Frankl'd Logotherapy a New Orientation in Counseling

8/13/2019 Frankl'd Logotherapy a New Orientation in Counseling

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Frankl s LogotherapT: A New Orientation in Counseling 373

Frank l sA N e w

Logotherapy:O r i e n t a t i o n m C o u n s e l i n g

JA M ES C C R U M B A U G H

The background of logotherap~T h e m a t e r i a l a ff lu e n ce t h a t h a s fo l l o w e d W o r l d W a r I I h a s g i v e n A m e r i -c a n s m o r e t o l i v e with t h a n a n y p e o p l e i n h i s t o r y h a v e h a d . B u t a n a -t i o n w i d e u n r e s t t h a t p e r m e a t e s e v e r y s tr a t u m o f s o c ie t y i s r e fl e ct ed i ns u ic i d es , c h r o n i c a l c o h o l i s m , n a r c o t i c a d d i c t i o n , L S D t r i p s , c r i m ea n d d e l i n q u e n c y , u r b a n r io ts , s tu d e n t r e vo lt s, a n d o v e r e m p h a s i s u p o np u r e p l e a s u r e f o r t h e m o m e n t . T h i s r e s t l e s s n e s s s u g g e s t s t h a t , i n s p i t e o ft h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d m a t e r i a l means, m u l t i t u d e s o f p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e l es sto l ive for t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .

T h i s p a p e r w a s d e l iv e r e d b e f or e t he c o m b i n e d w o r k s h o p s f o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s , c h a p -l a i n s , a n d m i n i s t e r s a t t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r R e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e H a n d i c a p p e d ,B i l o x i , M i s s i s s i p p i , M a r c h 1 8, 19 69 . T h e w r i t e r is i n d e b t e d t o t h e Journal of Grapho-analysis f o r p e r m i s s i o n to r e p r o d u c e i n t h e i n i t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e p a p e r m u c h m a t e -r i a l p u b l i s h e d i n h i s s i m i l a r a r t i c l e f o r p e r s o n a l c o u n s e l o r s , S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 68 . T h a n k s a r ed u e a l s o to S c ie n c e a n d B e h a v i o r B o o k s f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o q u o t e p o r t i o n s o f F r a n k l s r e -p o r t o f h i s l o g o t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e rv i e w w i t h a n 8 0 - y e a r- o l d w o m a n p a t i e n t p u b l i s h e d i nMo dern Ps~ch otherapeutic Practice e d i t e d b y A r t h u r B u r t o n .JAMES C. CRUMBAUGHP H . D . , s p e n t a n u m b e r o f y e a r s i n t e a c h i n g a n d r e s e a r c h i np s y c h o l o g y b e fo r e a s s u m i n g h i s p r e s e n t p o s t a s c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t i n t h e V e t e ra n sA d m i n i s t r a t i o n H o s p i t a l , G u l f p o r t , M i s s is s i p p i , i n 1 96 5. H e i s a m e m b e r o f t h e A m e r i -

c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n a n d o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d a u t h o r o f m a n ya r ti c le s . H e i s p r e p a r i n g a b o o k o n l o g o t h e r a p y t o be p u b l i s h e d n e x t y e a r.


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374 Journal of Religion and Health

T h e a f t e rm a t h o f w a r a l w a y s b r in g s s o ci a l c h a n g e ; t h e t w o w o r l d w a r sh a v e p re c i p it a te d a n a l m o s t c o m p l e t e b r e a k d o w n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n dt r a d i t i o n a l v a l u es . B u t t h e sc i en t if ic a n d i n d u s t r i a l p a c e - - w h i c h w a ra ls o te n ds to c a ta p u l t u p w a r d - - h a s a l l o w e d n o p e r i o d o f c o o l i n g d u r i n gw h i c h n e w v a l ue s m i g h t b e f o r m e d a s a n u c l e u s o f s oc i al s t ab i li ty . T h en e t r e su l t is a s ta te i n w h i c h c o u n t l e s s m i l l i o n s h a v e l o s t a s e n s e o f m e a n -i n g a n d p u r p o s e i n h u m a n l i fe .

I n t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h c l i n ic s a n d h o s p i t a l s t h is c h a n g e o v e r t h e la s tt w o g e n e r a t io n s h a s b e e n e q u a l l y a p p a r e n t . T h e V i c t o r i a n e r a t h a ts p a w n e d t h e cl a ss ic a l h y s t e r i c a l n e u r o s e s o f s ex r e p r e s s i o n h a s b e e nl a rg e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h e s e x u a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d m o r a l r e v o l t o f t h is a g eo f Angst ( a n xi e ty ) , i n w h i c h t h e c h a r a c te r i s ti c n e u r o t i c c o n d i t i o n i sa c o m p u l s i v e d r iv e f o r m a t e r i a l s u cc es s. T h e o n l 7 i m m o r a l i t y i s to f a il .

B u t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w i l d er n e ss o f m a n ' s p r e s e n t w a n d e r i n g a g r e a t - -t h o u g h o f t e n i n d i r ec t a n d u n c o n s c i o u s - - s e a r c h is c le a rl y d i s ce r n ib l e :t h e s e ar ch fo r p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g a n d i d e n t it y i n t h e c o m p u t e r i z e da n o n y m i t y of th e p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n .

A t t h is t i m e , in w h i c h s o m a n y h a v e s e e m e d to l os e h o p e o f f i n d i n g a n ys o l u t i o n s , a n o p t i m i s t i c v o i ce is n o w p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e is a n a n s w e rt o t h is f e e l in g o f e m p t i n e s s a n d v o i d . I t is c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o m e t h o d so f d i sc o v e ry t h a t c a n fill t h e v a c u u m o f v a l u e s a n d m e e t m a n ' s e s s e n ti a ln e e d t o f in d m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e i n h i s p e r s o n a l e x i st en c e .

T h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h is n e w p h i l o s o p h y w e r e g e n e r a t e d a s a h e a l i n ga g e n t i n t h e p s y c h i a t r i c c li n i c o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V i e n n a b e f o re W o r l dW a r II . T h e y w e r e te s te d b y t h e i r o r i g i n a t o r w h i l e h e w a s a v i c t i m f o rn e a r ly t h r ee y e a rs i n t h e w o r s t o f t h e N a z i d e a t h c a m p s . T h e y w e r e t h e nf o r m a l i z e d i n t h e c l in i c a f t er t h e p e r i o d o f l i b e r a ti o n , a g a i n a t V i e n n a .

T h e s e p r i n c ip l e s a re n o w b e i n g o f fe re d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d b y t h ef o u n d e r o f t h is s p ir i tu a l a p p r o a c h to t h e t h e r a p y o f m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n -a l d i s o r d e r s , P r o f e s s o r V i k t o r E . F r a n k l , h e a d o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f N e u -r o lg y o f V i e n n a ' s f a m e d P o l i k l i n i k H o s p i t a l . a F r a n k l , d e s c ri b e d b y PaceMagazine a s t h e h u m a n d y n a m o w h o is s p a r k i n g A m e r i c a n c o ll eg e sa n d u n i v e r s i t ie s , h a s re c e n t l y (e a rl y 1 96 9) c o m p l e t e d h i s t w e n t y - s i x t h


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Fra nkl s Logotherap?~:A N ew Orientation in Coun seling 375

l e c tu r e t o u r i n t h e U n i t e d S ta te s , h i s s i x t e e n t h b o o k ( t h e f o u r t h i n E n -g l is h ) , a n d h i s t h i r d w o r l d w i d e l e c t u r e t o u r .

H e h a s n a m e d h i s m e t h o d s l ogo therapy t o i n d i c a t e t r e a t m e n tt h r o u g h d i r e c t in g t h e p a t i e n t i n t h e se a rc h fo r th e u n i q u e m e a n i n g o f h isp e r s o n a l e x i s t e n c e . ( T h e G r e e k w o r d logos, o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s r e a -s o n , k n o w l e d g e , o r s tu d y , c a rr ie s a b a si c i m p l i c a t i o n o f m e a n i n g . )

T h i s i s a f o r m o f e x i s t e n ti a l p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t i t c e n te r sa t t e n t i o n u p o n m a n ' s e x i s t en c e i n t h e h u m a n d i m e n s i o n a s d i s t in -g u i s h e d f ro m h i s m e c h a n i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e b i o l o g ic a l d i m e n s i o n o fl if e. L o g o t h e r a p y is a p o i n t o f v i e w c o n c e r n i n g m a n ' s b a s ic n a t u r e . I t s ay st h a t m a n i s - - i n s p it e o f w h a t e v e r m e c h a n i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f h er e d i tya n d e n v i r o n m e n t h e m a y f a c e -- a lw a y s f re e to c h o o s e a m o n g a l t e r n a -t iv e s t h e a c t i o n h e w i l l t a k e i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e se d e t e r m i n e d f a c to r s . I tc h a r g e s e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a l w a y s t o be a w a r e o f t h i s f r e e d o m , a n d t h e re -f or e o f t h e c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s d e s t in y u p o n h i s o w n c h o ic e s .

M a n i s n e v e r a f i n is h e d p r o d u c t , b u t a n e t e rn a l ly a n d d y n a m i c a l l yc h a n g i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g o rg a n i s m ; h e n e v e r is, b u t a l w a y s i s b e c o m -ing. T h e r e f o r e h e f a ce s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h o i c e s t h a t w i l l t a k e h i mi n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f w h a t h e w i s h e s t o b e c o m e .

E x i s t e n t ia l i sm a i m s a t g u i d i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n d i s c o v e r i n g f o r h i m -s el f j u s t w h o h e is , w h a t h e w a n t s t o be , a n d i n f i n d i n g m e a n s o f e s ta b -l i s h i n g t hi s i d e n ti ty . L o g o t h e r a p y is t h e o n l y f o r m o f e x is t e n t i a l i s m t od e v e l o p a t e c h n i q u e o f t h e r a p y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s a i m .Th e pr inc ip l e s o f logo therapyF r a n k l h o l d s t h e s t r o n g e s t m o t i v e i n m a n t o b e t h e w i l l t o m e a n i n g(der Wi t t e zum S inn) . S i g m u n d F r e u d , t he f o u n d e r o f p s y c h o a n a ly s i s ,h e l d t h a t m a n is a h e d o n i s t i c o r p l e a s u r e - s e e k in g a n i m a l n e e d i n g o n -ly f u l f i l l m e n t o f i n s t i n c t i v e d r iv e s, w h i c h h e s u m m e d u p u n d e r t h e t e r m

l i b i d o o r s e x u a l e n e r g y . H e f e l t t h a t s ex w a s t h e b a s ic a n d a l l- p e r -v a si ve h u m a n i n s ti n c t. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d A l f re d A d le r , o n e o f F r e u d ' sc o m p e t i t o r s i n t h e e a rl y h i s to r y o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , t h o u g h t t h a t m a n is


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p r i m a r i l y m o t i v a t e d by t h e n e e d f o r m a s t er y , t e m p e r e d b y a n e q u a l l yi n s t i n c t i v e s o c i a l i n t e r e s t .

F r a n k l b el ie v e s t h a t F r e u d ' s p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e is a c o m p e n s a t o r ye s ca p e f r o m t h e e m p t i n e s s o f f a i lu r e t o fi n d m e a n i n g i n l if e, a n d t h a tA d l e r ' s m a s t e r y u r g e is a m e a n s o f se a rc h . F o r h i m , m a n ' s p r i m a r y n e e dis to f in d a p u r p o s e i n h i s p e r s o n a l e x i s t e n c e , a s e n s e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i nt h e t o t al i ty of e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m a r k s h i m a s a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l , d i ff er -e n t f r o m a l l o t h e r s i n t h e e n t i re h i s t o r y o f th e w o r l d . W h e n h e f i n d st h is , F r a n k l h o l d s , h e c a n g o o n a g a i n s t a l l o d d s; a n d w h e n h e l a c k s it ,h e f ee ls e m p t y a n d f r u s tr a t e d i n s p i te o f w h a t e v e r e l se h e m a y h a v e .

F r a n k l c a ll s t h e l a c k o f p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g i n e x i s t e n c e e x i s t e n t i a lv a c u u m . H e b el ie v es t h a t o u r P r e s e n t w o r l d c o n d i t i o n s in t e n s i fy t h iss ta te . I n fa ct, h e h o l d s t h a t i n A m e r i c a m w h e r e h e f in d s th e c o n d i t i o nw o r s e t h a n i n E u r o p e - - i t a p p l i e s i n s o m e d e g r e e to o v e r h a l f o f t h e g e n -e ra l p o p u l a t i o n .

W h e n e x is te n t i a l v a c u u m c o m b i n e s w i t h n e u r o t i c s y m p t o m s , i t p r o -d u c e s a n e w n e u r o s i s , noi~genic n e u r o s i s , w h i c h , h e b e li e ve s , r e p re -s e n ts a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e t y p i c a l c a se lo a d i n m o d e r n m e n t a l h e a l t hc l i n i c s . (No6genic is f r o m t h e G r e e k w o r d Nous, t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d a s p i r a -t i o n a l as p ec ts o f m i n d m a n e u r o s i s g e n e r a te d b y l a ck o f a s p i r a ti o n a lm e a n i n g i n l if e.)

F r a n k l m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e l a tt e r c o n d i t i o n , l i k e al l n e u r o s e s a n d o t h e rf o r m s o f m e n t a l i ll n e ss , s h o u l d b e t r e a te d o n l y i n a p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g ,b u t t h a t th e c o n d i t i o n o f e x i s t e n ti a l v a c u u m is o p e n t o h e l p f r o m a l l o ft h e c o u n s e l i n g p r o f e s s io n s : t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t , s o c i a l w o r k e r , p a s t o r a lc o u n s e l o r , a n d o t h e r s .

B e c au s e t h is p h e n o m e n o n is i n c re a s i n g l y s ee n as a p r o d u c t o f o u rt r o u b l e d t i m e s , th e p e r s o n a l c o u n s e l o r m a y w e l l f i n d t h e i n s i g h t s o fF r a n k l ' s l o g o t h e r a p y m o s t e ff ec ti ve i n d e a l i n g w i t h i t.

H o w m a y e x i st e n ti a l f r u s t ra t i o n b e d e te c te d ? T h e r e ar e a n u m b e r o fi n d i c i a t i o n s f o r w h i c h t o w a t c h :

F i rs t, r a th e r d i r ec t s t a t e m e n t s i m p l y i n g t h i s c o n d i t i o n f r e q u e n t l y o c -c u r i n th e c l i e n t ' s a t t e m p t t o s ta t e t h e p r o b l e m , s u c h as : I r e a ll y d o n ' t


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Frankl's Logotherapy: A New Orientation in Counseling 377

know who I am in li f e. . . . I've always felt that I'm supposed tO achievesomething, but I don't know what. . . . I seem to have lost meaning--there's no reason to go on. . . . There' s no thi ng worth wo rki ng for,no sense in it al l . . . . 'The whole scene's a drag; I can' t find my bag .

Second, there are evidences from the work and social histories of theindividual: frequent job changes, alcoholic or other escapes from fac-ing reality, frequent changes of address, abundant and superficial loveaffairs, suicidal t houg hts w here the client cann ot give any logical motiva-tion for not committing suicide (such as family responsibility, whichwould indicate that he does have some meaning in life), or periods ofdepression following almost every life disappointment. (Here be carefulnot to mistake endogenous or psychotic depression for the situation-al depression that often acco mpani es existential vacuum; if the depres-sion appears deep and incapacitating, it should be checked out by apsychiatrist, as shou ld any evidence of serious suicidal thi nkin g.)

Third, there are some psychological tests that can help to discover thiscondition: the Crumbaugh-Maholick Purpose-in-Life Test (PIL), andits a ccom pan yin g Seeking-of-Noetic-Goals Test (SONG).

The first has been validated as a group measure of existential vac-uum. 2 But neither it nor any other single test sho uld ever be used alon eas a basis for important decisions in the personal counseling of an in-dividual without corroborative evidences from the case history, inter-view, and any other tests of the same func tio n th at may be given.Th e second test is now be ing deve loped as a corollary of the first. Where-as the PIL aims at meas ure ment of the lack of mean ing and purpo se inlife, the SONG is designed to determine the degree of motivation tosearch for these missing elements. Together, they may be of considerablehelp in the detection of cases that can benefit by logotherapeutic coun-seling.

In addition, the Heimberg Future Time Perspective Test (FTP), whichmeasures the degree to which the subject looks to the future for fulfill-men t of life goals, is negatively correlated wit h the P IL and may be ofsup plem entary value here. ~ And recent e xplo ratory research suggests a


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378 Journal of Religio n and Health

h i g h r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e P I L a n d t h e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a lS c al e, w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s s u m e s r e-s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s o w n l if e o r p r o j e c t s t h i s e x t e r n a l l y . 4 W h i l e t h e se m e a -s u r e s m u s t b e s t u d i e d f u r t h e r , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t a s m a l l b a t t e r y o f s e v e r a ls u c h s c a le s m a y b e e f fe c ti v e i n p r e d i c t i n g e x i s t e n t i a l f r u s t r a t i o n .

Th e te chn iques o f logo therap~O n c e t h e p r o b l e m o f e x i s t e n t i a l v a c u u m h a s b e e n p i n p o i n t e d i n a c l i e n t ,h o w s h o u l d c o u n s e l i n g p r o c e e d ? F i rs t, a ll o f t h e b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s o fg o o d c o u n s e l i n g s h o u l d b e f o l l o w e d a s w i t h a n y o t h e r c l ie n t . O n l y i nt h e a d v a n c e d s t a g e o f t h e c o u n s e l i n g p r o c e s s , a ft e r t h e c l i e n t h a s b e e n l e dt o e x a m i n e h is o w n m o t i v a t i o n , t o g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n t o h i s h a b i ts o f es-c a p e fr o m a n d d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e f a c i n g o f r e a l it y , a n d is r ea d y t o a d o p tn e w b e h a v i o r i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s h o u l d t h e sp e c ia l m e t h o d o l -o g y o f l o g o t h e r a p y b e e m p l o y e d i n g u i d i n g h i m t o w a r d a n e w m e a n i n ga n d p u r p o s e i n l if e.

O f t h e t w o b a s i c t e c h n i q u e s o f l o g o t h e r a p y , o n e ( p a r a d o x i c a l i n t e n -t i o n ) h a s a p p l i c a t i o n o n l y i n a p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g t o s p e c i f i c s y m p t o m ss u c h a s a c u t e a n x i e t y a n d p h o b i a s . T h e p r i n c i p l e i s t o o v e r e m p h a s i z e i ni m a g i n a t i o n t h e s y m p t o m t o t h e p o i n t o f reduct io ad absurdurn . T h i se x a g g e r a te d p h a n t a s y m u s t b e e x e c u t e d a t t h e c r i t ic a l p o i n t t h a t F r a n k lc al ls a n t i c i p a t o r y a n x i e t y . T h e l a tt e r is t h e b e g i n n i n g p o i n t o f a r o u s a lo f th e a n x i e t y g e n e r a t e d b y a n y s t i m u l u s t h a t s er ve s as a n a s s o c ia t e df o r e ru n n e r of th e m a i n o r s y m p t o m - p r o d u c i n g s t im u l u s .

F o r e x a m p l e , a p h o b i c p a t i e n t c a n n o t l e a v e t h e h o u s e b e c a u s e h e f e a r so p e n s p a ce s ( a g o r a p h o b i a ) . T o p r a c t ic e p a r a d o x i c a l i n t e n t i o n h e w a l k so u t o n t h e p o r c h . J u s t t h e v i e w b e y o n d ( t h e a n t ic i p a t o r y s t im u l u s ) b e g i n sto g i ve h i m t h e j it te rs . A t t h is p o i n t - - b e f o r e g o i n g o u t d o o r s i n t o t h e u n -p r o t e c t e d S p ac e t h a t se ts o f f t h e p h o b i c r e a c t i o n m h e s ta r ts t o i m a g i n eh o w u t t e r l y t e r r i b l e h i s f e a r is g o i n g t o b e , h o w h e w i l l s h a k e t o p i e c e s i nt h e w o r s t a tt a c k ev er . W h e n t h e t h o u g h t is s o r i d i c u l o u s t h a t h e c a nl a u g h a t h im s e l f , t h e p h o b i a w i l l b e ar r es t ed .


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F r a n k l s L o g o th e r a p y : A N e w O r i e n t a t io n i n C o u n s e l i n g 379

T h e o t h e r - - i n s o m e w a y s m o r e d i f f i c u l t m t e c h n i q u e is c a l l e d d e re -f l e c ti o n . I n p r i n c i p l e i t is t h e p r o c e s s o f d i v e r t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n -t io n f r o m h i s n e u r o t i c s y m p t o m s o r f r o m h i s fa i lu r e s t o w a r d t h e r e m a i n -i n g a re as o f p e r s o n a l i t y i n w h i c h h e c a n s t il l f u n c t i o n a d e q u a t e l y a n d i nw h i c h h e c an f in d a m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e t h a t w i l l m a k e l i f e w o r t hw h i l e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e c a n b e a p p l i e d b y c o u n s e l o r s o f al l d i s c ip l i n e s i nc as es fr ee o f i n c a p a c i t a t i n g n e u r o t i c s y m p t o m s . I f s u c h s y m p t o m s a r ep r e s en t , o n c e a g a i n t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d b e i n a p s y c h i a t r i c s e t ti n g , a n dd e re f le c ti o n s h o u l d f o l l o w o n l y a f te r t h e d y n a m i c m e c h a n i s m s o f e sc a p ea n d d e f e n s e h a v e b e e n d e a l t w i t h .

I n d e r e f le c t io n th e c o u n s e l o r m u s t l e a d h i s c l i e n t fi rs t t o q u e s t i o n t h em e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e o f h i s o w n e x is te n c e. T h e n t h e l ea d e r r e v ie w s w i t hh i s c l i e n t t h e b a s i c f a c t s o f t h e l a t t e r ' s l i f e . D u r i n g t h i s s t e p t h e c l i e n t ' sa s se ts a r e a n a l y z e d a n d e m p h a s i z e d . I n t h e p r o c e s s t h e c l i e n t is l e d t o s eet he se a ss ets i n t h e l ig h t o f n e w m e a n i n g s : W h e r e a s h e h a s b e e n s l u r r i n go v e r t h e m i n h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e p a i n f u l f a il u re s , n o w h e iss h o w n t h a t t o g e t h e r th e y c a n b e v i e w e d i n t h e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e o f a p e r -s o n a l i d e n ti ty . T h i s i d e n t i t y m a k e s h i m a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h aw o r t h - w h i l e j o b t o d o i n f u l f i l l in g t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u es i n h e r e n t i n t h es ea ss ets . W h e n h e f i n d s s u c h a n i d e n t i t y h e w i l l h a v e t h e r e b y f o u n d h i s o w nm e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e , a n d t h e e x i s t e n t i a l v a c u u m w i l l b e f il le d.

T h e i d e a b e h i n d t h e p r o c e s s is s i m p l e , b u t i n p r a c t i c e i t r e q u i r e s e v e ryi n g e n u i t y o f w h i c h t h e c o u n s e l o r o r t h e r a p i s t i s c ap a b l e . T h i s i s b e ca u s et h e c l i e n t m u s t b e le d t o s ee s o m e t h i n g ` t o t a ll y n e w i n h i s s i t u a t i o n , a n ds o m e t h i n g th a t h as a s i g n if i ca n c e h e h a d n e v e r b ef o r e n o t ic e d . T h i s i m -p l ie s s e e in g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e t o t a l i ty o f e x p e r i e n c e a s s o m e t h i n ga b o v e a n d b e y o n d t h a t g i v e n b y t h e i s o la t e d e l e m e n t s o f w h i c h i t i s c o m -p o s e d . T h a t i s t o s ay , t h e w h o l e - i s m o r e t h a n t h e s u m o f i ts p a r t s , j u s ta s a s q u a r e is m o r e t h a n t h e f o u r s id e s t h a t m a k e i t u p . H e r e t h e o n u s iso n t h e c o u n s e l o r , w h o m u s t b e v er y cr e at iv e i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o [ p o s si -b le m e a n i n g s i n o r d e r t o p r i m e t h e c l i en t in f i n d i n g h i s o w n m o s t s ig n if i-c a n t m e a n i n g .T h o u g h l o g o t h e r a p y is p e r s e a s t r i c t l y s e c u l a r a p p r o a c h , i t i s c o n s i s -


8/14


t e n t w i t h a l l r e l i g i o u s f a it h s , f o r i n t h e la s t a n a l y s i s f i n d i n g m e a n i n g a n dp u r p o s e i n h u m a n l if e is a l w a y s a s p i r i tu a l a d v e n t u r e .

T h e p r o ce s s c a n b e s t b e u n d e r s t o o d b y a b r i e f p a r a p h r a s e o f o n e o fF r a n k l ' s m o s t f a m o u s c a s es . 5

T h e p a t i e n t w a s a n 8 0 - y e a r -o l d f e m a l e d o m e s t i c s u f f e r in g f r o m a m e -t a st ac i ze d t e r m i n a l c a n c e r . B e c a u s e s h e k n e w t h is m e a n t d e a t h , s h e w a sd e e p l y d e p r e s s e d .

I n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l o g o t h e r a p y to h i s s t u d e n t s a t t h eU n i v e r s i ty o f V i e n n a M e d i c a l S c h o o l, F r a n k l f ir st h a d h e r q u e s t i o n t h em e a n i n g o f h e r l if e o n t h e c o n s c i o u s l ev e l r a t h e r t h a n r e p r e s s i n g h e rd o u b t s . S h e t h i n k s a l o u d :

"I h a d a g o o d l i f e . . , b u t n o w i t a l l e n d s . . .Frankl: B u t c a n a n y o n e u n d o t h e h a p p i n e s s y o u ' v e h a d - - c a n a n y -

o n e e r a s e i t ?Patient: "No, D o c t o r , i t' s t r u e t h a t t h e y c a n ' t .Frankl: C a n a n y o n e b lo t o u t t h e g o o d n e s s . . . o r t h e a c c o m p l i s h -

m e n t s . . , o r w h a t y o u h a v e b ra v e ly a n d h o n e s t l y s u ff e re d ?Patient: N o . . . a n d I h a d s o m u c h t o su f fe r , w h i c h I t h o u g h t w a s

G o d 's p u n i s h m e n t . . .Frankl: B u t p e r h a p s G o d w a n t e d t o se e h o w y o u w o u l d s t a n d i t . C a n -

n o t s u f f e r i n g b e a l so a c h a l l e n g e ? C a n a n y o n e r e m o v e s u c h a n a c h ie v e -m e n t a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t f r o m t h e w o r l d ?

Patient: "No, i t r e m a i n s a l w a y s .Frankl: Y o u h a v e m a d e t h e b e s t o f y o u r s u f f e r in g , a n d I c o n g r a t u l a t ey o u , a n d y o u r f e l lo w h o s p i t a l p a t i e n ts w h o n o w h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t ow i t n es s s u c h a n e x a m p l e . [ T o t h e m e d i c a l s c h o o l c l as s] Ecce homo [ T h ec la ss b u r s t i n t o s p o n t a n e o u s a p p l a u s e . ] Y o u r l i fe is a m o n u m e n t w h i c hn o o n e c a n r e m o v e f r o m t h e w o r l d , a n d y o u c a n b e j u s tl y p r o u d .

Patient ( w e e p i n g ) : W h a t y o u h a v e s a id , D r . F r a n k l , is a c o n s o l a t i o na n d c o m f o r t . I h a v e n e v e r h a d a n o p p o r t u n i t y to h e a r a n y t h i n g l ik e t h is .

R e a s s u r e d , s h e d i e d a w e e k l at e r, b u t i n p r i d e a n d f a i th , w i t h o u t d e -p r e ss io n . S h e h a d f o u n d m e a n i n g e v e n i n u n a l t e r a b l e s u f f e ri n g . H e r l a s t


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Frankl's Logotherapy: A New Orientation in Counseling 381

w o r d s w e r e : My l if e is a m o n u m e n t , s o P r o f e s so r F r a n k l s a i d t o t h ew h o l e a u d i e n c e . M y l if e w a s n o t i n v a i n . . . .

S o i f t h e c o u n s e l o r c a n l e a d t h e c l i e n t t o se e t h a t h i s m i s f o r t u n e s m a k es en s e i n t h e s c h e m e o f th i n g s , t h a t h i s l i fe h a s a p u r p o s e , a n d t h a t h e h a sa j o b t o d o i n o r d e r t o fu l fi ll t h i s p u r p o s e , h e w i l l c h a n g e h i s e n t i r e a t-t i t u d e a n d g o o n i n s p i t e o f t h e o d d s . A n d i n m o s t c as es h e w i l l t h e n b e -c o m e a b le t o c h a n g e t h e o d d s i n h i s f av o r . H e w i l l f in d a n e w l ea s e o nl if e. A n d t h e c o u n s e l o r w i l l h a v e f o u n d t h e n e w m e t h o d c a l le d l o g o t h e r a -p y i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s p e ci a l c o n d i t i o n o f o u r t i m e s - - t h e e x i s te n t i a lv a c u u m t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y c h a r ac t e ri z es th e j e t g e n e r a t i o n .Objective techniques of group logotherapyT h e r e i s a n e e d t o d e v e l o p p r a c t i c a l a n d o b j e c t iv e t e c h n i q u e s o f a p p l y -i n g F r a n k l ' s p r i n c i p l e s i n c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s . A t t h e G u l f p o r t V e t e r a n s A d -m i n i s t r a t i o n H o s p i t a l w e h a v e t ri ed s o m e s p e ci a l t e c h n i q u e s w i t h se-l e ct e d a l c o h o l ic s . S t u d i e s w i t h t h e P u r p o s e - i n - L i f e T e s t ( P I L ) i n d i c a t et h a t a l c o h o l i c s a r e a m o n g t h e l o w e s t s co re rs a n d t h a t m a n y o f t h e m p r i-m a r i l y la c k t h e m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e i n l i fe o f w h i c h F r a n k l s p ea k s.T h e r e f o r e , s m a l l g r o u p s o f s u c h s e le c te d p a t i e n t s h a v e b e e n t r e a te d i na c r a sh c o u r s e o f t w o w e e k s ' i n t e n s i v e l o g o t h e r a p y a p p e n d e d to t h e e n do f a f o u r w e e k s ' p r o g r a m o f t r e a t m e n t f o r a lc o h o l i c s .

E v a l u a t i o n s b y p a t i e n t s e l f -r a ti n g s , by s ta ff , a n d b y t h e P I L i n d i c a t ep o s t -t h e ra p y i m p r o v e m e n t in m o t i v a t i o n , f u t u r e o u t l o o k , a n d h o s p i t a lb e h a v i o r . It i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t n o t o n l y s e le c te d a l c o h o l i c s b u t a l s o o t h -e r p a t i e n t s s h o w i n g a s i m i la r b a c k g r o u n d o f lo ss o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i ty a n dm e a n i n g c a n b e h e l p e d b y s i m i l a r p r o c e d u re s .

T h e m e t h o d o l o g y i n v o lv e s s p e ci a l e x er ci se s c a l c u l a te d t o s t im u l a t e t h ei n d i v i d u a l ' s s ea r c h fo r m e a n i n g f u l g o a l s t h a t c a n p r o v i d e a s e n s e o f p e r-s o n a l id e n t it y . S in c e n o o n e c a n f in d li fe 's m e a n i n g f o r a n y o n e b u t h i m -s e l f , t h e i n t e n t h e r e i s t o b u i l d i n d i v i d u a l h a b i t s o f s e a r c h i n g f o r m e a n -i n g t h a t w i l l b e c a r r ie d f o r w a r d a f te r t h e b ri e f t h e r a p y h a s e n d e d .


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These exercises are based on the thesis that finding meaning is a func-tion of distinctly human creative ability. Max Scheler, the philosopherwho has most influenced Frankl's thought , defined the distinction betweenman and the lower animals in terms of the hu ma n capacity to con-template the possible. Th us only man has the ability to grasp a possi-ble meani ng in his own life in relation to the world about him.

Logotherapy teaches that meaningg--which are individual signifi-cance s--m ay be found in one or mor e of three types of hu ma n values.The latter are culturally determined group meanings, described byFrankl as creative, experiential, and attitudinal. Creative values arethose involved in production, in a job or hobby, or a task to be com-pleted. Experiential values are those found in experiencing life's phe-nomena, such as in appreciation of the fine arts or contemplating thewonders of nature. An d attitudinal values are those foun d in adopt ing anattitude or stand on something about which we can otherwise do noth-ing: that is, in taking a moral or ethical position that reflects the mean-ing we attribute to life. For instance, the way we face an unalterableproblem, such as a terminal illness, can give a personal meaning to anotherwise hopeless end that aborts all previous purp ose in life.

Regardless of the value area in which we may search for personalmeaning, the process is a twofold one: a) expanding perceptual aware-ness, and b) stimulati ng creative ima gin ati on.

The first involves training in grasping new perceptual Gestalten ortotal meanings in the recombination of the elements of present or im-mediate experience. Such Gestalten represent personal interpretations thatmay offer new solutions to the old probl ems of life, the prob lems that haveblocked fulfillment of the will to meaning .

Training in expanding perceptual awareness is accomplished by bothintra and intersession exercises. The intrasession exercises are such asself-enforced response to repeate d visual stimuli like the Rors chach inkblot plates. Each repetition yields some new perceptions. Intersession ex-ercises can be illustrated by repeated visits to the seascape with instruc-tions to record everything seen. Patients are amazed to find that a second


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Frankl s Logotherap~: A Ne w Orientat ion in Coun sel ing 383

or third observation yields perception of obvious elements that werepreviously missed, and conseque nt new me anin gs for the whole scene.

In both situations the patient makes himself try repeatedly to per-ceive new aspects of the stimulus situation and to combine these elementsinto new meanings. If he can learn to do this in such situations, thenwith one further step in tra ining to be men tio ned presently) he can carrythis percep tual habi t fort h into everyday life. This will enabl e the exam-ination of his personal past experiences for new G e s t a l t e n , and these cansuggest new angles in the han dl in g of old problems.

Th e second trai ning process involves the self-enforced use of imag ina -tion in perceiving new G e s t a l t e n in the elements of p a s t or mediate ex-perience. This is a device to prime the extension of the previously men-tioned habit of expa ndin g present perceptual awareness) to a new hab itof expanding awareness of p a s t perceptions. The past must then be re-lated to the present in order to plot a course for the future.

Th e ability to do all of this transfers with practice to the capacity to re-view past experiences and to sense new G e s t a l t e n or meanings in themthat relate to the mea nin gs in present experience. This capacity leads to anawareness of purpose and direction in such meanings and suggests fu-ture plans of action to fulfill these meani ngs.

So the exercises for this second step require the patient to use imagi-nation and phanta sy which call upo n his past experience) in goingbeyond the immedi ate reality of the visual stimu li presented to him. Forexample, he has to project himself into a picture presented on a screenand to relate the pictu re which is the present stimulus) i n some way tosome wish based upon past experience. Since this is a wish that he hopesto fulfill in the future, he mus t search his total exper ience for a meani ng-ful plan that will link the past to the future and in the process give hima sense of pers onal identi ty.

Th ro ug ho ut all of the exercises it is essential to i ncorpor ate one bind-ing thread that is at once the key to the success of the entire techniqueand the most difficult elem ent to specify. Thi s is where the therap ist orcounselor earns his keep, for he must foster and maintain this thread.


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386 J o u r n a l o f R e l i g i o n a n d H e a l t h

f r o m th e o r i e n ta t i o n o f F r a n k l s c o n c e p t s . S u c h c h a n g e s w o u l d r e fl ec t th ea c q u i s i t i o n o f s t a b l e m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e i n l i f e , t h e g o a l o f l o g o -therapy.

eferences1. Frankl, V. E., T h e D o c t o r a n d t h e S o u l : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o L o g o t h e r a p y . NewYork, Alfred A. Knopf, 1955. Trans. by Richard and Clara Winston. Second revisededition, 1965. ~ , F r o m D e a t h - C a m p t o E x i s t e n t i a l i s m . Boston, Beacon Press,1959. Trans. by Ilse Lasch. Revised and reissued as M a n s S e a r ch fo r M e a n i n g : A n I n -t roduc t ion to Logo therapy , 1962. , P s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d E x i s t e n t ia l i s m . NewYork, Washington Square Press, 1967. ~ , T h e W i l l t o M e a n i n g : F o u n d a t i o n sa n d A p p l i c a t i o n s o f L o g o t h e r a p y . New York, The World Publishing Co., 1969.2. Crumbaugh, J. C., and Maholick, L. T., An Experimental Study in Existentialism:The Psychometric Approach to Frankl's Concept of No~ gen ic Neurosis, J. Cl in .Psychol . , 1964, 20, 200-207. Crumbaugh, Cross-Validation of Purpose-in-LifeTest Based on Frankl's Concepts, J . I nd iv . Psycho l . , 1968,24, 74-81.3. Heimberg, L. K., The Measurement of Future Time Perspective. UnpublishedPh.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1963.4. Rotter, J. B., Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of Re-inforcement, P s y c h o l. M o n o g r a p h s , 1966,80, (1), Whole No. 609.5. Frankl, Fragments from the Logotherapeutic Treatment of Four Cases. In Burton,Arthur, ed., M o d e r n P s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c P r a c t i c e . Palo Alto, Science and BehaviorBooks, 1965, Chap. XIII.6. Buber, Martin, I c h u n d D u . Leipsig, 1923. Trans. by Ronald Gregor Smith as I andT h o u . New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, and Edinburgh, T. and T. Clark, 1937.

Frankl'd Logotherapy a New Orientation in Counseling

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