French Foreign Policy in the Belle EpoqueDr Chris MillingtonSwansea Universityc.d.millington@swansea.ac.uk@DrChris82frenchhistoryonline.com

Structure of the lecture

•International diplomacy during the Belle Epoque

•French PolicyA) 1871-1889B) 1890-1904C) 1905-1914

Belle Epoque diplomacy: Alliance systems

•Countries looked for alliances for security, trade, mutual advantage

•Negotiations and agreements took place in secret

•The Triple Alliance (Rome, Berlin, Vienna) was agreed in 1882, but the details were published only in 1920.

The Triple Alliance, founded 1882, and the Triple Entente, founded 1907

Belle Epoque diplomacy:Espionage

•Enemies (and allies) spied on each other

•Germany had spies in London•French had the cabinet noir code breakers

Belle Epoque diplomacy:The balance of power‘The only check on the abuse of political predominance has always consisted in the opposition of an equally formidable rival, or of a combination of several countries forming leagues of defence. The equilibrium established by such grouping of forces is technically known as the balance of power.’

• Sir Eyre Crowe of the British Foreign Office

Bismarck and realpolitik

•Chancellor of Germany, 1871-1890•Based on practical considerations,rather than moral obligation•Influenced European diplomacy

Otto von Bismarck

1871: Prussia defeats France

Napoleon III surrenders to Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia at Sedan

German growth – French decline

•Germany outstrips French coal, steel and iron production (all the things necessary to make war)

•German population dwarfs France- 1910: 65million Germans v 39 million

French

German growth – French decline

•French industrial output behind major world powers

US: 36% of global industrial output (1913)

Germany: 16%GB: 14%France 6.4%

French isolation, 1871-1890•Bismarck sought to isolate France•He believes France will fight to regain

Alsace and Lorraine (annexed in 1871 from France to the German Reich)

•Dreikaiserbund signed 1873 –by Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary

A map of France showing the ‘lost provinces’

France and Britain – old enemies•Centuries of hostility•Conflict over Egypt since 1882

A British cartoon showing John Bull (England) holding aloft the head of Napoleon Bonaparte

Did the French want revenge?

A French army recruitment poster, showing Alsace as a woman. She is begging the French, ‘Don’t forget us!’

• Léon Gambetta on revenge – ‘think of it always, speak of it never’

Prestige and Power: The Empire•A means to restore French greatness

•Germany encouraged French imperial expansion – see the 1878 Berlin Congress – but this come from realpolitik again

•French nationalists – such as Paul Déroulède – criticise the Empire for distracting attention from Germany

• By 1914, the Empire rules 48 million people and covers 10 million km2

• But accounts for only 9.4% of imports – 53% come from Europe

French isolation deepens•Triple Alliance agreed between Italy,

Germany and Austria-Hungary in May 1882

•France and Italy had been close, but colonial tensions over Tunisia had soured the relationship

•Alliance strengthened in Feb. 1887

•Germany and Russia agree a treaty inJune 1887

A German-language poster celebrating the Triple Alliance:‘Unity is strength’

The Latin reads: ‘United Forces’. Viribus Unitis was also the name of the first Austro-Hungarian dreadnought, launched in 1911.

1890-1904: The end of isolation•‘France would have to seek, through a

system of alliances, guarantees for her own security which her own strength could no longer ensure’.[John Keiger].

•The Franco-Russian Alliance: An unlikely alliance, given the difference

between the two countries’ political systems, and their political philosophies

The Franco-Russian Alliance•St Petersburg turns to Paris in late 1880s – for money

•Russia borrows 3.5 billion Francs during 1888-90

•1890: Germany does no renew Russian treaty

•Financial links provide a basis for diplomatic and military discussions

•France gains an ally against Germany; Russia gains more freedom in the Balkans

This picture shows French President Loubet and the Russian Tsar sealing the alliance. Peace looks on.

A plate commemorating the visit of the French navy to Cronstadt in 1891, and the visit of the Russian Navy to Toulon in 1893.

Such souvenirs demonstrate the popularity of the alliance with the public.

Germany•Relations with Germany helped by

removal of Bismarck in 1890…. But French Foreign Minister Delcassé (1898-1905) wants to isolate the Reich

Statue of Strasbourg, Paris

Britain

•Tense relations•In 1898, French and British forces

involved in a stand off at Fashoda in Africa

•French forced into a humiliating withdrawal but they learnt important lessons – a compromise with Britain would have to be sought

Fashoda, 1898

A French cartoon produced at the time of Fashoda. France is depicted as Little Red Riding Hood, while Britannia, the wolf, is ready to devour her

1904: the Entente Cordiale

•Delcassé needs Britain in order to isolate Germany

•Britain is bruised after the Boer War and concerned about Germany too

•The British Edward VII and the French President Loubet make state visits in 1903

•The accord is signed on 8 April 1904 – really, it is a settlement of past disputes, not a military alliance

Cultural exchange – poster for an exhibition staged in 1908

The basis of wartime co-operation

1905-1914: The Road to War•Germany is keen to test the Entente

cordiale and so provokes two incidents in Morocco

•Tangier, 1905•Agadir 1911

Germany looks suspiciously at Britain and France

Tangier, 1905

•1905: the Kaiser visits Tangier• ‘a tremendous kick in the behind from the

Emperor William’•France forced to negotiate at the

Algeciras conference in January 1906•But actually strengthens ties with Britain

and Russia

Agadir, 1911

•French occupy Fes in May 1911•Germany responds by sending a gunboat

to Agadir•4 November 1911 agreement sees France

given authority over Morocco, but concedes territory to German Cameroon

•Again, strengthens ties between Britain and France

A British cartoon showing that German attempts to attack the entente cordiale have failed:

‘It’s rock! I thought it was going to be paper.’

Russia•Do France and Russia really need each

other?•Russia needs French money, especially

after defeat to Japan in 1904•Britain signs an entente with Russia in

1907, creating the Triple Entente •Relations with France improve by 1912

and Prime Minister Poincaré visits Russia•France is keen to maintain the balance of

power – and need Russia to do so

A Russian poster illustrating the Triple Entente

Conclusions

•During the July 1914 crisis the French government was literally ‘at sea’

Conclusions•French security policy had not

discouraged Germany and probably increased German feelings of insecurity

•But Germany was provocative, and its encirclement by enemy powers was not as solid as it thought

•The alliance system affected how countries perceived their enemies, and how they developed their own policies in expectation of what their enemies would do

‘The Chain of Friendship’, US Cartoon, 1914