Form 4 - Biology Notes(1)

8/13/2019 Form 4 - Biology Notes(1)

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Biology Form 4 Notes (2003-2004)2005 Jordan Mifsud (4.8) 5.8

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T T OO P P I I C C 11:: N N U U T T R R I I T T I I OO N N

The 7 Basic Food Substances

All the food we eat is made up of the following 7 basic substances:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Fats

3. Proteins

4. Vitamins

5. Minerals

6. Fibre

7. Water

Carbohydrates , fats , proteins and vitamins are organic substances because they

contain carbon in their molecular structure. Water and minerals are inorganic

substances since they dont contain carbon .

Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are needed in bulk in our diet, while vitamins and

minerals are needed in smaller amounts.

A person whose diet lacks any of these nutrients suffers from malnutrition , and this

may give rise to a deficiency disease .

Food gives us energy . The amount of energy needed by our body isnt the same for

everyone. The amount of energy needed to live depends on the persons sex, job,

attitude, age and other factors like if the person is a pregnant woman.

1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen .

They are very important because they provide energy for the body. There are 3 typesof carbohydrates: sugars , starch , and cellulose .

A. Sugars

Glucose (C 6H12O6)

Fructose (sugars in fruit)

Sucrose (table sugar)


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GlucoseMolecule

Lactose (found in milk)

Maltose (found in barley grains)

B. Strach

Found in bread, potatoes, rice, cereals etc. Plants store food as starch.

C. Cellulose

Found in all unrefined plant food. An important source of fibre.

Carbohydrates are all made up of molecules of glucose bonded (joined) together. The

simplest form of carbohydrate is glucose. Two molecules of glucose joined together

with a bond, form maltose , lactose and sucrose sugars. Starch, cellulose and

glycogen are formed when 3 or more glucose molecules are joined together with

bonds.

Glucoses molecule is represented by a hexagon:

A single sugar molecule is called a monosaccharide . Examples of monosaccharides

are glucose and fructose .

Sucrose , maltose and lactose are all disaccharides because they have 2 sugar

molecules bonded together.

Starch , cellulose and glycogen are all polysaccharides because they are made up of

3 or more sugar molecules bonded together.


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Carbohydrates are found in cereals, pasta, bread, fruit, potatoes sugary food such as

ice cream etc.

Glucoses chemical formula is the following: C 6H12O6.

Plants store food as starch , while animals store food as glycogen . Both glycogen

and starch are polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are NOT sweet but ARE insoluble .

2. Fats

Fats are organic substances . Lipids are fats in a liquid state . Fats are useful

for our body, because they:

provide energy,

can be stored for later use,

build up cell membranes,

layers serve as an insulating layers under mammals skins and

and oils on the surface of the skin makes the skin waterproof.

Fat is found in vegetable oil, milk, fried foods, eggs, beef etc.

The simplest fat molecule is made up of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids

bonded together.

Glycerol

Fatt Acids

Fatt Acids

Fatt Acids


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3. Proteins

Proteins are organic substances made up of hydrogen , carbon and oxygen ,

nitrogen and sometimes they contain sulphur . Proteins are needed by the body to

grow and repair tissues (a cellular structure), they are components of cell

membranes, are used to produce enzymes (biological catalysts ) and hormones .The simplest possible protein is an amino acid , thus proteins are made up of amino

acids, which can be represented as any form of shape (circle, rectangle, square).

Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds. When 2 amino acids connected

together with a peptide bond, a dipeptide forms. When 3 or more amino acids are

joined together, a polypeptide is formed.

Amino Acid Dipeptide Polypeptide

When proteins are heated, they are denatured; they change shape, its properties and

functions are destroyed. Food rich in proteins are milk, meat, eggs, nuts, fish etc.

4. Water

Water is vital for animals and almost all living organisms. It makes up to one third of

the human body mass. Water is an inorganic substance with the chemical formula

H2O.

Water is important for animals because it gives support to aquatic animals, gametes

(sex cells like sperms and eggs) travel in a watery medium, sweating has a cooling

effect on the body, and urine and tears are mostly made up from water. There is water

even in the joints, so that reduces friction when bones move. Even blood is partially

made up of water.

Water is also needed by plants, to make leaves turgid, guard cells move by osmosis

and water takes part in the chemical reaction in which plants make there food (by

photosynthesis ). Some seeds germinate with the help of water.


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5. Minerals

Many minerals are important for our body. There are other trace elements not listed in

the table which are useful for other bodily functions.

Mineral Found in Use in the body Deficiency disease

Calcium

Milk, cheese,

fish, mineral

water

Developing bones

and maintaining their

rigidity. Forms

intracellular cement

and the cell

membranes, and in

regulating nervous

excitability and

muscular contraction.

Rickets

Iron

Tomatoes, liver,

kidneys

Part of haemoglobin in

red blood cells.

Anaemia headaches,

tiredness, and

lethargy

PhosphorousMany foods,

e.g. milk

Important for bones

and teeth.

Osteomalacia

(rickets )

Sodium

Salt, many

foods.

Present in extra cellular

fluid, and regulates it.

Cramps

Iodine

Sea food,

drinking water

Needed to synthesize

hormones of the thyroid

gland.

Goitre

FluorineWater,

toothpaste

Builds a layer above

enamel.

Can lead to tooth decay

MagnesiumMost foods Important f or

metabolism.

Tremors and

convulsions

6. Vitamins

Vitamins are very, very important for the body, but only in small quantities.

Vitamin Found in Use Deficiency disease

ALiver, carrot Important for eyes. Night Blindness

Exophthalmia.


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DFish liver oil Healthy bones and

teeth.

Rickets .

EMilk, egg yolk,

lettuce

Healthy reproductive

system.

Sterility.

K Cabbage, spinach,fish livers

Important for thecoagulation of blood.

Disorders in bloodclotting.

B1

Pork, organ meats

lean meats, eggs,

leafy green

vegetables, whole or

enriched cereals,

berries, nuts, and

legumes.

Catalyst in

carbohydrate

metabolism, enabling

pyretic acid to be

metabolised and

carbohydrates to

release their energy.

Beriberi ;

Disturbances,

impaired sensory

perception,

weakness, periods of

irregular heartbeat,

and partial paralysis.

B2

Liver, milk, meat,

dark green

vegetables, whole

grain and enriched

cereals, pasta, bread,

and mushrooms.

Serves as a

coenzyme-one that

must combine with a

portion of another

enzyme to be

effective-in the

metabolism of

carbohydrates, fats,

and, especially,respiratory proteins.

Skin lesions.

Niacin (B6)

Liver, poultry, meat,

canned tuna and

salmon.

Works as a

coenzyme in the

release of energy

from nutrients.

Pellagra Diarrhoea,

mental confusion,

irritability, and, when

the central nervous

system is affected,

depression and

mental disturbances.

C

Citrus fruits, fresh

strawberries,

cantaloupe,

pineapple, and

guava.

Important in the

formation and

maintenance of

collagen, the protein

that supports many

body structures and

Scurvy; Bleeding

gums


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plays a major role in

the formation of

bones and teeth.

7. FibreFibre is mainly cellulose from plant cell walls . Humans cannot digest fibre , but it is

important because it helps food to pass from the gut, and prevents constipation .

Food rich in fibre are whole meal bread, bran, cereals, fresh fruit and vegetables.

Food Tests

Test for Starch: with Iodine solution . If result is positive, a blue -black

precipitate forms. Test for Glucose: with Benedicts Solution and the mixture is heated . If the

result is positive, an orange brown solution forms.

Test for Proteins: with Copper Sulphate and Sodium hydroxide . A purple

colour forms if the tested food contains proteins.

Test for Fats: with Ethanol (alcohol) A mmm iii lllkkk yyy www hhh iii ttt eee solution forms in

presence of fat.

Test for Vitamin C: with DCPIP . A blue to a ccc ooo lllooo uuu rrr lll eee sss sss liquid forms in

presence of vitamin C.


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Effect of Temp. on Enzymes

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

10 20 30 40 50

Temerature in degrees celcius

m g o

f p r o

d u c

t p e r m

i n .

mg of products perminute

T T OO P P I I C C 2 2 E E N N Z Z Y Y M M E E SS

Enzymes are biological catalysts . A catalyst enhances the speed of a chemical

reaction. Thus, enzymes are catalysts, which enhance the speed of the chemical

reactions taking place in the body.

Properties of Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins , therefore, they become denatured by heat, which means that

when heated above 40 oC, they change shape and do not work anymore. When the

temperature is lower than normal, enzymes become inactive . Enzymes are specific ,

which means that every enzyme catalysis only one type of food substance, for

example, the enzyme amylase catalysis only starch , and does not take part in any

other chemical reaction involving another food substance.

Enzymes do not take part in the proper chemical reactions (they do not react), they

just enhance the speed , and this property makes them used over and over again.

An enzyme catalysis a reaction involving a substrate ; the particular nutrient the

enzyme acts on. When the reaction is complete, a product is produced. An example is

amylase acting on starch . Amylase, which is an enzyme, acts on its substrate

(starch), to produce a product (maltose), which is a simpler type of carbohydrate.

The rate of productivity by enzymes is very affected by temperature and by pH . The

graph shows the rate of the activity by the enzymes in relation to temperature. The

rate increases slowly when the temperature rises between 10 oC to 40 oC, but when the

temperature rises further, activity decrease drastically, because enzymes are being

denatured.


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The graph here below shows the sensitivity of enzymes to pH. It is a bell-shaped

graph , showing that the enzymes work best that at their optimum pH , which in this

case is pH 2.

An example:

The Lock and Key Theory

The lock and key theory is how scientists believe

enzymes catalyze their substrate. It is shown in this

diagram. The substrate approaches the enzyme, then

the substrate docks into the active site, where the

reaction takes place. After the reaction, the enzyme

releases the products.

Effect of Temp. on Enzymes

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 0.5 1 2 3 3.5 4pH

a c

t i v

i t y o

f e n z y m e s

activity of enzyme

Effect of pH on Enzymes Optimum pH

Amylase acts on Starch toproduce

Enzyme Substrate

maltose

Product

Enzyme

Active Site

Reaction takingplace

Products leaveactive site

Substrate


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Economic Important of Enzymes

Enzymes can be artificially made and used in Biological washing powders . These

washing powders contain enzymes that work at a suitable temperature (e.g. 40 oC) and

dissolve food stains from fabrics. They are specific to particular stains.

Protease is used for tenderising meat and removing hair from hides.Amylase is used to covert starch to sugars to make syrups and juices.

Enzyme Inhibitors

There are some poisons, such as cyanide and arsenic that block the enzymes active

site, therefore the substrate cannot enter the active site and the reaction doesnt take

place. Certain pesticides block the active site of pests enzymes so that its respiratory

system stops working and the pest dies.

Dentition

The teeth are made of hardest substance found in the body. Humans have 4 types of

teeth:

Incisors : Adapted for cutting food.

Canines : for holing and tearing.

Premolars : For chewing and grinding food.

Molars : For chewing and grinding food.

Humans aged 6 months begin to grow 20 milk teeth (baby) teeth. Once he or she is

an adult, 32 permanent teeth will be developed.

The tooth is made up of 2 sections, an exposed Crown and the Root which is

embedded in the gum. The enamel (calcium phosphate: CaPO 3) is the upper part of

the crown. It is very hard. Then beneath it there is the dentin . The tooth is primary

made of dentin, which is a substance, similar to bone but harder. The central region of

the tooth is the pulp cavity . It contains the pulp, which is composed of connective

tissue with blood vessels, nerves etc. the pulp is connected to the blood capillaries,

which give nutrients and oxygen to the dental cells.

Tooth decay ( dental caries ) is caused by bacteria in the mouth which produce acids

to digest food stuck in and between the teeth.

To prevent tooth decay, varies activities must be regularly done:


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Brushing teeth with a fluoride toothpaste

Regular visits to the dentist

X-rays of the jaw to ensure that no cavity is being developed where the dentist

cannot see

Use tooth floss Wash mouth with a suitable mouth wash

Herbivores have different a dental system since they eat only vegetable matter. In

herbivores, there is a gap called diastema between the incisors and the molars.

Instead of the upper incisors, herbivores have a hard pad to pull leaves and grass out

of the branches or soil. They have no canines and molars have a flat surface. Their

teeth have an open root , which means that they grow continuously. Carnivores

molars have cusps , to ensure that food is better chewed. They have canines , and

upper incisors , while teeth have a closed root unlike herbivores. The following

article shows more clearly the difference between carnivores and herbivore dentition.


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Diastema


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T T OO P P I I C C 3 3 :: F F E E E E D D I I N N GG

Feeding can be divided into 4 types:

1. Saprophytic : Saprophytic organisms such as fungi and some bacteria (called

decomposers ) that feed on dead decaying matter . Saprophytes are useful to

the environment because they recycle nutrients.

2. Parasitic : When parasitic organisms feed on or in another organism harming

it.

3. Holozoic (heterotrophic ): Animals feed heterotrophically, because they must

search for their food . Herbivores eat vegetable matter and have special

bodily structures to help them digest cellulose . Carnivores eat meat and are

usually predators. Omnivores , such as humans eat both meat and vegetable

matter.

4. Holophytic (autotrophic ): Plants feed with this type of feeding. They are able

to make their own food by photosynthesis .

Holozoic Nutrition

The digestive system can be divided into various stages, but it is basically divided

into 5 main stages :

1. Ingestion : food is ate, chewed and mixed with saliva .

2. Digestion : Begins from the mouth by salivary amylase (starch-breaking

enzyme ) and continues till the duodenum (first part of the small intestine ),

were enzymes break down food into simpler soluble products (Glucose ,

amino acids , fatty acids and glycerol ), stage by stage, and prepares nutrients

for absorption.

3. Absorption : the blood absorbs soluble products in the ileum (second part of

the small intestine ).

4. Assimilation : the nutrients are then assimilated ( taken to ) various organs

around the body.

5. Defecation (Egestion ): Undigested matter such as fibre is egested (moved

out ) of the body. [Do not mix excretion with egesting or defecation! Excretion

is the removal of waste products made by chemicals reaction within the cells;

e.g. excreting urine ].


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Hydrochloric acid (chemical formula HCl) kills bacteria and provides and

acidic, optimum pH for pepsin to work.

After 3 to 4 hours of digestion, food becomes chyme . At intervals it is passed into the

small intestine . The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum . The

duodenum receives digestive juices for 3 different places: intestinal wall , pancreas and the liver .

From the intestinal wall , mainly 5 enzymes are produced:

1. Trypsin : breaks down polypeptides into dipeptides .

2. Maltase : breaks down maltose into glucose .

3. Lipase : breaks down fats (lipids are liquid fats ) into fatty acids and glycerol .

4. Peptidases : breaks down dipeptides into amino acids

5. Sucrase : breaks down sucrose into glucose

These enzymes are summarised below in the following table:

Enzymes from the

Intestinal WallSubstrate Product

Trypsin polypeptides dipeptides

Maltase maltose glucose

Lipase fats fatty acids and glycerol

Peptidases dipeptides amino acids

Sucrase sucroseglucose

From the pancreas mainly 4 chemicals are produced:

1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3): neutralizes acids from the stomach

and provides alkaline pH in the duodenum.

2. Trypsin : breaks down polypeptides into dipeptides .

3. Pancreatic amylase : breaks down starch into maltose .

4. Lipase : Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol .

These chemicals are enlisted here below:Chemicals from the

PancreasFunction / Substrate Product

Sodium hydrogencarbonate

neutralizes acids from thestomach and provides

alkaline pH in theduodenum


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Trypsin polypeptides dipeptidesPancreatic amylase Starch maltose

Lipase Fats Fatty acids and glycerol

From the liver, the duodenum receives no enzymes, but gets bile . Bile is a green

chemical, which helps to break down large fat molecules for lipase to act on it: this

process is called emulsification . It has a detergent effect , and it is stored in the gall

bladder and it is secreted from the gall bladder to the duodenum through the bile

duct . Digestion ends here.

Food has been all broken down into their soluble products, glucose, amino acids,

fatty acids and glycerol . They can be now absorbed into the blood stream from the

ileum .

The liver

The liver is the largest internal organ in vertebrates. It does the following functions:

synthesis of proteins, immune and clotting factors, and oxygen and fat-carrying

substances. Its chief digestive function is the secretion of bile, a solution critical to fat

emulsion (emulsification) and absorption. The liver also removes excess glucose from

circulation and stores it until it is needed. It converts excess amino acids into useful

forms and filters drugs and poisons (alcohol, pills etc) from the bloodstream,

neutralizing them and excreting them in bile. The liver has two main lobes located

just under the diaphragm on the right side of the body.

The Ileum

The ileum is a very long part of the gut so that absorption takes places efficiently.

Here, soluble products: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and enter glycerol enter the

blood stream through millions of small finger-like structures called villi . The villi are

tiny, to increase surface area for absorption. Each villus is covered with tiny hairs

called microvilli , that are actual villi but smaller, like root hairs on a root in plants.

Villi have a thin lining and a good blood supply to allow blood to absorb the soluble

nutrients. Food passes through the intestine with the help of muscular contraction

(peristalsis) of the intestinal wall, which is also moist to allow food to pass well and to

enhance the speed of absorption.


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The villuss structure is shown here;

Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by the blood capillaries , which are very thin

blood vessels. Fatty acids and glycerol, being large molecules are absorbed by the

lacteal first before draining into the blood stream.

The Large Intestine

The large intestine is divided into the colon and rectum . The colon is the part wherewater is absorbed. In the rectum, faeces (undigested food such as fiber) are stored

until it is egested out of the body through the anus , within 24-48 hours after eating.

The rectum wall is covered with a layer of mucus to ease the passage of faeces. This

process is called defeacation .

The Caecum and the Appendix

The caecum and the appendix are vestigial organs , i.e. they do not have any known

function in humans. In herbivores called ruminants , (such as rabbits) the caecum and

appendix contain cellulose-digesting bacteria that produce the enzyme cellulase to

digest cellulose in plant cells.

A summary of the digestive system

Thin Epithelium

Blood Vessels (absorblucose and amino acids)Lacteal

(absorbsfatty acidsand glycerol


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Digestion in Herbivores

Herbivores such as cows, sheep and horses are called ruminants because they contain

a special digestive system. They have a special type of dentition, different from

carnivorous dentition, to allow them to extract grass from soil easily. Their small

intestine is about 40 meters long, to allow them to digest cellulose completely, beforeit reaches the end of the gut.

Their gut contains cellulose-digesting bacteria. These bacteria produce the enzyme

cellulase that catalysis the reaction that breaks down cellulose into soluble sugar

(glucose). The bacteria gain shelter and protection as well as food from the ruminants

so their relation is a mutualistic one (both benefiting from one another).

These bacterial are housed in the caecum and appendix , so in the ruminants, they are

not vestigial organs as in humans.

Ruminants have a special type of stomach called rumen . The rumen is a large

stomach that contains 3 other chambers. While the ruminant is grazing, grass is

swallowed and enters the rumen. When the animals stops eating, it regurgitates the

grass (brings the already swallowed food back to its mouth ), little by little to allow it

to be chew and swallowed properly and then the food enters into the other 3 chambers

to further digest the food before it goes into the small intestine.

The following article helps you understand how the ruminants digestive system

works.


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More information about the Liver

The liver receives blood mixed with the soluble products of digestion from the

hepatic portal vein . The liver receives blood rich in oxygen from the heart through

the hepatic artery . Then the blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein which

also carries a lot of heat since inside the liver, a lot of chemical reactions occur.

Hepatic portal vein

Hepatic Vein

Liver

Hepatic Artery

Gut


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T T OO P P I I C C 4 4 :: R R E E SS P P I I R R A A T T I I OO N N

What is Respiration and Why do we need it?

Respiration is a chemical reaction catalysed by enzymes. It takes place in each

and every mitochondria of the cells. Respiration is done to obtain energy needed

by the body. For vital functions to take place, the body needs energy. It also needs

energy to keep a constant body temperature and to transport chemical messages.

Plants need energy for active transport to take place.

Gas exchange

Differences between respiration and breathing:

Respiration is carried out in all cells to obtain energy.

Breathing is the exchange of gases, in case of humans and other organisms, the

removal of carbon dioxide and obtaining oxygen.

In large organisms such as mammals, respiratory surfaces are required for gas

exchange (breathing, not respiration) to take place efficiently. In humans, like all

mammals, lungs are used for this purpose.

There are two types of respiration : Aerobic ( oxygen involved ) and anaerobic

( no oxygen involved ).

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic means without oxygen, and thus this type of chemical reaction involves

only sugars (obtained from digestion of food). Energy is released by the chemical

breaking of bonds in organic molecules (containing carbon) present in sugars and

other carbohydrates, obtained from digestion. There is more than one type of

anaerobic respiration; it depends on the organism.

One very common type of anaerobic respiration is alcohol fermentation

represented in this equation below:

This type of reaction (alcohol fermentation) is done by yeast . As it produces

alcohol, it is important for world economy for the production of beer, wine and

other alcoholic drinks. Yeasts most important function is surely in the production

of bread . Anaerobic respiration is also important for the economy as certain

)210(22 5226126 kJ energyOH H C COO H C ++


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anaerobic bacteria produce lactic acid , which is used to make butter, yoghurt

cheese and other dairy products. Some other types of bacteria produce methane

gas (CH 4), a flammable gas used for cooking and fuelling machinery, lighting, and

used in the production of hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, ethyne, and

formaldehyde.Anaerobic respiration takes place in humans as well. During strenuous exercise,

blood vessels cannot provide enough oxygen for muscle cells to do proper aerobic

respiration; in this case, anaerobic respiration takes place in the muscles. In these

reactions, lactic acid (slightly poisonous) is produced and can cause cramps. After

the exercise, the lactic acid is converted into carbon dioxide and water by oxygen.

This whole process is known as oxygen debt .

Making Bread

This is a simple method to make bread.

Some yeast and sugar and mixed with a little warm water.

After some time, the mixture froths and this indicates that yeast cells are

becoming active.

The yeast liquid is mixed with flour, salt and warm water to make the

dough.

The dough is then kneaded for a few minutes to ensure that all the yeast

and the rest of the ingredients and evenly distributed.

The dough is left in a warm place for fermentation is take place. Yeast

produces alcohol and carbon dioxide and this gas causes the dough to rise.

After an hour, the dough should have doubled its size.

The dough is baked in a hot oven and yeast cells die. Alcohol, with a low

boiling point evaporates almost immediately and the carbon dioxide leaves

the bread with small holes inside it.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the respiration, which involves oxygen. An example of

aerobic respiration is shown here in this equation:

KJ)(water xed carbon diooxygeneglu[energy]O H COOO H C

2880222

cos6126 66 +++


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The enzymes catalyze the oxidation of glucose to form carbon dioxide and

water . 2830kJ of energy are released by oxidizing 180 grams of glucose. Energy

is stored in the body as ATP (adenosine triphosphate ), because glucose alone

does not provide energy.As enzymes catalyse this reaction, it is controlled also by temperature, so when

the body temperature rises above 40 oC , respiration slows down because heat

denatures enzymes.

The lungs

The lungs are the respiratory surface of mammals, birds, reptiles and some

amphibians.

The Air Passage

The air passes through a number of passages before it goes to the bloodstream to

be used up. First the air passes through the nose and through the trachea , which is

surrounded by rings of cartilage to stay stiff. The nose and trachea have special

cells on their walls. There are some cells with cilia ; hair-like structures that are

continuously beating up and down. These trap germs as well as dust from the air.

Another type of special cells in the epithelium of the nose and trachea are the

mucus-secreting cells . These have a hole in them from where mucus is secreted.

After the trachea, the air passes through the bronchi , bronchioles , terminal

Voice box(larynx)

TracheaRings of Cartilage

Pleural membranePleural fluid

Alveoli

Intercostal smuscles

Ribs

Pulmonary ArteryPulmonar Veins

Space for Heart Diaphragm

Bronchioles, terminalbronchioles

Bronchus


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bronchioles and finally to the air sacks , or alveoli . These alveoli are shown here

in this diagram.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange in the alveoli by diffusion. Numerous

alveoli create a large surface area for gas exchange. Oxygen is carried in the redblood cells (rbc ) while carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma as Hydrogen

Carbonate (HCO 3-) ions.

The alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by a number of factors:

1. They have a thin film of water to ensure good and fast gas exchange by

diffusion surrounds the alveoli. In fact, some of this water evaporates and

there is always some water vapour in our exhaled breath.

2. Alveoli are surrounded by a lot of blood capillaries

3. Blood capillaries are very thin to allow diffusion.4. There are many air sacks for a large surface area.

Breathing

Alveolus

Blood capillary withdeoxidized bloodThin water

film

Blood capillary filledwith oxidized blood(oxy-hemoglobin


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While breathing in, the rib cage moves upwards and outwards, the diaphragm

flattens and the volume in the chest increases. Since the volume increases the

pressure decreases and the air is drawn into the lungs.

While you exhale, the rib cage moves inwards and downwards, the diaphragm

relaxes (dome shaped) and the volume in the chest decreases. Since the volumedecreases pressure increases and the air is expelled out of the lungs.

Smoking and its Negative Effects

Cigarettes contain 3 harmful chemicals: 1) Tar , 2) nicotine and while it is burning

it produces 3) carbon monoxide . Apart from these, the cigarettes contain many

other chemicals. Some of these are irritants . Irritants and chemicals that annoy

the lungs. Other chemicals are carcinogens ; may cause cancer.

The smoke produced by the cigarettes is very harmful, it affects the epithelium in

two ways: it irritates the goblet cells , making them produce more mucus.

Secondly, it slows down, or even stops the beating of the cilia , so that they can no

longer sweep out the mucus. Coughing can only clear the build up of mucus in the

lungs. This is known as smokers cough .

Some diseases caused by cigarettes are bronchitis , emphysema and lung cancer .

Bronchitis : This disease results as much of the epithelium is damaged and

destroyed by the cigarettes smoke and irritants. Germs and irritants penetrate

deeper into the lung tissue and so the bodys defence cell move into attack. Their

remains, along with the mucus make up phlegm , which must be coughed and spat

everyday. Bronchitis causes more than a 1000 deaths every year and it is a

disease, which mostly causes loss of workdays.

Emphysema : Emphysema causes the walls between alveoli become torn and

broken, while the others left become thicker. This causes the lungs to have a

smaller surface area for gas exchange. The sufferer coughs and wheezes and

struggles for breath. This illness can cause permanent disability and eventually

death.

Lung Cancer : Carcinogenic chemicals (chemicals which can cause cancer)

cause lung tissue to divide in an uncontrolled manner. This growth is called a

tumour or cancer . The tumour spreads through the lung destroying other healthy

tissue. Cancerous cells may go into the bloodstream and secondary tumour may

arise. This disease, although it can be treated if detected in the early stages, it is


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usually found too late and the victim dies.

Other Lungs diseases

Pneumonia : Certain bacteria and viruses cause this illness. These cause the

alveoli to get filled with fluid and cell debris. Oxygen starvation results since amuch of the alveoli block gas exchange.

Tuberculosis (TB) : It is cause by a bacillus ( pathogenic bacteria ). This disease

can be treated and cured nowadays. The germs doesnt do much harm but

sometimes, the bacillus may spread out through the lungs causing sever damage.

Dust Diseases : These diseases are caused when large amounts of dust are breath

during work. Stonecutters, miners and asbestos workers may catch illnesses such

as silicosis , pneumoconiosis and asbestosis respectfully. Special precautions

must be taken because once caught, these diseases are incurable.

Air Pollution

The air is polluted by mainly 5 different gases: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,

sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. 4 of them are poisonous for the human

body, namely carbon monoxide CO , sulphur dioxide SO 2, nitrogen dioxide NO 2

and ozone O 3.

Carbon dioxide CO 2 is not a toxic gas in moderate concentrations, but it contributes

to global warming, thus it is a greenhouse gas (traps the suns heat, causing global

temperature to rise, changing climate and endangering animal and plant species).

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) although not considered pollutants, convert ozone in the

protective ozone (O 3) layer back into oxygen (O 2), thus it makes a hole in this layer,

letting harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun penetrate the atmosphere, causing skin

cancer.

Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide rise from industrial effluent and car exhaust.

They are both toxic gases and in order to block nitrogen dioxide from escaping into

the air, cars should be equipped with catalytic converters . These devices convert

nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide, harmless nitrogen and

water, with the help of rare catalysts.

Carbon monoxide is also produced by cars and other burning sources that are not

properly ventilated such as gas heaters and fire places in enclosed rooms. It is a

harmful gas because it combines with the blood , preventing it from absorbing

oxygen . Even in small concentrations it may be fatal .


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Certain electrical machinery and photocopiers produce ozone (O 3) gas. Although

ozone is useful in the ozone layer, which is 20-50 km above sea level, it is highly

poisonous and can contribute to acid rain .

Glossary For Half Yearly Terms To Study

Nutrition : the study of food.Basic Nutrients : The 7 basic food substances that are: Carbohydrates, Fats,

Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Fibre and Water.

Carbohydrates: 1 of the bulk material of which food is made of. An organic

substance from which the body gets energy.

Fats: Made up of fatty acids and glycerol; another bulk material found in food.

Proteins: Substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and

sometimes sulphur. Used for growth and repair or tissue.

Vitamins : Organic substances needed in small amounts by the body. Some are co-

enzymes and other help to prevent illnesses.

Minerals : Important substances needed in small quantities to prevent illnesses.

Fibre : An insoluble, non-digested substance used to sweep out undigested food

out of the body; roughage

Water : Very important chemical; the most abundant compound in the Universe

and in the body.

Sugars : Carbohydrates used to get energy.

Glucose : C 6H12O6 Final product of digestion of carbohydrates.

Fructose : A sugar found in fruit.

Sucrose : Table sugar.

Lactose : Found in milk.

Maltose : Found in barley grains.

Starch : Found in bread, potatoes, rice and cereals. A chemical used by plants to

store food; an insoluble polysaccharide.

Monosaccharides : Sugar with one glucose molecule. Fructose is also a

monosaccharides.

Disaccharides: Sugars with more than one glucose molecule attached together by

bonds.

Polysaccharide : three or more sugar molecules are bonded together; insoluble.

Glycogen : The chemical used by animals to store food.

Glycerol : Part of the fat molecule.


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Fatty acid : There are 3 fatty acids in a fat molecule.

Amino Acid : The final product of digestion of proteins.

Peptide bonds : the bond by which amino acids are attached.

Dipeptide : 2 amino acids attached together by peptide bonds.

Polypeptides : 3 or more amino acids attached together by peptide bonds.Peptide Bonds : Bonds attaching amino acids together to form dipeptides and

polypeptides.

Foods rich in Protein : Meat, eggs, nuts.

Urine : The bodys excretorial waste.

Calcium : Found in Milk, cheese, mineral water; used for growth and repair of

bone and cartilage tissue. Prevents rickets; malformed bones.

Iron : Found in tomatoes, liver and kidneys. Part of haemoglobin in rbc. Prevents

anaemia (tiredness, headaches).

Phosphorous : Found in many foods; important for bones and teeth.

Sodium : Found in salt. Prevents cramps.

Iodine : Found in sea food, and drinking water. Helps to prevent goitre.

Vitamin A : Found in liver and carrots. Prevents night blindness (exophthalmia).

Vitamin D : Found in fish liver oil. Prevents richets.

Vitamin E: Found in milk, egg yolk, lettuce. Prevents sterility.

Vitamin K: Found in cabbage, spinach, fish liver. Important for blood

coagulation.

Fat soluble Vitamins : Vitamins A, D, E, K.

Water Soluble Vitamins : Vitamins B1, B2, B6, C.

Vitamin B1 : Found in Pork, eggs, leafy green vegetables. Prevents beriberi

(weakness, irregular heartbeat, partial paralysis)

Vitamin B2 : Found in liver, milk, dark green vegetables. Prevents Skin lesions.

Niacin (B6) : Found in liver, poultry, canned tuna. Prevents pellagra (metal

confusion, diarrhoea)

Vitamin C : Found in citrus fruit. Prevents Scurvy. (bleeding gums)

Enzymes : Biological catalysts.

Denatured : Proteins like enzymes get denatured by heat (loses its properties).

Substrate : The food on which an enzyme acts.

Active site : Where the substrate enters.

Products : The substances released by the enzymes after the reaction is completed.


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Biological Washing Powders : Washing powders that contain enzymes.

Protease : An enzymes used for tenderising meat.

Amylase : Found in saliva and duodenum. Used in industry to convert starch to

sugars to make syrups and juices.

Cyanide : Enzyme inhibitor.Arsenic : Enzyme inhibitor.

Incisors : Teeth adapted for cutting food.

Canines : for holing and tearing.

Premolars : For chewing and grinding food.

Molars : For chewing and grinding food.

Crown : The upper part of the tooth.

Root : The lower part of the tooth.

Dental Caries : Tooth decay.

Cusps : hills on the teeth of carnivores and omnivores.

Saprophytic : When saprophytic organisms such as fungi and some bacteria that

feed on dead decaying matter. Saprophytes are useful to the environment because

they recycle nutrients.

Parasitic : When parasitic organisms feed on or in another organism harming it.

Holozoic (heterotrophic): Animals feed heterotrophically, because they must

search for their food. Herbivores eat vegetable matter and have special bodily

structures to help them digest cellulose. Carnivores eat meat and are usually

predators. Omnivores, such as humans eat both meat and vegetable matter.

Holophytic (autotrophic): Plants feed with this type of feeding. They are able to

make their own food by photosynthesis.

Ingestion : food is ate, chewed and mixed with saliva.

Digestion : Begins from the mouth by salivary amylase (starch-breaking enzyme)

and continues till the duodenum, were enzymes chemically break down food into

simpler soluble products, stage by stage, and prepare nutrients for absorption.

Absorption : the blood absorbs soluble products.

Assimilation : the nutrients are then assimilated (taken to) various organs around

the body.

Defecation (Egestion): Undigested matter such as fiber is egested (moved out) of

the body. [Do not mix excretion with egesting or defecation! Excretion is the

removal of waste products made by chemicals reaction within the cells; e.g.


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excreting urine.

Physical digestion : teeth to increase surface area for enzyme action to break

down food.

Chemical digestion: food is mixed with saliva and salivary amylase breaks down

some starch from the food (if there is) into maltose. The chemical digestioncontinues till the duodenum.

Lysozyme: Chemical found in the saliva used to kill bacteria.

Oesophagus : Gullet.

Pepsinogen : an inactive form of pepsin that is then activated by the hydrochloric

acid.

Pepsin : digestive enzyme, which breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides.

Mucus : Protects the stomach from being digested by the enzymes.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl acid): kills bacteria and provides and acidic pH for

pepsin to work.

From the intestinal wall: , Mainly five enzymes are produced:

Trypsin: breaks down polypeptides into dipeptides.

Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose.

Lipase : breaks down fates (lipids) into fatty acids and glycerol.

Peptidases: breaks down dipeptides into amino acids

Sucrase: breaks down sucrose into glucose

From the pancreas mainly 4 chemicals are produced:

Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3): neutralizes acids from the stomach and

provides alkaline pH in the duodenum.

Trypsin : breaks down starch into maltose.

Pancreatic amylase : breaks down starch into maltose.

Lipase : Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Liver : The largest and very important internal organ found in the body. Among its

functions, it produces bile, breaks down drugs and alcohol, and converts the final

products of digestion into glycerol for storage. The liver cells help the blood to

assimilate food substances and to excrete waste materials and toxins, as well as

products such as steroids, oestrogen, and other hormones. The liver also stores


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mainly vegetable matter probably used these organs. Then, by evolution, these

organs ceased from being used. They were home to cellulose-digesting bacteria.

Large Intestine : Part of the alimentary canal. It is dividing into the colon and

rectum.

Colon : The first part of the large intestine where water and fluid are absorbed. Itends in the rectum.

Herbivores : Vegetable eating animals.

Ruminants : Herbivores with a special type of stomach called a rumen.

Cellulose : A cellulose-digesting enzyme produced by certain bacteria found in

herbivores.

Mutualistic Relationship : A type of relationship between organisms where both

animals are benefiting from each other. An example of such relationships is the

relationship between the cellulose-digesting bacteria in the caesium and appendix

of ruminants.

Rumen : A large stomach with 3 compartments found in ruminants.

Regurgitation : Ruminants bring the food they have already eaten and swallowed

back to their mouth to continue chewing it.

Respiration : A chemical reaction catalysed by enzymes where (in case of aerobic

respiration) oxygen combines with glucose to form carbon dioxide, water and

energy.

Aerobic : A type of respiration where oxygen is involved.

Anaerobic : A type of respiration that does not involve oxygen and doesnt

produce as much energy as aerobic respiration.

Mitochondria/Mitochondrion : An organelle found in all cells that do respiration.

Gas exchange : The process where oxygen is absorbed by the blood and carbon

dioxide is exhaled out of the body. Dont mix gas exchange with respiration.

Respiration is a chemical reaction while gas exchange is just the exchange of

gases.

Organic Molecules : Molecule containing carbon.

Alcoholic Fermentation : A type of anaerobic respiration where alcohol is a

product of the chemical reaction.

Lactic Acid : An acid produced in muscle tissues during strenuous exercise when

there is lack of oxygen.

Oxygen Dept : When lactic acid is produce, a state called oxygen debt occurs,


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when after exercise the body continues breathing heavily so re gain all the oxygen

needed by the muscle cells to break down lactic acid in carbon dioxide and water.

Aerobic respiration : A type of respiration where oxygen is involved. An example

of this type of respiration is alcoholic fermentation.

Lungs : Major organs in some animals needed for gas exchange.Trachea : Otherwise called windpipe. The second pipe from where air passes and

is filtered by cilia and mucus secreting cells. Rings of cartilage to make it stiff

surround this structure and so that it doesnt get bent.

Bronchus : One of the pipes from which air passes before going inside the lungs.

There are two bronchi and they are attached to the trachea. Rings of cartilage to

make it stiff surround these structures.

Alveoli : Also called air sacks. The place where the actual gas-exchange takes

place. Tiny structures surrounded by many blood vessels to ensure that gas

exchange takes place rapidly and efficiently.

Pleural Membrane : A thin membrane that covers the inside of the ribs and the

outside of the lungs. A film of moisture between the two layers lets them slide

easily over each other as the lungs move.

Intercostals : Muscles between they ribs that contract and relax during inhalation

and exhalation.

Inhalation : Breathing in.

Exhalation : Breathing out.

Breathing : A series of movements made by intercostals, the rib cage and

pectorals to enable the air to get into the lungs. These movements are shown here

in this diagram.

Ribs : Bones surrounding the lungs.

Bronchioles : Small pipes from which air passes. These are found inside the lungs.

Pulmonary Vein/Artery : Blood vessels from which blood passes from and into

the heart. They are connected to the lungs and the heart.

Diaphragm : A muscle present only in mammals to ease inhalation and

exhalation. This muscle is found under the lungs.

Plasma : Part of the fluid in blood.

Hydrogen carbonate ions : Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood by this ion.

HCO 3-.

Blood capillaries : Very, very small blood vessels that surround alveoli. They are


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very thin and tender and are found in many other places in the body.

Tar : A chemical found in cigarettes.

Carbon monoxide : A poisonous gas released by lightened cigarettes.

Nicotine : Colourless, oily, liquid alkaloid, C 10H14N2 that constitutes the principal

active chemical constituent of tobacco.Epithelium : A layer of cells that serves as a protective covering over a surface,

such as the outside of an organ or the lining of a cavity wall in the body.

Goblet Cells : Mucus secreting cells.

Diseases caused by smoking : Bronchitis, Emphysema and Lung Cancer

Other lung Diseases : Pneumonia, TB (Tuberculosis) and Dust Diseases.

Poisonous gases in the air : Carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,

ozone.


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Part 2 of Biology Notes (Rest of syllabus)

T T OO P P I I C C 5 5 :: H H OO M M E E OOSST T A A SS I I SS

KEEPING A CONSTANT BODY ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

There are mainly 4 organs that help the body to keep a constant body

environment: the lungs , the liver , the skin and the kidneys .

Lungs

The lungs are responsible to exchange of gases in the body. They exchange

carbon dioxide with oxygen from the air. Also, the lungs must provide the oxygen

with a temperature of around 37 degress Celsius so that chemical reactions

involving oxygen can take place.

The Liver

The liver is a major organ in the human body that makes a large amount of

chemical reactions that produce heat (chemical reactions that produce heat are

called exothermic ).

Therefore, the liver produces all the necessary heat for the body to keep its

internal temperature around 37 oC.

Skin

The skin is responsible for transferring excess heat from inside the body to the

outside environment. For that reason it is one of the organs that does homeostasis.

It also protects the body from germs.

KidneysThe kidneys are responsible for osmoregulation , i.e. to control the amount of

water in the body, by filtering blood from salts, water and waste products ( urea ).

Blood is involved and so the kidneys are also part of homeostasis, because blood

transports heat and helps to keep the body at a constant temperature.


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The Excretory System

The excretory system is the system responsible for the disposal of waste material

produced by the body -- Urine . The major organs in the excretory system are the

kidneys. The body can survive with just one kidney, but with none, the personmust use the kidney machine (explained in the following pages ) or else he or she

dies. The function of the kidneys is to filter blood from urea ( waste produced by

chemical reactions in the body ) excess water, and excess salts. This process is

called ultra-filtration and it is done by nephrons (explained further in the

following pages )

The Kindey

The diagram below shows the kidneys, the bladder and blood vessels connected to

it.

Renal Vein : The vein that transports blood OUT OF the kidneys. Blood in therenal vein is deoxidized or reduced (without oxygen) and filtered by kidneys, thus

it is clean.

Renal Artery : The artery that transports blood INTO the kidneys. Blood in the

renal artery is full of oxygen but also full of waste ( urea and salts ) thus it has to

be filtered.

Renal Artery

Medulla

Kidney Wall

Pyramid

Pelvis

Cortex

Renal Vein

Urither


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The Nephron

The nephron is the structure, half inside a pyramid and the other half inside the

cortex, where blood is filtered (ultra-filtered) from urea, excess water and salts.

The structure of the nephron is shown above.

Blood in the renal artery is oxygenated and with urea.

Glomerulus : A network of blood capillaries.

Selective re -absorption : Not everything is re-absorbed at once, but every tubule

re-absorbs a particular nutrient.

The renal artery is wider than the blood vessel through which it moves out. This

increases pressure in the glomerulus . The pressure causes some constituents of

blood to leak out of the capillary tube .

The filtrate contains glucose , urea , water and salts . Proteins and Erythrocytes

( red blood cells ) are too large and they dont pass through the capillary walls.

This filtration takes place on a microscopic scale. It is known as

ULTRAFILTRATION . This takes place in the Bowmans capsule .

The First Coiled Tubule : Here, all the glucose that passed from the capillary

walls to the nephron is re-absorbed . In a diabetic person, not all glucose is re-

absorbed and it is found in Urine. Since each part of the nephron re-absorbs the

useful nutrients one at a time, it is called a selective re-absorption .

Loop of Henle : Here some water is re-absorbed. The amount of water re-absorbed

depends on the concentration of blood. If it is concentrated (has little water), a lot

of water will be re-absorbed. If it is not that concentrated it will re-absorb less

Second Coiled Tubule(all useful salts re-absorbed)

First Coiled Tubule ( allglucose re-absorbed)

%


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water. The amount of water re-absorbed also depends on a chemical called ADH

(Anti-diuretic hormone ). ADH is produce by the pituitary gland in the brain

and causes thirst; hence, more water will be re-absorbed by the loop of henle.

When there is a lot of ADH, urine is full of waste and with relatively few water.

When ADH is not found in the blood, urine is in large amounts, very dilute (full ofwater) and with few waste.

Second Coiled Tubule : Here some salts (Na +, Cl -) are re-absorbed.

Collecting Duct : Here, urea, water and salts pass down the ureter into the

bladder which stores urine . Urine is a mixture of urea, water and salts .

Constituents of Blood and Urine

Substance Percentage in Blood Percentage in Urine

Water 92% 95%

Erythrocytes (red bloodcells)

7% 0%

Glucose 0.1% 0%

Salts 0.4% 0.6%

Urea 0.03% 2%


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The Skin

The skin is the organ responsible for: Protection , Sensitivity , and Temperature

Control ( Homeostasis ).

As a Protective Organ

The skin acts as a barrier against foreign bodies (germs ). In some animals, it has thesame colour as its surroundings ( camouflage ), other animals are covered in spines or

produce an oil to make it water proof .

As a Sense Organ

The skin contains many receptors or sense organs ( heat receptors , cold receptors ,

pressure receptors , pain receptors , touch receptors ) and these make the skin

sensitive .

As the Organ which Controls Temperature

Warm blooded animals are called Endothermic or homoeothermic (warm-

blooded ). This means that they have a constant body temperature. Some animals have

blubber (thick fat layer ) under their skin to keep warm in very cold weather; e.g.

Penguins, polar bears)

Ectothermic or poikilothermic (cold-blooded ) animals have their internal

temperature controlled by their surroundings. In fact, some reptiles (cold-blooded

animals) stay long hours in the sun to heat up their bodies.

The Human Skin

The diagram below shows a cross section of the skin. The human skin has 3 layers:

the epidermis (made up of dead cells) the dermis (where there are the major living

cells and nerves) and the fat layer (full of fat for insulation).


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Hair erector

Oil

Temperature Control

When it is Hot When it is Cold

Skin loses heat Skin doesnt lose heat

Sweating (oil glands produce sweat that

passes through the sweat duct and

evaporates through the sweat pore)

Shivering takes Place (uncontrolled

constriction of muscles)

Hair erector muscle relaxes and hair is

loosened and touches with skin so that no

heat and air is trapped.

Hair erector muscle contracts and hair

erects so that air and heat is trapped

between the hair and the skin.

Blood vessels travel at the surface of the

skin.

Blood vessels travel deep down the

skin.

Vaso-dilation takes place (Blood vessels

widen thus more heat is lost)

Vaso-constriction (blood vessels get

narrower so that less heat is lost to the

environment.


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T T OO P P I I C C 6 6 T T H H E E H H E E A A R R T T

The heart is a 4 chambered double pump , responsible of circulating oxygenated

blood around the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. An adult heart pumps

about 5 litres of blood per minute. The heart, has 2 upper chambers called atria

(singular: Atrium ) and 2 lower chambers called ventricles . The heart has 2 pumps

and circulates oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. This is known as double

circulation .

Aorta : The largest artery found in the body. It receives oxygenated blood from the

heart and then divides into many arteries all around the body.

Vena Cava : The largest vein found in the body. It transports de-oxygenated blood tothe heart from the rest of the body. De-oxygenated blood is then transported to the

lungs to be oxygenated.

Atrium : One of the upper chambers of the heart.

Tricuspid valve : A valve that lets blood to pass from the right atrium to the right

ventricle.

Aorta (Blood tohead and body)

Pulmonary vein(blood fromlungs)

Left atrium

Semi-lunarvalvesLeft ventricle

Tendon

Right ventricle

Tricuspid valves

Right atrium

Vena Cava(bloodrom head

and body)

Pulmonary artery(bloodto lungs)

Bicuspid valves

Oxygenated Blood

Deoxygenated Blood


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Ventricle : one of the lower chambers of the heart.

Bicuspid valve : the valve that lets blood to pass from the left atrium to the left

ventricle.

Pulmonary Vein : The vein that carries oxygenated blood to the left atrium.

Semi-lunar valves : the 2 valves which let blood pass from the lower ventricle to theaorta and the pulmonary artery.

Pulmonary Artery : The artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the

lungs.

Tendon : Special fibres in the heart muscle.

A Double circulation

This diagram shows the double circulation of the blood. The arteries are on the right

hand side of the diagram while the veins are on the left hand side.

Biology for you Stanley Thornes (publishes) Ltd. Gareth Williams


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The following table shows the various blood vessels of the body, their route and

function. It is important to view the blood vessels shown here in the different organs

studied this year.

Blood VesselBlood Vessels

Route Function

Hepatic Artery Heart Liver Carries oxygenated

blood from the heart to

the liver

Hepatic Vein Liver Heart Carries deoxygenated

blood from the liver to

the heart

Hepatic Portal Vein Ileum Liver Carries blood filled with

amino acids, glucose,

water, fatty acids and

glycerol and salts from

the small intestine

(Ileum) to the liver to be

stored

Renal Artery Heart Kidney Carries oxygenated

blood full of waste from

the heart to the lungs.

Renal Vein Kidney Heart Carries filtered blood

from the kidneys to the

heart.

Pulmonary Vein Lungs Heart Carries oxygenated

blood from the lungs to

the left atrium of the

heart.

Pulmonart Artery Heart Lungs Carries deoxygenated

blood from the heart to

the lungs

Aorta Heart Body Carries oxygenated


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Thin Lumen

Wide Lumen

Artery Vein

blood from the left

ventricle of the heart to

the rest of the body

Vena Cava Body Heart Carries deoxygenated

blood from the body tothe right atrium of the

heart.

The Difference between Arteries and Veins

The main difference between arties and veins is that arteries carry blood from the heat

to all the other tissues in the body while veins carry blood from the body to the heart.

Usually, veins carry deoxygenated blood and arteries carry oxygenated blood. One

exception is that the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the body to

the heart and the pulmonary vein carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

Veins have valves so that blood goes in the right direction; arteries dont have valves

because blood flows with a lot of pressure inside the arteries and backflow of blood is

impossible. Arteries have a thin lumen (inner structure of the blood vessel, where

blood passes) because blood flows with a high pressure and the walls have to be wide,

while veins have a wide lumen.

Arteries have an elastic wall, but veins dont have an elastic wall.


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Blood

Blood is the main fluid found in the body. The functions of blood are the following:

The fluid that carries all the nutrients and oxygen around the body to all

cells

Transports heat around the body Transports hormones

Transports antibodies

Important for excretion of urea, excess water and salts

Blood clotting

Controls the amount of water and chemicals in the body tissues

The body has about 6 litres of blood (9% body mass). There are 4 blood groups in

humans, namely A, B, O and AB (rarest) Blood is made up of Erythrocytes (Red

Blood Cells ), Leucocytes (white blood cells ), and Plasma .

Erythrocytes (red-blood cells)

Erythrocytes are numerous, have no nucleus and have a bi-concave shape (for a larger

surface area) to carry oxygen (O 2) more efficiently.

Red-blood cells are made in the bone marrow and their life span is about 4 months.

Deamination (taking away iron from the red-blood cells, hence, destroying them to

be replaced by new ones) takes place in the liver .

Erythrocytes contain haemoglobin that when it is oxygenated, haemoglobin becomes

oxyhaemoglobin . Carbon dioxide travels in the plasma as (hydrogen carbonate ions)

HCO 3- ions. This also helps erythrocytes to carry O 2.

Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with the haemoglobin 300 times faster than O 2,

thus it is very harmful. This gas is produced by cigarettes and burning of fuels such as

in cars.

People living in high altitudes have a greater number of Erythrocytes since lessoxygen is present in the air. Their body has adapted to the environment. This is

known as acclimatization .


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PhagocyteLymphocyte

Lobed Nucleus

Large Nucleus

These two diagrams above show erythrocytes, viewed from the front and a cross

section.

Leucocytes

Leucocytes are lager than Erythrocytes. Theyre colourless, and are made in the red

bone marrow and the lymph glands . There are various types of leucocytes:

Phagocytes and Lymphocytes are two of these types.

Phagocytes engulf the germs, which leaves remains of dead germs and leucocytes

called pus . The process by which phagocytes engulf germs is similar to the way

amoebas feed and is known as phagocytosis .

Lymphocytes produce antibodies, detect the germs antigen and it can either make

the germ burst, or clump together, or make them harmless.

Platelets are Fragments of cells also found in the blood.

Plasma

Plasma is a sticky fluid, containing water, salts, food substances, urea, hormones ,

platelets , prothrombin , blood proteins , fibrinogen (for blood clotting), globulin

(helps to destroy germs), albumin (makes blood thick and viscous).

Front view Cross section


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Blood Clotting

When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets enter the wound. Platelets activate

prothrombin into thrombin . Then thrombin activates fibrinogen into fibrin , which

is insoluble and forms solid threads that forms the cloth.

Hemophilia is a genetic disease where blood fails to clot.

Tissue Fluid

Tissue fluid is a liquid found around cells. This watery liquid keeps the cells in the

right condition, providing them with oxygen and all the necessary nutrients. Tissue

fluid is drained from blood capillaries. It is a yellowish in colour because it contains

urea when it is full of waste.

Useful substances pass from the tissue fluid to the cells and urea, excess water and

waste substances pass from the cells to the tissue fluid.Tissue fluid drains in the lymph vessels . Lymph vessels transport the fluid called

lymph . Lymph vessels also have valves like veins do.

Along these lymph vessels, there are lymph nodes . Lymph nodes are structures that

produce cells similar to white blood cells that fight germs. When there is an infection,

these lymph nodes become swollen and painful. Inside them, bacteria and germs are

being trapped and killed by these cells.

Platelets


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T T OO P P I I C C 6 6 P P H H OOT T OO SSY Y N N T T H H E E SS I I SS

What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide and water is changed to

glucose by the action of chlorophyll and with sunlight energy .

Photosynthesis is performed by plants, green algae, and plant-like protists such as the

Euglena . To photosynthesize, a plant, or other heterotrophic organism, needs Carbon

dioxide , water , light and chlorophyll .

Plants store food as starch . Thus, after producing glucose , the plant transforms

glucose into starch, which is an insoluble polysaccharide , to be stored. Glucose goes

down the stem towards the roots in the Phloem vessels in the vascular bundles ,

while water goes upwards the stem from the roots through the xylem vessels in the

vascular bundles.

To find out if the plant has performed photosynthesis, you must do a starch test on a

leaf. If the leaf has starch, then it must have photosynthesized but if the leaf has no

2612622 666 C C light

lchlorophyl++

Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

Products Raw Materials

Water goes upwards fromthe roots

Glucose goes downwards from the leafs

Water isabsorbed bythe roots by

osmosis


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starch, that means the plant has not photosynthesized and it used up all the starch it

had in the leaf to stay alive.

Testing a Leaf for Starch

1. Cut a leaf from a plant and boil it in a beaker with water to soften it.2. Dip it in alcohol (ethanol) to decolorize it. The leaf must be put in a boiling

tube dipped in warm water. Dont heat up the boiling tube with alcohol

because it is flammable.

3. Put the decolorized leaf again in the warm water to soften it again.

4. Put the leaf on a white tile and add two drops of iodine on the leaf.

Results for Iodine test

If the iodine turns blue-black, then the leaf has starch, hence it has photosynthesized.

De-starching

De-starching occurs when the plant doesnt make any photosynthesis (e.g. because it

is in the dark) and so the plant uses its stored starch stored for energy. It turns starch

into glucose and uses it up.

The Importance of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process in which plants get the energy from. Without it, plants

wouldnt exist. Thus photosynthesis is indirectly useful for other animals, which eat

plants.

Photosynthesis releases oxygen as a by-product of its reaction. Oxygen is used by

almost all living organisms for the breakdown of glucose and release of energy.

Inside a Leaf

Photosynthesis happens in plants, exactly in the chloroplasts that are found in leaves.

The green part of the plant is usually the leaf, and this is because chloroplasts have a

special green chemical called chlorophyll that converts sunlight into chemical

energy.

The following picture shows a cross section of a typical leaf.


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Waxy cuticleUpper Epidermis

Palisade layer

Air spaces

Spongy layer

Lower epidermis

StomataVascular bundle(vein)

The waxy cuticle is the uppermost part of the leaf. It makes the leaf waterproof and

protects the leaf from losing water. It is transparent .

The upper epidermis is the second layer of the leaf, but the first layer that is made up

of living cells. The cells in this layer dont have chloroplasts , so that light passes

directly into next layer;

The palisade layer is a thick layer of elongated cells packed with chloroplasts . It is

here that most photosynthesis takes place.

The spongy layer is characterized by air spaces between the cells, so diffusion ofgases takes place efficiently, as photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and produces

oxygen. The cells in the spongy layer also have chloroplasts .

The palisade and the spongy layer are made up of cells called mesophyll cells .

The lower epidermis is similar to the upper epidermis, with the cells making it up

that dont have chloroplasts , but this layer has stomata ; tiny holes from which

exchange of gases takes place. Stomata are surrounded by two guard cells , which are

the only cells in the lower epidermis that have chloroplasts . These cells have thin cell

walls on the outer side but wide cell walls on the inner side.

The following picture shows the structure of guard cells:


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In the leave there are also vascular bundles ( plant veins ) that are made up of xylem

and phloem vessels. Water and soluble minerals pass from the xylem vessels while

sugars pass from the phloem vessels .

How are leaves adapted for photosynthesis

Leaves have numerous adaptations to ease photosynthesis.

They have a large surface area, for absorbing light and carbon dioxide.

Leaves are arranged so that they dont over-shadow each other, and all of them

receive light.

They have a lot of stomata in the lower epidermis for gas exchange, carbon

dioxide gets in and oxygen does out while photosynthesis takes place.

Leaves are thin to allow fast diffusion of carbon dioxide.

The waxy cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow light passage

throughout the leaf.

The place were most photosynthesis takes place; the palisade layer, is found

near the upper side of the leaf, were most of the light comes.

The palisade layer is made up of palisade mesophyll cells, which are packed

with chloroplast, and these organelles move around the cell so as to find the

best position to find light.

Stomata

Thick cell wallThink cell wall


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Important Minerals for Plants

As mentioned above, apart from carbon dioxide and water, the plant needs other

substances important for the formation of other material. Some minerals needed by

plants are listed here.

Mineral Symbol Importance DeficiencyNitrogen N To make amino

acids, proteins and

chlorophyll

Poor growth and

chlorosis

(yellowing of the

leaf)

Potassium K Helps chlorophyll

and protein

formation,

resistance to

disease

Abnormal leaf

shape, chlorosis

Calcium Ca Formation of cell

wall cement in the

middle lamella

Abnormal leaf

shape, poor buds

and slow growth

Magnesium Mg Centre of

chlorophyll

molecule

Chlorosis of old

leaves

Iron Fe Formation of

chlorophyll

Chlorosis of

young leaves

Sulphur S Formation of

amino acids

Chlorosis of

young leaves and

excessive root

growth

Phosphorous P Formation of ATP,

DNA, forrespiration and

photosynthesis

Lack of energy,

poor growth

If the soil is deficient in some of these important nutrients, one must add fertilizers in

order to replenish the soil with vital minerals. Fertilisers can be either artificial, such


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as NPK ( Nitrogen , Phosphorous , Potassium ), super phosphates or natural, such as

humus and manure . These increase crop yield , however, they are expensive and can

decrease soil fertility in the long run.

Important terms in BotanyWater cultures : A full water culture is a solution, which has all the necessary

minerals so that a plant to grow healthy.

Hydroponics : It is the method to grow plants without soil; in fact, it is sometimes

called soil-less culture. Plants are grown with water cultures. Some advantages that

this method has are that the crop yield is increased and the soil doesnt have to be

fertilized each year.

Limiting Factors

Limiting factors stop the rate of photosynthesis from increasing further. The rate of

photosynthesis is affected by water , temperature , level of carbon dioxide , and

light . The relationship between each and every one of these factors and

photosynthesis are described below:

If light increases, photosynthesis increases.

If water is plenty, photosynthesis increases.

If carbon dioxide is plenty, photosynthesis increases.

When temperature increases photosynthesis increases, up to a certain point, or

else, above 35 oC, photosynthesis halts completely in most plants.

Despite this, when one factor is increasing, the other factors cause the rate of

photosynthesis to stay constant anyway. This is shown in the graphs below:


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Limiting Factors

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

0 250 500 750 1000 1500 2500 4000 5000

Light

P h o

t o s y n

t h e s

i s

Rate of photosynthesis at0.01%carbon dioxide

Rate of photosynthesis at 0.1%carbondioxide

Rate of Photosynthesis

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

light Intensity

R a

t e o

f P h o

t o s y n

t h e s

i s


Carbon Dioxide limiting


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0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Concentration of Carbon Dioxide

R a

t e o

f P h o

t o s y n

t h e s

i s


Light Limiting


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Temperature

R a

t e o

f P h o

t o s y n

t h e s

i s



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Food Chains and Food Webs

There are various ways to represent who animals feed in a particular habitat. A food

chain is one such a way to show what eats what. The following is an example of a

simple food chain.

The first organism in a food chain is always a producer . Producers make their own

food from the sun by photosynthesis. Plants are an example of a producer. The other

organisms in the chain are called consumers because they consume (eat) the

organism before them. The first consumer is called the primary consumer , then there

is the secondary consumer and so on. The last organism in a food chain is always

called the top carnivore .

The primary consumer is always a herbivore because it eats plants or another

producer. The secondary consumer is a carnivore because it eats other animals. If an

organism eats both plants and animals, then it is called an omnivore .

The arrows in the food chain represents the flow of energy or the phrase is eaten by .

The ultimate source of energy is always the sun, but it is usually not included in a

food chain.

More often than not, an organism doesnt eat only one type of food, i.e. any animal

eats more than one species of organism. In order to represent this situation, a food

web is produced. A food web is a collection of food chains mixed together to get a

clearer picture of what animals eat what. An example of a food web is given here

below.

Plants Insects Birds Mammal

Robin

Grass Fallen oakleaves

Caterpillars Grass Insects Earthworms

Chameleon Ground beetles

Mole

Fox


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A food web gives us more information about the feeding of animals than food chains.

Despite this though, it doesnt give us the number of organisms involved. To show the

number of organisms involved in a food chain, a Pyramid of Numbers .

The first (bottom) layer in the pyramid is always the producer. Then following it are

the primary consumer, then the secondary and so on. Two examples of a pyramids ofnumbers are shown here below.

In order to show the dry mass of the organisms in a food chain, a Pyramid of

biomass is produced .

When energy flows from one organism to the other, some energy is always lost; That

is the pyramid of biomass is always the shape of normal upright pyramid instead as

shown in the above diagram.

Grass

Caterpillar

Bird

Grass

Rabbit

Fox

Rose

Aphids

Ladybird


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Short note on Xylem and Phloem Vessels

Plant veins are called vascular bundles . These are present in the leaves, in the stem

and in the roots; it is the important for the transport of materials throughout the plant.

The vascular bundles are made up of two vessels namely the Xylem and the Phloem

vessels. The xylem vessels carry water and minerals up from the roots to the leaveswhile the phloem vessels carry sugars solutions from the leaves to the rest of the

plants.

The xylem vessels are made up of strong tubes of lignin . Lignin is a strong material

formed from dead cells.

Phloem vessels are made up of sieve plates with sieve tubes supported by

companion cells .

END OF BIOLOGY NOTES

Sieve plates

Xylem Vessels

Lignin

Phloem Vessels

Sieve tubes

Companion Cells

Vascular Bundles

Form 4 - Biology Notes(1)

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