qualitative aspects of close friendships of men andwomen in the workplace differ depending on the extent to which individualdifferences associated with sex versus organizational structural factors arelikely to operate. Positions characterized by high levels of competition would bemore likely to elicit strategic choices in which female colleagues would bevalued less, compared with less competitive environments.

Thus, the extent to which patterns found in research on sex and non-workfriendships generalizes to the work world would be expected to vary as afunction of the particular work context. The present study explores thesepotential variations among three different groups of workers, although specificpredictions are not made.

MethodParticipantsParticipation was solicited from three different groups of workers: informationtechnology workers, lawyers, and managers in mid- to large-sizedorganizations. The total sample consisted of 89 females and 86 males.Occupations were selected because they were not completely segregated bysex, thus rendering a feasible examination of both same- and opposite-sexrelationships. The first group consisted of information technologyprofessionals. An existing database, established for promotional purposes by

an educational program, was used to generate a list from the metropolitan areaof a large mid-western Canadian city. The final sample of informationtechnologists (56 subjects) consisted of 27 female and 29 male workers. Ingeneral, these individuals are responsible for organizational informationtechnology management needs (e.g. telecommunications, systems evaluation,computer and software training, etc.). Although this group might be middlemanagers, they usually do not hold line positions. The second sample oflawyers was solicited from a database of lawyers in the same metropolitan areaas the first sample. This sample (45 subjects) consisted of 32 female and 13male lawyers. The third group consisted of middle managers from a variety ofoccupational backgrounds in medium- to large-sized organizations in the

metropolitan area of a large French-speaking Canadian city. This sample wasrecruited either through assistance of companies in which workers wereemployed (43 subjects) or through MBA classes (31 subjects). The final sampleof managers (74 subjects) consisted of 30 females and 44 males.

The three samples were compared on a variety of demographic and work-related variables including age, salary, time at work, civil status, andeducation. A 2(sex of subject) by 3(sample) multivariate analysis of variance onthese variables indicated significant main effects for both sex and sample, withno significant interaction effect. The significant multivariate sex effect


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(F= 3.33, df = 5/160, p


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work, in counterbalanced order. Following the questionnaires about friends,subjects were asked to indicate whether the friend was one of their best friends,including non-work friendships.

Network measuresIn order to obtain information concerning the interpersonal context in whichclose friendships occurred, and to assess the extent to which findings fromprevious studies of work relationships would replicate with present samples,network measures were included. Two types of networks demonstrated to beuseful in studies of informal networks (e.g. Brass, 1985; Krackhardt, 1990;Lincoln and Miller, 1979) were adapted for use here:

(1) the advice network, which represents instrumental ties of whoapproaches whom for work-related advice; and

(2) the friendship network, which represents expressive ties of who

approaches whom for social involvement.

These two types of networks were assessed by asking subjects to: list thosepersons in the organization with whom they had worked closely in the past fivemonths, and/or to whom they would go frequently for work-related advice; andthen list those persons in the organization whom they would consider to bepersonal friends. The sex and specific organizational position relative to thesubject, of each person listed, was also requested. Although this procedure doesnot allow for a complete assessment of reciprocity of nominations, Brassreported a high rate of reciprocity in network measures (76 per cent, 84 per cent,and 87 per cent for workflow, communication, and friendship networks

respectively). Estimates of size and status (weighted averages) of each networkas well as sex composition were derived from this information.

Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967)The short form (20 items) of this measure of job satisfaction was given in orderto assess subjects' satisfaction with intrinsic factors (e.g. autonomy, creativity,achievement), extrinsic factors (e.g. compensation, advancement, recognition),and general work satisfaction. This scale has been frequently used with a widerange of organizations, and has high internal consistency (0.90 in Bolton, 1986),and test-retest reliability (0.89 for a one-week interval and 0.70 for a one-yearinterval).

ProcedureSubjects completed questionnaire packages containing the instrumentsdescribed above. In the first two samples, questionnaires were mailed topotential subjects, with instructions to return completed forms in enclosed pre-addressed and stamped envelopes. In the third sample, as described above,subjects were solicited either directly through persons at their employment, orthrough MBA classes, and were given comparable questionnaire packages tothose used for the first two samples. In this third sample, all instruments were


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co-workers. Third, women tend to be disadvantaged, particularly in informal(friendship) networks, with fewer people (and fewer men) compared to men'sfriendship networks.

Friendship measuresPreliminary analyses indicated that over 90 per cent of respondents judgedclose colleagues rated as not their best friends. However, about 75 per centrated male and female colleagues as close friends, suggesting that for themajority of participants, friends evaluated were more than simply casualrelationships.

A 2 (sex of subject) by 3 (sample) by 2 (sex of colleague) MANOVA withrepeated measures on the last factor was performed on the nine subscales of theWright (ADF). Neither sex of subject or of colleague multivariate main effectswas significant. The main effect for sample was significant (F= 3.05, df = 18/322, p< 0.001), but must be somewhat qualified by the significant multivariateinteraction of sample by sex of colleague (F= 3.79, df = 2/169, p < 0.05). Sex ofsubject by sex of colleague effect was also significant (F = 13.05, df = 1/169,

p < 0.001). Neither sex of subject by sample nor the three-way interaction wassignificant.

In order to examine interactions with sex of colleague, ratings of closest maleand female colleagues were considered separately. Men and women did notdiffer significantly in ratings of closest female colleagues. However, they diddiffer in ratings of closest male colleagues. This difference was due to scores onthe voluntary interdependence scale (F = 14.74, df = 1/169, p < 0.001). Menreported that they would make special efforts to seek out their closest male

friend at work (M= 2.83) more than women would seek out their closest malecolleague (M= 1.87) (Table I).

Table I.Results of 2 (Sex ofsubject) by 3 (Sample)MANOVAs forfriendship qualities ofclosest female andmale colleagues

Source Wilks F df Significance of F

DV = Female colleagues' friendship qualitiesSex 1.59 9/161 nsSample 3.85 18/322 0.000Sex 6 sample 1.10 18/322 ns

DV = male colleagues' friendship qualitiesSex 2.50 9/161 0.01Sample 2.76 18/322 0.000

Sex 6 sample 0.90 18/322 ns

NotesSignificant univariate Fs for ratings of female colleagues as a function of sample include:stimulation value (F = 6.07, p < 0.01); self affirmation value (F = 3.72, p < 0.05); voluntaryinterdependence (F = 5.65, p < 0.01); person qua person (F = 2.93, p < 0.05)Significant univariate Fs for ratings of male colleagues as a function of subject sex wasvoluntary interdependence only (F = 14.74, p < 0.001)Significant univariate Fs for ratings of male colleagues as a function of sample include:security value (F = 5.93, p < 0.001); person qua person (F = 2.98, p < 0.05)


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The sample by sex of colleague effect was examined also by consideringratings of male and female colleagues separately. Sample differences for malecolleagues were due to ratings of security value of male friend (F = 5.93,df = 2/169, p < 0.01). Male lawyers were rated most favorably (i.e. can count onthis friend) (M= 4.71), followed by male information technologists (M= 4.48),and finally male middle managers (M= 4.12).

Sample differences for ratings of female colleagues (df = 2/189) occurred forstimulation value (F= 6.07, p, < 0.01), self-affirmation value (F= 3.72,p < 0.05),and voluntary interdependence (F = 5.65, p < 0.01). Female lawyers wereperceived consistently less favorably than women friends in the other twosample groups, including less stimulating (M = 3.10) than informationtechnologists (M= 3.77) or managers (M= 3.54); less of a source of affirmation(M= 3.60) than managers (M= 3.95) or technologists (M= 4.16); and lower onvoluntary interdependence (M = 2.00) than managers (M = 2.58) ortechnologists (M= 2.83).

Overall, comparing ratings of female versus male colleagues as close friends,the pattern varied as a function of sample. In the information technologysample, women were judged more favorably than men. In the lawyer sample,men were judged more favorably than women. Finally, in the sample of middlemanagers, neither men nor women were judged more favorably than the other.Thus, in the work environment, friendships involving women were notconsistently more satisfying, and the pattern found in research on friendshipsoutside of work was not replicated in the present research. In fact, men reportedmore voluntary interdependence with their closest male colleague than womenreported with their closest male colleague; and women tended to report more of

this tendency with their closest female friend. In Wright's model of friendship,as noted earlier, relationship strength is measured by scores on subscales forvoluntary interdependence and person qua person. Thus, this result isconsistent with support for the idea that homophilous ties tend to be stronger.

Friendship quality as predictors of salary and job satisfactionPreliminary analyses indicated that age was significantly correlated with bothsalary (r= 0.33, p < 0.01) and job satisfaction (r= 0.28, p < 0.01). Thus age, aswell as sex of subjects and sample was entered as control variables inpredictions of salary and of job satisfaction. Since salary and job satisfactionare also significantly related (r= 0.32,p < 0.01) salary was also controlled for in

predictions of job satisfaction. Two sets of regression analyses were performed,one set predicting salary and another predicting job satisfaction. In both sets ofanalyses, control variables were entered first as a block. These includedsample, subject sex and age, and salary for predictions of job satisfaction. Next,nine subscales of the Wright (ADF) were entered, with ratings of closest maleand closest female colleagues. Because we were interested in identifying whichpredictors accounted for significant and unique portions of the variance incriterion measures, with no hypotheses about relative importance of friendshipquality subscales, variables were entered stepwise.


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Prediction of salary from the block of control variables was significant(F = 7.59, p < 0.001), with age a significant unique predictor (part cor = 0.29,

F = 18.56, p < 0.001). The older the subject, the higher salary tended to be.Ratings of the person qua person scale of the male friend added significantly tothe prediction (part cor = 0.29,FChange = 12.79,p < 0.001), followed by ratingsof voluntary interdependence of closest female friend (part cor = 0.27,F Change = 8.93,p < 0.001), and utility value of closest female friend (part cor =0.16, F Change = 4.21, p < 0.05). No other significant predictors of salaryemerged (Ffor the final equation = 8.82, df = 6/167, p < 0.0001). Thus the morethat the male friend was seen as unique and special, the higher the salary ofrespondent. Alternatively, the more subjects indicated making special efforts tospend time interacting with female friends, the lower the salary. Finally, themore instrumental assistance closest female friends provided, the higher thesalary (Table II).

Predictions of job satisfaction using the same procedure indicated that theset of control variables significantly predicted job satisfaction (F = 8.21,p < 0.001), with salary (part cor = 0.26, F= 13.34, p < 0.001), sample (part cor =0.16, F = 5.35, p < 0.05), and age (part cor = 0.21, F = 8.45, p < 0.01) eachaccounting for unique variance. Greater job satisfaction was associated withhigher salary, and being older. Lawyers tended to be more satisfied than theother groups. The only friendship quality variable which added significantly toprediction of job satisfaction was rating of maintenance difficulty with closestmale colleague (part cor = 0.15, F Change =4.58, p < 0.05; F for the finalequation = 7.62, df = 5/168,p < 0.0001). The more tension and strain reported inclose friendships with male colleagues, the lower job satisfaction (Table III).

Overall these results offer support for the view that quality of closefriendships with men does tend to be more predictive of career success and job

Table II.Summary of regressionanalysis predictingsalary from subjectvariables (sample, sex,age) and friendshipqualities of colleagues

Variable Beta SE

Step 1 Sample 0.10 0.10 0.14Sex 0.01 0.18 0.03Age 0.30 0.01 0.05***

Step 2 PQPM 0.25 0.06 0.21***Step 3 VIDF 0.21 0.06 0.18**Step 4 UVF 0.17 0.08 0.16*

NotesPQPM = person qua person ratings of closest male colleaguesVIDF = utility value ratings of closest female colleagues

R2 = 0.12 for step 1, p < 0.001R2 change = 0.06 for step 2, p < 0.001R2 change = 0.04 for step 3, p < 0.01R2 change = 0.02 for step 4, p < 0.05Total R = 0.49, adjusted R2 = 0.21, p < 0.001* = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001


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satisfaction than does quality of close friendship with women. In fact, theyprovide a suggestion that stronger ties with female friends might interfere withcareer success.

DiscussionTwo main goals were pursued in the present study of interpersonal workrelationships. First, we explored the quality of women's and men's close workfriendships, in order to assess the potential impact of gender socialization andorganizational structural factors on patterns of interaction within same-sex andopposite-sex friendships. We found support for the view that people tend toseek out others similar in sex (i.e. as reflected in friendship networks), and thatsame-sex friendships tend to be stronger (i.e. reflected in voluntaryinterdependence ratings). This is consistent with the view that homophilous

relationships do tend to characterize the work environment.A challenge, therefore, is to increase interaction between men and women atwork. More cross-sex interactions may facilitate these relationships byincreasing comfort level, by providing more opportunities for recognition ofshared interests, values and other commonalties, and by reducing negativestereotypes and biased attributions.

In contrast to friendships outside the workplace, friendships involvingwomen were not consistently evaluated as more satisfying. Our results seemmore consistent with theoretical perspectives offered by those who stress theimportance of work context in influencing the nature of relationships amongwomen and men at work (e.g. Ibarra, 1993; Ely, 1994; 1995) than with those who

stress sex-role socialization. Ratings of male and female friends varied acrosssample groups assessed. The largest differences seemed to be in how femalecolleagues were viewed across samples. For example, female lawyers wererated most unfavorably relative to those in management and those ininformation technology groups.

Table ISummary of regressianalysis predicting j

satisfaction frosubject variab

(salary, sample, agand friendship qualiti

of colleagu

Variable Beta SE

Step 1 Salary 0.27 0.04 0.15**Sex 0.00 0.09 0.00

Sample 0.17 0.06 0.13*Age 0.23 0.01 0.02**MDM 0.15 0.04 0.09*

NotesMDM = Maintenance difficulty ratings for closest male colleagues

R2 = 0.16 for step 1, p < 0.001R2 change = 0.02 for step 2, p < 0.05Total R = 0.43, adjusted R2 = 0.16m, p < 0.001* = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001


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Several possibilities might account for finding of differences across groups.One factor may be the relative proportion of women in a given occupation.Kanter (1977) attributed the negative effects individuals in underrepresentedgroups amassed to imbalanced representation of that group in theorganizational hierarchy. She attributed professional women's difficulties totheir token status. Occupations, as well, may be associated with differentorganizational norms, which elicit different behaviors and perceptions as afunction of workers' sex, which increases the salience of sex stereotypes inattributions about these women. For example, the legal profession tends to behighly competitive, relative to the other two groups. Greater competition maylead workers to place more emphasis on making strategic choices aboutrelationships, ones which would make females' lower status even more salient,and thus these friendships less desirable. Friendships found in someorganizations may be characterized by unequal power. Veniegas and Peplau(1997) found that unequal-power same-sex friendships were not rated asfavorably as equal-power same-sex friendships on dimensions of friendshipquality.

Research that highlights the social construction of gender seems mostrelevant to our findings. This body of research (e.g. Mills, 1988; Alvesson, 1998)treats gender as an ambiguous, complex and dynamic concept. Organizationsmay differ in the meanings ascribed to ``maleness'' and ``femaleness'', such thatbeing female (or male) is linked to different attributions, expectations, andbehaviors in one organization versus another (Collins and Hearn, 1994). Forexample, Ely (1994) found that women lawyers' evaluations of other womenwere generally more favorable in law firms where females made up a higher

proportion of partners (sex-integrated firms) than in those where fewer womenwere in these more powerful positions (male-dominated firms). She pointed outhow the more negative view of women (less powerful and less likely to succeed)contributed to greater within female competitiveness and interfered withprocesses of mutual identification and support.

In his ethnographic analysis of an advertising agency in Sweden, Alvesson(1998) emphasizes how the specific broader context, including relationshipswith clients and societal attributions about advertising work (` feminizing''factors in this case) interact to contribute ironically to a marked division oflabour between the male and female workers. His analysis demonstrates thecomplex and sometimes paradoxical effects of such factors on workplace

dynamics.These studies challenge prevailing conceptions of gender as an objective

property of individuals synonymous with biological sex and universal acrossorganizational settings. They support a more complex view of gender as anongoing social construction, which varies as a function of power differences,reflected in the sex composition across levels of an organization's hierarchy.

Another explanation of the differences found across groups may be thatwomen who choose the profession (e.g. law) are already less/more desirable asfriends, and context is not the primary factor in our findings. Further research


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is needed to test these possibilities. Future research should ask subjects to ratetheir closest best friends (male and female), and should solicit rating fromfriends as well as from work colleagues. Participants were not rating theirclosest friends, only their closest work friends. Thus previous findings, eventhose involving professional women and men (Sapadin, 1988), may be limitedto best friendships.

A second goal of this study was to determine whether quality of closefriendships with male and female colleagues would predict salary and jobsatisfaction. Results do support this view, and specifically the view thatfriendship quality with closest male colleague compared to female, wouldpredict these variables. Higher salary was associated with perceiving the closemale colleague as unique and special, one index of relationship strength.Ragins (1997) has pointed out that male (rather than female) mentors are morelikely to be able to contribute to the career advancement function of mentoring.This friend may be functioning as mentor or providing aspects of the mentorrelationship. However, we do not have information to confirm that close friendsrated were comparable to those in our sample. Again, we must acknowledgethe correlational nature of data, in interpreting this finding. Those who formspecial relationships with male colleagues might already have the capability toperform successfully at work, and thus have higher salaries. More in-depthqualitative and/or longitudinal research is needed to tease out causalrelationships among variables.

Interestingly, having a closer tie to the female friend, as reflected in scores onvoluntary interdependence, was associated with earning less money. This mayreflect females' lesser power and status in these organizations, such that they

are unable to provide career advancement assistance to close friends. Seekingout and investing in women as close work friends may not be a wise strategicchoice for those most ambitious in their professions. On the other hand,usefulness (utility value) of close female friend was associated with highersalary. Women as instrumental assistants may be able to promote one's careeras long as one is not perceived as too closely allied to these women.

The only friendship quality factor that predicted job satisfaction was ratingof maintenance difficulty in friendship with closest male colleague. Tensionand strain in relationships with closest male colleagues was associated withlower job satisfaction for both men and women. Since men tend to be morepowerful in these organizations, conflict might result in more repercussions.

Thus, difficulties in relationships with men might be particularly threatening,since maintaining work relationships would be experienced as very important.That is, the possibility that close friendships with male colleagues could endmight be cause for greater anxiety about work effectiveness as well as loss ofthe relationship itself.

Several limitations to the present study must be acknowledged. Sample sizefrom each group is relatively small, and the samples themselves may not berepresentative. However, results observed with network measures do seemconsistent with other research suggesting that this sample is comparable to


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prior research. Second, more precise measures of organizational factorsexpected to be associated with hypothesized factors operating in our samples(e.g. competitiveness of organization, steepness of hierarchy, status of womenin organizational elite, etc.) would have enabled us to test these hypothesesmore directly. Finally, this study's correlational nature prevents us fromdrawing conclusions about causal relationships among variables.

In sum, present findings support the view that quality of work relationships,including close relationships with male and female colleagues, offers workers avariety of rewards; and that these relationships, especially close malefriendships, are associated with career success and job satisfaction. Futureresearch should explore more precisely the role of organizational variables indetermining quality and function of friendships with and among women andmen.

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Baruch, G., Barnett, R. and Rivers, C. (1983), Lifeprints: New Patterns of Love and Work forToday's Women, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

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Employee behaviour in a service environment: a model and test ofpotential differences between men and women

Boles, J.S. Journal of Marketing(USA), Apr 1998 Vol 62 No 2: p. 77 (15 pages)

Investigates the factors that influence the performance, job satisfaction, lifesatisfaction, work/non-work conflict and job-quitting intentions of male andfemale front-line service providers, particularly role stress, which combines roleconflict and role ambiguity. Reviews existing organizational research ongender differences, and tests a hypothesized model of customer-contact serviceprovider behaviour using a questionnaire survey of food servers at a full-service US restaurant. Reports the results of structural equations analyses indetail, revealing, in particular, two important findings: that increased roleconflict/ambiguity has a greater negative effect on women's job performancethan on men's and that low job satisfaction is more likely to lead to higher job-

quitting intention among men. Discusses the implications of the findings formarketing managers, notes the limitations of the study and highlights areasrequiring further research.

SurveyIndicators: Research implications: *** Practice implications: **Originality: ** Readability: ** Total number: *********Reference: 27AM159Cost: 6 (plus VAT)

Job satisfaction of older workersvan den Brink, H.M.

International Journal of Manpower(UK), 1999 Vol 20 No 6: p. 343 (18 pages)

Suggests that declining job satisfaction and increased stress could be factors inthe decisions of older workers to leave the labour market and presents researchthat has looked at the levels and causes of job satisfaction among this group ofworkers. Analyses the extent to which individual characteristics, jobcharacteristics and the match between individual skills and the skills requiredfor the job explain differences in job satisfaction among older workers. Also

looks at the relationship between wages and job satisfaction and if men andwomen differ in the factors that affect their job satisfaction. Uses data from aDutch panel survey, CERRA-1 (Center for Economic Research on Retirementand Aging, wave 1) to present a detailed analysis of the factors affecting jobsatisfaction among older workers. Finds that the content of the job is the mainfactor that explains job satisfaction, with satisfaction with co-workers,supervisors, the work load and early retirement arrangements also havingsome effect. Also finds that individual factors affect satisfaction with thataspect of the job but not overall satisfaction; that general satisfaction with the


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job does not predict satisfaction with all the different aspects of the job; that therelationship between wages and job satisfaction is relevant; and that skillsmismatches do not affect job satisfaction but will affect wages.

Wholly theoreticalIndicators: Research implications: ** Practice implications: **Originality: ** Readability: * Total number: *******

Reference: 28AW178

Cost: 24 (plus VAT)

Antecedents and outcomes of empowerment: empirical evidencefrom the health care industry

Goodman, E.A.Group & Organization Management (USA), Mar 1999 Vol 24 No 1: p. 71 (21pages)

Uses social cognitive theory to investigate the extent to which individuals'sense of empowerment is influenced by personal characteristics (education,tenure within the organization, gender, ethnicity and locus of control), workgroup characteristics (group effectiveness, intragroup trust, mutual influence,leader approachability and worth of group) and their position in the hierarchy.

Also investigates how a sense of empowerment affects performance,suggesting that it will have a positive effect on job satisfaction, productivityand commitment to stay with the organization. Finds that the followingpersonal and work group characteristics have an influence on empowerment:tenure with the organization, leader approachability, worth of group and groupeffectiveness; place in the hierarchy also being influential. Concludes thatgroups and organizational factors are at least as important as individualfactors for empowerment. Points out that this confirms the management-centred view of empowerment which proposes that managers and supervisorscan help employees feel empowered by providing them with the necessarysupport and authority. Also concludes that the study confirms the link between

empowerment, job satisfaction, performance and commitment to stay with theorganization.

Wholly theoretical

Indicators: Research implications: *** Practice implications: **Originality: ** Readability: ** Total number: *********

Reference: 28AL129

Cost: 12 (plus VAT)


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Not every managerial woman has a mentor McKeen, C.A.Women in Management Review (UK), Vol 12 No 4 97: p. 136 (4 pages)

Compares the careers of Canadian women managers and professionals whohad mentors with those who had not, comparing their personal and workcharacteristics (age, income, organization size, etc.), their work outcomes (jobsatisfaction, career prospects, etc.,) and their psychological wellbeing.Discovers that only two of the variables looked at were significant afterpredictor variables were taken into account the women with mentors weremore optimistic about their career prospects and worked extra hours.Concludes that the importance of mentoring in developing women's career mayhave been overplayed.

Wholly theoreticalIndicators: Research implications: ** Practice implications: **Originality: * Readability: *** Total number: ********Reference: 26AY319Cost: 6 (plus VAT)

Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: an empiricalassessment through scale development

Maslyn, J.M. Journal of Management(USA), 1998 Vol 24 No 1: p. 43 (30 pages)

Considers the subject of leader-member exchange (LMX), assessing the view of

it being a multidimensional construct through the development and validationof a multidimensional measure. Looks briefly at role and social exchangetheory as supporters of LMX multidimensionality; outlines the maindimensions of LMX: contribution, loyalty, affect and differential relations withoutcomes; and outlines some of the existing measures of LMX. Describes thefindings of a survey of US business school students and organizationalemployees aimed at measuring dimensions such as satisfaction withsupervisor; autonomy; turnover intentions, organizational commitment andsocial desirability. Illustrates support for the view that LMX is composed ofmultiple dimensions, arguing its value to the understanding of how suchdimensions relate to issues of development and maintenance of LMX

relationships, and their impact on the prediction of organizational outcomes.

Wholly theoreticalResearch implications: *** Practice implications: **Originality: ** Readability: ** Total number: *********Reference: 27AQ647Cost: 18 (plus VAT)

Friendship of Women and Men at Work

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