French Revolution(1789 1799)

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789–1799)

1.Overview:

Historians agree unanimously that the French Revolution was a watershed event that changedEurope irrevocably, following in the footsteps of the American Revolution, which had occurred just

a decade earlier. The causes of the French Revolution, though, are difficult to pin down based on

the historical evidence that e!ists, a fairly compelling argument could be made regarding any

number of factors. "nternationally spea#ing, a number of major wars had ta#en place in the forty

years leading up to the Revolution, and France had participated, to some degree, in most of them.

The $even %ears& 'ar in Europe and the American Revolution across the ocean had a profound

effect on the French psyche and made the 'estern world a volatile one. "n addition to charging up

the French public, this wartime environment too# (uite a toll on the French treasury. The costs of

waging war, supporting allies, and maintaining the French army (uic#ly depleted a French ban# that

was already wea#ened from royal e!travagance. Finally, in a time of highly seculari)ed

Enlightenment, the idea that *ing +ouis -" had absolute power due to divine rightthe idea thathe had been handpic#ed by /oddidn&t hold nearly as much water as in the past few decades.

0ltimately, these various problems within late12344s France weren&t so much the immediate causes

of the Revolution as they were the final catalyst. The strict French class system had long placed the

clergy and nobility far above the rest of the French citi)ens, despite the fact that many of those

citi)ens far e!ceeded nobles in wealth and reputation. 5oreover, these e!clusive titlesmost of

which had been purchased and passed down through familiesessentially placed their bearers

above the law and e!empted them from ta!es. "n 2367, when France&s ancient legislative body, the

Estates1/eneral, reconvened and it became apparent that the higher1ran#ing classes refused to

forfeit their privileges in the interest of saving the country, the frustration of the French bourgeoisie

reached its boiling point. The French Revolution was thus a battle to achieve e(uality and removeoppressionconcerns far more deep1seated and universal than the immediate economic turbulence

France was e!periencing at the time.

"t may seem on the surface that the immediate results of the French Revolution were negligible, for

the ne!t leader after the Revolution was 8apoleon, who imposed a dictatorship of sorts, voiding the

sovereign democracy of the Revolution. 8onetheless, the Revolution won the public a number of

other victories, both tangible and intangible. 8o French ruler after the Revolution dared to reverse

the property and rights ac(uisitions gained during the Revolution, so citi)ens who had purchased

church land were allowed to #eep it. The new ta! system remained devoid of the influence of

privilege, so that every man paid his share according to personal wealth. 5oreover, the brea#down

of church and feudal contracts freed people from tithes and other incurred fees. That&s not to say

that all was well French industry struggled for years after the Revolution to regain a foothold in

such a drastically different environment. 9n the whole, however, the French people had seen the

impact they could have over their government, and that liberating, inspiring spirit was unli#ely ever

again to be suppressed.

9ther European governments and rulers, however, were not too happy with the French after the

Revolution. They #new that their own citi)ens had seen the power that the French public wielded,

and as a result, those governments were never again able to feel secure in their rule after 2377.

Though there had been other internal revolutions in European countries, few were as massive and

convoluted as the French Revolution, which empowered citi)ens everywhere and resulted in a

considerable leap toward the end of oppression throughout Europe.



2.Summary of Events:

Feudalism and Unfair Taxation

8o one factor was directly responsible for the French Revolution. %ears of feudal oppression and

fiscal mismanagement contributed to a French society that was ripe for revolt. 8oting a downward

economic spiral in the late 2344s, *ing +ouis -" brought in a number of financial advisors toreview the wea#ened French treasury. Each advisor reached the same conclusionthat France

needed a radical change in the way it ta!ed the publicand each advisor was, in turn, #ic#ed out.

Finally, the #ing reali)ed that this ta!ation problem really did need to be addressed, so he appointed

a new controller general of finance, :harles de :alonne, in 236;. :alonne suggested that, among

other things, France begin ta!ing the previously e!empt nobility. The nobility refused, even after

:alonne pleaded with them during the Assembly of 8otables in 2363. Financial ruin thus seemed

imminent.

The Estates-General

"n a final act of desperation, +ouis -" decided in 2367 to convene the Estates1/eneral, an ancientassembly consisting of three different estates that each represented a portion of the French

population. "f the Estates1/eneral could agree on a ta! solution, it would be implemented. However,

since two of the three estatesthe clergy and the nobilitywere ta!1e!empt, the attainment of any

such solution was unli#ely.

5oreover, the outdated rules of order for the Estates1/eneral gave each estate a single vote, despite

the fact that the Third Estateconsisting of the general French publicwas many times larger than

either of the first two. Feuds (uic#ly bro#e out over this disparity and would prove to be

irreconcilable. Reali)ing that its numbers gave it an automatic advantage, the Third Estate declared

itself the sovereign 8ational Assembly. 'ithin days of the announcement, many members of the

other two estates had switched allegiances over to this revolutionary new assembly.

The Bastille and the Great Fear

$hortly after the 8ational Assembly formed, its members too# the Tennis :ourt 9ath, swearing that

they would not relent in their efforts until a new constitution had been agreed upon. The 8ational

Assembly&s revolutionary spirit galvani)ed France, manifesting in a number of different ways. "n

<aris, citi)ens stormed the city&s largest prison, the =astille, in pursuit of arms. "n the countryside,

peasants and farmers revolted against their feudal contracts by attac#ing the manors and estates of

their landlords. >ubbed the ?/reat Fear,@ these rural attac#s continued until the early August

issuing of the August >ecrees, which freed those peasants from their oppressive contracts. $hortly

thereafter, the assembly released the>eclaration of the Rights of 5an and of the :iti)en, which

established a proper judicial code and the autonomy of the French people.

Rifts in the Assembly

Though the 8ational Assembly did succeed in drafting a constitution, the relative peace of the

moment was short1lived. A rift slowly grew between the radical and moderate assembly members,

while the common laborers and wor#ers began to feel overloo#ed. 'hen +ouis -" was caught in a

foiled escape plot, the assembly became especially divided. The moderate /irondins too# a stance

in favor of retaining the constitutional monarchy, while the radical acobins wanted the #ing

completely out of the picture.

9utside of France, some neighboring countries feared that France&s revolutionary spirit wouldspread beyond French land. "n response, they issued the >eclaration of <illnit), which insisted that

the French return +ouis -" to the throne. French leaders interpreted the declaration as hostile, so

the /irondin1led assembly declared war on Austria and <russia.



The Reign of Terror

The first acts of the newly named 8ational :onvention were the abolition of the monarchy and the

declaration of France as a republic. "n anuary 237;, the convention tried and e!ecuted +ouis -"

on the grounds of treason. >espite the creation of the :ommittee of <ublic $afety, the war with

Austria and <russia went poorly for France, and foreign forces pressed on into French territory.

Enraged citi)ens overthrew the /irondin1led 8ational :onvention, and the acobins, led

by 5a!imilien Robespierre, too# control.

=ac#ed by the newly approved :onstitution of 237;, Robespierre and the :ommittee of <ublic

$afety began conscripting French soldiers and implementing laws to stabili)e the economy. For a

time, it seemed that France&s fortunes might be changing. =ut Robespierre, growing increasingly

paranoid about counterrevolutionary influences, embar#ed upon a Reign of Terror in late 237;B

237C, during which he had more than 2D,444 people e!ecuted at the guillotine. 'hen the French

army successfully removed foreign invaders and the economy finally stabili)ed, however,

Robespierre no longer had any justification for his e!treme actions, and he himself was arrested in

uly 237C and e!ecuted.

The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory

The era following the ousting of Robespierre was #nown as the Thermidorian Reaction, and a

period of governmental restructuring began, leading to the new:onstitution of 237D and a

significantly more conservative 8ational :onvention. To control e!ecutive responsibilities and

appointments, a group #nown as the>irectory was formed. Though it had no legislative abilities, the

>irectory&s abuse of power soon came to rival that of any of the tyrannous revolutionaries France

had faced.

Naoleon

5eanwhile, the :ommittee of <ublic $afety&s war effort was reali)ing unimaginable success.

French armies, especially those led by young general8apoleon =onaparte, were ma#ing progress innearly every direction. 8apoleon&s forces drove through "taly and reached as far as Egypt before

facing a deflating defeat. "n the face of this rout, and having received word of political upheavals in

France, 8apoleon returned to <aris. He arrived in time to lead acoup against the >irectory in 2377,

eventually stepping up and naming himself ?first consul@effectively, the leader of France. 'ith

8apoleon at the helm, the Revolution ended, and France entered a fifteen1year period of military

rule.

3.Key People & Terms:

!eole

Naoleon Bonaarte

A general in the French army and leader of the 2377 coup that overthrew the>irectory. 8apoleon&s

accession mar#ed the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of 8apoleonic France and

Europe.

"ac#ues-!ierre Brissot

A member of the +egislative Assembly and 8ational :onvention who held a moderate stance and

believed in the idea of a constitutional monarchy. =rissot&s followers, initially #nown simplyas =rissotins, eventually became #nown more generally as the /irondins. After unsuccessfully

declaring war on Austria and <russia, =rissot was removed from the 8ational :onvention and, li#e



many /irondin leaders, lost his life at the guillotine during the Reign of Terror in 237;B237C.

$harles de $alonne

The controller general of finance appointed by *ing +ouis -" after ac(ues 8ec#er was forced out

of office in 2362. :alonne proposed a daring plan to shift the French ta! burden from the poor to

wealthy nobles and businessmen, suggesting a ta! on land proportional to land values and a

lessened ta! burden for peasants. The French nobility, however, refused to pay these ta!es.

%a&are $arnot

A French soldier appointed by the :ommittee of <ublic $afety to help reorgani)e the failing war

effort against Austria and <russia. :arnot did so very effectively and made enough of a name for

himself to earn a seat as one of the first members of the >irectory. Although he was removed from

this position during the overthrow of $eptember C, 2373, he went on to hold various posts in future

governments.

'ar#uis de %afayette

A liberal nobleman who led French forces assisting in the American Revolution. The common

people of France revered +afayette as an idealistic man who was dedicated to liberty and the

principles of the Revolution. Although +afayette organi)ed the 8ational /uard of armed citi)ens to

protect the Revolution from attac# by the #ing, he bal#ed as the Revolution became more radical.

%ouis ()*

The French #ing from 233C to 237 who was deposed during the French Revolution and e!ecuted

in 237;. +ouis -" inherited the debt problem left by his grandfather, +ouis -, and added to the

crisis himself through heavy spending during France&s involvement in

the American Revolution from 233D to 236;. =ecause this massive debt overwhelmed all of hisfinancial consultants, +ouis -" was forced to give in to the demands of the <arlement of <aris and

convene theEstates1/eneralan action that led directly to the outbrea# of the Revolution. +ouis

-" was deposed in 237 and e!ecuted a year later.

'arie-Antoinette

The wife of *ing +ouis -" and, in the French commoners& eyes, the primary symbol of the French

royalty&s e!travagance and e!cess. 'hen 5arie1Antoinette was e!ecuted in 237;, she was dressed

in a plain dress, common to the poorest in French society.

"ac#ues Nec+erA $wiss1born ban#er who served as France&s director general of finance in the late 2334s, with high

hopes of instituting reform. As it turned out, 8ec#er was able only to propose small efforts at

eliminating costly inefficiencies. He did produce a government budget, however, for the first time in

French history.

'aximilien Robesierre

A brilliant political tactician and leader of the radical acobins in the 8ational Assembly. As

chairman of the :ommittee of <ublic $afety, Robespierre pursued a planned economy and vigorous

mobili)ation for war. He grew increasingly paranoid about counterrevolutionary opposition,

however, and during the Reign of Terror of 237;B237C attempted to silence all enemies of theRevolution in an effort to save France from invasion. After the moderates regained power and

theThermidorian Reaction was under way, they had Robespierre e!ecuted on uly 6, 237C.



Emmanuel-"oseh ,ieys

A liberal member of the clergy, supporter of the Third Estate, and author of the fiery 2367 pamphlet

?'hat "s the Third Estate@ $ieyGs was one of the primary leaders of the Third Estate&s effort at

political and economic reform in France.

Terms

August Decrees

A series of decrees issued by the 8ational Assembly in August 2367 that successfully suppressed

the /reat Fear by releasing all peasants from feudal contracts.

Bastille

A large armory and state prison in the center of <aris that a mob of sans1culottes sac#ed on uly 2C,

2367, giving the masses arms for insurrection. The storming of the =astille had little practical

conse(uence, but it was an enormous symbolic act against the ancien rgime, inspired the

revolutionaries, and is still celebrated today as the French holiday =astille >ay.

Bourgeoisie

The middle and upper classes of French society who, as members of the Third Estate, wanted an

end to the principle of privilege that governed French society in the late 2344s. The bourgeoisie

represented the moderate voices during the French Revolution and were represented by delegates in

both the Estates1/eneral and the 8ational Assembly.

$i.il $onstitution of the $lergy

A document, issued by the 8ational Assembly in uly 2374, that bro#e ties with the :atholic

:hurch and established a national church system in France with a process for the election ofregional bishops. The document angered the pope and church officials and turned many French

:atholics against the revolutionaries.

$ommittee of !ublic ,afety

A body, chaired by 5a!imilien Robespierre, to which the 8ational :onventiongave dictatorial

powers in April 237; in an attempt to deal with France&s wars abroad and economic problems at

home. Although the committee led off its tenure with an impressive war effort and economy1

salvaging initiatives, things too# a turn for the worse when Robespierre began his violent Reign of

Terror in late 237;.

$onstitution of /01/

The new French constitution that in 2372 established a constitutional monarchy, or limited

monarchy, with all e!ecutive power answerable to a legislative assembly. 0nder the new

constitution, *ing +ouis -" could only temporarily veto legislation passed by the assembly. The

constitution restricted voting in the assembly to the upper and middle classes of French society and

abolished ?nobility@ as a legal order.

Declaration of !illnit&

An August 3, 2372, warning from <russia and Austria announcing that they would intervene

militarily in France if any harm came to *ing +ouis -", who had just been captured trying to

escape with his family from <aris. The declaration prompted thenB+egislative Assembly

leader ac(ues1<ierre =rissot to declare war on Austria and <russia.



Declaration of the Rights of 'an and of the $iti&en

A document, issued by the 8ational Assembly on August I, 2367, that granted sovereignty to all

French people. The declaration, which drew from the ideas of some of the Enlightenment&s greatest

thin#ers, asserted that liberty is a ?natural@ and ?imprescriptible@ right of man and that ?men are

born and remain free and e(ual in rights.@

Directory

The new e!ecutive branch established by the constitution written during the moderate Thermidorian

Reaction of 237CB237D. The >irectory was appointed by the legislative assembly. However, after

2373 election results proved unfavorable to elements in the >irectory, it orchestrated an overthrow

of the assembly and maintained dubious control over France until it was overthrown by 8apoleon

=onaparte in 2377.

Estates-General

A medieval representative institution in France that had not met for 23D years before *ing +ouis

-" reconvened it on 5ay D, 2367, to deal with the looming financial crisis. :onsisting of

three estatesthe clergy, nobility, andcommoners, respectivelythe Estates1/eneral was the only

group that would be able to force the assorted French parlements into accepting the controller

general of finance :harles de :alonne&s ta! decrees.

Girondins

The name given to the moderates in the 8ational :onvention. The /irondins controlled the

legislative assembly until 237;, when, with the war going poorly and food shortages hurting French

peasants, the acobins ousted them from power.

Great Fear

A period in uly and August 2367 during which rural peasants revolted against their feudal

landlords and wrea#ed havoc in the French countryside.

"acobins

The radical wing of representatives in the 8ational :onvention, named for their secret meeting

place in the acobin :lub, in an abandoned <aris monastery. +ed by 5a!imilien Robespierre, the

acobins called for democratic solutions to France&s problems and spo#e for the urban poor and

French peasantry. The acobins too# control of the convention, and France itself, from 237; to

237C. As Robespierre became increasingly concerned with counterrevolutionary threats, he

instituted a brutal period of public e!ecutions #nown as the Reign of Terror.

%imited 'onarchy

Also #nown as constitutional monarchy, a system of government in which a #ing or (ueen reigns as

head of state but with power that is limited by real power lying in a legislature and an

independent court system.

'onarchy

The form of government, common to most European countries at the time of the French Revolution,

in which one #ing or (ueen, from a designated royal dynasty, holds control over policy and has the

final say on all such matters. "n France, the =ourbon family held the monarchy, with +ouis -" as#ing at the time of the Revolution.



National Assembly

The name given to the Third Estate after it separated from the Estates1/eneral in 2367. As a body,

the 8ational Assembly claimed to legitimately represent the French population. The assembly

dissolved in 2372 so that new elections could ta#e place under the new constitution.

National $on.ention

The body that replaced the +egislative Assembly following a successful election in 237. As one of

its first actions, the convention declared the French monarchy abolished on $eptember 2, 237,

and on the following day declared France arepublic. Though originally dominated by moderates, the

convention became controlled by radical acobins in 237;.

!arlements

A set of thirteen provincial judicial boardsone based in <aris and the other twelve in major

provincial citiesthat constituted the independent judiciary of France. The parlements held the

power of recording royal decrees, meaning that if a parlement refused to record an edict, the edict

would never be implemented in that district.

Reign of Terror

A ten1month period of oppression and e!ecution from late 237; to mid1237C, organi)ed

by 5a!imilien Robespierre and the :ommittee of <ublic $afety to suppress any potential enemies

of the radical Revolution. The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robespierre, who was arrested

and e!ecuted in uly 237C. Robespierre&s e!ecution ushered in the Thermidorian Reaction of 237CB

237D and the establishment of the >irectory as the head of France&s e!ecutive government.

,ans-culottes

0rban wor#ers and peasants, whose nameliterally, ?without culottes,@ the #nee1breeches that the privileged woresignified their wish to distinguish themselves from the high classes. The mob

mentality of the sans1culottes constituted the most radical element of the Revolution.

Tennis $ourt 2ath

A une 4, 2367, oath sworn by members of the Third Estate who had just formed the 8ational

Assembly and were loc#ed out of the meeting of the Estates1/eneral. 5eeting at a nearby tennis

court, these members of the Third Estate pledged to remain together until they had drafted and

passed a new constitution.

Thermidorian Reaction

The postBReign of Terror period ushered in by the e!ecution of 5a!imilien Robespierre in uly

237C and the reassertion of moderate power over the French Revolution. The Thermidorian

Reaction brought the Revolution&s focus bac# to the first stage of moderate changes designed to

benefit the business classes of French society.

Third Estate

9ne of the three estates in the Estates1/eneral, consisting of the commoners of France, whether rich

merchants or poor peasants. >espite the fact that it constituted the vast majority of the French

population, the Third Estate had just one vote in the Estates1/eneralthe same vote that the much

smaller First Estate JclergyK and $econd Estate JnobilityK each had. Frustrated with its politicalimpotence, the Third Estate bro#e from the Estates1/eneral on une 23, 2367, and declared itself

the 8ational Assembly.



Tuileries

The palace in <aris in which *ing +ouis -" and his family were placed under house arrest after

they were forcibly ta#en from their court at -ersailles. The point of removing the royal family to

<aris was to allow the people to #eep a close watch on their actions.

)ersailles

The royal palace built by *ing +ouis "- a few miles outside of <aris. *nown for its e!traordinary

splendor, e!travagance, and immense si)e, -ersailles was the home of the #ing, (ueen, and all

members of the royal family, along with high government officials and select nobles. 9n 9ctober D,

2367, a mob of angry and hungry French women marched on -ersailles, bringing the royal family

bac# to <aris to deal with the food shortage.

4.Frane!s Finanial "risis: 1#$3%1#$$:

E.ent 2utline

23DIB236; France builds up enormous debt by participating in the $even %ears& 'ar and American

Revolution

8ovember , 236; +ouis -" appoints :harles de :alonne controller general of finance

February , 2363 Assembly of 8otables convenes, rejects :alonne&s debt1relief proposals

3ey !eole

+ouis -" 1 French #ing of the =ourbon dynasty who too# the throne in 233CL inherited massive

debt problems but was unable to fi! them

5arie1Antoinette 1 'ife of +ouis -", whose self1indulgent tendencies became a symbol of royale!cess and e!travagance

:harles de :alonne 1 :ontroller general of finances appointed by +ouis -" in 236;L

recommended across1the1board ta!ation as the only way to salvage France&s dire financial situation

The French 'onarchy and !arlements

The French royalty in the years prior to the French Revolution were a study in corruption and

e!cess. France had long subscribed to the idea of divine right, which maintained that #ings were

selected by /od and thus perpetually entitled to the throne. This doctrine resulted in a system

of absolute rule and provided the commoners with absolutely no input into the governance of their

country.

"n addition, there was no universal law in France at the time. Rather, laws varied by region and were

enforced by the local parlements Jprovincial judicial boardsK, guilds, or religious groups. 5oreover,

each of those sovereign courts had to approve any royal decrees by the #ing if these decrees were to

come into effect. As a result, the #ing was virtually powerless to do anything that would have a

negative effect on any regional government. "ronically, this ?chec#s and balances@ system operated

in a government rife with corruption and operating without the support of the majority.

!o4er Abuses and Unfair Taxation

The monarchs of the =ourbon dynasty, the French nobility, and the clergy became increasingly

egregious in their abuses of power in the late 2344s. They bound the French peasantry into

compromising feudal obligations and refused to contribute any ta! revenue to the French

government. This blatantly unfair ta!ation arrangement did little to endear the aristocracy to the



common people.

France5s Debt !roblems

A number of ill1advised financial maneuvers in the late 2344s worsened the financial situation of

the already cash1strapped French government. France&s prolonged involvement in the $even %ears&

'ar of 23DIB23I; drained the treasury, as did the country&s participation in the AmericanRevolution of 233DB236;. Aggravating the situation was the fact that the government had a si)able

army and navy to maintain, which was an e!penditure of particular importance during those volatile

times. 5oreover, in the typical indulgent fashion that so ir#ed the common fol#, mammoth costs

associated with the up#eep of *ing +ouis -"&s e!travagant palace at -ersailles and the frivolous

spending of the (ueen, 5arie1Antoinette, did little to relieve the growing debt. These decades of

fiscal irresponsibility were one of the primary factors that led to the French Revolution. France had

long been recogni)ed as a prosperous country, and were it not for its involvement in costly wars and

its aristocracy&s e!travagant spending, it might have remained one.

$harles de $alonne

Finally, in the early 2364s, France reali)ed that it had to address the problem, and fast. First, +ouis

-" appointed :harles de :alonne controller general of finances in 236;. Then, in 236I, the French

government, worried about unrest should it to try to raise ta!es on the peasants, yet reluctant to as#

the nobles for money, approached various European ban#s in search of a loan. =y that point,

however, most of Europe #new the depth of France&s financial woes, so the country found itself

with no credibility.

+ouis -" as#ed :alonne to evaluate the situation and propose a solution. :harged with auditing all

of the royal accounts and records, :alonne found a financial system in shambles. "ndependent

accountants had been put in charge of various tas#s regarding the ac(uisition and distribution of

government funds, which made the trac#ing of such transactions very difficult. Furthermore, the

arrangement had left the door wide open to corruption, enabling many of the accountants to dip intogovernment funds for their own use. As for raising new money, the only system in place

was ta!ation. At the time, however, ta!ation only applied to peasants. The nobility were ta!1e!empt,

and the parlements would never agree to across1the1board ta! increases.

The Assembly of Notables

:alonne finally convinced +ouis -" to gather the nobility together for a conference, during which

:alonne and the #ing could fully e!plain the tenuous situation facing France. This gathering,

dubbed the Assembly of 8otables, turned out to be a virtual who&s who of people who didn&t want

to pay any ta!es. After giving his presentation, :alonne urged the notables either to agree to the

new ta!es or to forfeit their e!emption to the current ones. 0nsurprisingly, the notables refused both plans and turned against :alonne, (uestioning the validity of his wor#. He was dismissed shortly

thereafter, leaving France&s economic prospects even grimmer than before.

Re.olution on the 6ori&on

=y the late 2364s, it was becoming increasingly clear that the system in place under the 9ld Regime

in France simply could not last. "t was too irresponsible and oppressed too many people.

Furthermore, as the result of the Enlightenment, secularism was spreading in France, religious

thought was becoming divided, and the religious justifications for ruledivine right and absolutism

were losing credibility. The aristocracy and royalty, however, ignored these progressive trends in

French thought and society. Rather, the royals and nobles adhered even more firmly to tradition andarchaic law. As it would turn out, their intractability would cost them everything that they were

trying to preserve.



The Bourgeoisie

Although many accounts of the French Revolution focus on the French peasantry&s grievances

rising food prices, disadvantageous feudal contracts, and general mistreatment at the hands of the

aristocracythese factors actually played a limited role in inciting the Revolution. For all of the

hardships that they endured, it wasn&t the peasants who jump1started the Revolution. Rather, it was

the wealthy commonersthe bourgeoisiewho objected most vocally to the subpar treatment they

were receiving. The bourgeoisie were generally hardwor#ing, educated men who were well versedin the enlightened thought of the time. Although many of the wealthier members of the bourgeoisie

had more money than some of the French nobles, they lac#ed elite titles and thus were subjected to

the same treatment and ta!ation as even the poorest peasants. "t was the bourgeoisie that would

really act as a catalyst for the Revolution, and once they started to act, the peasants were soon to

follow.

.T'e Estates()eneral:

E.ents

5ay D, 2367 +ouis -" summons Estates1/eneral for its first meeting since 2I2C

une 23 Third Estate brea#s away from Estates1/eneral, establishes itself as 8ational Assembly

3ey eole

ac(ues 8ec#er 1 >irector general of finance who returned to office after :alonne&s dismissal

Emmanuel1oseph $ieyGs 1 Author of influential ?'hat "s the Third Estate@ pamphlet, which

influenced the Third Estate to brea# off from the Estates1/eneral

Nec+er and the Estates-General

"n the wa#e of :alonne&s dismissal, +ouis -" brought bac# $wiss ban#er ac(ues 8ec#er, who

had previously served a ten1year stint as director general of finance. After assessing the situation,

8ec#er insisted that +ouis -" call together theEstates1/eneral, a French congress that originated

in the medieval period and consisted of three estates. The First Estate was the clergy, the $econd

Estatethe nobility, and the Third Estate effectively the rest of French society.

9n 5ay D, 2367, +ouis -" convened the Estates1/eneral. Almost immediately, it became apparent

that this archaic arrangementthe group had last been assembled in 2I2Cwould not sit well with

its present members. Although +ouis -" granted the Third Estate greater numerical representation,

the <arlement of <aris stepped in and invo#ed an old rule mandating that each estate receive one

vote, regardless of si)e. As a result, though the Third Estate was vastly larger than the clergy andnobility, each estate had the same representationone vote. "nevitably, the Third Estate&s vote was

overridden by the combined votes of the clergy and nobility.

Resentment Against the $hurch

The fact that the Estates1/eneral hadn&t been summoned in nearly 44 years probably says a thing

or two about its effectiveness. The First and $econd Estatesclergy and nobility, respectively

were too closely related in many matters. =oth were lin#ed intrinsically to the royalty and shared

many similar privileges. As a result, their votes often went the same way, automatically neutrali)ing

any effort by the Third Estate.

Additionally, in a country as seculari)ed as France at the time, giving the church a full third of the

vote was ill1advised although France&s citi)ens would ultimately have their revenge, at the time the



church&s voting power just fostered more animosity. There were numerous philosophers in France

spea#ing out against religion and the mindless following that it supposedly demanded, and many

resented being forced to follow the decisions of the church on a national scale.

Di.ides in the Third Estate

=eyond the chasm that e!isted between it and the other estates, the Third Estate itself varied greatlyin socioeconomic status some members were peasants and laborers, whereas others had the

occupations, wealth, and lifestyles of nobility. These disparities between members of the Third

Estate made it difficult for the wealthy members to relate to the peasants with whom they were

grouped. =ecause of these rifts, the Estates1/eneral, though organi)ed to reach a peaceful solution,

remained in a prolonged internal feud. "t was only through the efforts of men such as Emmanuel1

oseph $ieyGs Jsee belowK that the members of the Third Estate finally reali)ed that fighting among

themselves was fruitless and that if they too# advantage of the estate&s massive si)e, they would be

a force that could not be ignored.

78hat *s the Third Estate9:

To add insult to injury, delegates from the Third Estate were forced to wear traditional blac# robes

and to enter the Estates1/eneral meeting hall by a side door. 8ec#er tried to placate the Third Estate

into tolerating these slights until some progress could be made, but his diplomatic efforts

accomplished little. Fed up with their mistreatment, activists and pamphleteers of the Third Estate

too# to the streets in protest.

The most famous effort was a pamphlet written by liberal clergy memberEmmanuel1oseph

$ieyGs titled ?'hat "s the Third Estate@ "n response to his own (uestion, $ieyGs answered, ?The

8ation.@ The pamphlet articulated the pervasive feeling in France that though a small minority

might be in control, the country truly belonged to the masses. $ieyGs&s pamphlet compelled the

Third Estate to action, inciting the masses to ta#e matters into their own hands if the aristocracy

failed to give them due respect.

The Third Estate5s Re.olt

As the impasse in the Estates1/eneral continued, the Third Estate became more convinced of its

entitlement to liberty. $eeing that neither the #ing nor the other estates would ac(uiesce to its

re(uests, the Third Estate began to organi)e within itself and recruit actively from the other estates.

9n une 23, 2367, bolstered by communitywide support, the Third Estate officially bro#e away

from the Estates1/eneral and proclaimed itself the 8ational Assembly. "n so doing, it also granted

itself control over ta!ation. $hortly thereafter, many members of the other estates joined the cause.

Blaming the Aristocracy

Although the reconvening of the Estates1/eneral presented France&s aristocracy and clergy with a

perfect opportunity to appease the Third Estate and maintain control, they focused only on

maintaining the dominance of their respective estates rather than address the important issues that

plagued the country. 'hen the Estates1/eneral convened, the Third Estate wasn&t see#ing a

revolutionjust a bit of liberty and a more e(uitable ta! burden. The entire Revolution might have

been avoided had the first two estates simply ac(uiesced to some of the Third Estate&s moderate

proposals. "nstead, they fell bac# on tradition and their posh lifestyles and lit the revolutionary

flame.



.T'e *ational +ssem,ly: 1#$-%1#-1:

E.ents

une 4, 2367 8ational Assembly members ta#e Tennis :ourt 9ath, pledging to create new

constitution

uly 2C 5ob of <arisian citi)ens storms =astille prison and confiscates weapons

uly 4 Rural violence of /reat Fear brea#s outL peasants lash out at feudal landlords for several

wee#s

August C August >ecrees release peasants and farmers from feudal contracts

August I >eclaration of the Rights of 5an and of the :iti)en issued

9ctober D <arisian women march to -ersailles in response to food crisis

February 2374 /overnment confiscates church property

uly 2 :ivil :onstitution of the :lergy issued

3ey !eole

+ouis -" 1 French #ingL was forced to accept August >ecrees and >eclaration of the Rights of

5an and of the :iti)en when angry mob of women stormed -ersailles in 2367

ac(ues 8ec#er 1 >irector general of finance sac#ed by +ouis -" in 2367L public outrage

prompted his reinstatement

5ar(uis de +afayette 1 8obleman who sided with 8ational Assembly and created French 8ational

/uard

The Tennis $ourt 2ath

Three days after splitting from the Estates1/eneral, the delegates from the Third Estate Jnow

the 8ational AssemblyK found themselves loc#ed out of the usual meeting hall and convened on a

nearby tennis court instead. There, all but one of the members too# the Tennis :ourt 9ath, which

stated simply that the group would remain indissoluble until it had succeeded in creating a new

national constitution.

0pon hearing of the 8ational Assembly&s formation, *ing +ouis -" held a general gathering in

which the government attempted to intimidate the Third Estate into submission. The assembly,

however, had grown too strong, and the #ing was forced to recogni)e the group. <arisians had

received word of the upheaval, and revolutionary energy coursed through the city. "nspired by the

8ational Assembly, commoners rioted in protest of rising prices. Fearing violence, the #ing hadtroops surround his palace at -ersailles.

The Bastille

=laming him for the failure of the Estates1/eneral, +ouis -" once again dismissed >irector

/eneral of Finance ac(ues 8ec#er. 8ec#er was a very popular figure, and when word of the

dismissal reached the public, hostilities spi#ed yet again. "n light of the rising tension, a scramble

for arms bro#e out, and on uly 2;, 2367, revolutionaries raided the <aris town hall in pursuit of

arms. There they found few weapons but plenty of gunpowder. The ne!t day, upon reali)ing that it

contained a large armory, citi)ens on the side of the 8ational Assembly stormed the =astille, a

medieval fortress and prison in <aris.

Although the weapons were useful, the storming of the =astille was more symbolic than it was

necessary for the revolutionary cause. The revolutionaries faced little immediate threat and had such



intimidating numbers that they were capable of nonviolent coercion. =y storming one of <aris&s

most notorious state prisons and hoarding weapons, however, the revolutionaries gained a symbolic

victory over the 9ld Regime and conveyed the message that they were not to be trifled with.

%afayette and the National Guard

As the assembly secured control over the capital, it seemed as if peace might still prevail the previous governmental council was e!iled, and 8ec#er was reinstated. Assembly members assumed

top government positions in <aris, and even the #ing himself traveled to <aris in revolutionary garb

to voice his support. To bolster the defense of the assembly, the 5ar(uis de +afayette, a noble,

assembled a collection of citi)ens into the French 8ational /uard. Although some blood had

already been shed, the Revolution seemed to be subsiding and safely in the hands of the people.

The Great Fear

For all the developments that were ta#ing place in <aris, the majority of the conflicts erupted in the

struggling countryside. <easants and farmers ali#e, who had been suffering under high prices and

unfair feudal contracts, began to wrea# havoc in rural France. After hearing word of the ThirdEstate&s mistreatment by the Estates1/eneral, and feeding off of the infectious revolutionary spirit

that permeated France, the peasants amplified their attac#s in the countryside over the span of a few

wee#s, spar#ing a hysteria dubbed the /reat Fear. $tarting around uly 4, 2367, and continuing

through the first days of August, the /reat Fear spread through sporadic poc#ets of the French

countryside. <easants attac#ed country manors and estates, in some cases burning them down in an

attempt to escape their feudal obligations.

The August Decrees

Though few deaths among the nobility were reported, the 8ational Assembly, which was meeting

in -ersailles at the time, feared that the raging rural peasants would destroy all that the assemblyhad wor#ed hard to attain. "n an effort to (uell the destruction, the assembly issued the August

>ecrees, which nullified many of the feudal obligations that the peasants had to their landlords. For

the time being, the countryside calmed down.

The Declaration of the Rights of 'an and of the $iti&en

ust three wee#s later, on August I, 2367, the assembly issued the >eclaration of the Rights of

5an and of the :iti)en, a document that guaranteed due process in judicial matters and established

sovereignty among the French people. "nfluenced by the thoughts of the era&s greatest minds, the

themes found in the declaration made one thing resoundingly clear every person was a Frenchman

and e(ual. 8ot surprisingly, the French people embraced the declaration, while the #ing and

many nobles did not. "t effectively ended theancien rgime and ensured e(uality for the bourgeoisie.

Although subse(uent French constitutions that the Revolution produced would be overturned and

generally ignored, the themes of the >eclaration of Rights of 5an and of the :iti)en would remain

with the French citi)enry in perpetuity.

The Food $risis

>espite the assembly&s gains, little had been done to solve the growing food crisis in France.

$houldering the burden of feeding their families, it was the French women who too# up arms on

9ctober D, 2367. They first stormed the city hall in <aris, amassing a si)able army and gathering

arms. 8umbering several thousand, the mob marched to -ersailles, followed by the 8ational /uard,

which accompanied the women to protect them. 9verwhelmed by the mob, *ing +ouis -",

effectively forced to ta#e responsibility for the situation, immediately sanctioned the August

>ecrees and the >eclaration of the Rights of 5an and of the :iti)en. The ne!t day, having little



choice, the royal family accompanied the crowd bac# to <aris. To ensure that he was aware of the

woes of the city and its citi)ens, the #ing and his family were ?imprisoned@ in the Tuileries <alace

in the city

Though they focused on the #ing as figurehead, most of the revolutionaries were more against the

nobles than the #ing. Everyday people in France had limited interaction with royalty and instead

placed blame for the country&s problems on the shoulders of local nobility. A common phrase in

France at the time was, ?"f only the #ing #new,@ as though he were ignorant of the woes of the people. "t was partly owing to this perspective that the assembly attempted to establish a

constitutional monarchy alongside the #ing, rather than simply oust him and rule the nation itself.

The National Assembly and the $hurch

9ver the ne!t two years, the 8ational Assembly too# a number of progressive actions to address the

failing economy and tighten up the country. A number of them targeted the :atholic :hurch, which

was at the time one of the largest landholders in France. To jump1start the economy, the state in

February 2374 confiscated all the church&s land and then used it to bac# a new French currency

called the assignat. "n the beginning, at least, the assignat financed the Revolution and acted as an

indicator of the economy&s strength.

A short time later, in uly 2374, the French :atholic :hurch itself fell prey to the:ivil :onstitution

of the :lergy, a decree by the 8ational Assembly that established a national church system with

elected clergy. The country was divided into eighty1three departments, each of which was governed

by an elected official and represented by an elected bishop. The voting for these positions was open

to anyone who met certain relatively lenient criteria, such as property ownership.

The Assembly5s Tenuous $ontrol

>espite the 8ational Assembly&s progress, wea#nesses were already being e!posed within France,

and the /reat Fear and the women&s march on -ersailles demonstrated that perhaps the assemblydidn&t have as much control as it li#ed to thin#. The revolution that the assembly was overseeing in

<aris was run almost e!clusively by the bourgeoisie, who were far more educated and intelligent

than the citi)ens out in the country. Although the August >ecrees helped assuage the peasants&

anger, their dissatisfaction would become a recurring problem. The differing priorities that were

already apparent foreshadowed future rifts.

5ost notable among the assembly&s controversial priorities was its treatment of the churches.

Although France as a whole was largely secular, large poc#ets of devoutly religious citi)ens could

be found all over the country. =y dissolving the authority of churches, especially the :atholic

:hurcha move that greatly angered the popethe assembly seemed to signal to the religious

French that they had to ma#e a choice /od or the Revolution. Although this was li#ely not the case,

and certainly not the assembly&s intent, it nevertheless upset many people in France.

.Esalatin/ 0iolene: 1#-1%1#-2:

E.ents

une 4B2, 2372 +ouis -" and his family flee <aris but are caught near the Austrian border

August 3 Austria and <russia issue >eclaration of <illnit)

$eptember 2C +ouis -" approves 8ational Assembly&s new constitution, which establishes

constitutional monarchy

April 4, 237 France declares war on Austria



August 24 acobins and sans1culottes storm TuileriesL depose and arrest +ouis -"

$eptember $ansculottes initiate prison massacres in <aris

3ey !eole

+ouis -" 1 French #ingL fled <aris with family in une 2372 but was captured near border with

Austria

ac(ues1<ierre =rissot 1 5ember of +egislative Assembly and 8ational :onventionL driving force

behind moderate group called the /irondins

$ansculottes 1 /eneral term for underrepresented French laborers and commoners who, frustrated

that their efforts were largely unrewarded and concerns unrecogni)ed, resorted to mob violence

%ouis ()*5s Flight

Although *ing +ouis -" maintained a supportive front toward the Revolution, he remained in

contact with the rulers of Austria, <russia, and $weden, as#ing for their help in restoring his family

to power. "n late une 2372, +ouis -" and his family attempted to escape to the Austrian border,where they were supposed to meet the Austrian army and arrange an attac# on the revolutionaries.

However, the runaway party was caught just before reaching the border and brought bac#

to Tuileries in <aris.

This escape attempt considerably wea#ened the #ing&s position and lowered his regard in the eyes

of the French people. =eforehand, although he had little real power remaining, he at least still had

the faith of his country. The #ing&s attempt to run away, however, made it clear to s#eptics that he

was a reluctant associate at best and would turn his bac# on the constitution and its system of

limited monarchy at any moment. The more radical revolutionaries, who had never wanted a

constitutional monarchy, trusted the #ing even less after his attempted escape. The more moderate

revolutionaries, who once were staunch proponents of the constitutional monarchy, found

themselves hard1pressed to defend a situation in which a monarch was abandoning his

responsibilities. Therefore, although +ouis -" constitutionally retained some power after being

returned to <aris, it was clear that his days were numbered.

The Declaration of !illnit&

"n response to +ouis -"&s capture and forced return to <aris, <russia and Austria issued

the >eclaration of <illnit) on August 3, 2372, warning the French against harming the #ing and

demanding that the monarchy be restored. The declaration also implied that <russia and Austria

would intervene militarily in France if any harm came to the #ing.

<russia and Austria&s initial concern was simply for +ouis -"&s well1being, but soon the countries began to worry that the French people&s revolutionary sentiment would infect their own citi)ens.

The >eclaration of <illnit) was issued to force the French Revolutionaries to thin# twice about their

actions and, if nothing else, ma#e them aware that other countries were watching the Revolution

closely.



The $onstitution of /01/

"n $eptember 2372, the 8ational Assembly released its much1anticipated:onstitution of 2372,

which created a constitutional monarchy, or limited monarchy, for France. This move allowed

*ing +ouis -" to maintain control of the country, even though he and his ministers would have to

answer to new legislature, which the new constitution dubbed the +egislative Assembly. The

constitution also succeeded in eliminating the nobility as a legal order and struc# down monopolies

and guilds. "t established a poll ta! and barred servants from voting, ensuring that control of thecountry stayed firmly in the hands of the middle class.

The "acobins and Girondins

>ivisions (uic#ly formed within the new +egislative Assembly, which coalesced into two main

camps. 9n one side were the acobins, a group of radical liberalsconsisting mainly of deputies,

leading thin#ers, and generally progressive society memberswho wanted to drive the Revolution

forward aggressively. The acobins found +ouis&s actions contemptible and wanted to forgo the

constitutional monarchy and declare France a republic.

>isagreeing with the acobins& opinions were many of the more moderate members of the+egislative Assembly, who deemed a constitutional monarchy essential. The most notable of these

moderates was ac(ues1<ierre =rissot. His followers were thus labeled =rissotins, although they

became more commonly #nown as /irondins.

5any historians have attributed the rivalry of the acobins and /irondins to class differences,

labeling the acobins the poorer, less prestigious of the two groups. However, a number of other

factors were involved, as the two groups came from vastly different geographic and ideological

bac#grounds. The acobins were modern urban idealists they wanted change and independence

from any semblance of the ancien rgime. >eemed radicals, they were students of the enlightened,

progressive thought of the time. =ut the acobins, though wanting independence and e(uality, were

more conservative and loyal and harbored less contempt for the monarchy. These fundamental

differences would cause a schism that future revolutionary governments in France could not

overcome.

The ,ansculottes

5eanwhile, in cities throughout France, a group called the sans1culottes began to wield significant

and unpredictable influence. The group&s nameliterally, ?without culottes,@ the #nee breeches that

the privileged woreindicated their disdain for the upper classes. The sans1culottes consisted

mainly of urban laborers, peasants, and other French poor who disdained the nobility and wanted to

see an end to privilege. 9ver the summer of 237, the sans1culottes became increasingly violent and

difficult to control.

8ar Against Austria and !russia

Although the /irondin leader, =rissot, wanted +ouis -" to remain in power, he felt threatened by

the >eclaration of <illnit) and rallied the +egislative Assembly todeclare war against Austria on

April 4, 237. Austria and <russia had anticipated this #ind of reaction and already had their troops

massed along the French border. The French army, unprepared as it was for the battle, was trounced

and fled, leaving the country vulnerable to counterattac#. "n the wa#e of the embarrassing French

defeat, +ouis -" saw to it that =rissot was removed from command. "n response, a mob of

/irondins marched on Tuileries on une 4 and demanded that =rissot be reinstated. The demand

was ignored.



The ,torming of Tuileries

ust wee#s later, on August 24, anti1monarchy acobins rallied together a loyal crew of sans1culottes

that stormed Tuileries outright, trashing the palace and capturing +ouis -" and his family as they

tried to escape. The mob then arrested the #ing for treason. A month after that, beginning on

$eptember , 237, the hysterical sans1culottes, having heard rumors of counterrevolutionary tal#,

raided <aris&s prisons and murdered more than 2,444 prisoners.

The Danger of the ,ansculottes

"f there was any indication throughout the Revolution that no governing body truly had control, it

could be found with the sans1culottes. 5embers of this group were easily swayed and often fell into

bouts of mob hysteria, which made them e!traordinarily difficult to manage. The bourgeoisie

groups ?in charge@ of the Revolution originally hoped to harness the power of the masses for their

own bidding, but it soon became apparent that the sans1culottes were uncontrollable.

The /irondins, who had originally rallied the sans1culottes to their cause, (uic#ly found that the

rabble was more radical than they had e!pected. The massacres that began on $eptember revealed

the true power of the sans1culottes and showed the chaos they were capable of creating. The group,after all, consisted of poor wor#ers and peasants who wanted privilege outright eliminated. >espite

all their contributions to the revolutionary cause, they still found themselves with little input into the

government, which was dominated by bourgeoisie far richer than they. Having gained their freedom

from monarchial oppression, the sans1culottes switched their cry from ?+ibertyM@ to ?E(ualityM@

Failures of the %egislati.e Assembly

Arguably, the +egislative Assembly&s complacency in 237 opened the door to the violence that

followed. The assembly did have some cause to rest on its laurels the Revolution had accomplished

everything that had been desired, and the new government had a binder full of legislation to bac# it

up. =ut the confidence bred by this success was misleading the assembly had not organi)ed anarmy that was capable of ta#ing on the combined forces of Austria and <russia, nor had it

sufficiently calmed its own internal feuds. The new government was still far too unsteady even to

consider going to waryet it did, and was soundly defeated. Even more peculiar was the fact that

=rissot and his /irondin associates were radical enough to want to go to war, yet conservative

enough to do so only under the rule of a constitutional monarchthe same monarch over whom the

war was being fought. "t was a baffling decision and left little (uestion as to why the acobins and

other more radical elements wanted to ta#e control.

#.T'e ei/n of Terror an t'e T'ermiorian eation: 1#-2%1#-:

E.ents

$eptember , 237 France is declared a republic

anuary 2, 237; +ouis -" is e!ecuted

April I 8ational :onvention creates :ommittee of <ublic $afety

une C :onstitution of 237; is established

$eptember D Reign of Terror beginsL lasts more than ten months

$eptember 7 Robespierre&s 5a!imum implements ceiling on prices

9ctober 2I 5arie1Antoinette is e!ecuted

uly 3, 237C Robespierre is overthrown



>ecember C 5a!imum is repealedL prices s#yroc#et

3ey !eole

+ouis -" 1 French #ingL e!ecuted by new republican government in anuary 237;

5a!imilien Robespierre 1 acobin leader who sei)ed control of 8ational :onvention and

:ommittee of <ublic $afetyL later instituted Reign of Terror, targeting those whose philosophiesdiffered from his own

+a)are :arnot 1 5ilitary strategist who helped reorgani)e the French war effort and successfully

defended the country against foreign invaders

/eorges >anton 1 +ongtime acobin and close associate of Robespierre who was e!ecuted after he

began (uestioning the e!tremes to which Robespierre was going in the Reign of Terror

The National $on.ention and the French Reublic

"n the autumn of 237, the revolutionary government, having written off the idea of a constitutional

monarchy, set about electing a 8ational :onvention of delegates to oversee the country. "n late$eptember, therefore, the first election too# place under the rules of the :onstitution of 2372. As it

turned out, only a third of the newly elected convention members had sat on a previous assembly,

and a great number of new faces belonged to either the acobins or the /irondins. The first action of

the convention, on $eptember 2, 237, was to abolish the monarchy. The ne!t day, the Republic of

France was founded.

The Execution of %ouis ()*

As a sign of the republic&s newfound resolve and contempt for the monarchy, the ne!t proposal

before the 8ational :onvention was the e!ecution of +ouis -". 9nce again, the moderates

objected and eventually forced a trial, but the effort was in vain. +ouis -" was ultimately foundguilty of treason and, on anuary 2, 237;, e!ecuted at the guillotine. 5onths later, on 9ctober 2I,

237;, his wife, 5arie1Antoinette, met the same fate.

$ymbolically spea#ing, the declaration of sovereignty and the beheading of the monarch were

powerful motivators within France. 0nfortunately, the moment of bliss was brief, as the

governmental powers (uic#ly reali)ed that all of their achievements were being threatened by

internal and e!ternal fighting.

The $ommittee of !ublic ,afety

"n the wee#s after the e!ecution of the #ing, the internal and e!ternal wars in France continued to

grow. <russian and Austrian forces pushed into the French countryside, and one noted Frenchgeneral even defected to the opposition. 0nable to assemble an army out of the disgruntled and

protesting peasants, the /irondin1led 8ational :onvention started to panic. "n an effort to restore

peace and order, the convention created the :ommittee of <ublic $afety on April I, 237;, to

maintain order within France and protect the country from e!ternal threats.

The "acobins5 $ou

The :ommittee of <ublic $afety followed a moderate course after its creation but proved wea# and

ineffective. After a few fruitless months under the committee, the sans1culottes finally reached their

boiling point. They stormed the 8ational :onvention and accused the /irondins of representing the

aristocracy. $eeing an opportunity, 5a!imilien Robespierre, the leader of the acobins, harnessedthe fury of the sans1culottes to ta#e control of the convention, banish the /irondins, and install the

acobins in power.



9nce again, the sans1culottes proved to be a formidable force in effecting change during the

Revolution. Already upset about the composition of the 8ational :onventionwhich remained

dominated by middle1 and upper1class bourgeoisie and was influenced by big thin#ers of the time

they became even more angry upon learning that many of the /irondin leaders e!pected them to

bolster the failing war effort. $ieyGs had originally rallied the Third Estate by reminding them that

they numbered many and that their numbers gave them strength. This message clearly stuc# with

the sans1culottes throughout the Revolution, and they too# advantage of their strength at every possible opportunity.

The $onstitution of /01;

%et another new constitution, the :onstitution of 237;, premiered in une. However, it was (uic#ly

overshadowed by the resurgence of the :ommittee of <ublic $afety in uly, when some of the more

radical acobin leaders, including Robespierre, installed themselves in charge of the committee and

immediately began to ma#e drastic changes. Among the changes was the suspension of many

clauses of the new constitution. 9ne of the most sweeping new acobin policies was the 5a!imum,

a decree that fi!ed prices in an attempt to stop the rampant inflation that was ruining the economy.

Although Robespierre soon resorted to e!treme measures, his tenure as chairman of the :ommitteeof <ublic $afety actually began on a productive note. His inspiring, nationalistic propaganda

campaign spo#e to the disgruntled citi)ens on their own level. Though he was a lawyer, Robespierre

had a middle1class upbringing and could relate to the sans1culottes. His approach to the economy

also proved effective in the short run by using the 5a!imum to free)e prices, he provided an

opportunity for French citi)ens to get their economic bearings.

$arnot and the 'ilitary

"n August, military strategist +a)are :arnot was appointed head of the French war effort and

immediately set about instituting conscription throughout France. <ropaganda and discipline helped

tighten and reenergi)e the nation, particularly in rural areas. :arnot&s effort succeeded, and thenewly refreshed army managed to push bac# the invading Austrian and <russian forces and

reestablish France&s traditional boundaries.

The Reign of Terror

"n the autumn of 237;, Robespierre and the acobins focused on addressing economic and political

threats within France. 'hat began as a proactive approach to reclaiming the nation (uic#ly turned

bloody as the government instituted its infamous campaign against internal opposition #nown as

the Reign of Terror.

=eginning in $eptember, Robespierre, under the auspices of the :ommittee of <ublic $afety, began pointing an accusing finger at anyone whose beliefs seemed to be counterrevolutionaryciti)ens

who had committed no crime but merely had social or political agendas that varied too much from

Robespierre&s. The committee targeted even those who shared many acobin views but were

perceived as just slightly too radical or conservative. A rash of e!ecutions ensued in <aris and soon

spread to smaller towns and rural areas.

>uring the nine1month period that followed, anywhere from 2D,444 to D4,444 French citi)ens were

beheaded at the guillotine. Even longtime associates of Robespierre such as /eorges >anton, who

had helped orchestrate the acobin rise to power, fell victim to the paranoia. 'hen >anton wavered

in his conviction, (uestioned Robespierre&s increasingly rash actions, and tried to arrange a truce

between France and the warring countries, he himself lost his life to the guillotine, in April 237C.



!ublic Bac+lash

Robespierre&s bloody attempt to protect the sanctity of the Revolution had e!actly the opposite

result. Rather than galvani)e his supporters and the revolutionary nation, the Reign of Terror instead

prompted a wea#ening on every front. "ndeed, the Terror accomplished almost nothing productive,

as Robespierre (uic#ly burned his bridges and #illed many former allies. As the mortuaries started

to fill up, the commoners shifted their focus from e(uality to peace.

=y the time the French army had almost completely staved off foreign invaders, Robespierre no

longer had a justification for his e!treme actions in the name of public ?safety.@ The final straw was

his proposal of a ?Republic of -irtue,@ which would entail a move away from the morals of

:hristianity and into a new set of values. 9n uly 3, 237C, a group of acobin allies arrested

Robespierre. Receiving the same treatment that he had mandated for his enemies, he lost his head at

the guillotine the following day. 0ndoubtedly, a collective sigh of relief echoed throughout the

country.

The Thermidorian Reaction

'ith Robespierre out of the picture, a number of the bourgeoisie who had been repressed under theReign of Terrormany of them /irondinsburst bac# onto the scene at the 8ational

:onvention in the late summer of 237C. These moderates freed many of the acobins& prisoners,

neutrali)ed the power of the :ommittee for <ublic $afety, and had many of Robespierre&s cohorts

e!ecuted in a movement that became #nown as the Thermidorian Reaction.

However, the moderate and conservative initiatives that the convention subse(uently implemented

were aimed at the bourgeoisie and undid real accomplishments that Robespierre and his regime had

achieved for the poor. To address economic concerns, for instance, the 8ational :onvention did

away with price controls and printed more money, which allowed prices to s#yroc#et.

Thisinflation hit the poor hard, and the peasants attempted yet another revolt. However, lac#ing a

strong leader li#e Robespierre, the peasant uprising was (uic#ly (uashed by the government.

$.T'e iretory:

E.ents

August , 237D :onstitution of 237D is ratified

9ctober 8ational :onvention is dissolved in favor of five1man e!ecutive >irectory and two large

legislative bodies

5ay 237I :oup plot by /racchus =abeuf and associates is e!posed

$eptember C, 2373 :oup annuls results of legislative elections, removes two directors from power

9ctober 7, 2377 8apoleon returns to France

8ovember 7 8apoleon overthrows the >irectory

3ey !eole

Emmanuel1oseph $ieyGs 1 Theorist and clergy member who maneuvered his way onto the

>irectory in 5ay 2377 while plotting with 8apoleon, enabling 8apoleon to ta#e control upon

returning to <aris

8apoleon =onaparte 1 %oung military genius who had great successes in military campaigns in"taly before returning to France in 9ctober 2377 and becoming military dictator for fifteen years



The Ne4 National $on.ention

The 8ational :onvention in the era after Robespierre&s downfall was significantly more

conservative than it had been before and deeply entrenched in the values of the moderate middle

class. The change was so drastic that once1powerful groups li#e the sans1culottes and acobins were

forced underground, and sans1culottes even became a derisive term in France. 5eanwhile, the

French economy struggled during the winter of 237CB237D, and hunger became widespread.

Although the members of the convention wor#ed diligently to try to establish a new constitution,

they faced opposition at every turn. =ecause many sanctions against the churches had been revo#ed,

the clergymany of whom were still loyal to the royaltystarted to return from e!ile. +i#ewise,

the :omte de <rovence, the younger brother of +ouis -", declared himself ne!t in line for the

throne and, ta#ing the name +ouis -""", declared to France that royalty would return. JHopeful

French nobles in e!ile briefly referred to +ouis -"&s young son as ?+ouis -"",@ but the boy died

in prison in une 237D.K

The $onstitution of /01< and the Directory

9n August , 237D, the convention was finally able to ratify a new constitution, the :onstitution of 237D, which ushered in a period of governmental restructuring. The new legislature would consist

of two houses an upper house, called the :ouncil of Ancients, consisting of D4 members, and a

lower house, called the :ouncil of Five Hundred, consisting of D44 members. Fearing influence

from the left, the convention decreed that two1thirds of the members of the first new legislature had

to have already served on the 8ational :onvention between 237 and 237D.

The new constitution also stipulated that the e!ecutive body of the new government would be a

group of five officers called the >irectory. Although the >irectory would have no legislative power,

it would have the authority to appoint people to fill the other positions within the government,

which was a source of considerable power in itself. Annual elections would be held to #eep the new

government in chec#.

The dilemma facing the new >irectory was a daunting one essentially, it had to rid the scene of

acobin influence while at the same time prevent royalists from ta#ing advantage of the disarray and

reclaiming the throne. The two1thirds rule was implemented for this reason, as an attempt to #eep

the same composition li#e that of the original, moderate1run 8ational :onvention. "n theory, the

new government closely resembled that of the 0nited $tates, with its chec#s1and1balances system.

As it turned out, however, the new government&s priorities became its downfall rather than address

the deteriorating economic situation in the country, the legislature instead focused on #eeping

progressive members out. 0ltimately, paranoia and attempts at overprotection wea#ened the group.

Naoleon and the French Army

5eanwhile, fortified by the :ommittee of <ublic $afety&s conscription drive of 237;, the

French army had grown significantly. 'hile the foundation of the >irectory was being laid, the

army, having successfully defended France against invasion from <russia and Austria, #ept right on

going, bla)ing its way into foreign countries and anne!ing land. >uring the period from 237D to

2377 in particular, the French army was nearly unstoppable. 8apoleon =onaparte, a young :orsican

in charge of French forces in "taly and then Egypt, won considerable fame for himself with a series

of brilliant victories and also amassed massive reservoirs of wealth and support as he tore through

Europe.

The >irectory encouraged this French war effort across Europe, though less as a democratic crusade

against tyranny than as a means of resolving the unemployment crisis in France. A large, victorious

French army lowered unemployment within France and guaranteed soldiers a steady paychec# to

buy the goods they needed to survive. The >irectory hoped that this increase in income would

encourage an increase in demand, reinvigorating the French economy.



Abuses by the Directory

0nfortunately, it was not long before the >irectory began to abuse its power. The results of

the elections of 237D were worrisome to the >irectory because a number of moderate royalists won.

Although these royalists didn&t e!actly (ualify as counterrevolutionaries, their loyalty to the

>irectory was nevertheless suspect.

Then, in 5ay 237I, a group of acobins, led by prominent publisher /racchus =abeuf, met secretlyto plan a coup in the hopes of reinstating the government of the :onstitution of 237;. Already

troubled by the 237D election results, the >irectory s(uashed the coup plot, had the conspirators

arrested, and had =abeuf guillotined.

The Elections and $ou of /010

As the elections of 2373 drew near, the >irectory noticed that significant royalist and neo1acobin

influences were lea#ing into the republic, which could have terrible implications for the direction of

the legislature. 9n the other hand, the >irectory had to obey the :onstitution of 237D and its

mandate for annual elections. "t therefore allowed the elections to proceed as scheduled.

However, on $eptember C, 2373, after the elections did indeed produce decidedly pro1royal and pro1acobin results, three members of the >irectory orchestrated an overthrow of the

legislature, annulling the election results and removing a majority of the new deputies from their

seats. The coup plotters also unseated two members of the >irectory itselfformer military

strategist +a)are :arnotbeing one of themand installed two new directors, further ensuring that

the government would remain staunch in its moderate stance.

!oular Discontent

This new >irectory was powerfully conservative, initiating strong new financial policies and

crac#ing down on radicalism through e!ecutions and other means. However, the coup and the

>irectory&s subse(uent abuses of power destroyed all of the government&s credibility and furtherdisillusioned the French populace. "n the elections of 2376, the left made gains, feeding on public

anger about the coup and the reinstatement of the military draft.

The >irectory, justifiably fearing the opposition&s gains, once again nullified almost one1third of the

election results, ensuring that its own policies would remain strongly in place. <ublic dissatisfaction

was an obvious result, and the ne!t elections would have the lowest turnout of any during the

Revolution. 5eanwhile, inflation was continuing unchec#ed, leading the public to wonder whether

a royal return to power wouldn&t be more beneficial. Trust and faith in the government neared an

all1time low.

French 'ilitary Defeats

As the government&s credibility too# a turn for the worse, so too did French military fortunes. "n

2377, 8apoleon&s seemingly unstoppable forward progress ran into a roadbloc# in Egypt, and

France&s army in general faced simultaneous threats from =ritain, Austria, Russia, and the 9ttoman

Empire. Hearing of the bedlam ta#ing place in mainland Europe, as well as within in his own

country, 8apoleon deserted his men and headed bac# to France.

,ieys and the $ou of /011

The failing war efforts amplified the French people&s distrust of the >irectory, and large majorities

of the French public began calling for peace at home and abroad. "n 5ay 2377, the upper house of

the legislature, the :ouncil of Five Hundred, elected Emmanuel1oseph $ieyGsof ?'hat "s the

Third Estate@ fameto the >irectory. This election was the result of e!tensive maneuvering on

$ieyGs&s part.



$ieyGs, however, did not want to #eep his newfound power for himself but instead intended to use it

to protect the French government from future instability and disturbances. Therefore, he enlisted the

aid of 8apoleon, with whom he began to plan a military coup to topple the very same >irectory on

which $ieyGs himself served. This coup materiali)ed on 8ovember 7, 2377, when 8apoleon, who

had returned to France, overthrew the >irectory. The ne!t day, 8apoleon dissolved the legislature

and instituted himself as first consul, the leader of a military dictatorship. =y imposing this state of

military rule that would grip France for fifteen years, 8apoleon effectively ended the FrenchRevolution.

Reasons for the $ou

Although it was the >irectory that had encouraged the French army&s actions, ultimately, the army&s

unprecedented success in its outward e!pansion actually ended up wor#ing against the >irectory

rather than for it. =eing away from home for so long, the respective companies of soldiers

particularly those under the control of 8apoleonformed their own identities and group

philosophies. =y splitting the spoils of each successful campaign with his own troops, 8apoleon

earned the steadfast devotion of what amounted to a private army. This loyalty would prove

essential to the success of his eventual coup and the years of military rule and e!pansionism thatwould follow.

$ieyGs&s political maneuvering may seem ine!plicable at first, as he essentially finagled his way

into power in the >irectory just so he could use that power to remove himself from it. Though that

e!planation is an oversimplification, it illuminates $ieyGs&s priorities and demonstrates the depth of

the revolutionary spirit that prompted him to ma#e such a sacrifice. To $ieyGs, it was clear that, at

the time, a military rule under the watch of someone such as 8apoleon would be far more beneficial

to France than the argumentative, corrupt, and generally ineffective system that was in place.

"ndeed, though 8apoleon would lead as a dictator of sorts, he would do so with much more respect

for the spirit of liberty and e(uality than the originators of the French Revolution had pursued.

Stuy uestions

2.

A recurring theme

throughout the French

Revolution was the idea that

there is power in numbers,

and the sans1culottes represented without doubt the best e!ample of the power of the masses.

Although the 8ational Assembly was the governing body during the early stages of the Revolution,

it had little control over the symbolic events that incited revolutionary fervor, such as the storming

of the =astille, the /reat Fear, and the women&s march on -ersailles. "n fact, it was only in response

to these spontaneous, unplanned events that concrete policy changes such as the August >ecrees

were passed.

+ater in the Revolution, the sans1culottes continued to prove influential, as they were involved in

the storming of Tuileries, which led to *ing +ouis -"&s deposition, and stormed the 8ational

:onvention, which gave Robespierre and the acobins the opportunity to ta#e control. Although the

Reign of Terror and subse(uent Thermidorian Reaction suppressed sansculotte activity later in the

Revolution, the decline was also due in part to diminished revolutionary spirit and apathy on the

part of the government of the >irectory. 8evertheless, in the crucial early and middle stages of the

Revolution, the sans1culottes proved to be remar#ably effective at forcing changechange that

otherwise might not have occurred.

.

Although many accounts of the French Revolution focus on the actions of the

Girondins and Jacobins, nearly every major step of the Revolution was incited by

the sans-culottes. upport or refute this statement.



Although the financial crisis of the ancien rgime was the immediate spar# that set off the French

Revolution, which broader factors within France contributed to the Revolution

"n adhering to an outdated and essentially baseless feudal system, the aristocracy and monarchy of

France provided the true impetus for the French Revolution. "n the years leading up to the

Revolution, France was riddled with unsustainable economic and cultural disparities it showed a

decadent facade to the world while actually facing catastrophic debt, and boasted some of the

greatest minds of the Enlightenment, though its populace was overwhelmingly illiterate and poor.

<erhaps most destabili)ing factor was the growing class disparity between the emerging wealthy

bourgeoisie and the old nobility. >espite the fact that the nobility were titled and the bourgeoisie

were not, many of the bourgeoisie were far wealthier than the ?blue1blooded@ but financially

strapped aristocrats. As the nobility continued to try to claim special privileges over their

hardwor#ing bourgeoisie counterparts, it was inevitable that the bourgeoisie would grow angry and

resentful.

At the same time, discontent grew among the lower classes as landlords in the countryside

continued to bind peasants to outdated, oppressive feudal contracts that were often difficult to

fulfill. $imply put, with Enlightenment ideas spreading through France in the late 2344s, it became

increasingly obvious that the French nobility wielded a disproportionate amount of power and

privilege for no apparent reason. The revolutionaries, with their cries of ?+ibertyM@ and ?E(ualityM@,

sought to change that.

;.

=y definition, a

constitutional monarchy

needs two things a

constitution and a monarch.

=y late 2372, France had a

constitution, as the 8ational Assembly had presented the new :onstitution of 2372 in $eptember.

The credibility of the monarch, however, was suspect. 0p until his attempted escape from France

with his family in une 2372, *ing +ouis -" had enjoyed vehement bac#ing from moderates

within the 8ational Assembly. ac(ues1<ierre =rissot and his followers, the /irondins, had sought a

constitutional monarchy since the very beginning of the Revolutionmuch to the chagrin of the

radical democratic acobinsand had constructed the 2372 constitution around the principle of

limited monarchy.

However, the fact that the #ing tried to run away from the very constitutional monarchy to which he

had agreed made it clear that he had given up on the new government. This development made it

difficult, if not impossible, for =rissot and the /irondins to defend their proBconstitutional

monarchy stance. The acobins, who had detested the idea of a #ing from the beginning, were able

to ta#e advantage of the /irondins& wea#ened position and ta#e control of the government. 'ith+ouis -" having destroyed the credibility of the proposed constitutional monarchy, there was little

to prevent the radicals from declaring France a republic, as the /irondins could no longer justify

any other feasible form of government.

Assess the validity of this statement! by attempting to escape from France in June

"#$", %ouis &'( effectively destroyed the prospect of a moderate Revolution

resulting in the installation of a limited or constitutional monarchy.

French Revolution(1789 1799)

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