fourier marx engels

7/24/2019 fourier marx engels

1/11

A V R A H A M Y A S S O U R

C O M M U N I S M A N D U T O P I A : M A R X , E N G E L S A N D F O U R I E R

. . . r i en n ' an n o n ce l a r~ g n e d e l 'h a rmo n ie

. . . - A . B R E T O N 1

K a r l M a r x m e n t i o n e d F o u r i e r f o r t h e f i rs t t i m e o n 1 6 O c t e r b e r 1 8 42 i n a n

a r t i c l e i n t h e

Rheinische Zeitung.

I t w a s s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s a p p o i n t m e n t a s

e d i t o r o f t h a t l i b e r a l j o u r n a l f i n a n c e d b y R h i n e l a n d i n d u s t r i a l is t s 2 a t a t i m e

w h e n h e f e l t o b l i g e d t o d e f e n d t h e p a p e r a g a i n st c h a rg e s o f C o m m u n i s m . T h e

c o n t e x t w a s t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f M o s e s H e s s ' a r t i c le s o n h o u s in g p r o b l e m s a n d

c o m m u n i s t i c f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h is r e p o r t o n a m e e t i n g h e l d in

S t r a s b o u r g a t w h i c h F o u r i e r ' s d i sc i p le s h a d p r o p o s e d w a y s o f i m p r o v i n g th e

c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p o o r . 3 In h i s o w n a r t ic l e M a r x d e c l a r e d t h a t :

t h e

Rehinische Zeitung . . .

wil l submit these [comm unis t ic] ideas to thorough cr i t i-

c ism . . . . We a re f i rm ly co n v in ced th a t i t i s n o t t h e practical effort but ra ther the theo-

re t ical exp l icat ion o f communis t ic ideas which i s the real

danger ... Ideas

w o n b y o u r

inte ll igence, em bodied in our ou t loo k , a nd fo rgo t te n in our conscience, are chains f rom

which w e ca nnot tear ourselves awa y wi tho u t b reak ing our hearts. 4

W h a t d i d M a r x k n o w a t t h e t im e a b o u t F o u r i e r ' s te a c h i n gs o r a b o u t

s o c ia l is m a n d C o m m u n i s m i n g e n er a l? I n h is h o m e t o w n o f T r ie r , L u d w i g

G a l l ( ' t h e f i rs t G e r m a n S o c i a l i s t ' ) h a d p u b l i c i z e d F o u r i e r ' s i d e a s , a n d e v e n

s o u g h t t o a p p l y t h e m p e r s o n a l l y in a F o u r i e r i s t p h a l a n s t e r y in A m e r i c a . I n

B e r li n , H e i n r i c h H e in e a n d E d w a r d G a n s h a d d i s s e m i n a t e d th e t h e o r ie s o f

S a i n t - S i m o n . H e s s , w h o s p e n t s o m e t i m e i n P a r i s a n d w a s w e l l a c q u a i n t e d

w i t h F r e n c h s o c i a l is t s a l so d i d a g r e a t d e a l t o p o p u l a r i z e t h e i r i d e a s , s I t

w a s H e s s w h o i n f l u e n c e d E n g el s a n d B a k u n i n a n d b r o u g h t t h e m c l os e r t o

s o c i a l i s m , p o s s i b l y d o i n g t h e s a m e f o r M a r x .

T h e i n f l u e n c e o f L o r e n z v o n S t e i n 's

Sozialismus und Kommunismus des

heutigen Frankreichs w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n N o v e m b e r , 1 8 4 2, i s m o r e p r o b l e m -

a t ic . 6 W a s i t r e a l ly , a s M a r x a s s e r te d , t h e o n l y s o u r c e . . , f o r t h e c h a ra c t e ri -

z a t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , a c la ss w i t h o u t a n y p r o p e r t y

w h o s e p r o b l e m s w e r e d e a f l y d i s c e rn i b le i n M a n c h e s t e r, P a r is a n d L y o n ? O n e

c a n a g re e w i t h S h l o m o A v i n e r i th a t y o n S t e i n 's b o o k c o u l d n o t b y i t s e lf

Studies in Soviet Thought

2 6 ( 1 98 3 ) 2 1 7 - 2 2 7 . 0 0 3 9 - 3 7 9 7 / 8 3 / 0 2 6 3 - 0 2 1 7 $ 01 .1 0.

1983 by D. ReidelPublishing Co.


2/11

218 AVRAHAM YASSOUR

account for Marx' knowledge o f socialism at the time. He must have derived

something, at least, on the theoretical plane, from Hegel whose hilosophy

of Right

he knew by heart (especially important are the paragraphs 243-

245), and Fourier's ideas were already accessible to him through von Ro-

chau's book. 7

It is interesting in this context to note Engels' revealing comment just one

year later that the French Communists could help us only in the early stages

of our - development . 8 In the first part of an article on France written in

18439 Engels had praised Fourier as a social philosopher who had established

the axiom: As each individual has a passion or inclination for a certain kind

of work, the totality of these inclinations will naturally constitute a force

capable of satisfying the needs of society as a whole . According to Engels,

Fourier's great discovery was the assumption that compulsion would no

longer be necessary in order to supply the needs of society. His audacity in

envisaging the possibility of free labour, is definitely wor thy of the attention

of English socialists , wrote Engels, recommending Fourier's writings to the

readers of an Owenite periodical.

In another article written in Manchester at the end of 1843 which greatly

impressed Marx, 'Outline of a Critique of Political Economy', Engels again

mentioned Fourier in the context of his discussion of a future society which

would be free of competition and its curse, so that it will be able to regulate

production and control wealth .

Der einzig

positive

Fortschritt, den die liberale Okonomie gemacht hat, ist die Entwick-

lung des gesetze des Privateigentums . . . Um aber fiber dieses Verh~iltnis und die yon

einem verniJnftigen Zust//nde der Gemeinde zur erwartende Steigerung der Produktion-

skraft richtig zu urteilen, m6gen meine Leser die Schriften der englischen Sozialisten

und zum Teil auch Fouriers vergleichen, O

Similarly in the case of Marx there is no doubt that he made a serious

effort to acquaint himself thoroughly with the writings of the French social-

ists, including Fourier - all of whose available works were to be found in

his library.

At the end of 1843 Marx had arrived in Paris, which seemed to him to be

an ancient bastion of philosophy and the modern capital of the modern

world . He was met there by Arnold Ruge, who even proposed that together

with other German 6migr6s they should set up a commune on the Fourierist

model. 11 Marx' earlier letter to Ruge, written from Kreuznach in September


3/11

C O M M U N I S M A N D U T O P I A 2 1 9

1 8 4 3 i n d i c a te s h i s o w n p o s i t io n o n t h e r e la t io n s h i p b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d

p r a x i s a n d h i s g r o w i n g i n te r e s t i n F r e n c h s o c ia l is t t h e o r i e s.

I am no t therefore for hoist ing a dogm atic banner. Quite the reverse. We m ust t ry to

help the dogmatists to clarify their ideas. In particular,

ommunism

is a dogmatic ab-

stract ion and by Co mm unism I do no t refer to some imagined, possible Com munism, bu t

to Com munism as i t actually exists in the teaching of C abet , D6zam y and Weit ling, etc.

This Co mm unism is itself on ly a particular m anifestation o f the hum anistic p rinciple and

is infected by its opposite, private property. The abolition of private property is, there-

fore, by n o m eans identical with Com munism, and Com munism has seen othe r socialistic

theories,

such

as those o f Fourier and Proudhon, r ising up in opposi tion to i t , no t fortui-

tou sly bu t n ecessarily, because it is only a particular, on e-sided realization o f the princi-

ple o f socialism.12

A t t h e t im e t h a t M a r x w r o t e t h is l e t te r h e w a s w o r k i n g h a r d o n h is d e -

t a il ed s t u d y o f H e g e l s

P h i lo s o p h y o f R i g h t

a n d i n c re a s in g l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h

t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e c r i t i q u e o f re l ig i o n t o t h e c r i t i q u e o f p o l it ic s . I t w a s

i n t h i s p e r i o d t h a t M a r x b e g a n t o l o o k f o r a s o c i o l o g ic a l t h e o r y o f p o l i t ic s

a s a n a l te r n a ti v e t o d o g m a t i c C o m m u n i s m w h i c h a l to g e t h e r d i sr e g a rd e d

i n d iv i d u a l e x i s te n c e . A g a i n s t t h is b a c k g r o u n d , F o u r i e r a n d P r o u d h o n a re

m e n t i o n e d b y M a r x a s re p r e s e n ti n g i d e o l o g ie s w h i c h p o s i t m o r e th a n m e r e l y

a n a b s t r a c t a b o l i t io n o f p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y .

I n h i s l e t t e r t o R u g e , M a r x h a d s ti ll p l a c e d h i s h o p e s i n a r e f o r m o f c o n -

s c i o u s n e s s a s t h e r e d e e m i n g a c t . U p o n h i s a r ri va l i n P a r is , h o w e v e r , h e b e -

c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p o s s ib i li ti e s o f c o n c r e t e p o l i ti c a l a c t io n ,

f a m i l i a r i z i n g h i m s e l f w i t h v a r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y g r o u p s i n t h e F r e n c h c a p i t a l .

I t w a s al so in P a ri s t h a t h e c o m p o s e d t h e i m p o r t a n t w o r k w h i c h h a s s ub -

s e q u e n t l y b e c o m e k n o w n as t h e Ec onomic and Ph i lo soph ic a l M anusc r ip t s

( 1 8 4 4 ) . la T h e s e m a n u s c r i p t s r ev e a l th e y o u n g M a r x a c q u a i n t i n g h i m s e l f w i t h

t h e ac h ie v e me n t s o f p o l it i c a l e c o n o m y a n d t h e f ir s t i n v e s t ig a t io n s o f t h e

d e g r a d e d c o n d i t io n s o f t h e w o r k in g - c la s s p r o d u c e d b y t h e I n d u s tr i al R e v o l u -

t io n . B l e n d in g p h il o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t s d e r iv e d f r o m H e g e l a n d F e u e r b a c h

w i t h t h o s e o f c la ss ic a l p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y , M a r x c a m e t o a t t r i b u t e p o v e r t y a n d

a l ie n a t i o n t o t h e d i v i si o n o f la b o u r a n d p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y , t o h i r e d l a b o u r a n d

c l a s s d i v i s i o n s i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y .

I n t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c u ss i n g t h e a n t it h e s i s b e t w e e n p r i v a t e

p r o p e r t y a n d C o m m u n i s m , M a r x e v o k e s t h e t h e o ri es o f F o u r ie r , P r o u d h o n

a n d S a i n t - S i m o n . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t h e o b s e r v e d t h a t :

Fourier, like the Physiocrats, regarded agriculture as at least the

best

form of labour,

while Saint-Simon on the other hand declared

industrial labour

as

such

to be the essence


4/11

220 AVRAHAM YASSOUR

and consequently wants exclusive rule by the industrialists and the improvement of the

condition of the workers. 14

Marx concluded that c o m m u n i s m is the pos i t i v e expression of the aboli-

tion of private property and at first appears as

universal

private proper ty . :s

This chapter of the manuscripts contains a critical survey of 'crude' and

'egalitarian' Communism which Marx contrasts to his own concept of it as

the true a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n essence through and for man . This

line of thought is connect ed with an earlier section entitled E s t ra n g e d L a b o u r

where Marx no longer sees alienated labour as just anothe r form of work but

as a funct ion of the pro duct ion system, the abol ition of which alone can lead

to the eradication of dehumanize d labour:

The devaluation of the human world grows in direct proportion to the increase in value

of the world of things. Labour not only produces commodities; it also produces itself

and the workers as a commodity and it does so in the same proportion in which it pro-

duces commodities in general. This fact simply means that the object that labour pro-

duces, its product, stands opposed to it as something alien, as a power independent of

the producer . . . . The realization of labour is its objectification. In the sphere of politi-

cal economy this realization appears as a loss of reality for the worker, objectification as

loss of and bondage to the object, and appropriation as estrangement, as alienation

[Entiiusserung] .16

The revolution ary lessons to be derived from Marx' critique of bourgeois

political economy first emerge however into the foreground in the work he

co-authored with Engels in 1845 as a settling of accounts with their Young

Hegelian contemporaries - The H o l y F a m i l y - Subtitled A Cri t iqu e o f Crit i-

c al C r it iq u e ; A g a i n s t B r u n o B a u e r a n d C o m p a n y . Marx now develops in

radical form, the antithes is he had evoked in his earlier manuscripts.

Proletariat and wealth are opposites; as such they form a single whole. They are both

forms of the world of private property . . . Private property, as wealth is compelled to

maintain itself, and thereby its opposite, the proletariat, in existence. That is the positive

side of the contradiction - self-satisfied private property . . . . Within this antithesis the

private owner is therefore the conservative side, the proletarian, the destructive side.

From the former arises the action of preserving the antithesis, from the latter, that of

annihilating it. 17

T h e H o l y F a m i l y was an important stage in the theoretical development of

Marx and Engels towards relating their philosophical and historical views to

the struggle of the wor king classes for social emancipat ion. Significantly, they


5/11

CO M M U N I SM A N D U T O P I A 221

d i d n o t ove r l ook t he r o le o f F r e nc h m a t e r i a l is m i n t he e m e r ge n c e o f S oc ia li st -

C o m m u n i s t i d e o l o g y , b e g i n n in g w i t h t h e e x a m p l e o f F o u r i e r h i m s e l f :

As C artesian materialism merges into

natu ral science

proper, the other branch o f French

materialism leads direct to

Socialism

and

C o m m u n i s m . . . . F o u ri er

proceeds imm ediately

from the teaching of the French materialists. The Babouv is t s w ere coarse, uncivilized

materialists, but mature C om mun ism too comes direct ly from Fr enc h Materialism. 18

N e ve r t he l e s s , bo t h M a r x a nd E nge l s w e r e w e l l a w a r e o f t he l i m i t a t i ons o f

F ou r i e r a nd c r it i ca l o f t he a po l i ti c a l na t u r e o f m uc h o f h i s t he o r i z ing . I n t h is

r e sp e c t t h e y s ti ll p r e fe r r e d t h e P r o u d h o n w h o h a d a u t h o r e d W h a t is P r o p e r t y ?

- a po l i ti c a l pa m ph l e t t ha t t he y r a nke d w i t h S i~ye s e poc h a l

Q u e s t - c e q u e

l e t i er s E t a t ?

F o u r i e r s i m p o r t a n c e w a s s e en a s t h a t o f a f o r e r u n n e r , l ik e A d a m

S m i t h , R i c a r d o a n d S a in t -S i m o n , w i t h o u t w h o m t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y S o ci al is t

c r it iq u e o f p r i v a te p r o p e r t y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s ib l e.

M a r x a nd E nge l s w e r e a l s o f a m i l i a r w i t h F ou r i e r s v i ew s on s uc h s ub j e c t s

a s m or a l i t y , m a r r i a ge , the f a m i l y a nd f e m a l e l i be r a t i on a nd t he y u s e d the i r

know l e dge o f h i s ge ne ra l s oc i al ph i l o s o phy t o unc o ve r p la g i a ri s m s a nd m i s -

quo t a t i ons i n t he w or ks o f r i va l G e r m a n t he o r e t i c i a ns . T h i s i s e s pe c i a l l y

e v i d e n t i n t h e i r n e x t j o i n t w o r k - T h e

G e r m a n I d e o l o gy ,

w r i t t e n i n 1 8 4 5 - 6

bu t ne ve r pub l i s he d d u r i ng t he i r l i fe t im e s .

T h i s book c on t a i n s a s pe c i a l s e c t i on on F ou r i e r 19 i n w h i c h t he a u t ho r s

e x t o l h i s ana l y s is o f a g r i c u lt u r e , i ndu s t r y a nd c om m e r c e , no t i ng tha t t he

c r i ti que o f c i v i l i z a t ion i s t he m a i n pa r t o f h i s s oc ia l t he o r y . I t is e v i de n t

t ha t M a r x a n d E nge ls ha d i nde e d r e a d h i s w o r ks c a r e f u l ly a nd r e j e c t e d t he

s upe r fi c ia l s um m a r y o f i t i n the w r i t ings o f t he G e r m a n t r ue s oc i a l i s t , K a r l

G r 6n . 2 T h e y t oo k s e r ious l y F o u r i e r s v i ew s on t he c e n t r a l i t y o f c ha nge s in

p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f F o u r i e r s g if t f o r a c u t e s o c ia l o b s e r v a t io n

a nd h i s p r opos a l s i n t he a r e a o f voc a t i ona l e duc a t i on . G r t i n s v i e w o f F ou r i e r

a s a m a t he m a t i c a l s oc ia l is t d i d no t do j u s t i c e to t he p r o f u nd i t y o f t he

F r e n c h c r i t ique o f s o c i e t y w h i c h i n t he v i e w o f M a r x a nd E nge ls , w a s f a r

s upe r i o r t o G e r m a n t r ue s oc i a li s m . T he l a t t e r w a s a pa l e i m i t a t i on o f t he

o r i g i na l i de a s o f F ou r i e r w h i c h i nvo l ve d a ba s i c s t r uc t u r a l c ha nge i n s oc i e t y

a r is ing f r om a dec i s ive c r i t i c i sm o f i t s c iv i l i za t ion . 21 Tho ug h c r i t i ca l a t t ime s

o f t h e p o e t i c f o r m i n w h i c h F o u r i e r w r a p p e d h i s s o c i a l t h e o r y , M a r x a n d

Enge l s emphas i sed i t s subvers ive qua l i t i e s and va lue as a s t imulus to ac t ion .

E nge ls , in pa r t i c u l a r , w a s i m pr e s s e d b y t he b r i l li a n t s a t ir e s o f F ou r i e r a nd

t he w a y i n w h i c h he s n i pe d a t bou r g e o i s hypoc r i c i e s a nd l if e -s t y le s .


6/11

2 2 2 A V R A H A M Y A S S O U R

M a r x ' c h a ng i n g a t t i t u d e t o F o u r i e r d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d m i g h t p e r h a p s b e

i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o r y : I n a l e t t e r t o P . V . A n n e n k o v ( d a t e d

D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 8 4 6 ) , h e w r o t e t h a t P r o u d h o n t o o k a g r e a t d e a l f r o m F o u r i e r

a n d h is w o r d s s e e m e d e m p t y a n d o v e r b l o w n c o m p a r e d t o F o u r i e r ' s so c ia l is t

s e n s i t i v i t y ) 2 W h e n A n n e n k o v p u b l i s h e d a n e x c e r p t f r o m t h i s l e t t e r i n 1 8 8 0 23

i n w h i c h h e t o l d o f h i s r e la t i o n s a n d m e e t i n g s w i t h M a r x a n d o f t h e l a t t e r ' s

a t t i t u d e t o P r o u d h o n , M a r x f o u n d it n e c e s s a r y t o n o t e i n t h e m a r g i n : I

w r o t e t h e o p p o s i t e o f w h a t h e a t t r i b u t e s to m e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h F o u r i e r .

F o u r i e r w a s t h e f i rs t t o r i d i c u l e t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . 24

I n t h e s a m e l e t t e r , M a r x w r o t e t h a t h e h a d n o t m a n a g e d t o h a v e h i s c r i t iq u e

o f t h e G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d s o c i al i st s p u b l i s h e d ( t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o

The

German Ideology , a n d o b s e r v e d i n c o n c l u s i o n t h a t q u i t e a f e w in h i s o w n

' p a r t y ' a r e a n g r y w i t h m e b e c a u s e I h a v e c o m e o u t a g a in s t t h e U t o p i a n s an d

t h e i r s p e e c h e s . 2s T h e c l as s ic f o r m u l a t i o n o f M a r x ' a n d E n g e l s ' a t t i t u d e t o

t h e U t o p i a n s o c ia l is t s h a d , o f c o u r s e, b e e n s t a t e d i n t h e i r

Com mun is t Man i-

f e s to

o f 1 8 4 7 :

T he socia lis t and com m unis t systems, pr ope rly so-called, those of Saint-Simon, Fou rier,

Ow en and o the rs , sp r ing in to ex is tence in th e ea r ly undeve loped pe r iod desc r ibed above ,

of the s truggle between prole taria t and bourgeois ie . The founders of these systems see ,

indeed , the c lass an tagonisms as we l l a s the ac t ion o f th e decompos ing e lements in the

preva il ing fo rm of soc ie ty . But the p ro le ta r ia t , a s ye t in i t s in fancy , o ffe rs to them the

spec tac le o f a c lass wi tho u t any h is to r ica l in i t iat ive o r any indepen den t po l i t ica l move-

m ent . . . His to r ica l ac t ion is to y ie ld to the i r pe rsona l invent ive ac tion , h is to r ica lly -

c rea ted cond i t ions o f em anc ipa t ion to fan tas t ic ones . . . These p roposa ls , the re fore , a re

of a pure ly Utop ian character. Th e s ignificance o f Crit ical-U topian Socialism an d Com-

munism bears an inverse re la t ion to h is to r ica l deve lopm ent . . . The o r ig ina to rs o f these

sys tems were , in ma ny respec ts , revo lu t ionary , the i r d isc ip les have in every case fo rm ed

mere re ac t ionary sec ts . '26

W h a t t h e y o p p o s e d i n U t o p i a n S o c i a l i sm w a s a v is i o n o f t h e f u t u r e d e -

t a c h e d f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g cl as s s t ru g g l e in c a p i t a l i s t i c s o c i e t y . U t o p i a n i s m

r e f l e c t e d t h e i m m a t u r i t y o f t h e s o c i al st r ug g l e. I t r e v e a l e d a y e a r n i n g f o r t h e

a b o l i t i o n o f c la s s es w h i l e s e e k i n g t o a v o i d c l a s s s t r u g g l e a n d p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u -

t i o n i n w h i c h t h e w o r k i n g c l as s w o u l d b e t h e c e n t r a l a g en t o f c h a n ge . C o n -

s e q u e n t l y , t h e u t o p i a n s r e m a i n e d m e r e p r e a c h e r s o r ' i n v e n to r s ' o f a n e w

w o r l d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i r i n c i s i v e c r i t i q u e o f b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y w a s v a l i d ,

e v en r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n m a n y r e s p e c t s .

T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s h o w e v e r a s t o w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s a n y s i m i l a r i t y

b e t w e e n t h e s o c i a l , d e s i r e d f u t u r e i n M a r x ' s o w n p h i l o s o p h y ( ' s c i e n t i f i c '


7/11

COMMUNISM AND UTOPIA 223

socialism notwithst andi ng) and that of his great utopi an predecessors - above

all Fourier.

In the

C o m m u n i s t M a n i fe s to ,

Marx had formulated thus his vision of the

future:

In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have

an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free devel-

opment of all.2s

One of its required conditions is repudiating the domi nat ion of the la-

bour of others by the acquisition of social products - a clear echo of the

views put forward by Fourier and other utopian socialist thinkers.

Marx's in nova tio n lay in his econo mic and sociological analysis of such

appropria tion as a form of hu man self-alienation in capitalist society. In his

own words:

The consideration of

division o f labour

and

exchange

is one of the greatest interest, since

they are the percept ible , a l ienated expression of human ac t iv i t y , and capacities as the

activity and capacities

proper to a spec ies . . . .

Product is an objectification of labour.

The performance of work is at the same time its objectification. The performance of

work appears in the sphere of political economy as a

vi t ia t ion

of the worker, objectifica-

tion as a

loss

and as

serv itude to the ob jec t ,

and appropriation as alienation. 29

What Marx shared with Fouri er was rather the recogni tion that instead of

bringing pleasure, fulfilment and self-realization of man's social essence,

labour in capitalist society, leads to a reduction of the worker's value and to

his stultification. Fourier's solution was the 'h ar mony ' system - a reform of

the world built around the reorganization of labour in order to make work

bot h sociable, pleasurable a nd liberating. 3

The tr eat ment of these subjects by Marx and Engels in T h e G e r m a n I d e o -

l o g y

definitely shows a familiarity with Fourier: Reme mber that Fourier

wished to see the present

t r a v a i l r ~ p u g n a n t

replaced by

t r a v a i l a t t r a y a n t . 31

Marx's vision of the future abolit ion of 'alienated labour' seems to echo

that of his predecessor in cert ain respects:

All collisions in history have their origin, according to our view, in the contradiction be-

tween the productive forces and the form of intercourse . . . . The transformation, through

the division of labour, of personal powers (relationships) into material powers, cannot be

dispelled by dismissing the general idea of it from one's mind, but can only be abolished

by the individuals again subjecting these material powers to themselves and abolishing

the division of labour . . . In the real community the individuals obtain their freedom in

and through their association . . . The proletarians, if they are to assert themselves as


8/11


ind iv idua ls , wi l l have to abo l i sh the ve ry cond i t ion o f the i r ex is tence h i the r to (wh ich has ,

m oreove r , been tha t o f a l l soc ie ty up to the p resen t ) , nam ely , labour . 32

E c h o e s o f F o u r i e r a r e e v e n s t r o n g e r f u r t h e r o n , w h e n M a r x c o n t r a s ts t h e

a c t u a l a n d t h e d e s i r a b l e s t a t u s o f t h e w o r k e r a n d d e s c r i b e s h i s s e l f - a l i e n a t i o n :

As long as a c leavage ex is t s be tween the pa r t icu la r and the common in te res t , a s long ,

t h e r e f o r e , a s a c t i v i t y i s n o t v o lu n t a r i l y b u t n a tu r a l l y d iv id e d , m a n ' s o w n d e e d b e c o m e s

a n a l i e n p o w e r o p p o s e d t o h im , w h ic h e n s l av e s h im in s te a d o f b e in g c o n t r o l l e d b y h im .

F o r a s s o o n a s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a b o u r c o m e s i n to b e in g , e ac h m a n h a s a p a rt i c u la r , e x -

c lu siv e s p h e r e o f a c t i v i t y w h ic h i s f o r c e d u p o n h im a n d f r o m w h ic h h e c a n n o t e s c a p e . . .

T h i s f i x a t i o n o f s o c i a l a c ti v i t y , th i s c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f w h a t w e o u r s elv e s p r o d u c e i n to a n

o b j e c t i v e p o w e r a b o v e u s , g r o w in g o u t o f o u r c o n t r o l , t h w a r t i n g o u r e x p e c t a t io n s , b rin g-

in g t o n a u g h t o u r c a l c u l a t io n s , i s o n e o f t h e c h i e f f a c to r s i n h i st o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t u p

t i l l n o w 3 3

E v e n m o r e s i g n if i ca n t i s t h e f a m o u s p a ss a ge f r o m

The German Ideology

w h e r e M a r x a n d E n g e l s ' C o m m u n i s t u t o p i a a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n d i r e c t l y

i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d a i l y w o r k - s c h e d u l e p l a n n e d b y F o u r i e r f o r h is m o d e l

p h a l a n s t e r i e s .

F o r a s s o o n a s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a b o u r c o m e s i n to b e in g , e a c h m a n h a s a p a r t i c u la r

e x c lu siv e s p h e re o f a c t i v i t y w h ic h i s f o r c e d u p o n h im a n d f r o m w h ic h h e c a n n o t e s ca pe .

He i s a hun te r , a f i she rman , a shep herd o r a c r it i ca l c r i t ic , and m us t rem ain so i f he does

n o t w a n t t o l o s e h i s m e a n s o f li v e l i h o o d ; w h i l e i n Co m m u n i s t s o c i e ty , w h e r e n o b o d y h a s

o n e e x c lu s iv e s p h e r e o f a c t i v i t y , b u t e a c h c a n b e c o m e a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a n y b r a n c h h e

wishes , soc ie ty regu la tes the gen era l p ro duc t ion and th us makes i t poss ib le fo r me to do

o n e t h in g t o d a y a n d a n o th e r t o m o r r o w , t o h u n t i n t h e m o r n in g , f i s h i n t h e a f t e r n o o n ,

rea r ca t t le in the even ing , c r i ti c i se a f te r d inner , ju s t a s I have a mind , w i tho u t ever be -

c o m in g h u n t e r , f i sh e r m a n , s h e p h e r d o r c r i ti c

[ A l t h o u g h t h e s e l i n es m a y h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b y E n g e l s ( i n w h o s e w r i t in g s

s i m i l a r i d e a s a r e e x p r e s s e d ) ,

The German Ideology

w a s w i t h o u t d o u b t a j o i n t

e f f o r t . ]

W h a t i s u n d e n i a b l e i s t h e g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y t o F o u r i e r ' s b a s ic i d e a s : a c h a n g e

o f w o r k e v e r y h o u r o r t w o ( t h e ' s 6 a n c e s ') a n d t h e c h o i c e o f l a b o u r a c c o r d i n g

t o i n c l i n a t i o n a n d p a s s i o n m a d e p o s s ib l e b y a h a r m o n i o u s s o c i e t y ; t h e sh a rp

c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e v i s i o n o f th e f u t u r e a s o p p o s e d t o t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n

i n a ' c i v i l i z e d ' r e g i m e . 34 T h e l i b e r a t i o n o f l a b o u r a n d n o n - a l i e n a t e d l i f e -s t y l e s

w i l l c o m e a b o u t i n a c o l l e c t i v e in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s

m e r g e . S o c i a l w o r k c o n c e i v e d a s f re e a n d p l e a s u ra b l e a c t i v i t y w i l l b e d o n e

w i t h e n t h u s i a s m , a n d w i l l b e c o m e v a s t l y p r o d u c t i v e . F o u r i e r a ls o d e al s w i t h


9/11

C O M M U N I S M A N D U T O P I A 2 25

c l o s in g t h e g a p b e t w e e n c i t y a n d c o u n t r y s i d e , w i t h v o c a t i o n a l t r a in i n g f o r

y o u t h i n t h e p h a l a n t e r i es , w i t h w o m a n ' s l i b e r a t i o n a n d w i t h s i m i la r p r o b l e m s

t h a t a re e c h o e d i n t h e w o r k s o f M a r x a n d E n g e l s . T h e y r e p e a t e d l y s t r es s ed

t h a t F o u r i e r ' s i m p o r t a n c e l a y in t h e f a c t t h a t h e w a s n o t c o n t e n t w i t h d e -

m a n d i n g a c h a n g e i n c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n h a b i t s , b u t c o n n e c t e d

t h is w i t h a d e m a n d f o r a s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n

a n d t h e a b o l i t i o n o f h i r e d l a b o u r . I n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , t h e m a t u r e M a r x i n

h i s v i s io n o f t h e f u t u r e , p r o c l a i m e d i n V o l . 3 ofD as Kapital a p p e a r s t o h a v e

b e c o m e d i s t i n c t l y ' F o u r i e r i s t ' i n h i s v i e w o f th e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l a b o u r a n d

t h e ' r e a lm o f f r e e d o m ' .

T h e a c tu a l w e a l t h o f s o c i e ty , a n d t h e p o s s ib i l i t y o f c o n s t a n t l y e x p a n d in g i t s r e p r o d u c -

t i o n p r o ce s s, t h e r e f o re , d o n o t d e p e n d u p o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f s u rp lu s l a b o u r, b u t u p o n i ts

p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d t h e m o r e o r le ss c o p io u s c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n u n d e r w h ic h i t i s

p e r f o r m e d . I n f a c t , t h e r e a lm o f f r e e d o m a c tu a l l y b eg in s o n ly w h e r e l a b o u r w h ic h is

d e t e r m in e d b y n e c e ss i ty an d m u n d a n e c o n s id e r a t i o n s c e a s e s ; . . . W i th h is d e v e lo p m e n t

th is rea lm of phys ica l necess i ty expands as a resu l t o f h i s wan ts ; bu t a t the same t ime ,

the fo rces o f p rod uc t io n w hich sa t i s fy these wan ts a l so inc reases . F re edo m in th i s f ie ld

can on ly cons is t in soc ia l ized man , the assoc ia ted p roducers ra t iona l ly regu la t ing the i r

i n t e r c h a n g e w i th n a tu r e , b r in g in g it u n d e r t h e i r c o m m o n c o n t r o l i n s t e a d o f b e in g r u l e d

b y i t a s b y t h e b l i n d f o r c e s o f n a tu r e ; a n d a c h i e v in g w i th t h e l e a st e x p e n d i tu r e o f e n e r g y

a n d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s m o s t f a v o u r a b l e t o , a n d w o r th y o f , t h e ir h u m a n n a tu r e . Bu t i t

n o n e th e l e s s s t i l l r e m a in s a r e a lm o f n e c e s s i t y . Be y o n d i t b e g in s t h a t d e v e lo p m e n t o f

h u m a n e n e r g y w h ic h i s a n e n d i n i t se l f, t h e t r u e re a lm o f f r e e d o m , w h ic h , h o w e v e r , c a n

b lossom fo r th on ly wi th th i s rea lm of necess i ty as i t s basi s. The shor ten ing o f the work-

ing day is i ts basic prereq uisi te . 35

T h e s e p a r a g r a p h s h a v e b e e n t h e s u b je c t o f i n n u m e r a b l e c o m m e n t a r i e s . I t

s e e m s t o m e t h a t a n i l l u m i n a t i n g e l a b o r a t i o n a p p e a r s i n t h e M a r x m a n u s c r i p t s

o f 1 8 5 7 - 8 w h i c h l a te r p r o v i d e d t h e s ou r c e m a t e r i a l fo r Das Kap ital. T h e r e , i n

c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i d e as o f A d a m S m i t h o n w o r k a s a s a c ri f ic e a n d t h e r e n u n c i a -

t i o n o f re s t, f r e e d o m a n d h a p p i n e s s , M a r x s ay s :

T h o u s h a lt l a b o u r b y t h e s w e a t o f t h y b ro w w a s J e h o v a h ' s c u r se t h a t h e b e s to w e d u p o n

Ad am . A. Sm i th conce ives o f labour as such a cu rse. 'R es t ' appears to h im to be a f i t t ing

s t a t e o f t h in g s , a n d i d e n t i c a l w i th ' l i b e r t y ' a n d ' h a p p in e s s ' . . . . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e q u an t i -

t y o f la b o u r t o b e p r o v id e d s e em s t o b e c o n d i t i o n e d b y e x t e r n a l c i r cu m s ta n c e s, b y t h e

p u r p o s e t o b e a c h i e v e d , a n d t h e o b s t a cl e s t o i t s a c h i e v e m e n t th a t h a v e t o b e o v e r c o m e

b y l a b o u r . Bu t n e i t h e r d o e s i t o c c u r t o A . S m i th t h a t t h e o v e r c o m in g o f su c h o b s t a c le s

m a y i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e a n e x e r c i s e i n l i b e r t y , a n d t h a t t h e s e e x t e r n a l p u r p o s e s l o s e t h e i r

charac te r o f mere na tu ra l necess i t ie s and a re es tab l i shed as purposes which the ind iv idua l

h im se l f f ixes . The resu l t i s the se l f - rea l iza t ion and o b jec t i f ic a t ion o f the sub jec t , the re -

fo re rea l f reed om wh ose a c t iv i ty i s p rec ise ly labour : 36


10/11


B u t h e r e M a rx ' a t t it u d e t o h u m a n w o r k i n th e f u tu r e s o c i e t y h a s m a t u r e d

a n d b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x ; h e e xp l ai n s:

T h i s

d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t la b o u r c an

b e m a d e m e r e l y a j o k e o r a m u s e m e n t , a s F o u r i e r n a i v e l y e x p r e s s e d it in s h o p -

g irl t erm s .

M a r x ' c o n c l u s i o n r e f l e c te d t h e e s s en t ia l d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n h i s o w n r a ti o n -

a l 'u t o p i a ' a n d t h a t o f h i s v i s i o n a r y p r e d e c e s s o r - t h e a b i li t y t o s y n t h e s i s e

m o r a l i m p e r a t iv e s w i t h a s c i e n t if ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e c o n o m i c n e c e ss i ti e s .

W o r k c a n n o t b e c o m e a g a m e , a s F o u r i e r w o u l d l i k e i t t o b e

( ' a m u s e m e n t ' ,

' t r a v a i l a t t r a c t r f ' ) ;

h i s g r e at m e r i t w a s t h a t h e d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e

o b j e c t m u s t b e t o r ais e t o a h i gh e r le v e l n o t d i s tr i b u t io n b u t t h e m o d e o f

p r o d u c t i o n .

V a r i o u s r a d i c a l s d e c l a r e t h e m s e l v e s t o b e p o s t - F o u r i e r i s t s , o v e r s i m p l i f y i n g

h i s s y s t e m ; o u r e x p e r i e n c e - h e r e i n K i b b u t z - l i f e in I s ra e l - t o r e a l iz e s o m e

o f F o u r i e r 's p r i n c ip l e s, p r o v e t h a t h i s s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y i s u t o p i a n . N e v e r t h e -

l e ss w e d o n o t f o r g e t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a ll o u r p r e d e c e ss o r s .

N O T E S

t A n d r 6 B r e t o n , O d e ~ C h a r l e s F o u r i e r Par i s , 1967 .

2 Marx -Enge l s~Werke ( M E W ), V o l. 1 , p p . 1 0 5 - 1 0 8 .

3 D.

M c L e l l a n , T h e

Y o u n g H e g e li a n s a n d K . M a r x L o n d o n , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 7 .

4 M E W , V o l . 1 , p . 1 0 8 ;

for the Engl ish trans la t ion:

L . D . E a s t o n a n d K . H . G u d d a t ,

Wri t i ngs o f h e Y o u n g M a r x o n P h i l o s o p h y a n d S o c i e t y N.Y. , 1967 .

s M c L e l l a n , op . c i t . p p . 3 5 - 6 ; A . C o r n u , K . M a r x e t F . E n g e l s t ome I , Pa r i s , 1955 , p .

2 3 f f ; E. S i l b e r n e r ,

M o s e s H e s s

L e i d e n , 1 9 6 6 .

6 L o r e n z y o n S t e i n , S o z i a li s m u s u n d K om m un i smu s des heu t i gen F r a n k r e i c h s 1 8 4 2 . O n

M a r x s a t t i t u d e t o y o n S t e i n : S h . A v i n e r i, Th e Soci a l and Po l i ti c a l T h ough t o f K a r l M a r x

C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 8 .

7 A . L . y o n

R o c h a u ,

K r i t i s c he D a r s t e l l u n g d e r S o z i a l t h e o r i e F o u r i e r s

B r a u n s c h w e i g ,

1 8 4 0 .

8 T h e N e w M o r a l W o r ld N o . 2 1 ( 1 8 . 1 1 . 1 8 4 3 ) ; M E W , V o l . I , p . 4 9 4 .

9 M E W , V o l . 1 , S . 4 8 1 - 8 .

l o I b i d . S . 5 0 3 , 5 1 6 .

1 1 M E G A I . 1 (2) , S .315 .

1~ D eu t sch -F r an zf s i sche Jah r b i ~cher h r s g . A . R u g e u n d K . M a r x , D a r m s t a d t , 1 9 6 7 , p p .

3 7 - 3 9 .

C o m m u n i s m h e r e m e a n t t h e a c t u a ll y e x i st i n g

one, e.g. ,

t h e d o g m a t i c t h e o r i e s

o f C a b e t , D e z a m y , W e i t li n g .

1 3 M E W E r g i i n z u n g s b a n d I . p p . 4 6 5 - 5 8 8 ; o n t h e s e m a n u s c r i p t s : Sh. Avi ne r i , op . c i t . ;

L . A l t h u s s e r , P o u r M a r x P a r is , 1 9 6 5 a n d T . I . O j z e r m a n , Fo rm i r ovan i e F i l o so f i i M a r k -

s i z m a M o s c o w , 1 9 6 2 .

14 K ar l M arx , E a r l y W r i t i n g s I n t r o d u c e d

b y L u c i o

C o l l e t t i , L o n d o n 1 9 7 5 , p . 3 4 5 .

i s I b i d . p . 3 4 6 .


11/11

C O M M U N I S M A N D U T O P I A

7

16

Ib id . ,

p . 324 .

17 M EW , Vo l . 2 , p . 37 ; See a lso The H o l y F a m i l y , M o s c o w , 1 9 5 6 , p . 5 1 . D u r i n g t h e

s a m e p e r io d , M . B a k u n i n , t h e f a t h e r o f m o d e r n a n a r c h is m , p r o n o u n c e d h i s d i c t u m o n

t h e d e s t r u c t iv e - a c t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e - a s p e c t o f t h e d e s t r u c ti v e -

ac t

18 M E W , V o l . 2, p p . 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 ; T h e H o l y F a m i l y , p p . 1 7 5 - 6 .

1 9 M E W , V o l . 2 , 4 9 8 - 5 0 7 .

2 0 T h e s e w o r k s o f F o u r i e r a r e :

La Fausse industr ie ,

1 8 3 6 ;

Th~orie des quatre mouve-

me nts , e t des de st inies g~n~rales ,

1841 ;

Traitk de l association do m est iqu e agricole,

1 8 2 2 .

21 M EW , Vo l . 3 , p . 401 .

2 2 M E W , V o l . 2 7 , p . 4 6 1 - 2 .

2 3 p . V . A n n e n k o v , ' Z a m e c h a t e l n o e d e s j at i le t i e' , V e s t n i k E v r o p y , N o . 4 , 1 8 8 0 .

24 Russk ie so vremen nlk i o K . M ark i F . Enge l se ,

M o s c o w , 1 9 6 9 , p . 4 3 n o t e : M a r x ' s

l e t te r t o A n n e n k o v w a s w r i t t e n i n F r e n c h , c o n s e q u e n t l y a l so t h e m a r g i n al ia o f h i s o w n

c o p y : " C ' e s t F o u r i e r q u i , le p r e m i e r , a p e rs i f l6 l' i d 6 a l i s a t i o n d e l a p e t i t e b o u r g e o i s i e " .

2 s M E W , V o l . 2 7 , p p . 4 6 2 - 3 .

2 6 T h e C o m m u n i s t M a n i f e s t o ,

C h . I I I ; i n R . T u c k e r , T h e

M a r x - E n g e l s R e a d e r ,

N.Y. ,

1 9 7 2, pp . 3 5 9 - 3 6 1 .

2 7 S e e M . R u b e l ( e d . ) , Pour une ~thique social is te;Pages de K. Marx, P a r i s , 1 9 7 0 , t o m e

I I , p . 6 , 1 4 4 ; a n d S h . A v i n e ri , 'M a r x a n d U t o p i a n i s m ' , i n

M o l a d

( H e b r e w ) , A p r i l , 1 9 7 3 ,

p p. 3 7 8 - 3 8 6 .

28 T he Co mm unis t Man i fes to ,

i n R . T u c k e r ,

ib id . ,

p . 3 5 3 . F u r t h e r i l l u m i n a t i n g c o n s id -

e r a ti o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e f u t u r e C o m m u n i s t s o c i et y a r e c o n t a i n e d in M a r x ' m a r g i n al n o t es

t o t h e G o t h a P ro g i a m o f 1 8 7 5 (T u c k e r , p p . 3 8 2 - 3 9 8 ) .

29 K. M a rx ,

Early Writings,

e d b y T . B . B o t t o m o r e , N . Y . , 1 9 6 4 , p p . 1 8 7 a n d 1 2 2 .

3 0 C h . F o u r i e r ,

Thdorie des quatre m ouv em ents : Trait~ de l associat ion agricole , T extes

choisis, e d . b y F . A r m a n d , P ar is , 1 9 5 3 , I I I, 2 ; a n d Textes: l a t tract ion passionn~e, e d . b y

R . S h e r e r , P a ri s , 1 9 6 7 , I l l - I V . S e e a l s o : I . Z i l b e r f a r b ,

Soci]a l na]a Filosofi]a ~Sarl]a F ur ie,

M o s c o w , 1 9 6 4 , C h s . 3 a n d 4 .

3 1 M E W , V o l . 3, p . 4 7 0 ; E n g l is h t r a n s l a t i o n - p . 5 3 1 ; th e c o n d i t i o n s f o r m a k i n g w o r k

a t t r a c t iv e w e r e c l ea r ly f o r m u l a t e d b y F o u r i e r i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r t o h i s

Thkorie

de l Unitd Universelle.

3 2 K . M a r x , T h e German Ideo logy , M o c o w , 1 9 6 4 , p p . 9 0 - 9 2 , 9 5 . W a s M a r x r e f er r i n g t o

t h e a b o l i t i o n o f a l l l a b o r a c t iv i t y ? D e b a t e s o n t h i s g o o n : S e e I. M a i le r , T e l A v i v , 1 9 7 4 .

a a T h e

German Ideology, op. c i t . ,

p p . 4 4 - 4 5 .

3 4 C h . F o u r i e r , L e N o u v e a u x M o n d e l n d u s t r i e l , C h . 2 , p p . 3 3 - 3 4 ; Thborie de l Un i t~

Universelle,

I I , 15, e tc .

a s M E W , V o l . 2 5 , p . 8 2 8 . E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n : D . M c L e l l a n ( e d . ) , Karl Marx: Se lec ted

Writings,

O x f o r d , 1 9 7 2 , p p . 4 9 6 - 7 . I t is i n t er e s ti n g t o m e n t i o n h e r e t h a t th e F r e n c h

t r a n s l a t i o n o f

Das Kapi ta l ,

b y M . J. R o y ( 1 8 7 5 ) u n d e r M a r x ' s u p e r v i s io n ( a n d h e e v e n

n o t e d t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s c ie n t i fi c v a l u e o f t h i s e d it i o n ) , s e e m s m o r e ' F o u r i e r i s t i c ' i n i ts

t e r m i n o l o g y ( e.g . ' l ' h o m m e in t 6 g r a l e ' , ' l i b r e e s s o r ' , e t c .) . M a r x ' s ' g e m i l d e r t e B a g n o s '

m a k e s a l l u s io n t o F o u r i e r ' s ' b a g n e s m i t ig 6 s ' (M E W , V o l . 2 3 , 4 5 0 ) .

36 K. M arx , Grundr i sse der Kr i t i k der po l i t i schen Okonomie , Rohen twur f , 1 8 5 7 - 8 ,

B e rl in , 1 9 5 3 , p p . 5 0 5 - 6 .

H a i f a U n i v e r s i t y , I s r a e l

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