Part 1: Introduction to OBPart 2: The Individual

- Foundation of Individual Behavior- Biographical Characteristics- Ability- Learning- Values, Attitudes and Job Satisfaction- Personality and Emotions- Perception and Individual Decision Making- Motivation

Part 3: The Group- Foundation of Group Behavior- Work Teams- Communication- Leadership

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

Biographical Characteristics Age Gender Marital Status Tenure

Ability: An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. We weren’t all created equal!!! Some of us are good singers, some good athletes, and some

others good at story telling. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of Ability that

makes them relatively inferior or superior to others in performing certain tasks or activities.

For management, the issue is knowing how people differ in their abilities and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an employee will perform his or her job well.

ABILITY (CONTD) Intellectual Abilities: are those needed to perform mental

activities.

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Dimension Description Job Example

Number aptitude

Ability to do speedy & accurate arithmetic

Accountant

Verbal comprehension

Ability to understand what is read / heard, and the relationship of words to each other

Plant Manager

Perceptual speed

Ability to identify visual similarities & differences quickly and accurately

Fire Investigator

Inductive reasoning

Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem & then solve the problem

Market Researcher

Deductive reasoning

Ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument

Supervisor

Spatial visualization

Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed

Interior Decorator

Memory Ability to retain and recall past experiences

Salesperson

ABILITY (CONTD)- INTELLECTUAL ABILITY

Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence contains 4 subparts: Cognitive Intelligence: encompasses the aptitudes that have long

been tapped by traditional intelligence tests Social Intelligence: a person’s ability to relate effectively to others Emotional Intelligence: the ability to identify, understand, and

manage emotions Cultural Intelligence: is the awareness of cross-cultural

differences and the ability to function successfully in cross-cultural situations

Multiple Intelligences is in its infancy but holds considerable promise. For instance, it may be able to help us explain why so called smart

people – those with high cognitive intelligence – don’t necessarily adapt well to everyday life, work well with others, or succeed when placed in leadership roles.

ABILITY (CONTD) Physical Abilities: the capacity to do tasks demanding

stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.Nine Basic Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

1 Dynamic Strength Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time

2 Trunk Strength Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk muscles

3 Static Strength Ability to exert force against external objects

4 Explosive Strength

Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts

Flexibility Factors

5 Extent Flexibility Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible

6 Dynamic Flexibility

Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements

Other Factors

7 Body Coordination

Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body

8 Balance Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance

9 Stamina Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time

ABILITY – JOB FIT

Airline pilots need strong spatial visualization abilities Lifeguards need both strong spatial visualization abilities and

body coordination Senior Executives need verbal abilities High-rise construction workers need balance Journalists need strong deductive reasoning abilities

LEARNING

What is Learning?

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Points to keep in mind:(a) Learning involves change(b) The change must be relatively permanent(c) There must be a change in behavior(d) Some form of experience is necessary for learning (such as

through observation, reading, etc.)

THEORIES OF LEARNING Classical Conditioning

Grew out of experiments to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response

Meat Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response (noticeable increase in salivation)

Bell Conditioned Stimulus (Artificial Stimulus / Neutral) Conditioned Response (noticeable increase in salivation in reaction to the bell)

Examples: Christmas Carols Study conducted at the manufacturing plant on the visit of top

executives from the HO

THEORIES OF LEARNING

Operant Conditioning Was discovered by Harvard Psychologist B. F. Skinner A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads

to a reward or prevents a punishment People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are

positively reinforced for doing so If a behavior fails to be positively reinforced, the probability that

the behavior will be repeated declines Creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of

behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are

positively reinforced for doing so Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired

response Behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be

repeated

THEORIES OF LEARNING

Social Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience For example, by observing what happens to other people and

just by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences, individuals can learn

Is an extension of Operant Conditioning as it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences

People respond to how they perceive and define consequences Influence of models is central to this theory

SHAPING: A MANAGERIAL TOOLShaping Behavior

When we attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, we are SHAPING BEHAVIOR

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response

Methods of Shaping Behavior

(a) Positive Reinforcement: following a response with something pleasant

(b) Negative Reinforcement: following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant

(c) Punishment: Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior

(d) Extinction: Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT The speed with which learning takes place and the

permanence of its effects will be determined by the timing of reinforcement!!

Continuous Reinforcement: A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated (E.g. Compliment the habitual latecomer)

Intermittent Reinforcement: A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated

Fixed Interval Schedule: Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals (E.g. Weekly / Monthly paycheck)

Variable Interval Schedule: Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses (E.g. Pop Quiz)

Fixed Ratio Schedule: Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses (E.g. Piece-rate incentive plan)

Variable Ratio Schedule: The reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual (E.g. Salespeople on commission)

Reinforcement Schedule

Nature of Reinforcement

Effect on Behavior

Example

Continuous Reward given after each desired behavior

Fast learning of new behavior but rapid extinction

Compliments

Fixed Interval Reward given at fixed time intervals

Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction

Weekly paychecks

Variable Interval Reward given at variable times

Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction

Pop Quizzes

Fixed Ratio Reward given at fixed amounts of output

High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction

Piece-rate pay

Variable Ratio Reward given at variable amounts of output

Very high performance with slow extinction

Commissioned sales

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION OB Mod: The application of reinforcement concepts to

individuals in the work setting

The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model:

(a) Identifying critical behaviors (that make a significant impact on the employee’s job performance)

(b) Developing baseline data (by determining the number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions)

(c) Identifying behavioral consequences (or consequences of current performance / continuing the behavior)

(d) Developing and implementing an intervention strategy (to strengthen desirable performance behaviors and weaken undesirable behaviors)

(e) Evaluating performance improvement