Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect...
Transcript of Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect...
![Page 1: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To
Aid Defect Exploration In
Argument Gaming
G.S. Mahalakshmi, Lecturer, Anna University, Chennai – [email protected], [email protected]
![Page 2: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Walton’s definition of Fallacy
A fallacy is an argument (or at least something that
purports to be an argument); that falls short of some standard of
correctness; poses a serious obstacle to the realization of
the goal of a dialogue.
For Walton, a fallacy is fundamentally negative; it involves a lapse, error, failure, and deception.
![Page 3: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Argument Gaming knowledge sharing - exchange of ideas to promote learning - method
of interaction – argument gaming
subject of discussion validated – with right justifications and by eliminating false beliefs False beliefs – proposed in arguments (which support the argument) - need
to be identified Reasons support subject of discussion in argument – false reasons - Reason
fallacies To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from argumentation
Indian philosophical perspective – ‘tarka’ methodology Motivation – invariable concomitance
knowledge of co-existence free from fallacious knowledge
Applied when convincing others of a certain issue When the sun is at the top, vertically over your head, you infer that the time is around 12.00 noon.
When a student answers ‘Penguins fly’, the teacher infers the student’s lack of knowledge about ‘Penguin’
![Page 4: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Interpretation of arguments in
‘This hill has fire’ (statement) Hill – subject; fire – probandum or object to be inferred
‘Because it has smoke’ (reason) Smoke – probans or Reason
‘Since whatever has smoke has fire e.g. an oven’ (example) Oven – similar example
This lake has fire’ (statement) Lake – subject; fire – probandum or object to be inferred
‘Because it has smoke’ (reason) Smoke – probans or Reason
‘Since whatever has smoke has fire e.g. an oven’ (example) Oven – similar example
May not be a smoke, it may be ‘fog’, so statement is disproved
![Page 5: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Need for exploration of reason fallacies
Modern argumentation Argument fallacies
How an argument is put forth, rather than its NL semantic content
Argument by expert opinion, straw man fallacy etc. No rule framed – surveyed and studied only by examples
Conceptual Semantic analysis – needed Identifying abstract semantics by using relations between
concepts that form the argument By exploring relations between parts of argument –
concepts (probans, probandum, subject) Invariable concomitance, inherence, causal, contact-contact
etc. Possibility of rules – standards inspired by Tarka Sastra
![Page 6: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Nyaya - Argument Defects
Defective Reasoning - 5 tells how (or how not) to interpret a proposition
a subject, which prevents inferential knowledge
![Page 7: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Definitions of defects Straying
Reason which is present in a place where there is absence of the thing to be proved
Adverse Reason is pervaded by negation of the thing to be proved
Antithetical Two valid reasons for presence and absence of the thing to be
proved Unestablished
concept to which the subject is related to is not present or not related as said, with the subject
Stultified Negation of probandum is established by another proof
Need for defect categorisation Concept and relation centric would provide more information about reason fallacies present in
the proposed argument
![Page 8: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Formal definitions of defects
![Page 9: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
……
![Page 10: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
…….
![Page 11: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Our idea – categories of Nyaya defects
![Page 12: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Defect Table - Possible defects classified per defect category
![Page 13: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Defect classification, identification
Argument Analysis
Defect Table
Defect Categories
Nyaya Defect types
Defect set
![Page 14: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Sample arguments
Arg. Id
Argument Subjectobject of
inference reason
1 sky_lotus has fragrance sky_lotus fragrance Nil
2 artificial-rose has fragrance artificial-rose fragrance Nil
3 lily has fragrance lily fragrance Nil
4 mountain has fire due_to smoke mountain fire smoke
5 penguin fly because it is-a bird penguin fly Bird
6 bats are viviparous because they are mammal bat viviparous mammal
7 Falls does not have fire when there is smoke falls fire smoke
8 Falls does not have fire when there is smoke falls fire smoke
![Page 15: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Argument defectsA r g . Id Status in KB Defect Category & Type Status in KB
1 concept doesn't existsHC1Unestablished to subject concept doesn't exists
2concept exists, fragrance as a quality(negation)
HC7Unestablished to itself
concept exists, fragrance as a quality(negation)
3 concept and quality exists No Defect concept and quality exists
4 Fire, smoke exists as concepts. No invariable relation
HC8Unestablished to invariance
Fire, smoke exists as concepts. No invariable relation
5 Penguin and bird exists as concept. Exclusive quality: fly in negation
HC4Straying Uncommon
Penguin and bird exists as concept. Exclusive quality: fly in negation
6Bat, mammal and bird exist as concept. Mammal-viviparous, bird-~viviparous
HC2, HC5Antithetical
Bat, mammal and bird exist as concept. Mammal-viviparous, bird-~viviparous
7Falls and smoke exist as concept. Absence of fire as concept. Direct relation between fire and smoke
HC1, HC5Straying Common
Falls and smoke exist as concept. Absence of fire as concept. Direct relation between fire and smoke
8Falls and smoke exist as concept. Absence of fire as concept. Invariable relation between fire and smoke
HC1, HC6Adverse
Falls and smoke exist as concept. Absence of fire as concept. Invariable relation between fire and smoke
![Page 16: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
![Page 17: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Future enhancements
Other provisional definitions of invariable concomitance
More Reason fallacies in Buddhist philosophy
Coverage of argument fallacies
![Page 18: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Key References1. Gautama, The Nyaya Sutras, translated by S.C. Vidyabhusana, edited by
Nanda Lal Sinha, Sacred Book of the Hindus, Allahabad, (1930). Reprinted in 1990. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
2. C. L. Hamblin. Fallacies. London:Methuen, (1970).
3. Jaakko Hintikka, Socratic Epistemology: Explorations of Knowledge-Seeking by Questioning, Cambridge University Press, 239pp., (2007)
4. G.S.Mahalakshmi and T.V.Geetha: Navya-Nyaya Approach to Defect Exploration in Argument Gaming for Knowledge Sharing, In proc. of International Conf. on Logic, Navya-Nyaya & Applications - A Homage To Bimal Krishna Matilal (ICLNNA ‘07), Jadavpur Univ., Calcutta, India, (2007).
5. Sathis Chandra Vidyabhusana, A History of Indian Logic – Ancient, Medieaeval and Modern Schools, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Ltd., Delhi, India, ISBN:81-208-0565-8. pp. 84, (1988).
6. Swami Virupakshananda: Tarka Samgraha, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras (1994).
7. Toshihiro Wada, Invariable Concomitance in Navya-Nyaya, Sri Garib Dass Oriental Series No. 101, Indological and Oriental Publishers, New Delhi, India, (1990).
8. Walton, D. and Woods, J., Argument: The Logic of the fallacies, Toronto:
![Page 19: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Thank You…
![Page 20: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Gautama – Ontology editor based on Nyaya
G.S. Mahalakshmi, Lecturer, Anna University, Chennai – [email protected], [email protected]
![Page 21: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Idea
Indian logic based approach of knowledge representation classifies the world knowledge into concepts, and relations, both
enriched with special qualities. Nyaya Sastra
categorization of world knowledge elaborate in tapping the minute details in the defined knowledge units.
Nyaya logics mechanism which defines the concept and relation elements of ontology based on the epistemology of Nyaya-Vaisheshika school of Indian logic.
NORM an ontology reference model based on Nyaya logic syntax and semantics of NORM rdf. To overcome the difficulty involved
we propose Gautama,
Gautama a tool for editing the ontology based on Nyaya logics.
![Page 22: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Nyaya Logics - Argument
A=< Aid, CS,COI,CR,RS-OI,RS-R,RR-OI,Astate,Astatus,Astr> Aid - Argument index
CS,COI,CR - concept categories;
RS-OI,RS-R,RR-OI - relation categories;
Astate – state of argument;
Astate {premise, inference, conclusion}
Astatus – defeat status of arguments;
Astatus{defeated, undefeated, ambiguous, undetermined}
![Page 23: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
NORM Model
(a) ontology with concepts as nodes and external relations as edges
(b) a concept with qualities as nodes, internal relations as thin edges, tangential relations as dotted edges
(c) a quality with values as nodes, grouping relations as edges
![Page 24: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
NORM - Concept
C= <Cname, Ccat, QM,QO,QE,Cpr,Cpar,Ccon>
Cname – name of the concept
Ccat={CS,COI,CR}
QM = Quality Mandatory of type Quality Q
QO = Quality optional of type Quality Q
QE = Quality Exceptional of type Quality Q
Cpr = Concept priority weight factor
Cpar= parent concept C, par = 0 to n;
n – max. no. of concepts in committed ontology Ccon = constraint set under which concept C is said to exist;
![Page 25: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
NORM - Quality
Q=<Qname,Vi,Qcon>
Qname – name of the quality
Vi – Quality value list;
i = 0 to v, max. no. of values allowed for Qname
Qcon – constraint set of Qname
![Page 26: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Nyaya-Vaisheshika Qualities
![Page 27: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
NORM - RelationR= <Rname,CAq,CBq,Rcat,Rqual,Rpr,Rcon>
Rname – name of the relation
CAq, CBq ⊆ Ccat ;
q = 1 to n; n – max. no. of qualities defined for CA, CB in OT;
CA = CB permissible.
Rcat={RS-OI,RS-R,RR-OI}
Rqual={Ici,D,X,Xp},
Ic – Invariable concomitance; i = 0-3, over {sym, +Ic, -Ic, Neutral}; D – Direct; X – Exclusive; Xp - Exceptional
Rpr = Relation priority weight factor
Rcon = constraint set over defined relations, {Rcon[i], R1, R2}; R1, R2 ∈ R.
i=0, reflexive, here R1, R2 = NULL ; i=1,
![Page 28: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
‘Gautama’ tool
![Page 29: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Gautama - Description ILO Visualisation Pane:
contains icons to save and print the ontology visualisation created in the top left pane of the editor. In addition, drawing icons have also been provided.
Concepts Visualisation Pane: only the concept hierarchy in the ontology is visualised.
Nodes Entry Pane: provides controls for entering information about the nodes that are yet to be created C-C denotes concept-concept; V-V denotes value-value and Q-Q denotes quality-quality. command buttons provided to add concepts, qualities and values. ‘Generate RDF’ button helps in generation of Resource description format
Relations Entry Pane: ‘roles’ shall be created - at all levels as per NORM command buttons for ‘deletion’ services. ‘load rdf’ button to load a pre-defined ontology at once.
Concepts list Pane: lists all the concepts specialised concepts first , followed by the generalised concepts.
Quality List Pane:
![Page 30: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
NORM RDF
<rdf:concept> used to declare a concept prior and after its definition
<rdf:name> used to declare the name of a concept / quality / relation.
<rdf:desc> used to create descriptions or definitions for a particular concept
<rdf:axiom> used to create concept axioms
<rdf:quality> used to create member qualities for a given concept
<rdf:type> used to declare the type of a concept / quality / relation
<rdf:role> used to declare the role of a concept / quality
<rdf:category> used to declare the category of relation like external, internal, tangential or
grouping. <rdf:operator>
used to declare the logical operators like and, or while creating the concept
![Page 31: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
NDL Concept-satisfiable
This takes a concept name as the parameter and checks whether the addition of the concept will not violate the ontology definitions that exist prior to the execution of this command
Concept-subsumes This takes two concepts as input, and checks whether the first concept subsumes
the second concept. This is one of the famous reasoning service provided by any ontology-based reasoner.
Concept ancestors and Concept-descendants These commands list the ancestral / descending concepts in the ontology
hierarchy. Role-ancestors and Role-descendants also have similar purpose.
Sub-concept, Super-concept These commands retrieve the child nodes or parent nodes of the parametric
concept from the ontology hierarchy
Chk-concept-related This command has three variations. It either checks whether a concept is related
to another concept, through a particular relation name or through a particular set of relation categories.
Chk-quality This command checks the entire ontology hierarchy to check if the required quality
is available in the ontology Chk-concept-quality
This command checks the entire ontology hierarchy to check if the particular concept has the required quality.
![Page 32: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Future enhancements
Translation of NORM RDF into visualised ontology in Gautama
Improving visualisationColor coding for qualities and relations
across levelsMerging two IL ontologiesAutomated IL ontology creation from
text passages
![Page 33: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Key References
G. Aghila, G.S. Mahalakshmi and Dr. T.V. Geetha, ‘KRIL – A Knowledge Representation System based on Nyaya Shastra using Extended Description Logics’, VIVEK journal, ISSN 0970-1618, Vol.15, No.3, pp. 3-18, July (2003).
Gautama, The Nyaya Sutras, translated by S.C. Vidyabhusana, edited by Nanda Lal Sinha, Sacred Book of the Hindus, Allahabad, (1930). Reprinted in 1990. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Jonardon Ganeri, Indian Logic: A Reader, Published by Routledge, (2001)
G.S. Mahalakshmi and T.V. Geetha, Reasoning and Evolution of consistent ontologies using NORM, IJAI, Indian Society for Development and Environment Research (ISDER), ISSN 0974-0635, Volume 2, Number S09, pp. 77-94, Spring (2009).
Swami Virupakshananda, Tarka Samgraha, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, (1994).
![Page 34: Formal Definitions Of Reason Fallacies To Aid Defect ...ali.cmi.ac.in/icla2009/slides/jan09/sessionb/1200.pdf · To identify reason fallacies or defects or holes is reasoning from](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042408/5f2423d52da5503b3a7d1465/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Thank You…