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Volume 20Issue 1 - 2003

For an aquarium like this, a nitrate level up to 20 ppm NO3-N is acceptable.

Marine AquariumHobbyist DayHighlights ResponsibleAquarium Keeping By Sylvia Spalding, Marine Aquarium Council

More than 500 marine aquarium enthusiastsopted to attend the first Marine AquariumHobbyist Day at the Aquarium of the Pacificdespite a conflict with Super Bowl Sundaycelebrations. The Jan. 26th event at Long Beach,Calif., focused on responsible aquarium keeping. Itattracted hobbyists and retailers from as far awayas Arizona—-an eight-hour drive.

Julian Sprung delivered the keynote address,“A Responsible Marine Aquarium Hobby: FromSea to Your Home,” to a standing room onlycrowd. Sprung is the co-author of the popularbook The Reef Aquarium, Volumes I and II.

“When properly handled, delicate marinecreatures have better survival chances in captivity,and the proper handling of living creatures is bothethical and consistent with aquarists’ concern fortheir welfare,” Sprung noted. Sprung’s presencewas made possible through a sponsorship byMarineland, manufacturer of aquarium filtrationsystems and accessories.

The event was co-hosted by the Aquariumand the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC), aninternational not-for-profit organization dedicatedto protecting coral reefs by setting standards andcertification for the global trade in marineaquarium organisms. MAC Certified exporters,importers and retailers are authorized to carrymarine aquarium organisms labeled as MACCertified, a sign to buyers that they have beenharvested in a responsible, environmentallyfriendly manner and handled properly to ensuretheir good health.

Marine aquarium enthusiasts were treated tofree admission to the Aquarium, a series ofpresentations on responsible aquarium keepingand a dozen informational exhibits. The talksranged from “What to Look for in a Good LocalFish Store,” by Rick Preuss, owner of MACCertified Preuss Animal House, Haslett, Mich., to“Saving Reefs with the Marine Aquarium Trade,”by Gregor Hodgson, Ph.D., founder of ReefCheck, an international network that tracks theglobal status of reefs.

“Marine aquarium hobbyists and publicaquariums are both concerned about thesustainability of marine ornamentals and the coralreefs they come from,” notes MAC ExecutiveDirector Paul Holthus. “Events like these help

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Nitrate in MarineAquarium SystemsBy Bob Fenner

“Oh no! I’ve got a “high” nitrateconcentration in my aquarium! What do I do!?”...First, and foremost, an understanding of thesources, ways of alleviation and relativeplacement of nitrate in the grand scheme of“water quality” is absolutely necessary foraquarists. In reality, nitrate by itself is not “that”deleterious. What an increase in nitrate means isan accumulation of nitrogenous wastes that maysignal that one needs to react (slowly) and changeone’s management/maintenance procedures oftheir marine aquarium.

Here’s what I deem an overall picture ofnitrate should be to most saltwater hobbyists; thesources, importance and some means of keepingnitrate in check.

Sources: The Greatest Pet-Fish StoryEver Told!

Oh for the good old days when real pet-fish-ionados could recite the bacterial nitrificationmantra by rout... “Ammonia is converted tonitrite by Nitrosomonas bacteria species and nitriteto nitrate by Nitrobacter species...” Then came Continued on page 2

along the research of friend/college chumDr. Tim Hovanec who identified the truespecies/groups actually involved, giving us newnames such as Nitrosospira and Nitrospira(Hovanec and DeLong 1996, Hovanec et al. 1998,Burrell et al. 2001).

The Nitrosospira, Nitrosomonas and Nitrospiragroups of microbes do this conversion, callednitrification, which can be summarized as:

Ammonia to Nitrite to NitrateNH 3 <=> NO2 <=> NO3

with the equal signs representing bacterialinvolvement. Nitrification is an oxidative process(the reactants on the left are “losing electrons”)and results in a lowered pH value, loss ofalkalinity, and is an indicator of the aerobic(oxygen using/needing) nature of the involvedorganisms.

Nitrification, by way of biological filtration(Wet-Dry filters, undergravel filters, fluidized bedfilters, etc.), produces nitrate which willaccumulate given sufficient nitrogenous foods, apaucity of organisms or methods that “use up”(export) the nitrate such as water changes todilute the nitrate, efficient skimming to extractthem or some version of denitrification.

About Testing Methods/Units ofMeasure

A brief mention that there are two commonways of expressing the nitrate concentration.One is as the nitrate ion itself (NO3) and thesecond is nitrate as nitrogen (NO3-N). Due tothe latter’s consideration of the three oxygenatoms atomic weight per molecule, measuring thenitrate ion by itself results in value 4.4 times asmuch as nitrate-nitrogen. However, it’s likemeasuring in inches or centimeters: both give theright answer, just in different units. Do checkyour test kit so when comparing your values withothers or recommendations in book you arecomparing apples to apples, so to speak.

ImportanceMost fish groups are remarkably tolerant of

practical concentrations of nitrate (30-40 ppmnitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N). A few tens of ppm intheir water, changes in same over days time is notlife-threatening or stressful compared withfluctuations of temperature, varying light/darkcycles, measurable ammonia or nitrite or hobbyisthands coming into their space, for instance. Forfish-only or FOWLR (fish only with live rock)systems, nitrate by itself is rarely a worry.

Some invertebrate groups are notablytouchy to too much or sudden increases ofnitrate in their water. Fifteen to twenty ppmNO3-N are upper limits for most non-vertebratemarine livestock. Many corals are reported tobeing adversely affected at even lower levels ofnitrate but controlled scientific studies are lackingto support these claims.

Methods of ControlAmmonia is the main excretory product of

fishes and invertebrates. And toxic to them atsufficient concentration. It must be dealt with.The easiest, simplest, surest, most fail-safemethod is through biological conversion. Hence,the great hub-bub regarding “cycling”(establishment of beneficial microbial populations)in new captive systems and the protection of saidbacteria… Ammonia becoming nitrate is a goodthing.

But there are techniques, gear, andapproaches that can be employed for reducingand removing nitrate, or even preventing somenitrate production.

PreventionFeeds, Feeding and Livestock Loads.

Too much nitrate is the result of too much foodinput, simply put “you’re feeding too much” andyour maintenance routine can’t keep up with thenitrate production. One easy approach forlimiting nitrate is to simply stock and feed yoursystem lightly, particularly with foods of highprotein content.

Some supplements and sea salt-mixeshave an appreciable amount of nitrate in them.Read labels and if in doubt test these products bydiluting with pure water and using a test kit.(Editor’s Note: Instant Ocean is nitrate-free.)

Detritus in the substrate can be areservoir and manufacturer of nitrate.Vacuuming a portion of your substrate alongwith your water changes can reduce this source.Similarly, mechanical filtration media that trapsfood and wastes needs to be cleaned andreplaced on a regular basis to limit thedecomposition of trapped organic materials and subsequent release of nitrate.

DilutionHere comes the usual pitch for frequent

partial water changes. Obviously switching outten-twenty percent of your water with water ofzero nitrate reduces the percentage of nitrate(and other metabolites) by the same amount.

Bio-mediation/BacterialDenitrification

The so-called “reverse reaction” ofnitrification: denitrification is a largely anaerobicset of reactions by microbes that serve toconvert nitrate ultimately into dinitrogen. Asummary of the reactions involved is:

Nitrate to Nitrite to NitrogenNO3- <=> NO2- <=> N2

Note, these reactions are reductive (thereactants on the left are “gaining electrons”)which is this case are supplied by H+ (protons)thus the pH is elevated. (Editor’s note: inimproperly run denitrifying systems the nitritecan be reduced to ammonia, a process calleddissimilatory nitrite reduction).

Live rock, sand useNNR: Natural nitrate reduction systems

include such propositions as Plenums (Jaubert etal.), DSBs (Deep Sand Beds), and variouscontraptions that are anaerobic to hypoxiccontainers (boxes, coils, trays) for culturing andfeeding denitrifying microbes. All makes andmodels of the latter have proven fickle. It is trickyto slowly drip system water into the filters andprovide “bacterial feeder media” (typically sugars, alcohols, even sulfur). Plenums and DSBscan be great expedients to reducing nitrateaccumulation, but are often difficult to

manage/manipulate when employed in themain/display system. Aquarists are encouraged to build these in separate sump/refugium wheretheir utilization will not disrupt the principal tankthey service.

ASD: Autotrophic sulfurdenitrification, a type of anaerobic denitratorutilizing elemental sulfur as a chemical feed sourcefor reducing nitrate has been advanced and usedin places. The reaction series (4NO3 + 3S = 2N2

+ 3SO4) involved is acidic, can be best tied-in withmelting down a source of carbonate, does resultin excess sulfate, but these don’t appear to beproblematical (natural seawater contains about2,700 ppm of sulfate.

Skimming/Foam FractionationAggressive foam fractionation, also known as

protein skimming, removes much organic matterbefore it is converted to nitrate. I’ve stated this abazillion times: almost all marine systems shouldutilize skimming, even if only on a punctuatedtime basis.

Chemical FiltrationEntails many possible areas for discussion.

Of most practical importance is that while thereare “nitrate chemical filter materials” sold in thehobby/trade; they don’t work in many sets ofcircumstances, and never directly. There is nopractical chemical means of removing nitratefrom aquarium systems.

Biological Uptake/ExportIn the early days of reefkeeping, mid- to

late-1980’s, vigorous algal growth was toutedas a/the sure-fire means of reducing nitrateaccumulation. In actuality, a good deal ofnitrate can be taken up by many groups ofalgae, microbes and other photosynthetic lifeforms. With regular harvesting considerablenitrate can be exported from a system.

Other Methods These are numerous and, for the most part,

unrealistic or otherwise impractical for aquarium

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Nitrate in Marine Aquarium SystemsContinued from page 1

Nitrate levels in fish only systems such as this can safely be 40 to 50 ppm NO3-N.

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Protein Skimmersby Dr. Timothy A. Hovanec

Many people involved in the marine aquariumhobby seem to think that protein skimmers arerelatively new devices (i.e., developed in the last10 years). Actually, protein skimmers have beenin the hobby for at least 40 years in the UnitedStates and longer in some European countries.

What follows are some basic questions andanswers about skimmers to provide a betterunderstanding of their nature and function.

What Is A Protein Skimmer? A protein skimmer is a device that

concentrates and removes dissolved materialfrom aquarium water using air bubbles. In general,a skimmer consists of a tube (the contactcolumn) for the concentration and mixing ofbubbles and water, an aeration device, a waterinlet and outlet, and a collection cup. Some unitsmay add additional features but the basic design isthe same.

The name “protein skimmer” is essentiallymisleading. These devices do not skim the watersurface and they remove more than just protein.A more appropriate name for a protein skimmeris “foam fractionator,” due to the fact that thebubble concentrations (foam) serve to separate(fractionate) dissolved material from the water.Most of this material, termed DOC (DissolvedOrganic Carbon), is produced by thebiodegrading activity of certain bacteria, but someis released by algae and other organisms. Becausethe DOC is dissolved in the water, DOC cannotbe removed by mechanical filtration methods.

Why A Protein Skimmer?The accumulation of DOC in an aquarium

can, among other things, inhibit the nitrifyingbacteria and increase the biochemical oxygendemand (a way of measuring water pollution),thus lowering water quality. Preventing this fromoccurring is, therefore, a worthwhile goal.

How Does A Skimmer Work? Two keys to effective foam fractionating are

air bubbles and surfactants. DOC aresurfactants—compounds whose surface is definedas “active.” This means that when a surfactantcompound is in water, its non-polar end, labeledhydrophobic or “water hating,” seeks the surface,or the air.

Normally, the only “air surface” in theaquarium is the surface of the water. However, ifbubbles are added to the water, more air surfaceis created. More air surface means moresurfactants (DOC) are attracted and removed. Smaller bubbles have more surface area thanlarger ones. Also, the longer the bubble stays inthe water, the longer its contact time with thesurfactant. Bubble size and contact timedetermine how effective and how fast a skimmerwill work.

Protein skimmers take advantage of thesephysical properties by producing a large amountof bubbles in a controlled space—the contactcolumn. This serves to concentrate the bubblesand the DOC. As the bubbles in the column rise,the DOC attach to the surface of the bubble so

that the hydrophobic end is “inside “ and incontact with the air. The bubble carries the DOCto the water surface, where the bubble bursts toform foam. The air-preferring DOC stay at thesurface rather than re-dissolve into the water.This process is repeated tens of thousands oftimes a minute and a large amount of foam canbe generated. The foam grows over time, iscollected in a cup and is removed at regularintervals. While there is considerably morephysics involved than mentioned here, this isthe basic operative mechanism involved inprotein skimming.

What Kinds Of Protein SkimmersAre There?

The difference between brands of skimmersis most evident in the ways they move water andgenerate bubbles. There are two basic types ofprotein skimmer: co-current and countercurrent.Current pertains to water flow, while “co-” or“counter-” indicate whether the air is movingwith or against the water current, respectively. Other skimmers employ a venturi air injectionsystem instead of an airstone to produce bubbleswithout an air pump. These skimmers pumpwater through an injector using a water pump orpowerhead. The injector has a narrowed pathwayin its center and an additional opening that admitsair into the unit.

Differential pressure is generated at the otherend of the restriction which causes air to besucked into the water stream. Venturi operatedskimmers can be very effective and tend to besmaller than other skimmers—a positiveconsideration in areas of limited dimensions.

Who Needs A Protein Skimmer?In most cases, every saltwater aquarium

would benefit from the addition of a protein

skimmer. But any aquarium with high levels ofpollution is a sure candidate for a skimmer.

What Are The LocationRequirements?

The most simple skimmers, although not thatcommon anymore, fit inside the aquarium,hanging from the top lip of the tank. An airstoneplaced at the bottom of the column produces thefoam which is collected at the top. This type hasno water pump, no hoses. A more commonversion hangs on the outside back of theaquarium. Water is pumped into the unit, eitherco- or countercurrent, and returns to the tankvia a spillway at the top. Perhaps the mostcommonly used type of skimmers sit in sumpunder the tank. Exit water is diverted into thesump, where it is pumped back up to theaquarium. No particular placement is superior toanother. Selection is usually a matter of individualspace and budget restraints.

Will I Still Need Activated Carbon?The primary benefit of activated carbon is

the removal of organics. Since this is also thefunction of the foam fractionator, does thehobbyist really need both? The answer is yes.Studies show that foam fractionation does notremove all types of organics; nor will itremove 100% of any one of them. The samecan be said of carbon. The two filtrationdevices effectively complement each other.

How Long Should I Run TheSkimmer?

Twenty four hours a day. There will besome periods of the day when the skimmerwill produce more foam than others, but thatis natural.

Is It Possible To Over Skim?No. While some may disagree with this,

no studies have shown a deleterious effectfrom over skimming.

What Maintenance Is Required?To retain its effectiveness, a protein

skimmer must be clean to allow the bubbles toform at the top and flow into the collectioncup. A greenish brown sludge will form on thewalls of the skimmer. This should be brushedoff regularly. The airstone should be replacedeach month. For a venturi skimmer, theventuri should be cleaned often to prevent thebuild-up of calcium or other deposits.

Is Ozone Required With MySkimmer?

It is not necessary to use ozone with aprotein skimmer. While ozone can be beneficial,it is dangerous to the aquarium inhabitants and,therefore, should be carefully considered andstudied before added to any system.

Foam fractionators, can prove a welcomeaddition to many types of aquarium filtrationsystems. By understanding the basic operativemechanisms and functional nuances of thesedevices, you should be able to use themeffectively and reduce the time needed to servicethese units. Good fishkeeping!

The SeaClone skimmer is a versatile, cost-effective unit

PUBLICATION INFORMATION

SeaScope® was created to present short,informative articles of interest to marineaquarists. Topics may include water chemistry,nutrition, mariculture, system design, ecology,behavior, and fish health. Article contributionsare welcomed. They should deal with pertinenttopics and are subject to editorial reviews thatin our opinion are necessary. Payments will bemade at existing rates and will cover allauthor's rights to the material submitted.

SeaScope® is published quarterly for freedistribution through local aquarium dealers.Dealers not receiving copies of SeaScope®

for distribution to their customers should callAquarium Systems, Inc. to be added to themailing list. Telephone: 1-800-822-1100. TheSeaScope® newsletter is now available on-lineat www.marineland.com under the News tab.Go to the “What’s New” section and chooseSeaScope® newsletter for the most recentissue.

Address comments, questions, and suggestionsto Dr.Timothy Hovanec, Editor. Marineland,6100 Condor Dr., Moorpark, CA 93021or E-Mail: [email protected]

Aquarium Systems is a Marineland Company

Marine Aquarium Hobbyist DayHighlights Responsible AquariumKeeping

Continued from page 1

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them, and the public, understand how we canwork together to ensure the responsible marineaquarium trade and hobby do support healthyreefs and fish, healthy fishing communities and ahealthy marine ornamentals industry and hobby.”

“The Marine Aquarium Hobbyist Dayattracted a variety of hobbyists and industryoperators, which ran the gamut from youngaquarists who had recently acquired their firstsaltwater tanks to seasoned retailers who havebeen in the business for up to 25 years,” notedMAC Communications Coordinator SylviaSpalding. “Many of the aquarists wanted to knowif there were any MAC Certified retailers in theirarea, and many of the retailers wanted to knowhow to become MAC Certified. This event topromote responsible aquarium keepingsucceeded in bringing together marine aquariumenthusiasts with different experiences and acommon value.”

For more on MAC Certification and a list ofMAC Certified marine aquarium companies, visitthe MAC website at www.aquariumcouncil.org

hobbyist use. Some have involved electricalcurrent (yes, with saltwater aquariums), ion-exchange resins for removal of nitrate from tapwater (where there is generally little to startwith). Folks would/will be better off utilizing aninexpensive reverse osmosis (RO) filtration rigfor their personal and pet-fish use if they haveappreciable nitrate in their source water. MostR.O. units remove 95% plus nitrate.

CloseAny amount of investigation into “dreaded

nitrate” in hobby literature, the Net andconversations with others will reveal anenormous amount of differing opinions on theimportance/significance of nitrate. Is nitratepoisoning most marine livestock? By and large, formost species of aquatic life, no. Can the routinemeasurement of nitrate be useful as an overallindicator of system health, trends in water qualitychanges, wake-up calls for altering and/orenhancing methods of overall systemimprovement? Sure.

Without implementing some of the abovemethods of control, nitrate will accumulate inmarine aquariums. Your role as the “creator”, andon-going manager, is to devise and impose balance

between the inputs of nitrate and their removal.Ideally, you want your nitrate to be as low

as possible. For delicate reef systems 10 ppm andbelow NO3-N is acceptable, for invertebrate-containing marine systems up to 20 ppm NO3-N and 40 ppm NO3-N for fish-onlysystems. Just having “some” nitrateconcentration present in the grand scheme ofthings is not a real menace to livestock health.

Bibliography:

Anderson, Frank. 1992. NTS. New tank syndrome may be on its wayto oblivion. FAMA 4/92

Atz, James. 1971. Some principles and practices of watermanagement for marine aquariums. Marine Aquarist SI.

Booth, George. Nitrate reduction. The next step in water quality.AFM 7/96.

Burrell, P. C., C. M. Phalen, and T. A. Hovanec. 2001. Identificationof bacteria responsible for ammonia oxidation in freshwater aquaria.Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67(12): 5791-5800.

Emmens, C.W. 1989. Water quality in the marine aquarium. FAMA8/89.

Frakes, Thomas A. 1993. Nitrate menace? SeaScope v.10, Winter 93.

Goemans, Bob. 1997. Plenum. FAMA 10/97

Hovanec, T. A. and E. F. DeLong. 1996. Comparative analysis ofnitrifying bacteria associated with freshwater and marine aquaria.Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62(8): 2888-2896.

Hovanec, T. A., L. T. Taylor, A. Blakis, and E. F. DeLong. 1998.Nitrospira-like bacteria associated with nitrite oxidation in freshwateraquaria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64(1): 258-264.

Klostermann, A.F. 1992. Biological denitrification. FAMA 4/92.

Patel, Shilpin. 2000. ASD: Autotrophic sulfur denitrification. FAMA12/00.

Nitrate in Marine Aquarium Systems


MACNA XVhosted by the Louisville Marine Society

will be held Sept. 5-7, 2003. See www.masna.org/m15

or www.Imas.org for details.

ISSN 1045-3520FREE

Volume 20Issue 2 - 2003

A Purple Tang in captivity

The Purple Tang,Zebrasoma xanthurum,Functional and Gorgeous!Bob Fenner

While at the pet-fish industry’s largesttrade show in Nurnberg, Germany (thebiannual InterZoo Show) recently, I wasreminded of the relative interest and “worth”of currencies while viewing a very largeexhibit containing most all species of Sailfin(Zebrasoma spp.) Tangs. While I wascommenting to my friends regarding thebeauty of the Purple Tangs on display,another fellow (from Europe) was mostimpressed with... the Yellow Tangs! Yes, turnsout that Purple Tangs are one of the leastexpensive fishes in western Europe, whereasFlavescens Tangs command a big price.

Despite its big price tag in the U.S. Z. xanthurum is a perennial favorite of fish-onlymarine to reef aquarists in the New World. It’shardy, beautiful, generally easygoing (more onthis below), and typically readily accepts alltypes of foods with gusto. The few downsidesfor this species involve a penchant fordeveloping “environmental” and nutritionaldiseases like HLLE (Head and Lateral LineErosion). With adequate provision for set-up,feeding and maintenance, these problems areeasily avoided or even cured.

Distribution: Purple Tangs are endemicto the Red Sea southward to the Arabian Seaabout Oman.

Size: Reported to nearly nine inches (22.9cm) in length. Most are about half that inmaximum size in captivity.

Selection: As with most species of theTang family, Acanthuridae, Purple Tangspecimens should be graded/sorted by threegeneral criteria:1.) Index of Fitness: healthy specimens are

full-bodied; in particular the head areaabove the eyes should not have a pinched-in appearance. There is an extended timeperiod from collection, holding, transportto wholesale transhippers over andthrough stateside. This can take severaldays to a few weeks. If watching tangs inthe wild teaches you anything, it is thatthey feed continuously. When deprived ofgrazing Surgeonfishes fade to thinness andpale color, at some point giving up onfeeding altogether. Seek and pick out ones

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A Comparison of CoralReef Filtration Systems:Preliminary ResultsDr. Timothy A. Hovanec

The trickle filter was first introduced to themarine aquarium hobby in the United States bya series of articles by Smit (1986). The tricklefilter, a type of fixed bed biological filter, uses astationary bed of plastic filtration media toprovide a substratum for the attachment ofnitrifying bacteria. There are various shapesand sizes of the filtration media but all have afew basic properties which include a high voidspace, so that water can easily pass over andthrough the media without a chance ofclogging, and the media sitting above the waterrather than submerged underwater.

The basic design of the trickle filter is insharp contrast to the undergravel filter whichwas the most popular type of biological filterused in the marine aquarium hobby at the timethe trickle filter was introduced. Theundergravel filter consists of a perforated orslotted plastic plate which sits on the bottomof the aquarium. An aeration system is used tomove the aquarium water through the

undergravel filter and recirculate it back intothe aquarium.

Another type of fixed bed biological filterfor use in coral reef aquaria was alsointroduced in the last 10 years. This system iscalled the BioWheel® (Marineland AquariumProducts) and differs from the trickle filter inthat the media sits half submerged in the waterand continuously rotates. The constant turningof the BioWheel® in the water ensures that allthe filtration media is wet and available forcolonization by the nitrifying bacteria.

Two other types of filtration systems,which expressly do not use a dedicatedbiological filter, were introduced to the marineaquarium hobby in the mid-1990’s. Thesesystems belong to a class of filters which aretermed “Natural.” The idea being that thefiltration in a Natural filtered aquarium isperformed without man-made mechanical andbiological filters. Instead, the liberal use of liverock and coral sand on the bottom of theaquarium is employed as the filtration. Delbeekand Sprung (1994) provide details on assortedNatural systems as well as the trickle andBioWheel® systems. The two main Naturalsystems are the Berlin method, so called

because it originated in the city of Berlin,Germany, and the Jaubert System, which wasdeveloped by Dr. J. M. Jaubert of the Universityof Nice, France.

In the last several years, the use of thetrickle filter, however, has fallen out of favoramong the cognoscenti of mini-reef aquariumbecause it is believed that the use of adedicated biological filter will cause highconcentrations of nitrate in the aquarium.Paletta (1999) states that “a major downside ofmost trickle filters, as well as undergravelfilters, is that they tend to produce nitrate asan end-product.” Delbeek and Sprung (1994)write “our experience has shown that tricklefilters are not only unnecessary for coral reefaquariums with adequate amounts of live rock,in fact, they can be detrimental in hard coralaquariums.” But to date there have been nopublished studies which compare the differenttypes of filtration methods for mini-reef aquariawith long term water quality data andobservations of coral health.

The goal of this test was to set-up and runthe four mini-reef aquarium/filtration types foran extended period of time and determine if a)there were any significant differences in the

water chemistry of the four systems, b) if thesystems with dedicated biological filters (thetrickle and BioWheel® aquaria) had highernitrate concentrations, as some would predict,and c) if coral health and growth is different inany of the systems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four identical 284 L all-glass aquaria were

set-up in a temperature controlled room inwhich the air temperature was a constant26°C±1°C. Each unit had a lighting systemwhich consisted of two 10,000°K “Euro” style

metal halide fixtures and two 40 watt actinictubes. A water chilling unit was installed oneach aquarium to maintain water temperatureat 26.5 °C ± 1°C. All aquaria received 32 kg ofcured Fiji live rock and had weekly additions ofKalkwasser except for the Jaubert style tank.The set-ups differed in the following aspects:Tank 1 (trickle filter) had an Amiracle™ tricklefilter, Knop protein skimmer (Model ss100), 9kg of crushed coral, and used activated carbon;Tank 2 (BioWheel®) had a Tidepool filterusing a Bio-Wheel®, Knop protein skimmer(Model ss100), 20 kg of crushed coral, andused activated carbon; Tank 3 (Berlin) was aBerlin style system with no dedicated biologicalfilter, with a Knop protein skimmer (Modelss100), 20 kg of crushed coral, and usedactivated carbon; Tank 4 (Jaubert) was aJaubert style system with a plenum using 50 kgof crushed coral but no protein skimmer oractivated carbon. The salinity of all the aquariawas maintained at 30 ppt.

Details on the animals placed in the aquariaand methods of water chemistry determinationcan be found at www.marinelandlabs.com.

RESULTS: The results for several water quality

characteristics, over the first 156 days ofoperation of the aquaria, are presented inFigures 1-4. The ammonia-nitrogen and nitrite-nitrogen trends for the four filtration systemsare presented in Figure 1.

Comparisons of the nitrate-nitrogen andorthophosphate concentrations for the fourfiltration systems show that there were nodifferences among the systems for the first 100days (Fig. 2). However, at day 114 the nitrateconcentrations increased in both the Berlin andJaubert aquaria (Fig. 2).

The pH, alkalinity and total inorganiccarbon trends are presented in Figure 3. Thereare no major differences between the filtrationtypes. The Jaubert system had a slightly lowerpH than the other three systems since day100, and this same system also had slightly

A Comparison of Coral ReefFiltration Systems


greater alkalinity and total inorganic carbonvalues (Fig. 3). The differences, however, arenot significant.

The greatest difference in water qualitybetween the four filtration systems is that theJaubert filtered aquarium had a significantlygreater concentration of total organic carbon(TOC) (Fig. 4). The trickle, BioWheel® andBerlin systems had TOC values of less than 1mg/L-C. However, the TOC in the Jaubertsystem never dropped below 2 mg/L-C. Thewater change on day 101 resulted in atemporary drop in the TOC concentration,from 3.4 to 2.4 mg/L-C, but this was short-lived and the TOC concentration was soonback up to 3.5 mg/L-C (Fig. 4).

In terms of coral health, the corals in theJaubert system did not do well and this may belinked to the increasing TOC concentration.This was the only overt problem with coralhealth experienced with any of the systems.The water in the Jaubert aquarium was muchmore colored (a brownish-green tint) than theothers and the bottom substrate wasblanketed by a film of green algae. The waterchange on day 101 was done because theorganisms in the Jaubert system did not lookhealthy. The other three systems did not needa water change but in an effort to treat all thesystems equally they were given the samevolume water change as the Jaubert system.

DISCUSSION: While replication is needed in future tests,

the results of this experiment show that mini-reef aquaria with dedicated biological filters donot exhibit higher nitrate-nitrogenconcentrations when compared to other typesof filtration methods. There were daily inputsof ammonia into each aquarium via theresident fish population as ammonia is the chiefnitrogenous waste product of the fish. Thereare two possible fates for the excreted

ammonia; 1) the ammonia could be oxidized,via bacterial nitrification, to nitrate or 2) theammonia could be utilized by algae, includingthe symbiotic algae in the coral, for growth.For the first choice to be correct,denitrification must be occurring at virtually thesame rate of nitrification as there is no netincrease in nitrate, the end product ofnitrification. While this scenario cannot bedismissed it seems unlikely that a newly set-upaquarium would be able to establish theconditions for denitrification so quickly. Themost likely explanation for the low nitrateconcentrations seen in the four aquaria is theammonia produced by the fish is utilized byprimary consumers which live on the live rockand are part of the coral community.

While it is beyond the scope of the presentstudy to definitively answer the question of thefate of the ammonia produced in the aquaria,one can look for common factor(s) amongstthe test aquaria in an effort to find the possiblelocation of the ammonia consumers; be theyautotrophic nitrifiers, working in closeconjunction with denitrifying bacteria, orprimary consumers. The common componentof the four systems is the live rock. Thus, astrong correlation can be drawn between thepresence of an adequate amount of live rockand the stable water chemistry exhibited in theaquaria. Live rock is the main filter device fornitrogen and phosphorus via the action ofmicroorganisms. However, there does notseem to be a process associated with live rockto remove organic carbon from the waterwhich is why the Jaubert system, without aprotein skimmer or activated carbon, had suchhigh a TOC concentration.

The most often asked question, in terms ofsetting-up a mini-reef aquarium, is whatfiltration system should one use? The results ofthis test show that the filter system most likelyplays a secondary role. To be successful, overthe long term, one needs a large amount of liverock, a good lighting system, and an organiccarbon removal system. Having a dedicatedbiological filter may be an added plus but it iscertainly not a detriment to the goal of setting-up and maintaining a healthy mini-reefaquarium.

References Upon Request

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Latest ResearchResults

A research paper published just before thisissue of Seascope went to press givesadditional cause for the active removal of thefireworm, Hermodice carunculata from yourreef aquarium. The paper by M. Sussman, Y.Loya, M. Fine and E. Rosenberg entitled Themarine fireworm Hermodice carunculata is awinter reservoir and spring-summer vector forthe coral-bleaching pathogen Vibrio shiloi, waspublished in Environmental Microbiology 2003Vol. 5, No. 4 pages 250-255.

Using fluorescence in situ hybridization(FISH) with a oligonucleotide probe specific forV. shiloi, the authors were able to demonstratethat V. shiloi resides in H. carunculata during thewinter when the surrounding watertemperatures drop to below 20°C. Previousresearch has demonstrated that the bacteriumV. shiloi is the causative agent of coral bleachingof the coral Oculina patagonica in theMediterranean Sea.

Whether their results are applicable to ouraquaria is not known. However, their researchshowed that once the fireworms were infectedwith V. shiloi within a short time (about 48hours) the bacteria penetrated into epidermalcells of the fireworms. Once this occurred the

authors suggest that the bacteria then enteredinto what is called a viable-but-not-culturable(VBNC) state. This is basically a resting stagewhere the bacteria wait until conditions aremore favorable for their multiplication.

Many questions remain such as the modeof transmission as not all coral that bleach maycome in contact with an infected fireworm.Furthermore, as previously mentioned,whether the results of this study can be appliedto a reef tank are unknown at this time. In anycase, it is better to be safe than sorry andremoving fireworms from your tank mightprevent a disaster.

Marine fireworm Hermodice carunculata

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PUBLICATION INFORMATIONSeaScope® was created to present short, informativearticles of interest to marine aquarists. Topics mayinclude water chemistry, nutrition, mariculture, systemdesign, ecology, behavior, and fish health. Articlecontributions are welcomed. They should deal withpertinent topics and are subject to editorial reviewsthat in our opinion are necessary. Payments will bemade at existing rates and will cover all author's rightsto the material submitted.SeaScope® is published quarterly for free distributionthrough local aquarium dealers. Dealers not receivingcopies of SeaScope®

for distribution to their customers should callAquarium Systems, Inc. to be added to the mailing list.Telephone: 1-800-822-1100. The SeaScope®

newsletter is now available on-line atwww.marineland.com under the News tab. Go to the“What’s New” section and choose SeaScope®

newsletter for the most recent issue.Address comments, questions, and suggestions toDr.Timothy Hovanec, Editor. Marineland, 6100Condor Dr., Moorpark, CA 93021or E-Mail: [email protected]


The Purple Tang, Functionaland Gorgeous!

Continued from page 1that have a convex appearance whenviewed head-on.

2.) Behavior: this is very telling withSurgeons. Healthy Tangs are curious abouttheir surroundings. Buy ones that arechecking you and their tank out; neverones skulking in corners or otherwise“spaced-out”

3.) Color: Purple Tangs of good health andbehavioral adjustment are very purple withextremely deep yellow tail fins. Be wary ofones that lack radiance in these areas.Related to poor color and quality in

general are degrees of “open pores” on thisspecies’ head and body associated with theirlateral line system. This is manifestation ofHLLE, and unless you intend to nurse suchanimals back to health, it is best avoided by notbuying them in the first place. This being stated,it has become easier and faster to do just thiswith improvements in water quality andnutritional quality of prepared fish foods.Good filtration and high quality feeds areexemplary in this regard.

Habitat: Purple Tangs inhabit rocky andcoral-rich reef areas where they forage and canduck under cover for sleep and safety. Youshould provide similar habitat for your aquaticcharges sense of place.

Concerning inclusion of this tang in “reeftanks”; I do suggest it. This fish will nibbleaway at pesky undesirable algae, as well asmany filamentous forms. Purple Tangs have,however, been noted to nibble on some largepolyp stony corals (notably Trachyphyllia andCatalaphyllia spp.). As is common for mostmarine fish, start with small ones and keep aneye on your fishes’ behavior which is alwaysgood aquarium husbandry.

Filtration & Circulation: This should bein a word: brisk! These fishes live in highmotion waters with near saturation oxygen.Surgeons eat and defecate large quantities yetare intolerant of waste. Adequate filtrationcoupled with frequent partial water changesare requisite.

Inter- and Intra-specific Aggression:Purple Tangs are almost always fine tankmatesas juveniles (under 3 inches/7.5cm in length).Often, growing up in under-crowdedcircumstances with other fishes, they grow tobe the same as larger adults. As is often statedas a rule of thumb, this Surgeonfish is betternot stocked with similar-appearing fishes,especially other Acanthurids that occupy asimilar niche; especially those in the genusZebrasoma. Under-crowding is always thesafest bet, followed by introduction of smallerindividuals first. More aggressive species likePurple Tangs should be the last fish to beplaced. But there is no sure-bet with stockingthis species. Careful observation is a hallmarkof a successful aquarist.

The acanthus or thorny spine on Tangs’caudal peduncles is a formidable weapon,which they can and will unsheathe and use.Have no doubt, while mainly for show, PurpleTangs are capable of cutting up newcomersthey consider a threat.

Foods, Feeding Nutrition: All Tangs areherbivorous to a degree. Observing PurpleTangs in the wild and aquariums, and examiningtheir stomach contents has shown that theyingest principally micro-algae, secondarilymacro-algae, and that the bulk of the rest ismaterial (associated invertebrates, fish eggs)taken incidental to these. In captivity, surgeonsrequire regular offerings of “greens”. Vegetableflake, pellet and frozen prepared foods are tobe had in pet fish stores; better and cheaperare dried and fresh algae from the Asian foodsections of human food stores. The very bestopportunity is to provide some live materialthat your tangs can nibble on at their leisure.Though others endorse their use, I am veryunimpressed with the results of feedinglettuces, boiled, frozen or fricasseed toSurgeons. Be leery of relying on terrestrial

plants for marine fish nutrition. Disease: Purple Tangs are not as readily

susceptible to the common protozoaninfections of other Surgeon fishes, and canhappily be easily treated by common methods.HLLE is a common developmental disorder ofthe species and can be the results ofdiminished water quality, malnutrition, low pH,high organics, vitamin deficiency or a diseaseorganism, to name a few. Water changes andproper feeds all help prevent HLLE.

As with almost all species of marine fishes,quarantine of Zebrasoma and other Tang species should be standard operationprocedure. By pH-adjusted freshwaterdip/bathing and keeping new specimens in aseparate system, all parasitic disease can beavoided in your main/display systems.

In Conclusion: Other than a tendency tobecome testy with their tankmates withgrowth and disposition for developing HLLE,Zebrasoma xanthurum ranks high as a species ofuse for reef and general marine aquariums. Dostart with smaller species and if possible, makeyour Purple Tang your last fish introduced tothe system. Keep up water quality, provide avaried, supplemented diet and you will berichly rewarded with a hardy, startlinglycolored specimen.

Bibliography/Further Reading:

Blasiola, George C. 1990. A review of hole in the head disease offish. FAMA 5/90.

Burgess, Warren E. 1979. The genus Zebrasoma. TFH 11/79.

Fenner, Robert. 1998. The Conscientious Marine Aquarist.Microcosm, VT. 432pp.

Fenner, Robert. 2000. Surgeons, tangs, and Doctorfishes, familyAcanthuridae. FAMA 12/00.

Fenner, Robert. 2001. Fische mit skalpell; teil 3 (Schluss): Seebaderder gattung Zebrasoma und der palletten-doktorfisch,Paracanthurus hepatus. Das Aquarium Nr. 381, Marz, 01.

Michael, Scott W. 1992. A guide to the tangs of the genusZebrasoma. Seascope vol.9, Fall 1992.

Michael, S.W. 1995. Fishes for the marine aquarium, part 7. Tangsof the genus Zebrasoma. A.F.M. 4/95.

Michael, Scott W. 1998. Surgeonfishes; Meet their strict carerequirements, or else... AFM 9/98.

Randall, John E. 1983. Red Sea Reef Fishes. Immel Publishing,London.192pp.

Rashad, Byron K. 1996. Red Sea fish for the reef aquarium; jewelsof the desert sea. FAMA 5/96.

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ISSN 1045-3520FREE

Volume 20 Issue 3, 2003

An aquarium overgrown by Asparagopsis taxiformis.

Asparagopsis taxiformis: Atroublesome reef algae By Michael P. Janes

In the past, the thought or mention of algaewas something that conjured up concern,emotion, and even fear in some marine aquariumhobbyists. Today, most modern coverage on thetopic of algae emphasizes the important role theyplay on a healthy coral reef and how they may dothe same in your tank. A relationship exists oncoral reefs between algal growth, nutrientprocessing, and grazing. Nuisance algae in aquariacan be the result of a change in the pathways bywhich nutrients are processed. These changes canbe subtle and difficult to detect. By the time aproblem occurs it can be too late for any kind ofrapid correction. Another important componentof algae control in aquaria is herbivore diversity.Typically excessive algae growth is the result of aninsufficient variety of algae consuming animalsand/or excessive nutrients.

Even among reef keeping hobbyists who arewell aware that over feeding and insufficientwater changes can contribute to algae problems,and who diligently do maintenance and routine

©2003 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.Continued on page 2

testing occasionally an algae can appear that defiesconventional reasoning and solutions. Such is thecase with the red hair algae, Asparagopsistaxiformis.

The genus Asparagopsis contains two speciesA. taxiformis and A. armata. They belong to the redalgae division Rhodophyta that has about fourthousand described marine species. Examining thebranches in sexual forms at medium magnificationcan separate the two species of this genus. As itsname suggests the species A. armata has smallspines on the branches. Asparagopsis taxiformis hassmooth branches.

Red algae have the most elaborate lifecyclesof all the marine algae. Successive generationsalternate between an asexual sporulation stageand a sexual stage composed of male and femaleplants. The physical appearance of these twostages is quite different making identificationdifficult at times. Early investigations into thespecies A. taxiformis initially lead to its asexualstage being classified as a different species!

The characteristic red color in theRhodophyta is the result of a water-solublepigment called Phycoerythrin. This pigment notonly reflects light but also absorbs and converts itto a narrow band which it reemits as a fluorescing

Continued on page 4

Life History andTreatment of Uronemamarinumby Rand Kollman

The parasite Uronema marinum has beenreceiving a large amount of attention from publicaquaria, zoological parks and home aquarists.Uronema marinum is a free-living ciliated protozoa(suborder Hymenostomata) that can cause fatalinfections in marine fish. It affects both coldwaterand tropical saltwater fish. Due to the recentsurge of interest in seahorse exhibits at publicaquaria and zoos, and the fact that seahorses arehighly susceptible to this parasite, attention toprevention and control has become a priority.

Many times it is difficult to identify diseaseproblems and provide the proper treatment ofsick marine animals. Sometimes the disease is notdiagnosed properly and the recommendedtreatment does not work. Other commonlyencountered protozoans in aquaria areAmyloodinium ocellatum, a flagellated protozoan,and Cryptocaryon irritans, a ciliated protozoan.These parasites are usually easily identified andcan be controlled with proper husbandrymethods such as routine water changes, properfeeding and not overcrowding.

U. marinum are single-celled, microscopic,ciliated, opportunistic invaders that normally feedon bacteria in the aquatic habitat. They areconstantly in an energy acquisition phase (alwayslooking for food). When the fish’s immunesystem is stressed, U. marinum will attack the fish,invading muscles and internal organs, eating redblood cells and other cells. Uncontrollable orrecurrent infestations are typically indicative ofunderlying problems such as introduction of newfish, overcrowding, and poor water quality. Someof the symptoms of U. marinum infected fish areas follows:

• Skin scraping• Pale discoloration• Loss of color• Weight loss• Dehydration• Flashing• Rapid breathing• LesionsBecause U. marinum is very difficult to

identify, the above symptoms can also beindicative of other parasitic and bacterial

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red color. Phycoerythrin also assists inphotosynthesis by making light usable at lowintensities.

Aquarium ObservationsAsparagopsis taxiformis is typically introduced

into aquaria attached to the substrate of coralspecimens. Cured or uncured live rock does notseem to harbor these algae, suggesting that it isnot usually associated with fish only tanks butrather reef aquaria. It initially appears as small tuffsor balls growing to about one inch in diameter.They are soft to the touch and are comprised ofthin, segmented threads that break apart easily.Once present, this insidious alga usually spreadsquite rapidly. It is often epiphytic and will attachto almost any available surface including thefronds of macro-algae, sand, coralline coveredrocks, and even corals where any skeletal portionis exposed. Fortunately this alga does not causedirect harm to corals resulting from any chemicalsecretions or allelopathy. It will, however, shadecorals and also create a barrier that preventscoral tissue from being exposure to passive waterflow. Both of these events ultimately produce illeffects on corals.

Environmental conditions such as light andwater chemistry would be the typical trouble-shooting areas to investigate. Unfortunately, nodirect link has been found to indicate lighting or aparticular water parameter was to blame.Examination of parameters from a number ofaquaria showed that Asparagopsis taxiformis cangrow in low light refugia, brightly illuminated reefaquaria with metal halide and/or power compactlighting, and even dark sumps. Water chemistryof the systems tested revealed no abnormalparameter. Nutrients were low with

Asparagopsis taxiformis: Atroublesome reef algae


orthophosphate levels reading 0 parts per million(ppm) and nitrate 0 to 10 ppm in various aquariatested with low range test kits.

Kalkwasser will often reduce the abundanceof unsightly filamentous algae and may also assistin the control of these red algae over time. It isused as a means to encourage encrusting corallinealgae to flourish and at the same time bindorthophosphate. Iodine tests on a number ofsystems revealed levels that were most often 0 ordid not exceed 0.06 ppm, which is near naturalseawater concentrations. Interestingly, Codmieret. al. (1979) working on Asparagopsis armatafound that iodine levels of 0.6 ppm provided themost rapid growth in this algae species. Growthwas inhibited when concentrations of iodine wereincreased above 1.8 ppm.

Control of AsparagopsisThe first line of defense is prevention.

Carefully inspect the substrate of new corals andeven live rock for signs of the red hair algae.Consider placing new specimens in a quarantinetank for the first one to two weeks. Not only willthis quarantine period reveal the unwanted algaebut it will also allow time for the coral to bemonitored, feed, and given a period to adapt tocaptive conditions. Unfortunately for the reefaquarist the most common herbivores offered forsale do not rapidly consume this algae. A numberof algae eating fish and invertebrates were rotatedthrough a large tank with an outbreak ofAsparagopsis taxiformis. These included therabbitfishes Foxface (Lo vulpinus), and Gold-saddle(Siganus guttatus), Yellow Tangs (Acanthurusflavescens), Desjardini Tang (Zebrasoma desjardinii),the Lawnmower Blenny (Salaris fasiatus), and anumber of invertebrates such as the SallyLightfoot Crab (Percnon gibbesi), Emerald Crab(Mithraculus sculptus), Blue leg reef hermit(Clibanarius tricolor), Red leg reef hermit (Calcinustibicen), a Sea hare (Elysia sp.), and a variety ofsnails from the Atlantic. None of these animals

were observed to consume enough of the algaeto overcome its prolific growth.

Fortunately there are two ways to control acase of excessive red hair algae. The first is theleast effective and that is manual control. Inessence, the hobbyist becomes the “grazer” andphysically removes the tuffs of algae from theaquarium. The best a hobbyist can hope for is astalemate where the problem algae do not getmuch worse, but it remains an unsightly presencein the aquarium. Perhaps a more realistic solutionis in finding a grazing organism that has a taste forAsparagopsis. Such is the case with the PacificTurbo Snail, Turbo fluctuosus. It finds red algaevery palatable and preferable to other green andbrown micro-algae. This species should not beconfused with another turbo snail sold in thehobby, Astrea tectum from the Caribbean. TenPacific Turbo Snails can typically be supported in afifty-five gallon aquarium where micro andfilamentous algae are present.

Patience is a key component in controlling anoutbreak of any algae. It is more important tomaintain a more diverse assemblage of herbivoresthan to keep too many of one kind. Certainlythere are bound to be other grazers out therethat feed on Asparagopsis taxiformis and other red

Photomicrograph of the gametophyte or sexual stagetaken at 10x. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.

The Pacific Turbo Snail, Turbo fluctuosus.

Algae pressing of the asexual form of Asparagopsistaxiformis.

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Herbarium PressReef aquarium hobbyists are consummate

collectors. Whether it is equipment and spareparts, books, or even logs of their tank’s historythe accumulation of aquarium materials is almostinevitable. Many hobbyists will even hang on tocoral skeletal samples or clamshells from previousinhabitants of their tank. It is both possible andadvantageous to preserve algae samples as well.Preserved algae specimens offer a hard copyrecord of the types encountered over the lifetimeof a tank. Preservation is also a convenient way tohelp identify a particular type of algae by taking itto a local aquarium shop, photographing it, orsending it off to a university or museum. A simpleherbarium press can be built to dry algae samples.The procedure for preserving soft, fleshy algae isas follows.

Specimens must first be fixed to harden thetissue and prevent them from breaking downover time. Place samples in a small jar with justenough saltwater to cover them. Prepare asolution of formalin that has been buffered to apH of seven with a little pH buffer (Cautionformalin is a toxic substance and needs to be handledvery carefully – Ed). Add three to five percent ofthe buffered solution to the total volume of thejar. Cover with a tight fitting lid and store in thedark away from ambient light overnight or longer.

To prepare the samples for drying remove

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algae. But many are not regularly available in thetrade. Thus far the Pacific Turbo Snail appears tobe the best solution for marine aquarists.

ConclusionAlgae will always be present in aquaria and

their control is combination of minimizingexcessive nutrients, maintaining water quality andhaving a diverse population of herbivores.Eventually a state of equilibrium will be reachedwhich is unique to each tank where algae growthwill be matched by algae consumption. Bycarefully inspecting new specimens andmaintaining a variety of herbivores (particularlythe Pacific Turbo Snail) Asparagopsis will be justone more interesting life form to be observedand identified in the amazing microhabitats wekeep rather than a pest.

AcknowledgmentsI would like to thank the kind assistance of

Dr. Allan Miller, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney,Australia, and Dr. D. Wilson Freshwater, Centerfor Marine Science, University of North Carolina,Wilmington for help in identification of the algaepressing. I also appreciate the project supportoffered by Scott Davidson, Sandy Shoup, Dr.Ronald Shimek, and AquaTouch, Inc., Phoenix,Arizona.

them from the formalin fixative and gently rinsethem in a little saltwater. Inspect the algae for anybits of substrate or sand and remove excessdebris at this time. Three and a half by five-inchcards can be cut from waterproof, acid free paperand be used to mount the specimens. This kind ofpaper can be obtained from aquaculture supplysources. Larger or smaller cards can be madedepending on the size of the samples and howthey will be stored. Place the cards in a shallowbowl containing RO/DI water. Using forceps oran artists paint brush spread out the algaesamples in the bowl over the cards. Gently lift thecards out of the water at a low angle. This willcause the water to run off of the cards away fromthe algae and help to spread the branches in asingle layer. Cards should be placed on a papertowel to absorb excess water.

Pressing the samples is both easy andinexpensive. Cut pieces of corrugated cardboard,cheesecloth, and wax paper six or seven inchessquare. Crumple wax paper so it is wrinkled andhas an uneven surface and lay it on top of thealgae cards. Next lay a few squares of cheeseclothdown then follow with a few pieces of papertowel. For multiple samples, just place a piece ofthe cardboard between each layer and repeat theprocedure. Bundle this package between twosquares of corrugated cardboard and straptogether with a few taunt rubber bands. Place abrick or other heavy object on top of the pressand store in a warm dry place. Check thepressing daily and replace paper towel pieces asneeded. It may take a week or more for thesamples to completely dry. Once complete checkthe algae to see if it has remained attached to thepaper card and if not, tack it in place with a fewdrops of hard setting glue. The finished pressingshould be labeled. It can then be stored in atransparent sleeve like those used to holdphotographs.

References

Codmier, L., et al. 1979. Effects of iodine on thegrowth of the fronds of Asparagopsis armata(Rhodophyceae, Bonnemaisoniales) in culture fromspear bearing branches. Giornale BotanicoItaliano 113 (5-6): pp 387-393.

Dawes, C. J. 1998. Marine Botany. John Wiley &Sons, Inc. New York, N.Y. 480 pp.

Fossa, S. A., and Nilsen, A. J. 1996. The ModernCoral Reef Aquarium. Vol. 1. Birgit SchmettkampVerlag. Bornheim, Germany. 367 pp.

Silva, P. C., Basson, P. W., and Moe, R. L. 1996.Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the IndianOcean. University of California Press. Berkeley,California. 1259 pp.

Sprung, J. 2002. Algae: A Problem Solver Guide.Ricordea Publishing. Miami, Florida. 80 pp.

Life History and Treatment ofUronema marinum


but most marine fish can endure it with no lastingproblems.

A hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) bath for tenseconds has also been shown to work. Hydrogenperoxide is a colorless, heavy, strong oxidizingliquid. It is also an environmentally friendlydisinfecting agent: the only by-products are waterand oxygen. For this application, 35% hydrogenperoxide is commonly used. To make a 3%solution using 35% H2O2 and dechlorinatedfreshwater use the following formula:

• For a gallon of 3%: Remove 10 oz. of waterfrom a gallon of dechlorinated water andadd back 10 oz. of 35% hydrogen peroxideto the water.

• For 3/4 pint of 3%: Mix 1 oz. of 35% with 11oz. dechlorinated water.

Again, the water temperature of the bath shouldbe the same as the aquarium.

Another approach is a low salinity(hyposalinity) treatment. Lower the salinity in thequarantine tank to a specific gravity of 1.011 andmaintain at this salinity for 21 days. The parasiteswhen exposed to this low salinity will die due tochanges in osmotic pressure. This treatmentshould not be used for invertebrates or especiallysensitive fish such as sharks and rays, but mostmarine fish will tolerate it well.

When fish are stressed by overcrowding orintroduction to a new aquarium, the fish’s abilityto fight off parasites is greatly reduced. In ahealthy aquatic habitat, fish normally are able tofight off parasites but when there is a husbandryproblem, the fish may suffer weight loss,dehydration and their protective covering, whichusually keeps parasites at bay, can becompromised enabling these parasites to attackthe animals. Secondary bacteria can also occur asthe fish weakens and is unable to mount adefense. If untreated, the fish immune system isovercome with the fish dying as the result.

Timely water changes will aid in parasiteremoval but water changes alone are notcompletely effective because some parasites willinevitably attach to fish before they can beremoved. By improving water quality throughproper water changes, fish are not as stressed. Insummary, the best way to control problems withU. marinum is to prevent its introduction into theaquarium in the first place. Quarantining newarrivals for a period of three weeks and treatingwith medication mentioned above as aprophylaxis, will keep your current fish safe fromparasitic infection.

References:

Cully, Jolene. 2003. Uronema: Observations on anInvader. Newport Aquarium. RAW conference6/6/2003 Riverbank Aquarium. Columbia, SC.

Howerth, Elizabeth W. 2003. Uronemiasis inRiverbanks Zoological Park Fishes. RAWconference 6/6/2003 Riverbank Aquarium.Columbia, SC.

infections (Uronema can cause lesions similar tothose produced by bacteria such as Vibrio spp. andPseudomonas spp.) When viewed under themicroscope, U. marinum is pear shaped, contains asingle macronucleus, and has long caudal cilium (atiny hair-like structure that is used for locomotionand/or feeding). Salinity, temperature, and pHinfluence the motility of U. marinum. U. marinumreplicate by binary fission and low salinity canaffect their ability to produce daughter cells.These protozoans are also greatly affected bytemperature which is a key factor influencingtheir activity and metabolism. As the temperatureincreases the metabolic activity of U. marinumincreases. The warmer water speeds up the lifecycle of the parasite.

Survival of the aquarium population requiresthe elimination of virtually all parasites, preventionand treatments will not work unless followedthrough to completion. The best way to eliminateproblems with U. marinum is to prevent itsintroduction into the aquarium by quarantiningnew arrivals. Quarantining new fish in a separateholding tank will prevent infecting the wholeaquatic habitat. It is recommended to quarantinethem for a period of three weeks and observetheir eating and swimming habits. There are anumber of medications and methods that can beused as a possible cure.

Chloroquine has been shown to work verywell in eradicating these parasites. This drug isused to treat and prevent malaria in humans.Chloroquine appears to be the drug of choice bymost public aquaria and zoological parks. Onetreatment will cover a three week cycle but isdifficult to use and can also be harmful to humans.The quarantine tank lighting should be reduced

since this drug is light sensitive. Additionally, it isdifficult to dispose of so proper care should betaken.

Formalin (37%) added to the quarantine tankat a dosage of 2 drops per gallon has also beenused to aid in eradicating the parasite. Careshould be exercised when handling since formalinis consider to be a carcinogen and can be harmfulto humans.

Malachite green can be used to control U.marinum. At 50% strength, Malachite Green isnormally administered by adding one drop pergallon and treating for 3 days straight. Careshould also be exercised when handling thismedication.

Copper Sulfate is an effective treatment forU. marinum also. This treatment should beadministered at levels of 1.6 to 2.5 ppm directlyto the quarantine tank to provide adequate levels.Keep the temperature at 78ºF. Maintain a specificgravity of 1.022 to 1.023 and a pH of 8.1 to 8.4and maintain proper levels of copper sulfate forthe three weeks.

Freshwater baths have produced good resultsin removing this parasite. The infected fish shouldbe placed in the freshwater bath for a period ofthree minutes or until the fish shows signs ofstress. Due to a change in the osmotic pressure,the cell wall of the parasite will burst. Be sure thetemperature of the water in the bath is the sameas the quarantine tank to help reduce stress. Thistreatment should not be used for sensitive fish

Uronema marinum, host Waspfish

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Uronema marinum, host Squirrelfish

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PUBLICATION INFORMATIONSeaScope® was created to present short, informativearticles of interest to marine aquarists. Topics mayinclude water chemistry, nutrition, mariculture, systemdesign, ecology, behavior, and fish health. Articlecontributions are welcomed. They should deal withpertinent topics and are subject to editorial reviewsthat in our opinion are necessary. Payments will bemade at existing rates and will cover all author's rightsto the material submitted.SeaScope® is published quarterly for free distributionthrough local aquarium dealers. Dealers not receivingcopies of SeaScope® for distribution to theircustomers should call Aquarium Systems, Inc. to beadded to the mailing list. Telephone: 1-800-822-1100.The SeaScope® newsletter is now available on-line atwww.marineland.com under the News tab. Go to the“What’s New” section and choose SeaScope®



ISSN 1045-3520FREE

Volume 20 Issue 4, 2003

A Diadema long-spined sea urchin on the reefs before the plague of 1983. The reefs are clear of algae and Diademaare everywhere.

Coral Reef Restoration:Returning the caretakers to the reef

Martin A. Moe, Jr.

Despite the growth of civilization and theimpacts of developing human populations, the reefsof the Florida Keys and the Caribbean thrived forhundreds of years while human populationsexploded on the coastlines and islands, but then,suddenly, something changed. Within the geologicalblink of an eye, about 20 years, these reefs, thosenear human populations and those far from humanimpact, have precipitously declined. Coral cover onthe Florida reef track has declined from about 70percent in the 1960s and 70s to less than 10percent today. Coral reefs throughout the worldare in decline and none more so than the reefs ofthe tropical western Atlantic.

So what happened? Well, there are manyfactors implicated in the decline of tropicalwestern Atlantic reefs. Broadly, these factors areincreased nutrients, sedimentation, and turbidityfrom coastal development; direct impact fromhuman visitation, over fishing, and destructivefishing methods; great ecological changes in reeforganism diversity stemming from human

©2003 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.Continued on page 2

exploitation and disease; and global warming(probably also anthropogenic) that raises surfaceseawater temperatures. This warm water sostresses corals that they release their symbioticzooxanthellae algae (termed bleaching), weaken,and then die if the warming is severe andprolonged. The relative importance of thesevarious factors vary with the location of the reefs.

There is one factor, however, that wasconstant. Through the millennia, the long-spinedsea urchin, Diadema antillarum, were the keystoneherbivores that grazed the reefs and maintainedthe balance between coral and algae growth thatallowed the corals to flourish and build the vastcalcium carbonate structures of the reef. Therewere immense populations of long-spined Diademaurchins on these reefs. Throughout this vast regionthe long-spined urchins were present in numbersof 2 to 20 urchins per square meter on the reefsand in the Florida Keys, 4 to 6 Diadema per squaremeter could easily be found on most reefformations. Small patch reefs could be easilyidentified from the surface by a mysterious whitering of exposed sediments that surrounded them.Research showed that these rings of exposed coalsand were caused by Diadema urchins moving offthe reefs at night and feeding the surrounding

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Editor’s CornerThis issue of Seascope is dedicated almost

exclusively to an article by Martin Moe, Jr. on afantastic project that he and Ken Nedimyerconceived and implemented regarding thereintroduction of the sea urchin Diadema to reefsoff the coast of Florida. Martin needs nointroduction to readers of Seascope and I won’truin the punch line here but, as with all of Martin’swritings, this article is important, educational andshows what two concerned individuals can do!Congratulations are due to Martin and Ken for afine project that yielded important results.

Still on my soapbox: pH One part of water quality that I have

constantly talked about is pH. pH has to be themost misused term in the fishkeeping hobby. It isdifficult to discuss many important processes inaquaria without a correct understanding of pH. pH plays an important role in subjects such asammonia and nitrite toxicity, calcium carbonateand carbon dioxide chemistry, alkalinity and manyothers.

In most articles, pH is usually defined as themeasure of acidity or alkalinity of a liquid. Thisdefinition is not correct. Simply put, pH is ameasure of the hydrogen ion concentration in aliquid. Technically, pH measures the molarconcentration of the hydrogen ion (the weight ofone mole, abbreviated “mol”, is equal to themolecular weight of a material in grams). For ourpurposes a good working definition of pH is thehydrogen ion intensity or activity in a liquid. The“p” stands for power while the “H” stands forHydrogen ion (always capitalized because it is achemical element), together they mean the powerof the hydrogen ion. The concentration of thehydrogen ion is measured on a logarithmic scalewhich ranges from 0.1 to 0.00000000000001mol/Liter (L). These numbers can be rewritten as10-1 to 10-14 mol/L. To make it easier to read, themathematical definition of pH was written as thenegative logarithm of the hydrogen ionconcentration which converts the above numbersto the familiar pH scale of 0 to 14. For example, ifthe pH is 4, then there are 10-4 or 0.0001 molesper liter of hydrogen ions in the solution.

Since higher levels of hydrogen ion activitymean an increased acidic level, it should also beapparent from the above discussion why a ‘lower’pH is more acidic than a ‘higher’ pH. A solution

sediments and grass beds because algae on thereefs could not growth rapidly enough to fullysupport the urchin population.

The urchins are gone now. Seagrass grows upto the edges and into the patch reefs and fleshyalgae growth dominate the eroding limestoneskeletons of ancient coral formations that werealive and vibrant only two decades ago. Thecomplex ecological structure that built andsustained these reefs is rapidly disappearing and theecological web of diverse organisms that inhabitsliving coral reefs diminishes with every passing year.

The long-spined Diadema sea urchins of thetropical western Atlantic coral reefs died in 1983.Harilaos Lessios, a Senior Scientist at theSmithsonian Tropical Research Center, located onBarro Colorado Island at the mouth of theCaribbean entrance of the Panama Canal, noticedin mid January of 1983 that the ubiquitous long-spined sea urchins found in immense numbers onall Caribbean and Western Atlantic reefs were introuble. Just how serious this trouble was wouldsoon be very evident. The urchins becamelethargic, did not retreat to shelter during the day,lost color and began to drop spines, and becameeasy prey for fish predators. Death followedquickly after the symptoms were first observed andwithin a few days all the Diadema on the reef weredead. The disease spread rapidly. Soon the entireCaribbean was affected and within a year urchinpopulations from the Florida Keys and theBahamas northward to Bermuda were devastated.It is estimated that 92 to 99.9 percent of all thebillions of Diadema sea urchins in this vast 1.35million square miles of oceanic habitat died within12 to 13 months. This was the most extensivemass mortality of any marine animal ever reportedand the species was suddenly very near extinction.The rapidity and totality of the plague made it allbut impossible to identify the causative organism.Two species of bacteria, however, Clostridiumperfringens and C. sordelli were implicated since theycaused the same symptoms followed by deathwhen they were isolated from moribund urchinsand injected into laboratory held Diadema.

The ecological impact of the loss of theDiadema urchins was soon apparent. In Jamaica,

Coral Reef Restoration: Returningthe caretakers to the reef


algae cover on the shallow reefs increased from 1%to as high as 95% within two years of the loss ofthe Diadema urchins, and at St. Croix, algal biomassincreased by 27% within five days of the Diademamortality and then algae biomass increased by 300to 400% above the pre Diadema mortality levels.Similar increases in algal biomass following themortality were observed throughout theCaribbean and tropical western Atlantic reefs.

After 20 years, even the limited return of theDiadema populations that has occurred in theCaribbean has not been seen along the Floridareefs. The return of Diadema to Florida waters maynot occur for decades, if ever, and by that timethere will be little left of the glorious coral reefs ofthe Florida Keys. It may be possible, however, toaid the return of these urchins to the reefs and it isimperative that we at least research this possibility.Perhaps the first step would be to find out whatwould happen to a reef in the Florida Keys if a preplague population of Diadema could be returned tothe reef. And this first step has already beenaccomplished.

Ken Nedimyer, a marine life fisherman, andMartin Moe, a retired marine biologist, bothmembers of the Florida Keys National MarineSanctuary Advisory Council, were convinced thatthe loss of Diadema on the Florida reefsprecipitated the drastic decline of these reefs andwere determined to demonstrate what wouldhappen if Diadema were returned to the reefs.They obtained a small grant from a NOAA reefrestoration fund and began work on a Diademarestoration project with the support and counselof the Sanctuary staff.

The project began in the fall of 2001 offshoreof the Upper Keys. We wanted to explore thefeasibility and ecological results of translocatingjuvenile long-spined sea urchins from areas withrelatively high settlement and extensive winterurchin mortality, the unstable reef crest rubblezones, to nearby deeper water (about 25 feet, 7.5m) patch reefs at densities approaching those onFlorida reefs before the Diadema mortality. Thisproject, involving just the straightforward transferof at risk juveniles from rubble zones to deeperreefs, was designed to determine whether thesejuveniles could survive such translocation and ifthey did survive in adequate numbers, could theychange the ecology of the reefs.

Four patch reefs: two experimental and twocontrols, varying in size from about 44 to 96 m2

were selected for the study. During the periodfrom September 2001 to December 2001, 434juvenile long-spined urchins were placed onexperimental reef #1 (96 m2 ), a total potentialdensity of 4.5/m2, and 262 were placed onexperimental reef #2 (88 m2 ), a potential densityof 3.0/m2. An additional 16 urchins were placed onreef #2 on 10/23/02 bringing the total urchinsplaced on reef #2 to 278, a potential density of3.2/m2. No Diadema urchins were placed on thecontrol reefs. The translocated populations wereevaluated for number and placement of survivingurchins 10 times on reef #1, and 11 times on reef #2 over various intervals during the periodfrom September 8, 2001 to February 5, 2003.NURC (NOAA’s National Undersea ResearchCenter) was contracted to perform a rapid habitatassessment of the four project reefs on 08/31/01and 09/01/01, before translocation of the urchinsand again on 09/18/02, about one year aftertranslocation of the urchins to document theecological changes that might occur on these reefs.

Initial survival after translocation of the juvenileDiadema urchins was very good. Survival rates forthe juvenile urchins were 81 and 93 percent onexperimental reefs #1 and #2 over the first monthof the project. Survival declined to about 45percent on both reefs after about three monthsand the slowly declined to about 20 to 25% after17 months. On experimental reef #1, survival after17 months was 27%. The average density over this17 month period was 1.6 urchins/m2, and the finaldensity on 02/05/03 was 1.2/m2. On experimentalreef #2, survival was 20% after 17 months, theaverage density was 1.0/m2, and the final density on02/05/03 was 0.6/m2. The slow decline of thetranslocated Diadema population was due to steadypredation on the urchins and lack of recruitment ofenough juveniles to maintain the population.

No urchins were placed on control reefs #3and #4. (A small population of Diadema urchins,about 6 to 10, was present on reef #4 before andduring the study.

Results of the ecological assessmentsNURC carefully assessed the ecology of all

four reefs before and one year after translocationof the Diadema urchins. The ecological effects of

The Caloosa Rocks reef off Lower Matacumbe Key inSeptember 2001. Algae and sediment coat the giantdying coral heads.

A coral head battling algae growth on experimental reef#1 in September 2001. Also note the algae growth onthe brain coral head behind and to the left of the centralstar coral head.

The same star coral head in September of 2002, oneyear after placement of Diadema urchins on the reef.The algae on both coral heads have been greatlyreduced and the coral tissue appears healthier.

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of coral tissue at the point of interaction withmacro algae. These data show that coral coverincreased significantly on the experimental reefsand decreased significantly on the control reefs.This was the first time since the decline of the reefsbegan 20 years ago, that human manipulation of theecology of a Keys coral reef reversed the decline ofcoral cover and decreased the growth of macroalgae that shroud the reefs. Whatever thedynamics of corals, algae, and urchins, thisdemonstrates that the presence of the urchinsresults in recovery of coral cover. And this is thebottom line for recovery of the coral reefs of theKeys.

Juvenile coral densityThe presence and density of juvenile corals is a

measure of the success of settlement and survivalof larval and juvenile corals on a reef area. Thetotal mean density (#/m2, number per squaremeter) of juvenile stony corals on the experimentalreefs went from 6.17 to 15.3/m2, an increase of151% in one year. On the control reefs, the totalmean density of juvenile corals went from 6.57 to9.94/m2, an increase of 54.5%.

Although juvenile corals increased on bothexperimental and control reefs, the experimentalreefs, with the translocated urchin populations, hada much greater increase. This indicates that thepresence of the urchins changed the ecology of theexperimental reefs to favor the settlement and/or

the translocated Diadema urchins on the twoexperimental reefs in the short space of one yearwere remarkable. Some of the most significant ofthe data developed from this project aresummarized here and the entire study is posted onthe Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary website. This data reports the major changes in benthicecology between 08/31/01 and 09/18/02 asdocumented by the NURC assessments. Thebelow comparisons are between the combinedresults from both experimental reefs compared tothe combined results of both control reefs beforeand after the translocation of the Diadema urchins.

Percent total stony coral cover Perhaps the most important statistic is the

percent stony coral cover. This measures theactual extent of coral tissue recovery and alsoincludes the amount of new coral tissue cover thatmay have developed from new settlement ofjuvenile corals.

On the experimental reefs with the urchins,stony coral cover went from 9.75% to 15.25%, anincrease of 59% in one year. On the control reefswithout the urchins, stony coral cover went from9.25% to 6.75%, a decrease of 24.5%.

A decrease in coral cover may be due to lossof coral tissue due to disease or bleaching, or loss

survival of juvenile hard corals.

Percent crustose coralline algaeThe presence of crustose coralline algae is

very good for the reefs. Unlike foliose algae,crustose coralline algae coats the rock surfaces andpresents a smooth, hard substrate free of foliosealgae, sediment and algae turf. This is a substratethat attracts settlement and survival of juvenilestony corals. In fact, it has been shown that lettucecoral, A. agaricites, is stimulated to settle by thechemical secretions of coralline algae.

On the experimental reefs with the urchins,crustose coralline algae cover went from 7.5% to19.0%, an increase of 159.5% in one year. On thecontrol reefs without the urchins, stony coralcover went from 7.75% to 8.25%, an increase ofonly 0.5%.

Obviously the presence of the urchinsgreatly stimulated growth of coralline algae onthe experimental reefs as these algae increasedthree fold.

Brown foliose algaeThis is the type of algae that competes directly

with corals for space and light. It grows muchfaster than coral and diminishes coral cover whereit occurs on the reefs. These brown algae aretypically in the genera Tubinaria, Lobophora, Dictyotaand Padina. The pattern of change in brown foliosealgae was more complex. On the experimental


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reefs with the urchins, brown foliose algae coverwent from 10% to 5.13%, a decrease of 45% in oneyear. On the control reefs without the urchins,brown foliose algae cover went from 4.5% to 5.9%,an increase of 31%. These combined figures forboth experimental reefs and both control reefsdon’t tell the complete story. On experimentalreef #1 that had the most extensive coral growthand the largest population of urchins, brown foliosealgae cover declined from 11.0% to 1.75%, an 84%decrease. Control reef #4, with its small naturalpopulation of urchins, started the project with onlya 3.0% brown foliose algae cover and ended theyear with a 1.0% cover. Experimental reef #2 had a6.0% decrease in brown foliose algae and controlreef #3 had a 79% increase.

The reduction of brown foliose algae on theexperimental reefs, especially reef #1, and theincrease on control reef #3 show without a doubtthat the presence of the urchins greatly diminishesthis competitive algae on the reefs. Its presence inlow quantities on control reef #4 only supportsthis conclusion because of the presence of lownumbers of adult urchins on this reef before andduring the study.

Considerations on restoration of thelong-spined sea urchin, Diademaantillarum to the reefs of Florida Keys

It is obvious that the restoration of Diadema tothe coral reefs of the Florida Keys would beimmeasurably beneficial to the ecology of the coralreefs and to the future economy of the Keys andall of South Florida. It may be that in time Diademawill repopulate the reefs of the Keys naturally. Butas we wait for this to occur, and it has already beentwo decades, our coral reefs continue to decline. If

it is possible to enhance the recovery of Diademaon Florida reefs through human effort, it must bedone soon.

There are two main pathways that should befollowed that may aid restoration of Diadema tothe reefs.

The first is the translocation of juvenileDiadema from areas where they are at high risk ofmortality from storms and predation, to small,complex reef areas. We have demonstrated thatthe act of translocation causes little, if any, directmortality. Development of small reef areas withpre-plague population levels of urchins will allowfor effective reproduction of the urchins by placingthem in close proximity to each other, and createreef areas where corals can grow without intensivealgae competition.

The second avenue is to work with hatcherytechniques to produce larvae and juveniles fromcaptive brood stock of adult Diadema. Thisprocess would be more costly but would havethe advantage of controlled production withrelease in specific areas at specific times of largenumbers of late larval and juvenile urchins.

There is little that can be done locally toreverse or mitigate the effects of global warmingor pollution from far off sources such as therivers that empty in the Gulf of Mexico, but itmay well be possible, through restoration of thelong-spined sea urchin, to greatly reduce the algaegrowth that is smothering our reefs. The value ofa successful Diadema restoration program can bemeasured by the value of our coral reefs to theeconomy of the Keys and South Florida. It couldbe that efforts to restore Diadema to Florida reefsmay not succeed. The potential for restoration,however, is great enough, and the need forrestoration of this herbivore so critical, that it isimperative that we at least make a strong effortto return Diadema to our reefs.

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Ken Nedimyer releasing diadema urchins on their homeat experimental reef #1. The urchins quickly move intothe rocky crevices of the reef as soon as they arereleased.

PUBLICATION INFORMATIONSeaScope® was created to present short, informativearticles of interest to marine aquarists. Topics mayinclude water chemistry, nutrition, mariculture, systemdesign, ecology, behavior, and fish health. Articlecontributions are welcomed. They should deal withpertinent topics and are subject to editorial reviewsthat in our opinion are necessary. Payments will bemade at existing rates and will cover all author's rightsto the material submitted.SeaScope® is published quarterly for free distributionthrough local aquarium dealers. Dealers not receivingcopies of SeaScope® for distribution to theircustomers should call Aquarium Systems, Inc. to beadded to the mailing list. Telephone: 1-800-822-1100.The SeaScope® newsletter is now available on-line atwww.marineland.com under the News tab. Go to the“What’s New” section and choose SeaScope®



with a low pH, such as 3, has a hydrogen ionactivity of 0.001 mol/L while a solution with ahigher pH, such as 8, has only 0.00000001 mol/L ofhydrogen ions. Since 0.001 is a larger number than0.00000001 the solution with a pH of 3 has a muchgreater hydrogen activity, making it more acidic.

Pure water (H2O) consists of two hydrogenion (H+) and one hydroxide ion (OH-) with theformula of H2O = H+ + OH-. If there are equalnumbers of hydrogen and hydroxide ions than, bydefinition, the pH is neutral and its value is 7 (theconcentration of both hydrogen and hydroxideions is 10-7). Pure water is one example of aneutral liquid. The pH of a liquid can be eitheracidic, basic (also called alkaline) or neutraldepending upon the concentration of the hydrogenion. A basic solution has a concentration ofhydrogen ions less than 10-7 while in an acidicsolution the hydrogen ion concentration is greaterthan 10-7.

While the words acidity and alkalinity look likethey are adjectives for acidic and alkaline, they arenot. This has, in my opinion, resulted in some ofthe confusion and misinformation about pH, as wellas alkalinity and acidity.

Alkalinity is the acid-neutralizing capacity of awater. Namely, it is a measure of the bufferingability of the water. Water with high alkalinity canaccept a lot of hydrogen ions before the pH startsto drop. Conversely, acidity is the measure of theability of a water to accept a base (caustic) solutionbefore the pH increases. Both alkalinity and acidityare commonly expressed in terms of mg/L ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO3), a much different scalethan that of pH. Thanks for reading

Future Events and Conferences

Dr. Timothy A. Hovanec will be speaking atthe Brooklyn Aquarium Society Jan. 9, 2004 atthe New York Aquarium on Surf and West 8th

Street, Brooklyn, NY. More information atwww.brooklynaquariumsociety.org

Aquaculture 2004. March 1-5, 2004.Honolulu, Hawaii. More information at

www.was.org

Marine Ornamentals ’04. March 1-4, 2004.Honolulu, Hawaii. More information at

www.hawaiiaquaculture.org/marineornamentals04.html.

Aquality – The 1st International Symposium ofWater Quality and Treatment in Aquaria and

Zoological Parks. April 1-6, 2004. Lisbon,Portugal. More information at

www.oceanario.pt

IMAC 2004. June 4-6, 2004. Chicago, IL.More information at www.theimac.org

MACNA XVI. Sept. 10-12, 2004. Boston,MA. More information at www.masna.org

Editor’s Corner



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