Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

I. The London Conference

The 1933 London Conference composed 66 nations that came together to hopefully develop a worldwide solution to the Great Depression.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt at first agreed to send Secretary of State Cordell Hull, but then withdrew from that agreement and scolded the other nations for trying to stabilize currencies.

As a result, the conference adjourned accomplishing nothing, and furthermore strengthening American isolationism.

II. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

With hard times, Americans were eager to do away with their liabilities in the Philippine Islands. And, American sugar producers wanted to get rid of the Filipino sugar producers due to the competition they created.

In 1934, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, stating that the Philippines would receive their independence after 12 years of economic and political tutelage, in 1946.

Army bases were relinquished, but naval bases were kept. Americans were freeing themselves of a liability and creeping into further

isolationism Meanwhile, militarists in Japan began to see that they could take over the Pacific easily without U.S. interference or resistance.

In 1933, FDR finally formally recognized the Soviet Union, hoping that the U.S. could trade with the U.S.S.R., and that the Soviets would discourage German and Japanese aggression.

III. Becoming a Good Neighbor

In terms of its relations with Latin America, the U.S. wanted to be a “good neighbor,” showing that it was content as a regional power, not a world one.

In 1933, FDR renounced armed intervention in Latin America at the Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, and the following year, U.S. marines left Haiti.

The U.S. also lifted troops from Panama, but when Mexican forces seized Yankee oil properties, FDR found himself urged to take drastic action.

However, he resisted and worked out a peaceful deal. His “good neighbor” policy was a great success, improving the U.S. image in

Latin American eyes. IV. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement

Secretary of State Hull believed that trade was a two-way street, and he had a part in Congress’s passing of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934 which activated low-tariff policies while aiming at relief and recovery by boosting American trade.

This act whittled down the most objectionable schedules of the Hawley-Smoot law by amending them, lowering rates by as much as half, provided that the other country would do the same toward the United States.

The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act reversed the traditional high-tariff policy that

had damaged America before and paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that was implemented after World War II.

V. Storm-Cellar Isolationism

After World War I, many dictatorships sprang up, including Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Adolph Hitler of Germany.

Of the three, Hitler was the most dangerous, because he was a great orator and persuader who led the German people to believe his “big lie,” making them think that he could lead the country back to greatness and out of this time of poverty and depression.

In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.

Japan slowly began gaining strength, refusing to cooperate with the world and quickly arming itself by ending the Washington Naval Treaty in 1934 and walking out of the London Conference.

In 1935, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, conquering it, but the League of Nations failed to take effective action against the aggressors.

America continued to hide behind the shell of isolationism, believing that everything would stay good if the U.S. wasn’t drawn into any international embroilments.

The 1934 Johnson Debt Default Act forbade any countries that still owed the U.S. money from borrowing any more cash.

In 1936, a group of Princeton University students began to agitate for a bonus to be paid to the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFWs) while the prospective front-liners were still alive.

VI. Congress Legislates Neutrality

The 1934 Nye Committee was formed to investigate whether or not munitions manufacturers were pro-war, existing for the sole purpose of making more money and profits, as the press blamed such producers for dragging America into the First World War.

To prevent America from being sucked into war, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935-37, acts which stated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect: no American could legally sail on a belligerent ship or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent.

The flaw with these acts was that they were designed to prevent America from being pulled into a war like World War I, but World War II would prove to be different.

VII. America Dooms Loyalist Spain

During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Spanish rebels led by the fascist General Francisco Franco rose up against the leftist-leaning republican government.

In order to stay out of the war, the U.S. put an embargo on both the loyalist government, which was supported by the USSR, and the rebels, which were aided by Hitler and Mussolini.

During the Civil War, the U.S. just stood by while Franco smothered the democratic government. America also failed to build up its fleet, since most people believed that huge fleets led to huge wars.

It was not until 1938 that Congress passed a billion-dollar naval construction act, but then it was too little, too late.

VIII. Appeasing Japan and Germany

In 1937, Japan essentially invaded China, but FDR didn’t call this combat “a war,” thus allowing the Chinese to still get arms from the U.S., and in Chicago of that year, he merely verbally chastised the aggressors, calling for “a quarantine” of Japan (through economic embargoes, perhaps); this was his famous “Quarantine Speech.”

The Quarantine Speech asked for America to stay neutral but to morally side against the fascist nations.

However, this speech angered many isolationists, and FDR backed down a bit from any more direct actions.

In December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank the American gunboat, the Panay, but then made the necessary apologies, “saving” America from entering war.

To vent their frustration, the Japanese resorted to humiliating white civilians in China through slappings and strippings.

The Panay incident further supports America’s determination to stay neutral.

Meanwhile, Hitler was growing bolder and bolder after being allowed to introduce mandatory military service in Germany, take over the German Rhineland, persecute and exterminate about six million Jews, and occupy Austria—all because the European powers were appeasing him.

They naively hoped that each conquest of Germany would be the last. However, Hitler didn’t stop, and at the September 1938 Munich Conference, the

Allies agreed to let Hitler have the Sudentenland of neighboring Czechoslovakia, but six months later, in 1939, Hitler pulled the last straw and took over all of Czechoslovakia.

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned to England and gave his infamous claim that he’d achieved “peace in our time”—true, but it proved to be a short time.

IX. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality

On August 23, 1939, the U.S.S.R. shocked the world by signing a nonaggression treaty with Germany.

Now, it seemed that Germany could engulf all of Europe, especially without having to worry about fighting a two-front war in case Russia fought back.

In essence, the nonaggression pact opened the door to Poland. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, and France and Britain finally declared war against

Germany, but America refused to enter the war, its citizens not wanting to be “suckers” again.

Americans were anti-Hitler and anti-Nazi and wanted Britain and France to win, but they would not permit themselves to be dragged into fighting and bloodshed.

European powers needed American supplies, but the previous Neutrality Acts forbade the sale of arms to nations in war, so a new Neutrality Act of 1939

allowed European nations to buy war materials, but only on a “cash-and-carry” basis, which meant Europeans had to provide their own ships and pay for the arms in cash.

Since the British and French controlled the seas, the Germans couldn’t buy arms from America, as it was intended.

X. The Fall of France

After the fall of Poland, Hitler positioned his forces to attack France which led to a lull in the war (so that men could move) that was pierced only by the Soviet Union’s attack and conquering of Finland, despite $30 million from the U.S. (for nonmilitary reasons).

Then, in 1940, the “phony war” ended when Hitler overran Denmark and Norway, and then took over the Netherlands and Belgium.

Blitzing without mercy, he then struck a paralyzing blow toward France, which was forced to surrender by late June of that year.

b. The fall of France was shocking, because now, all that stood between Hitler and the world was Britain: if the English lost, Hitler would have all of Europe in which to operate, and he might take over the Americas as well.

Finally, Roosevelt moved and called for the nation to massively build up its armed forces, with expenses totaling more than $37 million. He also had Congress pass the first peacetime draft in U.S. history on September 6, 1940.

1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves would be trained. At the Havana Conference, the U.S. warned Germany that it could not take over

orphan colonies in the Americas, as such action wouldn’t be tolerated. XI. Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940)

Now, with Britain the only power fighting against Germany, FDR had to decide whether to remain totally neutral or to help Britain.

Hitler launched air attacks against the British in August 1940 and prepared an invasion scheduled to start a month later, but the tenacious defense of the British Royal Air Force stopped him in the aerial Battle of Britain.

Those who supported helping Britain formed the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, while those for isolationism (including Charles A. Lindbergh) were in the America First Committee, and both groups campaigned and advertised for their respective positions.

Britain was in dire need for destroyers, and on September 2, 1940, FDR boldly moved to transfer 50 old-model, four-funnel destroyers left over from WWI, and in return, the British promised to give the U.S. eight valuable defensive base sites stretching from Newfoundland to South America.

These would stay in American ownership for 99 years. Obviously, this caused controversy, but FDR had begun to stop playing the

silly old games of isolationism and was slowly starting to step out into the spotlight.

XII. FDR Shatters the Two-Term Tradition (1940)

In 1940, it was thought that Robert A. Taft of Ohio or Thomas E. Dewey would be the Republican candidate, but a colorful and magnetic newcomer went from a

nobody to a candidate in a matter of weeks. Wendell L. Willkie, became the Republican against Democratic candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt, who waited until the last moment to challenge the two-term tradition.

Democrats felt that FDR was the only man qualified to be president, especially in so grave of a situation as was going on.

Willkie and FDR weren’t really different in the realm of foreign affairs, but Willkie hit hard with his attacks on the third term.

Still, FDR won because voters felt that, should war come, FDR was the best man to lead America.

XIII. Congress Passes the Landmark Lend-Lease Law

Britain was running out of money, but Roosevelt didn’t want all the hassles that came with calling back debts, so he came up with the idea of a lend-lease program in which the arms and ships, etc. that the U.S. lent to the nations that needed them would be returned when they were no longer needed.

Senator Taft retorted that in this case the U.S. wouldn’t want them back because it would be like lending chewing gum then taking it back after it’d been chewed.

The lend-lease bill was argued over heatedly in Congress, but it passed, and by war’s end, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and equipment.

The Lend-Lease Act was basically the abandonment of the neutrality policy, and Hitler recognized this.

Before, German submarines had avoided attacking U.S. ships, but after the passage, they started to fire upon U.S. ships as well, such as the May 21, 1941 torpedoing of the Robin Moor.

XIV. Hitler’s Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

On June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked Russia, because ever since the signing of the nonaggression pact, neither Stalin nor Hitler had trusted each other, and both had been plotting to double-cross each other.

Hitler assumed his invincible troops would crush the inferior Soviet soldiers, but the valor of the Red army, U.S. aid to the U.S.S.R. (through lend-lease), and an early and bitter winter stranded the German force at Moscow and shifted the tide against Germany.

The Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941, and the result was the eight-point Atlantic Charter, which was suggestive of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Main points included…

There would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the natives. The charter also affirmed the right for people to choose their rulers (self-

determination). It declared disarmament and a peace of security, as well as a new League of

Nations. Critics charged that “neutral America” was interfering, ignoring that America was no

longer neutral. XV. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash

To ensure that arms sent to Britain would reach there, FDR finally agreed that a convoy would have to escort them, but only as far as Iceland, as Britain would

take over from there. There were clashes, as U.S. destroyers like the Greer, the Kearny, and the Reuben

James were attacked by the Germans. By mid-November 1941, Congress annulled the now-useless Neutrality Act of 1939. XVI. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor

Japan was still embroiled in war with China, but when America suddenly imposed embargoes on key supplies on Japan in 1940, the imperialistic nation had now no choice but to either back off of China or attack the U.S.; they chose the latter.

The Americans had broken the Japanese code and knew that they would declare war soon, but the U.S. could not attack, so based on what the Japanese supposedly planned, most Americans thought that the Japanese would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.

However, the paralyzing blow struck Pearl Harbor, as on December 7, 1941, Japanese air bombers suddenly attacked the naval base located there (where almost the entire U.S. fleet was located), wiping out many ships and killing or wounding 3,000 men.

The next day, the one after “a date which will live in infamy” (FDR), the U.S. declared war on Japan, and on December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.

XVII. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

Up until the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, most Americans still wanted to stay out of war, but afterwards the event sparked such passion that it completely infuriated Americans into wanting to go to war.

This had been long in coming, as the U.S. had wanted to stay out of war, but had still supported Britain more and more, and the U.S. had been against the Japanese aggression but had failed to take a firm stand on either side.

Finally, people decided that appeasement didn’t work against “iron wolves,” and that only full war was needed to keep the world safe for democracy and against anarchy and dictatorship.

America in World War II The Allies Trade Space for Time Pearl Harbor jarred many Americans' minds out of isolationism and into

revenge-on-Japan mode. This was especially true on the west coast where there was only water between the U.S. and the Japanese fleet.

FDR held back the reins against Japan, however, and vowed to "get Germany first." Many folks were upset at putting Japan second on the list, but Germany was the more pressing problem.

The plan was to absolutely not let Britain fall to Germany and meanwhile send just enough effort to hold Japan at bay for the time being.

The problem was preparedness. To execute this plan, the U.S. needed time to gear up for war.

The task was monumental: to change industry for a total war, organize a massive military, ship everything in two directions across the world, and feed the Allies.

The Shock of War National unity was strong after the Pearl Harbor attack. There were no ethnic witch-hunts, with the glaring exception of

Japanese-Americans. Mostly living on the west coast, Japanese-Americans were

rounded up and sent to internment camps. The official reasoning was to protect them from rogues on the

streets who may want to take out their Pearl Harbor frustrations on them.

The ulterior motive was that there was distrust. Some believed the Japanese-Americans were more loyal to Japan than the U.S. and were really spies. This was untrue.

Though jailed without due process of law, the Supreme Court upheld the internment camps in the Korematsu v. U.S. case.

Notably, in 1988, the government apologized and offered reparations of $20,000 to each camp survivor.

Many New Deal programs were ended as the war began. Now, all jobs would be war jobs.

Unlike WWI, WWII was not made out to be an idealistic crusade. It was just the dirty work of defeating the bad guys.

Building the War Machine The Great Depression ended when huge orders for the war effort came

in. More than $100 billion was ordered in 1942. Henry J. Kaiser was nicknamed "Sir Launchalot" because his crews

could build an entire ship in only 14 days. The War Production Board took control of industry. It halted

production of non-essential items like passenger cars. Rubber was a much-needed item because Japan had overtaken

the rubber tree fields of British Malaya. Gasoline was rationed to help save tires.

Agricultural production was incredible. Though many farm boys went to war, new equipment and fertilizers yielded record harvests.

Prices rose, however. The Office of Price Administration regulated prices.

Critical items were rationed to keep consumption down, like meat and butter.

The War Labor Board set ceilings on wages (lower wages means lower prices).

Though they hated the wage regulations, labor unions promised to not

strike during the war. Some did anyway, like the United Mine Workers led by John L. Lewis.

Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943) giving the federal government the authority to seize and run industries crippled by strikes. The government took over the coal mines and railroads, briefly.

All-in-all, strikes were minimal during the war. Manpower and Womanpower There were some 15 million men and 216,000 women in the military

during WWII. The most famous women were the WAACS (in the Army), the

WAVES (Navy), and the SPARS (Coast Guard). Since most able-bodied men were off at war, industry needed workers. The bracero program brought workers from Mexico to harvest

crops. The program was successful and stayed on about 20 years after the war.

Women stepped up and took the war jobs. For many women, this was the first "real job" outside of the home. Almost certainly, this was the first job for women in industry—women built planes, artillery shells, tanks, everything.

The symbol for women-workers was "Rosie the Riveter" with her sleeves rolled up and rivet gun in hand.

Without question, the war opened things up for women in the workplace. Women "proved themselves" and gained respect.

But, after the war most women (about 2/3) left the workplace. A post-war baby boom resulted when the boys got home from war. Most women returned to their other "job" of being homemakers and mothers.

Wartime Migrations As during the Depression, the war forced people to move around the

country. FDR had long been determined to help the economically-hurting South.

He funneled money southward in defense contracts. This would plant the seeds of the "Sunbelt's" boom after the war.

African-Americans moved out of the South in large numbers, usually heading Northern cities, but also to the West.

Black leader A. Philip Randolph prepared a "Negro March on Washington" to clamor for more blacks in defense jobs and military. FDR responded by banning discrimination in defense industries.

FDR also set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to serve as a watchdog over the discrimination ban.

Blacks served in segregated units in the military.

Aside from the segregation, there was discrimination such as separate blood banks for each race, and often the roles of blacks were more menial such as cooks, truck drivers, etc.

Generally, however, the war and the efforts of Blacks encouraged African-Americans to strive for equality. The slogan was the "Double V"—victory overseas vs. dictators and victory at home vs. racism.

Black organizations increased in membership. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) neared the half-million mark and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) was founded.

The mechanical cotton picker was invented. This freed blacks from the age-old cotton picking job—another reason many moved.

Native Americans also fought in the war in large numbers. Famously, Navajo and Comanche Indians were "code talkers."

They traded messages using their traditional language. Their "codes" were never broken.

All the moving around mixed people who weren't accustomed to it, and there were some clashes. For example, some white sailors attacked some Mexican and Mexican-Americans in L.A. in 1943. Also, 25 blacks and 9 whites were killed in a Detroit race riot.

Holding the Home Front This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

The United States entered WWII still in the Depression. The U.S. came out of WWII very prosperous (the only nation to do so).

GNP (Gross National Product) had doubled. Corporate profits doubled too.

Disposable income (money left to spend) also doubled. Inflation would suit and rise as well.

Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the production for WWII that ended the Great Depression.

The war's cost was assessed at $330 billion (ten times WWI). To help pay for the war, four times more people were required to

pay income taxes. Most of the payments, however, were on credit. This meant the national debt shot up from $49 to $259 billion.

The Rising Sun in the Pacific Japan began to take action on its dream of a new empire—the land of

the rising sun. The Japanese took island after island, including: Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and much of coastal China.

The Philippines had been embarrassing for the U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur had to sneak away. The general made a pledge,

however, to return. After the U.S. lost in the Philippines, the Japanese made the

captured soldiers hike the infamous "Bataan Death March"—85 miles where, if you stumbled, you died.

The U.S. finally gave up and surrendered Corregidor, an island/fort in Manila Harbor.

Japan’s High Tide at Midway The first big U.S.-Japan naval battle was the Battle of Coral Sea. It

was the world’s first naval battle where the ships never saw one another (they fought with aircraft via carriers). Both sides had heavy losses.

Intercepted messages hinted at an attack on Midway Island. American Adm. Chester Nimitz correctly sent the U.S. fleet and the Battle of Midway (June 1942) followed. Instead of being surprised, the U.S. gave the surprise.

Adm. Raymond Spruance was the the admiral on the water. Midway was a rout for the U.S. as four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk.

Midway proved to be the turning point in the Pacific war, the place where Japanese expansion was halted.

Japan did capture the islands of Kiska and Attu in the Aleutian chain of Alaska. The islands are home to a few hundred native Aleuts, snow, and rocks, but the mere idea the Japanese taking American soil hit hard. The northwestern states feared an invasion.

The "Alcan" Highway was built from Alaska, through Canada, to the continental states to help protect Alaska.

American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo Japan's expansion halted, America then began "island-hopping"

toward Japan. The plan was to not attack the stronghold, take the weaker islands and build airbases on them. The stronger islands would be taken by bombing and strangling of resources.

There would be two main thrusts: in the south led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and in the central Pacific led by Adm. Chester Nimitz.

Island-hopping began in the south Pacific with victories at Guadalcanal (Aug. 1942). This southern strike reached New Guinea in August of 1944. MacArthur was working his way back to the Philippines.

Northward, Tarawa and Makin in the Gilbert Islands were captured. Next, the Marshall Island chain was won.

The "Marianas Turkey Shoot" was an American highlight where American "Hellcat" fighters had their way in the air shooting down 250 enemy planes. The Marianas Islands also were close enough so that B-29 bombers could strike Japan and return (if the winds were

favorable). This would later be the take-off point for the atomic bomb

planes. Though island-hopping made steady progress, it was slow, hard-fought,

and bloody. American sailors shelled the beachheads with artillery, U.S.

Marines stormed ashore (while the navy shelled over their heads), and American bombers attacked the Japanese. Heroism and self-sacrifice were common.

One example was when Lt. Robert J. Albert piloted a B-24 “Liberator” on 36 missions. His final run was a record 18 hour and 25 minute strike. His tour of duty was complete, but his crew's was not. He volunteered to pilot the flight so that his men would not fly behind a rookie pilot.

The Allied Halting of Hitler As with the Pacific, progress in Europe has slow at first. History has

shown the American war machine slow to get going, but awesome when it is going.

German u-boats were proving to be very effective. The German "enigma code" was broken thanks to spies' actions and lives sacrificed to get an enigma machine to decode messages. These messages helped locate German u-boat wolfpacks.

The Battle of the Atlantic, the war for control of the ocean, went on until 1943 when the Allies gained control.

The win over the seas was a close one. It was learned after the war that the amazing German engineers were nearing completion of a sub that could stay submerged indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots.

1942 was the turning point year in Europe (like Midway in '42 in the Pacific).

The British bombed the Germans in Cologne, France. American B-17's bombed Germany itself.

German Gen. Erwin Rommel (nicknamed the "Desert Fox" because he was clever with maneuvers) was having great success in North Africa. He was almost to the Suez Canal in Egypt—taking the canal would link the Mediterranean Sea (Italy and Germany) with the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Japan).

However, Brit. Gen. Bernard Montgomery, at the Battle of El Alamein (Oct. 1942) stopped the Germans. From there, Germany would be pushed back.

The Russians also stopped the Germans at Stalingrad (Sep. 1942). A month later, Russia began pushing back and recaptured 2/3 of their lost land in one year.

A Second Front from North Africa to Rome Some 20 million Russians would die by the end of the war so the Soviet

Union wanted the allies to start a second front against Germany and ease Russia's burden.

Britain and the U.S. wanted this, but had different views. America wanted to ram straight at the Nazis through France.

Britain wanted to lure the war away from England. Winston Churchill suggested they hit Germany's "soft underbelly", meaning up from North Africa and through Italy.

The soft underbelly approach was decided upon. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower led an attack on North Africa (Nov.

1942). The Allies pushed the Germans out of Africa by May 1943.

The Roosevelt and Churchill met at the Casablanca Conference to flesh out plans (Jan. 1943). They agreed to seek the "unconditional surrender" of Germany.

The soft underbelly attack continued. The Allies leapfrogged to Sicily. Mussolini was overthrown (and

later murdered) at about the same time and Italy surrendered (Sept. 1943). German soldiers were still in Italy, however, and they were determined to keep fighting.

The Allies then moved to the lower portion of the Italian boot, then started edging northward. By this time, it was clear that the soft underbelly really wasn't very soft.

The German were dug in at Monte Cassino. After taking a beachhead at Anzio, the Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944.

The Allied thrust essentially bogged down and stalled at this point, roughly half way up the Italian peninsula. The D-Day invasion would make the Italian assault a mere diversion.

The soft underbelly attack had mixed results. The good: it drew some of Hitler's men and supplies and it did defeat Italy. The bad: it delayed the D-Day invasion and gave Russia extra time to draw farther into Eastern Europe.

D-Day: June 6, 1944 Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met at the Tehran Conference (Nov.-

Dec. 1943) to formulate goals and coordinate attacks. The groundwork was laid for a massive assault across the English

channel (eventual D-Day invasion). Gen. Eisenhower was placed in charge of the assault. The attack would take place on the beaches of Normandy on the

French coast. The Germans had guessed the sure-to-come attack would be at Calais because that's the narrowest point of

the channel. The Allies offered fakes and bluffs there to confuse the enemy.

The D-Day Invasion began on June 6, 1944. It was the largest amphibious assault in history.

The Allies had to cross the channel, wade ashore, cross the wide beach, scale 100 foot bluffs, and overtake German bunkers—while being shot at by machine guns and artillery. The Allies did it.

After gaining a toehold at Normandy, the Allies began spreading out. Gen. George S. Patton led U.S. troops across the French countryside.

Paris was liberated in August of 1944—a major morale boost for the Allies.

FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944 Despite the ongoing war in 1944, an election year came again. The

Republican party nominated Thomas E. Dewey. He was known as a liberal and attacker of corruption.

The Democrats nominated FDR for a fourth term. There was no other viable choice for the party.

The real question was who'd be the vice-presidential candidate. The nomination was made for Harry S Truman who was largely without enemies.

Roosevelt Defeats Dewey Dewey campaigned hard against Roosevelt. He attacked "twelve long

years" and emphasized it was "time for a change." FDR didn't campaign much until election day neared. Roosevelt got a lot of financial help from the CIO's new political

action committee (PAC). The PAC was set up to avoid a ban on using union money for politics.

FDR won the election in a big way, again. The electoral vote was 432 to 99. The main reason that he won was that the war was moving along well at this point.

The Last Days of Hitler The Nazi army was on the retreat at this point. Hitler made one last big

push at the Ardenne Forest. The Americans were surprised and pushed back; the result was a bulge in the battle line.

The Americans held on at Bastogne. Germany asked for a surrender but Gen. A.C. McCauliffe answered, "Nuts."

Reinforcements came and the U.S. won the Battle of the Bulge. From there, steady progress was made toward Berlin. Russia was simultaneously converging on Berlin.

Along the way, the Allies discovered the horrors of the Holocaust. There had been rumors of such goings-on, but it was believed

they were either untrue or exaggerated. They were not—the

Holocaust was worse than imagined. The death camps, still stinking, made the horrors clear.

Eisenhower forced German civilians to march through the camps after the war to see what they're government had done.

The Russians reached Germany first. Hitler killed himself in a bunker (Apr. 1945), along with his mistress-turned-wife Eva Braun.

Only two weeks prior, while vacationing at Warm Springs, GA, Franklin Roosevelt suddenly died. Truman became president.

The German officials surrendered on May 7; May 8, 1945 was named V-E Day (Victory in Europe). The celebration began.

Japan Dies Hard The war with Japan was still on. American subs were devastating Japanese merchant ships—1,042

were destroyed. American bombers were devastating Japanese cities. In a two-day

fire-bomb raid on Tokyo in March of 1945, the destruction was: 250,000 buildings, 1/4 of the city, and 83,000 lives. This was about the equivalent of the atomic bombs that were to come.

Gen. MacArthur was determined to return to the Philippines where he'd been booted.

After retaking New Guinea, MacArthur made his Filipino return in October, 1944.

Hard naval fighting followed at Leyte Gulf. The U.S. won, although Adm. William Halsey was suckered into a feint. Leyte Gulf was the last huge battle in the Pacific—Japan's navy was all but destroyed at this point.

MacArthur then took Luzon and finally captured the capital city of Manila (Mar. 1945).

The same month, the small island of Iwo Jima was captured by America in some of the toughest fighting yet. It was strategically located halfway between the Marianas Islands and Japan. Thus, it provided an important airstrip.

The famous flag-raising photo was snapped atop Mt. Suribachi while the fighting still raged.

Okinawa was the next target. It was the last island before the Japanese mainlands. Okinawa was taken (June 1945) after 50,000 American casualties.

In a last-ditch effort, Japan unleashed the full fury of their "kamikaze" suicide pilots. Likening themselves to the samurai warriors of old the kamikazes felt they were dying for their god-emperor.

The Atomic Bombs

Rookie Pres. Harry Truman met with Stalin and British officials at the Potsdam Conference (July 1945). The final statement to Japan was: surrender or be destroyed.

Meanwhile, the U.S. had been working on a super-secret project all along: to build the atomic bomb.

Early on, many German scientists had fled Nazi Germany, notably Albert Einstein. In 1940, FDR convinced these scientists to start working on the bomb.

FDR had gotten Congress to approve the money in fear that Germany may well develop the bomb first. The Manhattan Project secretly developed and built the world's first atomic bomb. It was tested in Alamogordo, NM (July 1945) and was ready for use.

Still belligerent, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan (Aug. 6, 1945). 70,000 died instantly, 180,000 total casualties.

On Aug. 8, Russia entered the war against Japan and attacked Manchuria.

On Aug. 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. 80,000 were killed or missing. That's was it.

Japan surrendered on Aug. 19, 1945. The Japanese emperor was aloud to stay on the throne as a symbolic gesture.

The official and ceremonial surrender came a few weeks later aboard the U.S.S. Missouri. Gen. MacArthur accepted the surrender from Emperor Hirohito.

The Allies Triumphant One million casualties was the American cost of WWII. But, despite the

sacrifices, America came out of the war tougher and stronger-than-ever, whereas other nations came out of the war beaten down.

The casualty number was incredibly large, but actually small as compared to other nations. The numbers were kept down in part due to new drugs, particularly penicillin.

The American homeland was almost entirely untouched (again, unlike other nations were in rubble).

Though slow-starting, America had run the war well. It was a huge undertaking, but had been undertaken in a systematic and effective manner.

The U.S. had been blessed with great leaders during the war, civilian and military.

Another major factor contributing to victory was America's incredible resources and industry.

The Cold War Begins

Postwar Economic Anxieties Many feared a return to the Great Depression or at least a post-war

recession. When the war time price controls ended, inflation did increase

significantly. Labor unions had made steady gains during the Depression and the

war. With the economy now strong, the pendulum now swung back against unions.

Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It banned "closed shops" (closed to anyone not joining the union). It also made unions liable for certain damages and that union leaders take a non-communist oath. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, Taft-Hartley weakened labor unions.

Unions tried to move into the South and the West, in the CIO's "Operation Dixie." This was unsuccessful.

Two factors caused the failure: (1) Workers in the South and West were generally not factory workers but were scattered around and thus not easily unionized, and (2) these areas had a longtime value on individual freedom and hard work, and thus a disdain for labor unions which focused on group action to yield more pay with lower hours.

The government took steps to ward off any slow-down in the economy. War factories and government facilities were sold to businesses at

rock bottom prices. The Employment Act (1946) got the government to "promote

maximum employment, production, and purchasing power." The Council of Economic Advisors were to give the president

solid data to make solid decisions. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944) was better known at the

GI Bill of Rights. It 8 million former soldiers to vocational schools and colleges.

The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970 The economy held its ground through the late 40's. By 1950, the

economy began to skyrocket. America pushed toward, and reached, a new age of prosperity.

By 1960, America's national income nearly doubled, then nearly doubled again by 1970. By 1973, Americans made up 6% of the world's population and held 40% of the money.

The middle class was the big winner during these years. The class doubled in size and they expanded their ambitions: two cars in the garage, and a pool out back, and whatever else can be thrown in.

Women benefited from the good times as well. Many women found jobs in new offices and shops. Women were 25% of the workforce at

war's end, about 50% five years later. The traditional roles of women at home was still glorified in

popular media. A clash was being set up between women at work and women at home.

The Roots of Postwar Prosperity The postwar economic boom had several causes and propellants… The war's massive production jump-started the entire economy. Post-war military projects kept the "military-industrial complex" in

business. There were tons of jobs in military-related areas, such as

aerospace, plastics, electronics, and "R and D" (research and development).

Energy was cheap and plentiful. High car sales reflected the cheap gas. A strong infrastructure of power lines, gas lines helped feed homes and businesses.

Worker production increased. More Americans went to and stayed in school. Increased education meant increased standard of living.

Farms changed and turned toward big-businesses and away from family farms. Machinery costs fueled this change. Former farmers left for other jobs. Still, with new equipment and better hybrids and fertilizers, food production increased.

The Smiling Sunbelt Many babies arrived in the baby boom and many families had moved

around the country. Unable to just ask her mother what-to-do question, many new moms turned to Dr. Benjamin Spock's how-to The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. It was a huge seller.

The Sunbelt, from California to Florida, began a boom of its own. There was a shift-of-power from the old Northeast and Midwest to

the new South and West—from the Frostbelt and Rustbelt to the Sunbelt.

Symbolizing this shift, California became the most populous state in the 50's, passing New York.

Immigration helped increase the Sunbelt's population. Many of the government's new military facilities were built in the

Sunbelt. Good-paying jobs came with them. A political battle was shaping up. By 1990, the Sunbelt received

$125 billion more federal money than the northern areas. And, with their populations increased, more Congressional and presidential votes had moved down to the Sunbelt states.

The Rush to the Suburbs After the war, whites abandoned the inner-cities and moved out to the

grass and trees of the suburbs.

Cheap home loans offered by the FHA and the Veteran's Administration made buying a home more sensible than renting an apartment in town.

25% of Americans lived in the suburbs by 1960. The best example of a post-war suburb was Levittown on Long Island. The Levitt brothers perfected the "cookie cutter" house. They were

identical but also very affordable. Despite their monotony, many in the 50's actually preferred the

standardization, conformity, and comfort-factor the houses gave. It was like the McDonald's theory (which also started and boomed at the time)—no matter which McDonald's you go in, you always get the same burger.

This so-called "white flight" left blacks in the inner-cities, and left the cities poor.

Symbolic of this movement would be the growth of shopping centers and Wal-Marts and the the "closed" signs on downtown shops.

Blacks often had a hard time getting loans, even from government agencies, due to the "risk" involved. Thus, whites were able to move to the suburbs, blacks were not.

The Postwar Baby Boom This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

When the soldiers returned from war, the baby boom began. The birthrate peaked in 1957. It then slowed and started a "birth dearth."

The baby boom generation has had a huge impact on America. While they grew up, entire industries rode their wave. For

example in clothing, Levi's jeans went from work pants to standard teenage wear; burger joints boomed; music changed (rock 'n' roll).

Prior, children and adolescents were expected to dress and act like small adults. By the 50's, youth dressed and acted their own way and did their own thing.

The baby boom, and later birth dearth, created a swell and then a narrowing, in the population of generations. Simply put, the baby boomers far outnumber other generations.

By 2020, when most baby boomers are retired, it is projected that the Social Security system will go broke.

Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri Harry S Truman was at the helm just after WWII. He had a big smile,

was a sharp dresser, and a small but very spunky fellow. He was the first president in many years without a college education.

Truman was called "The Man from Independence" (Missouri). His cabinet was made of the "Missouri gang", and like Harding of

the 20's, Truman was prone to stick by his boys when they got caught in some wrong-doings.

Truman gained confidence as he went along. He also earned the nickname of "Give 'em Hell Harry." He also a bit prone to making hot-headed or rash decisions, or sticking with a bad decision out of stubbornness.

Despite little drawbacks, Truman was decisive, "real", responsible, had moxie. He loved the sayings "The buck stops here," and "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen."

Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal? The Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) had met at the Yalta

Conference in Feb. 1945 (there last meeting). That meeting shaped the Cold War to come. It was highlighted by distrust between the U.S./Britain and the Soviet Union.

FDR and Churchill did not trust Russia's ambitions for the post-war, ditto Russia the other way.

Promises were made… Russia promised to enter the war against Japan. In return, Russia

would get land—1/2 of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, railroads in Manchuria, and Port Arthur on the Pacific.

This promise was kept. However, by the time Russia entered, the U.S. had all but won. It appeared Russia entered to just look good and accept the spoils of victory.

Russia pledged free elections for Poland and a representative government; also elections in Bulgaria and Romania. These promises were flatly broken. The Soviets set up puppet communist governments.

FDR was roundly criticized for doing poorly at the Yalta Conference. Promises had been accepted from Stalin only to be broken. China fell to the communists a few years later (1948) and FDR got

some of the blame for selling out Chiang Kai-Shek and China to communist Russia.

Defenders of FDR say he did what he could in the circumstances. If he'd not bargained with Stalin over Japan, the Soviets may have even taken more of China.

The United States and the Soviet Union The post-war world had two superpowers: the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.

(Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Distrust was high. The Soviet Union felt put-out by the Americans because: (1) the U.S.

had waited until 1933 to officially recognize the U.S.S.R., (2) the Allies had been slow to start a second front, (3) America withdrew the lend-lease program to Russia in 1945, and (4) America rejected Russia's request for a $6 billion reconstruction loan, but gave one

for Germany for $3.75 billion. Russia perceived all of these things as insults. Russia had been attacked from the west twice within about 25 years,

so, Stalin wanted a protective buffer from Western Europe. To create that protection, Russia set up puppet communist governments in Eastern Europe. These "satellite nations" would serve as a buffer zone to the Soviet Union.

Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had now been thrown into the international spotlight. They'd both been isolationist, but now had to drive international policies. Both had a history of "missionary" diplomacy—of trying to press their ways onto others.

The U.S. and U.S.S.R. had opposing economic-political systems (capitalism and democracy vs. communism) and they didn't trust the other side. The "Cold War" had begun. Their actions and policies would dominate international affairs for the next 40 years.

Shaping the Postwar World The Atlantic Charter had called for a new League of Nations. That was

realized. A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, NH (1944). There, the Allies

set up the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to propell world trade and regulate currency exchange rates. It also started the World Bank to give loans to needy nations (ravaged by war or just poor).

Days after FDR died, a charter was drawn up for the United Nations in April 1945 in San Francisco. 50 nations participated. It's headquarters would be in New York City.

The U.N. was like the League in concept, the U.N.'s structure was different. It had three main categories…

The General Assembly—the main meeting place where each nation got 2 votes.

The Security Council dealing with conflict and war. It had 11 member nations, 5 were permanent with total veto power (U.S., Britain, France, U.S.S.R. and China). The Security Council would prove to be the most influential and active in world affairs.

Other relief-based agencies, such as UNESCO (U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Org.), the FAO (Food and Agricultural Org.) and WHO (World Health Org.).

Unlike the old League of Nations, the senate was favorable to the U.N. It was accepted by a vote of 89 to 2.

The U.N. helped keep the peace in Iran, Kashmir, and other hotspots. It also helped set up Israel as a homeland for the Jews.

The pressing issue was atomic weaponry. America was the only nation with an atomic bomb at the time—though Russia was getting very

close. U.S. delegate to the United Nations Bernard Baruch called for a

U.N. agency to totally regulate atomic weapons. Russia was distrustful of American ambitions.

The Soviets proposed a total ban on atomic weapons. Neither proposal was accepted and thus regulation of atomic weapons did not happen. The nations were to go at it on their own.

The Problem of Germany Nazi leaders were tried at the Nuremberg Trials just after the war for

crimes against humanity. Everyone's rationale was that they'd just been following their orders. Twelve hanged, seven were given long sentences. Hermann Goering killed himself with cyanide.

There was disagreement with what to do about Germany. The U.S. wanted Germany to rebuild as that's good for Europe's economy. Russia wanted reparations.

To avoid Germany rearming, the country was divided into four zones. The U.S., France, Britain, and Russia would oversee one zone. The idea was to reunite Germany, but Russia balked at the idea. Germany was going to remain split.

West Germany would be a democracy, East Germany was a puppet communist nation.

Berlin was located in East Germany (Russia's section) and it was also split into four zones. The end result was a free West Berlin located inside Russian-controlled East Germany, like an island.

Russia suddenly cut off the railway to West Berlin (1948) in attempt to strangle West Berlin into giving itself over to the East.

America's response was the Berlin Airlift where the U.S. simply flew in needed supplies to West Berlin. The operation was on a massive scale, and it worked. The Soviet Union ended their blockade the next year.

The Cold War Congeals Wanting oil fields, Stalin failed to fulfill a treaty to remove troops in

Iran, but rather he helped some rebels. Pres. Truman was not happy. By this time, deep distrust was the rule, and both sides hardened toward the other.

The American position toward Russia became formal with the George F. Kennan's "containment doctrine." It simply said the U.S.S.R. was expansionist by nature and but it could be held in check by firm American containment.

Pres. Truman made the containment policy official by announcing the Truman Doctrine (1947). In the doctrine he asked Congress for $400 million to aid Greece and Turkey who were feeling communist pressures.

Though focused on Greece and Turkey at the time, the Truman Doctrine was greatly broadened—the U.S. was to stop communism anywhere it seemed to be trying to expand. This policy would dominate U.S. foreign policy for the next four decades.

Western Europe's economy was struggling badly. To help, Truman and Sec. of State George C. Marshall started the Marshall Plan, a massive project to lend financial help to rebuild Europe.

The plan helped in the formation of the European Community (EC).

Some $12.5 billion was spent over four years, a huge sum. Congress thought the number too high (they'd already given $2 billion to U.N. agencies), but a Russia-sponsored revolution in Czechoslovakia changed their minds.

The Marshall Plan worked. Western Europe's economies rebounded, and communist groups in those nations lost influence.

Pres. Truman formally recognized Israel on May 14, 1948, the day it was started. He wanted to help the Jews after the Holocaust, but also hurt the Soviet influence there.

Arab nations were not pleased. America's decision to support Israel, along with oil in the region, would long affect U.S.-Arab relations.

America Begins to Rearm The military reorganized in 1947 with the National Security Act. The old War Department was replaced with the Department of

Defense; the Sec. of War replaced with the Sec. of Defense. Civilian secretaries would also head the army, navy, and air force. The military heads of each branch were to meet in the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

The National Security Council (NSC) was formed by the National Security Act. The council was to advise the president on security matters. The act also formed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather foreign intelligence.

America fired up the propaganda machine. Congress okayed the Voice of America (1948) radio broadcast to be transmitted into Eastern Europe.

The military draft was brought back. Young men 19 to 25 might be drafted by the Selective Service System.

The old allies organized in 1948. The U.S. joined up with Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg united to start the North Atlantic Treaty Org. (NATO). It was an alliance where attacking one meant attacking them all. The U.S. joined despite an unwritten national policy and tradition of avoiding "entangling

alliances." NATO would later grow. Greece and Turkey joined up in 1952,

West Germany in 1955. NATO had 15 nations by then. Not to be outdone by the West, the Soviets set up the Warsaw

Pact made up of the U.S.S.R. and the Eastern European nations.

Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia Japan also had to be managed after the war. Gen. Douglas MacArthur

essentially ran as a dictator to draw up a new Japanese constitution based on the U.S. Constitution (1946).

Japan was a success story. It quickly and successfully embraced democracy and also recovered economically to become one of the world's richest and most productive nations.

China, however, was having problems. Mao Zedong led communist forces in a civil war against Chiang

Kai-Shek's (AKA Jiang Jieshi) Nationalist government. Mao and the communists won in 1949. Chiang Kai-Shek and the

Nationalists had to retreat offshore to the island of Formosa (Taiwan).

With a huge nation like China going communist, this was a bad loss for the U.S. in the Cold War.

Truman was criticized for not dong enough to stop the loss. Likely, he couldn't have stopped it anyway.

The nuclear arms race began in Sept. 1949 when the U.S.S.R. announced it'd successfully detonated an atomic bomb, ending America's "nuclear monopoly."

In 1952, the U.S. detonated a hydrogen bomb. The "H-bomb" (which relies on nuclear fusion of hydrogen) was a 1,000 times more powerful than an "A-bomb" (which relies on fission of a heavy element like uranium).

It was so powerful that both Albert Einstein and J. Robert Oppenheimer spoke out. Einstein had written a letter to FDR to initiate the A-bomb's construction and Oppenheimer had been in charge of the Manhattan Project which built the bomb. They both advised to not build the H-bomb.

Not only was the arms race on, but the H-bomb had greatly raised the stakes.

Ferreting Out Alleged Communists The question then became, "Are any communists here in America?" The attorney general named 90 possibly-communist organizations.

They were not allowed to defend themselves. The Loyalty Review Board was started to investigate the

loyalties of some 3 million federal employees. About 3,000 either resigned or were fired. Many states made "loyalty" a

priority. Teachers, especially, were often made to take "loyalty oaths."

The obvious problems were the rights to free speech, press, and thought being hampered. Still, at this time, those rights were muffled.

11 communists were tried in New York in 1949 under the Smith Act. It was a peacetime anti-sedition act (the first since 1798). They were convicted, imprisoned, and their case upheld by the Supreme Court in Dennis v. U.S. (1951).

The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) set out to investigate "subversion".

Richard Nixon made a name for himself as a red hunter by pursuing Alger Hiss. He was convicted of perjury and served five years.

Sen. Joseph McCarthy wanted to show himself a red hunter too. He threw around wild accusations with little or no basis to them.

Some people started to think the red hunting business was going too far—turning from concern to hysteria.

Pres. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill. It was to allow the president to arrest and hold suspicious persons during an "internal security emergency." Congress passed the bill over Truman's veto.

Since the U.S.S.R. had built the atomic bomb quicker than was expected, many Americans suspected spies within the U.S. had sold nuclear secrets.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were suspected of leaking U.S. secrets to Russia. They were convicted for espionage and executed. The whole nasty business of trial and execution, and their two newly orphaned children, began to sober up Americans against red hunting.

Democratic Divisions in 1948 The Republican had won control of the House in 1946 and were feeling

confident in '48. They nominated Thomas Dewey as candidate for president.

The Democrats wanted Gen. Eisenhower, but he refused the nomination. So, Pres. Truman was up for reelection. This split the party.

Southern Democrats (called "Dixiecrats") nominated Gov. Strom Thurmond of SC for the States' Rights Party.

A new Progressive Party offered former V.P. Henry Wallace. It was really a Dewey vs. Truman race. Dewey seemed to have the

momentum, but the Democratic vote had been split three ways. The Chicago Daily Tribune jumped the gun and infamously printed

the headline "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN."

Truman actually won 303 to 189 in the electoral (Thurmond also got 39). The Democrats also retook Congress.

Pres. Truman had gotten support from regular folks, especially farmers, workers, and blacks.

Reinvigorated, he started a program named "Point Four." It was to give money and technical help to underdeveloped nations. It was a humanitarian effort, but it was also to prevent them from going communist.

He outlined a new domestic program called the "Fair Deal." It was a mini-New Deal. The Fair Deal was to improve housing; increase employment, minimum wage, farm price supports; start a new TVA, and extend Social Security.

Many of these programs were shot down in Congress. Its major successes were in upping the minimum wage, passing

the Housing Act (1949) to provide public housing, and extending old-age benefits in a new Social Securities Act (1950).

The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950) As Germany had been split, so too had Korea. North Korea had a

communist government thanks to Russia, South Korea was democratic thanks to the U.S. North and South Korea were split at the 38th parallel.

Things were okay until June 25, 1950 when the North suddenly invaded the South. The South was overrun except for the southernmost city of Pusan.

America's Truman Doctrine policy of containment was being challenged. It was time to put-up or shut-up.

Pres. Truman took action and used Korea as an opportunity to build up the U.S. military.

The National Security Council had recommended in 1950 document called NSC-68 that America's defense spending be quadrupled. Truman put NSC-68 into action.

NSC-68 was symbolic in that (1) it showed the fear of communism and (2) it showed the seemingly limitless production possibilities of the U.S. to even order such a massive build-up.

Truman also used the U.N. With Russia and their veto temporarily out, the U.N. named North Korea the aggressor. The U.N. called for action to restore peace—this was the go-ahead to military action.

Within the week, Truman sent Gen. MacArthur's troops to South Korea in a "police action." The U.N. named MacArthur commander of the entire operation, but he took orders from Washington.

The Military Seesaw in Korea

There were three phases of the war… First, was the North's invasion of the South in 1950. Secondly, MacArthur's troops set up at Pusan then did a bold

"end-around" and hit behind enemy lines at Inchon. Surprised, the North Koreans were quickly driven northward. They went nearly all the way to the Yalu River, the China border. MacArthur thought the war nearly over. Crossing the 38th parallel into the North raised the stakes.

Third, some 200,000 Chinese "volunteers" helped push back southward to the original line at the 38th parallel.

MacArthur called for a blockade and bombing of China. Washington didn't want to take the war that big. MacArthur pressed the issue and went public with it.

Pres. Truman fired MacArthur. Truman was criticized for removing the popular general, but he felt he had no choice. The American military is ultimately run by civilians, not the military.

The war bogged down there for two more years, and that's where it ended in 1953

The Eisenhower Era Affluence and Its Anxieties The post-WWII economy was a booming economy. 25% of all homes in

1960 were less than a decade old. 83% of the new homes were in the suburbs.

The field of electronics hit a milestone with the invention of the transistor. Computers and electronics could now become small (the first computers, "UNIVAC" and "ENIAC", were room-size).

This gave rise to high-tech companies like IBM. The "information age" was beginning.

In the Cold War atmosphere led Pres. Eisenhower to build up the Strategic Air Command. Aerospace industries thrived, like the Boeing Company which built the first passenger jet airliner, the 707.

A social milestone was hit in 1956 when "white-collar" workers outnumbered "blue-collar" workers. That is to say there were more tie-wearing professionals than workers who get their hands dirty.

This was bad news for labor unions. Unions membership numbers peaked in 1954.

This was good news for women who found jobs as clerks and in offices.

In the media, the traditional roles of women at home were championed. For example, TV shows like "Leave it to

Beaver" and "Ozzie and Harriet" featured stay-at-home moms. This so-called "cult of domesticity" would soon be challenged.

Betty Friedan started the modern feminist movement with her book The Feminine Mystique (1963). A former homemaker herself, Friedan wasn't satisfied with just being a suburban mother and felt women were selling themselves short—they could get jobs of their own and do so much more. Many women liked what they read.

Friedan's book showed a split in the views of the roles of women: should women focus exclusively on their families or should they pursue careers as men did? The idea was that staying at home may sell the woman short, a career woman may sell the family short.

Consumer Culture in the Fifties Similar to the 1920's, the 50's were an era of consumerism. Diner's Club cards made their appearance, McDonald's started,

Disneyland was built, TV's came to nearly all homes. Reflecting TV sales, $10 billion was spent on TV ads and movie

attendance went down. "Televangelists" went to airwaves to save souls, like Billy Graham

(Baptist), Oral Roberts (Pentecostal Holiness), and Fulton J. Sheen (Catholic).

Following Americans to the west, sports shifted westward. The Dodgers moved from Brooklyn to L.A., the New York Giants to San Francisco.

Sex appeal was used to sell. Elvis "the Pelvis" Presley's dance moves were dubbed

inappropriate by the older generation. On his second appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show" he was only filmed from the waist up.

Marilyn Monroe was featured on the cover of the new magazine Playboy and was called the "Sex Goddess for the Nuclear Age."

Though mostly good news in good times, there was criticism. Writers criticized the new era's conformity, such as in The Lonely

Crowd by David Riesman, The Organization Man by William H. Whyte, Jr., and in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit by Sloan Wilson.

John Kenneth Galbraith, a Harvard economist, wrote The Affluent Society. The book saw a problem between a generally rich and affluent society despite public problems such as polluted air and garbage.

The Advent of Eisenhower For the 1952 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Adlai

Stevenson the down-home Illinois governor. The Republicans

opted against Robert A. Taft, an isolationist, and went with war here Dwight D. Eisenhower. Richard Nixon was Eisenhower's running mate for V.P.

Eisenhower was the clear favorite. He was a war hero, grandfatherly, had a big smile, and the "I like Ike" slogan and song was catchy. He attacked Stevenson as soft on communism.

Ike's campaign hit a snap when Nixon was accused of having used a secret "slush fund" as a senator. Nixon went on TV and gave the "Checkers speech. He spoke of his dog Checkers and how his little girl loved the dog and said he wasn't a crook. People forgave him and he stayed on the ticket.

Aside from pushing emotional buttons, the importance of the Checkers speech showed the new power and influence of TV.

Seeing the power of TV, Ike did some question-and-answer spots for the campaign.

Ike won big, 442 to 89 in the electoral. He'd promised to personally go to Korea and settle the issue. Ike did fly to Korea, but failed at ending the conflict. Seven months later, after Ike threatened nuclear bombs, an

armistice was signed. The Korean War's was evaluated… 54,000 Americans had died (and maybe a million

Chinese and Koreans). Tens of billions of dollars had been spent. Korea was still split at the 38th parallel, the same as the beginning of the war.

On the plus side, America's mission had been to uphold the Truman Doctrine and contain communism, and that mission was accomplished.

As president, Ike handled the military well. He seemed above petty political splits. On the down side, looking back, he could've used his popularity to propel the infant civil rights movement (he largely ignored it).

The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

Sen. Joseph McCarthy claimed that Sec. of State Dean Acheson had knowingly hired 205 communists. Despite lacking evidence, the red-hunt was on.

McCarthy's claims got wilder and out of hand. He accused Gen. George Marshall as being in some kind of communist conspiracy.

Ike didn't like McCarthy and didn't want to get into the dirty business. Ike did allow purges to go on at the State Dept. Many Asian specialists were removed—when the Vietnam War started, their absence hurt.

McCarthy met his downfall when he threw charges at the U.S. Army. Hearings were held on TV where the nation saw him as reckless, a bully, and making the whole thing up on the fly. He was later condemned by the Senate and died three years later of alcoholism.

Desegregating American Society Down South, Jim Crow laws still segregated the races. Though able to

vote on paper, only about 20% of southern blacks were actually registered to vote (only 5% in the Deep South states).

On top of the Jim Crow laws, Southern whites used an array of social norms to keep blacks second class.

There was intimidation, threats of job loss, beatings and lynchings. These crimes often were unpunished.

The rest of the world saw this American embarrassment. Swede Gunnar Myrdal wrote An American Dilemma. In his book, he pointed out the hypocrisy of "The American Creed" (liberty, equality, etc.) when placed against the reality of racism in America.

This was a continuation of WWII's "Double-V" argument—how could the U.S. fight Hitler's racism yet let it carry on at home?

The Civil Rights movement did get its beginnings after the war. There's a saying that "Baseball is life." Baseball certainly mirrors

much of America's life and history and the race issue is prime example. In 1947, Jackie Robinson, became the first black to play in the Major Leagues. This symbolic move was the one of the first steps in the Civil Rights movement.

Pres. Harry S Truman integrated the military in 1948, a major step.

The NAACP instigated and won race-based cases. In Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Supreme Court ruled that

black professional schools were not equal to white. This was referring to the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896) saying "separate but equal" facilities were okay.

In 1955, Rosa Parks refused the custom of giving up her bus seat to white riders. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott was led by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., succeeded in changing the custom, and was thrust onto the national stage.

By boycotting, King showed his tactic of "peaceful resistance" (AKA "nonviolent protest" or "civil disobedience"). This tactic was used by Henry David Thoreau protesting the Mexican War and by Mohandas Gandhi in India.

Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution When black soldiers were lynched in 1946, Pres. Truman made the

move to integrate the military (1948). But, that's as far as it went.

Eisenhower and Congress did little to propel the civil rights. The only branch of government civil rights activists had to work with

was the judicial branch. The "Warren court", headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren engaged in

judicial activism to make changes. The case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS

(1954) was the bombshell. Building on the Sweatt v. Painter case, Brown v. Board said segregated public schools were unconstitutional and should be integrated with "all deliberate speed."

The Brown case essentially overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal" case.

"Deliberate speed" was slow in the South as local school districts simply didn't want to integrate.

After ten years, only 2% of schools in the Deep South were integrated.

Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred roughly around 1970.

Other civil rights events occurred. Though reluctant to act on civil rights, Eisenhower was forced to

at Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The AR governor had activated the National Guard to not admit black students into the school. Challenged, Ike called in federal troops to admit the students.

Also in 1957, a Civil Rights Act was passed, the first since Reconstruction. Ike said it was the "mildest" one possible.

Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) ) to organize black churches.

In Greensboro, NC, the "sit-in" movement began. Black students protested segregated lunch counters by sitting at white-only counters. They wouldn't get served, but their sitting down shut down the counters until the policy was changed.

With success in Greensboro, the movement spread and became wade-ins, lie-ins, and pray-ins.

Black students formed the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to organize efforts.

Eisenhower Republicanism at Home Ike had promised "dynamic conservatism"—be liberal with people, be

conservative with money. Ike was a middle-of-the-road politician who didn't strike too far one way or the other.

Eisenhower wanted to balance the federal budget and safeguard from "creeping socialism."

He cut military spending, supported transferring control of offshore oil drilling to the states, and tried to cut back on the

TVA by encouraging private power companies instead of government ones.

When the Salk polio vaccine was given freely, Ike's secretary of health, education, and welfare said it was socialism coming in through the back door.

Under Sec. of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson, the government bought up grain at the clip of $2 million per day in hopes of keeping prices up. Farmers struggled none-the-less.

The Mexican government was concerned that illegal Mexican immigration into the U.S. would undermine the bracero program of legal immigrants. Ike started "Operation Wetback" to round up and return illegal Mexican immigrants.

Ike again reversed the governments policy toward American Indians. FDR's "Indian New Deal" would go back to policies similar to the old Dawes Severalty Act—end tribes and assimilate into mainstream American culture. This move was unpopular and ended in 1961.

Ike did keep much of the New Deal. Social Security, unemployment benefits stayed on. Ike even one-upped FDR with his Interstate Highway Act.

It built 42,000 interstate miles. These highways did much to change the economic and social structure of America. They helped businesses and families move from downtowns to suburbs, from Main Street to Wal-Mart.

A New Look in Foreign Policy Sec. of State John Foster Dulles wanted to go beyond the policy of

containment. He wanted to "rollback" communism, to liberate countries that had been taken over.

He proposed cutting back on military spending, but focusing on building nuclear weapon-carrying bombers in a "Strategic Air Command."

The new policy also spoke of "massive retaliation", the threat that any nuclear action would result in a massive response.

This stepping up of policy centered on "deterrence" (convincing an enemy to not act) and it greatly increased the stakes of the Cold War.

Ike wanted to ease the tension a bit with Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev, but Ike was blocked.

Also, the Russians ruthlessly put down a revolution in Hungary. The Vietnam Nightmare Southeast Asia, for years, had been under French colonial rule. The

Asians wanted France out. Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh had tried to appeal to Woodrow

Wilson for self-determination, way back in 1919. He felt FDR

may be sympathetic to Vietnam's cause. However, Ho Chi Minh started going more and more communist, and the U.S. started backing away.

America simply wanted to let France handle the growing communism (though the U.S. paid for 80% of France's fighting).

At Dienbienphu (1954), France was surrounded, lost, and France simply decided to leave Southeast Asia. This created a void where communism could grow. This battle marks the real beginning of America's interest in Vietnam.

A multinational conference at Geneva split Vietnam in half at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam wound up communist, a non-communist government in South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem.

Like NATO, Sec. Dulles created SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization). It was more symbolic than anything, though.

Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East Russia formed the Warsaw Pact (1956) to balance NATO. But, the "spirit of Geneva" (the peace conference) encouraged an ease

in tensions. When Ike asked for arms reductions, Khrushchev was receptive. Also, Khrushchev publicly denounced the atrocities of Stalin (Stalin had killed some 20 million of his own people).

A wake-up call happened in 1956 when Hungary was protesting against the communists. The Soviets rolled in the tanks and crushed the rebellion. The U.S. gave no aid and it was clear the Cold War would continue.

Communism, colonialism, and oil combined in events in the Middle East as well.

The U.S. worried Russia would invade the Middle East for its oil. The CIA pulled off a coup in Iran and placed a young shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi in charge as essentially a dictator.

This operation was successful for the time, but would come back to haunt the U.S. in the 1970's.

In Egypt, nationalist Gamal Abdel Nassar wanted to build a dam on the Nile. America and Britain offered some help, then Nassar flirted with communism. Sec. Dulles removed the U.S. offer and Nassar took over the Suez Canal. This threatened the oil supply to the West.

Britain and France attacked Egypt (Oct. 1956) without America's knowledge. Ike would not supply oil to Britain and France and they had to withdraw. The U.N. sent in peacekeeping forces.

This was to end to America's "oil weapon." In 1940, the U.S. produced 2/3 of the world's oil. By 1948, the U.S. was a net importer of oil.

Ike and Congress declared the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957. It

promised U.S. help to the Middle East if threatened by communism.

In the Middle East, communism wasn't the real threat to the U.S., nationalism and the power of oil was. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran linked with Venezuela to form OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries). OPEC would become a major headache for America.

Round Two for “Ike” The election of 1956 was a repeat of '52: Eisenhower vs. Adlai

Stevenson. The Democrats attacked Ike's health and said he was a part-time president—doing more golfing than governing.

Times were good and Ike was popular, he won big again, 457 to 73. However, both houses of Congress did go to the Democrats. Ike lost two of his top men. Sec. of State Dulles died of cancer in '59.

Ike's assistant Sherman Adams had to step down due to bribery charges. There would be less golfing for the president.

The labor unions had been getting ugly with things like gangsterism, fraud, bullying.

The AFL-CIO (combined at this point) had to boot out the Teamsters because of their leader James Hoffa's rough tactics. He was convicted of jury-tampering, served a while, then disappeared (likely mobsters he'd angered finally got him).

Ike got the Landrum-Griffin Act passed (1959) to watch labor unions' bookkeeping and other sleazy monkey-business.

On Oct. 4, 1957, Americans were stunned to read that the Russians had placed the first satellite in orbit, the 184 pound Sputnik I. The space race was on. A month later, Sputnik II put a 1100 pound satellite in space, and a dog.

Four months later, the U.S. sent up Explorer I with America's first satellite (a tiny 2.5 pounds).

Americans had comfortably assumed the U.S. led in all matters scientific; apparently, not true. Worse, the logic went: if the Soviets can put a dog in space, then they can deliver a nuclear weapon to the U.S. using ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).

Rocket fever started. Ike set up the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) and channeled money. By 1960, several U.S. satellites were up and ICBMs were

tested. Schools also changed. After Sputnik, emphasis was taken

from the humanities (art, drama, dance, etc.) and placed

on the sciences and math. The National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) provided millions of dollars in college loans to teach science and languages.

The Continuing Cold War Testing nuclear weapons was dirty business—radioactive fallout is not

healthy. Both the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. said they'd stop "dirty tests." In a world of distrust, policing this wasn't possible, however.

Tension was high in 1958. Lebanon was threatened by Egypt and communism. They asked for U.S. help under the Eisenhower Doctrine. Ike sent several thousand U.S. troops and the situation was resolved without any loss of life.

In 1959, Nikita Khrushchev wanted to look good for propaganda purposes. He invited Ike to Russia. Khrushchev spoke to the U.N. General Assembly and offered complete Soviet disarmament (this was hollow talk).

Khrushchev met Eisenhower at Camp David. Things sounded good at the Russian leader spoke of evacuating Berlin.

This "spirit of Camp David" didn't last long. The next year, there was to be a summit in Paris. Berlin was to be the main topic.

The night before the summit, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down. The plane had indeed been spying on Russia in their airspace (a no-no). The "U-2 Incident" was an embarrassment to the U.S and to Ike. The summit fell apart.

Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism The Latin American nations were upset that the U.S. gave billions to

Europe (the Marshall Plan) and millions to them. Latin America also disliked continued American interventionism,

such as a CIA coup in Guatemala (1954) and support to nearly any dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.

In Cuba 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista whom America supported. Castro began to nationalize Cuban lands, many were owned by Americans. Castro's plan was to take from large landowners then distribute the land to the people. His tactics, however, were bloody and merciless.

Castro's communistic actions pleased and endeared him to the Soviet Union.

Almost 1 million Cubans fled to America, mostly to Miami and Tampa (still headquarters for American cigars).

In protest, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 and started a strict economic embargo.

There was talk of invoking the Monroe Doctrine to keep Russia out. Khrushchev said the doctrine was dead and threatened nuclear missiles if Cuba was attacked.

Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency The 1960 election was a memorable one. The Republicans nominated

Richard Nixon (V.P. candidate Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.) and the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy (V.P. candidate Lyndon B. Johnson).

Kennedy was Catholic, supposedly a drawback in an election. But, his faith might've gained as many votes as it lost.

The 1960 TV debates were important. Kennedy was young, handsome, articulate, and spoke into the camera (to the viewers). Nixon came off as sweaty, shifty, and unshaven. As V.P. for 8 years, Nixon was likely the front-runner. But, the TV debates helped draw the race to dead even and again showed the power of TV.

Kennedy won the very close election, 303 to 219 in the electoral. The popular vote differed by only 118,000 votes out of 68 million cast.

An Old General Fades Away All-in-all, Eisenhower's eight years were respectable for their dignity,

decency, sincerity, good-will, and moderation. The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limited a president to two

terms. The thinking, then, was that Ike's power would diminish his last couple of years since everyone knew he was on his way out. Instead, Ike was very active in his last couple of years as president.

The St. Lawrence seaway was finished in 1959. The cities of the Great Lakes were now seaports to the ocean.

Two states were added: Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. The biggest failure of Eisenhower was that he didn't embrace the infant

civil rights movement. Being a moderate, Ike would not shake things up with civil rights changes.

Still, Ike did more good than bad: he incorporated Democratic New Deal ideas, was restrained at using the military, he ended one war and avoided others, and presided over one of America's most prosperous decades.

The Life of the Mind in Postwar America Marvelous literature came at this time. Ernest Hemingway wrote The

Old Man and the Sea (1952) and won the Nobel Prize for literature. He killed himself in 1961. John Steinbeck won the Prize too. He wrote East of Eden (1952) and Travels with Charley.

Whereas WWI had spawned tremendous literature, WWII didn't so much. There were some WWII novels…

The earlier WWII novels used cutting realism, as WWI had done. Norman Mailer wrote The Naked and the Dead. James Jones wrote From Here to Eternity about Pearl Harbor.

Later WWII novels turned away from realism and used fantasy. Joseph Heller wrote a quirky Catch-22. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. wrote Slaughterhouse Five in a crazy style that jumped all

over the place. Literature looked at social issues. John Updike criticized conformist affluence in Rabbit, Run. The

similar theme was pursued in John Cheever's The Wapshot Chronicle.

Poets boomed too. They were usually very critical of American life as being showy and hollow. Older poets were still active, such as Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, and William Carlos Williams.

New poets emerged to overshadow the old. Theodore Roethke wrote about the beauty of the land, Robert Lowells tried to apply Puritan sense to modern problems in poems like For the Union Dead. Sylvia Plath wrote the poem Ariel and the novel The Bell Jar about her mental ills. She died by suicide. Poets Anne Sexton and John Berryman committed suicide as well.

Playwrights wrote masterpieces. Tennessee Williams wrote about screwed-up southerners A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.

Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman. It criticized the conformity culture of the 50's. The Crucible dealt with the Salem witch trials, but clearly was criticism of modern McCarthyism.

More criticism of middle-class life came with Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? African-American life was shown in Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun.

There was much literature written by African-Americans. Richard Wright wrote Native Son about a black Chicago killer.

Ralph Ellison wrote Invisible Man arguing that a black man can't be seen as a real man.

James Baldwin wrote The Fire Next Time and LeRoi Jones wrote plays like Dutchman.

Southern literature had its greats. William Faulkner often wrote in the newly popular stream-of-consciousness style. His novels were hard to understand and psychologically charged. An example would be The Sound and the Fury.

Flannery O'Connor wrote about her native Georgia. William Styron wrote about his native Virginia's ugly past in a novel The Confessions of Nat Turner about the slave 1831 rebellion.

Jewish authors produced great books too. J.D. Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye about a sassy prep school boy.

Bernard Malamud wrote about Jewish families (his most famous book was The Natural, a baseball book). Saul Bellow wrote of Jewish life in Chicago in books like The Adventures of Augie March. He won the Nobel prize in 1977.