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Front cover photographGrazing by livestock has shaped the uplandlandscape. Stocking levels should be set bythe carrying capacity of the vegetation. Primrose Peacock/Holt Studios

working today for nature tomorrow

Sustainable grazing in the English uplands

3Sustainable grazing in the English uplands

Three types of extensive uplandvegetation are most valued fortheir wildlife.

● Heathland that contains amosaic of dwarf shrubs, forexample, heather Callunavulgaris and bilberry Vacciniummyrtillus.

● Species-rich calcareousgrassland with plants such aseyebrights Euphrasia spp. andnorthern bedstraw Galiumboreale.

● Blanket bog that supports avariety of dwarf shrubs,cottongrass Eriophorum spp.and in particular, Sphagnumbog-mosses.

Environmentally sustainablegrazing does not suppress or causethe loss of valued moorlandvegetation. It can be achieved byappropriate stocking levels,increasing shepherding, and/orintroducing summer-only grazing.

Stock rearing, particularly sheep(although in some areas cattle),now dominates much of theuplands and many areas havesuffered from the effects of highstocking levels and overgrazing. Traditional practice -

what is it?

Before the Common AgriculturalPolicy, the size of a herd or flockwas limited in part by themanpower available to manage itand the available forage vegetation.Sheep, in particular, wereshepherded around the hills. Thismade it unlikely that any particulararea was damaged throughovergrazing or poaching. With theonset of winter, all cattle and mostsheep were brought down off thehill until the following spring.Animals that were left out over thewinter would receive additionalfeed (hay), if available, only duringperiods of bad weather.

Environmentallysustainable grazing inthe uplands - what is it?

Vegetation in the uplands

has adapted to harsh

conditions of wind, rain and

low temperatures.

In addition, the soil is often

either thin with little

nutrients, or waterlogged

and peaty. Slow growth

rates, and a shorter growing

season than that in the

lowlands, are factors that

make survival for upland

plants a challenge.

2

Removing sheep before harsh weatherconditions are predicted reduces the needto supplementary feed, which often resultsin localised overgrazing and poaching. Wayne Hutchinson/Holt Studios

Grazing can be used to introduce structure towhat would otherwise be a uniform habitat. Peter Wakely/English Nature 12,800

To allow flowering plants to thrive, it isimportant to take account of the timingas well as the level of grazing. Peter Wakely/English Nature 12,797

Native hardy breeds require less intensivehusbandry as they can naturally cope with the

changing conditions found in the uplands. Nigel Cattlin/Holt Studios

5Sustainable grazing in the English uplands

during winter is particularlydamaging, as the grazing occurs ata time when the vegetation islargely dormant and unable torecover.

An analysis of the causes ofdamage to Sites of SpecialScientific Interest in England hasidentified that overgrazing is thebiggest cause of damage. Manyof the worst affected sites areCommon Land, where theestablishment of sustainablemanagement depends upon

agreement by all the Commoners.English Nature is seeking reformof the relevant legislation, so thatappropriate management can becarried out more effectively.

Increasingly, it has becomeapparent that overstocking hasimplications for soil erosion andrates of run-off, leading toproblems of water quality andflooding downstream. As we learnmore about this relationship it islikely that action will need to betaken at a water-catchment scale.

How grazing affectsthe wildlife ofmoorlands

There are a range of birds,invertebrates, mammals andreptiles found in the Englishuplands. They all require variationin the structure and composition ofthe vegetation in order to completetheir lifecycles successfully. Thisvariation occurs as a result ofdifferent species of plant and grasshaving a range of growth formsand patterns. The intensity ofgrazing pressure also influencesthe natural variation in height andsize of the plants. High stockinglevels can replace the mosaic ofplants that provide structure andshelter with a uniform covering ofgrasses that are often close-cropped. It is worth noting thatsheep and cattle have differentgrazing patterns. Sheep tend toproduce a close-cropped sward,whilst cattle produce a sward thatis far more variable with close-cropped areas mixed with tufts oftaller vegetation. Grassland grazedby cattle can be particularlyimportant for nesting wading birdswhich make use of this variation incover.

4

used now are usually not hardy andneed additional feeding and housing.

The outbreak of Foot and MouthDisease (FMD) in 2001, andsubsequent countrywide cull oflivestock, resulted in many farmbusinesses reviewing their structure.Some farmers have reduced sheepnumbers through the Sheep WildlifeEnhancement Scheme orEnvironmentally Sensitive Areasschemes, but many others areseeking to return their stocknumbers to pre-FMD levels.

How modern practiceaffects moorlandvegetation

The increases in numbers oflivestock grazing the Englishuplands, particularly over the last50 years, have significantlychanged the vegetation that isfound there. Grazing animalspreferentially select plants andgrasses. When stock numberswere increased on any one area,little account would have beentaken of the existing vegetationand the likely impact of thisincreased grazing and tramplingpressure. This meant that, inmany areas that once contained amosaic of dwarf-shrubs, such asheather and bilberry, the shrubshave been replaced by grassland -also known as ‘white moor’ or‘white ground’. This has lessecological interest and oftenconsists of species such as mat-grass Nardus stricta and heathrush Juncus squarrosus, whichmake poor quality grazing forlivestock. The lack of shepherdingand the increased number ofanimals being over-wintered onthe hills compounds the changesto vegetation caused by stockingtoo many animals. Increasing thenumber of animals on the land

Modern practice - whatis it?

The introduction of agriculturalsubsidies, based on headagepayments, resulted in many moreanimals grazing the uplandsthroughout the year. For example,from 1951 to 1981, the total numberof sheep in Less Favoured Areas ofEngland and Wales increased by88%. At the same time, there hasbeen a social change with fewerpeople farming the land and, inparticular, shepherding. Theshortage in manpower has increasedpeople's reliance on the use of All-Terrain Vehicles, resulting in thecreation of new access tracks.Changes in technology, in particularthe development of differentmethods of feed and delivery, havealso increased the ability to over-winter stock on the hill.

Many farmers no longer keeptraditional breeds of sheep or cattle,often because they do not makesuitable profits or they take too longto mature. Most livestock breeds

If sheep are overwintered on the fell theymust be shepherded to prevent damage

occurring to vegetation. Wayne Hutchinson/Holt Studios

Cattle can produce a sward that allowsbirds, plants and invertebrates to thrive. Wayne Hutchinson/Holt Studios

It often takes a fenceline to show the impact ofunsustainable grazing that may have takenplace over several years or more. Jim Foster/English Nature

7Sustainable grazing in the English uplands

take account of the natureconservation objectives of the site.For example, most upland habitatsoccur as a mosaic and any givenarea could contain severalimportant habitats which havevarying degrees of tolerance tograzing. The stocking rate andlevel of shepherding will bedictated by the desired outcome.Taking a more specific example,where blanket bog and dry heathoccur as a mosaic, the stockingrates may be set with preventingdamage to the blanket bog inmind. In general, this level of

stocking is also likely to bringbenefits for the dry heath as well.There also needs to be someflexibility, through a continuedassessment of the impact of thegrazing levels and amending themaccordingly.

Certain stock feeding techniquesmay also be required as part of arestoration or maintenanceprogramme. Further guidance onthis can be found in Stock feedingon moorlands in England,published by English Nature.

Finding out more aboutgrazing management

The Upland managementhandbook brings together theexpertise of many of the country'sleading wildlife, farming and landmanagement specialists. It is ablueprint for translating policiesinto practical land managementthat will benefit our uplandwildlife. The handbook, whichruns to over 750 pages, can assistthose people who advise farmersand other land managers in uplandareas about the best managementfor wildlife and other naturalfeatures. It is applicable to allland in the uplands, and should beparticularly helpful in theimplementation of agri-environment schemes.

The handbook costs £25 and isavailable from English Nature, PO Box 1995, Wetherby, West Yorkshire, LS23 7XX. Tel: 0870 1214 177 Fax: 0870 1214 178 Email: english-nature@twoten.press.net

Alternatively, the handbook can bedownloaded from the EnglishNature website at www.english-nature.org.uk

Backshall, J., Manley, J., &Rebane, M. 2001. The uplandmanagement handbook.Peterborough: English Nature.

English Nature. 2002. Stockfeeding on moorlands in England:environmentally sustainablegrazing in the uplands.Peterborough: English Nature.

6

What does EnglishNature want to see?

English Nature recognises thatlivestock farming has a key role inthe management of many uplandhabitats. However, ifenvironmental damage is to beavoided the livestock systempractised must be environmentallysustainable. As all grazinganimals are to some extentselective in the plants they eat,environmentally sustainableregimes (and stocking rates) can

only be set after an assessment ofthe type and condition of thevegetation present. For example,year-round grazing withoutcausing environmental damage ispossible on drier habitats in theuplands, but only at very lowstocking rates.

Below are examples ofenvironmentally sustainablestocking levels that will maintainundamaged moorland habitats.Further information and guidanceon livestock units, stocking levelsand timings is contained in theUpland management handbook(English Nature 2001). Whenassessing grazing levels it isimportant to take account ofexisting grazing by deer, rabbits,or in some cases, feral goats.

It is important to understand thatthe restoration or maintenance ofhabitats of nature conservationimportance is not entirely aboutstocking rates. The land managerneeds to shepherd the animals and

Changes in theCommon AgriculturalPolicy

The July 2003 reforms of theCommon Agricultural Policy willpotentially affect upland livestockfarmers. Whilst overgrazing hasbeen the major cause ofenvironmental damage in theuplands, there may be arequirement for minimum grazinglevels to prevent undergrazing orabandonment of semi-naturalhabitats. There will also probablybe refinements to the rules onovergrazing. From 2005, alllivestock headage payments willbe rolled into a single farmpayment. Receiving this paymentwill not be linked to the number oflivestock held, but will require themaintenance of good agriculturaland environmental conditions.

With the exception of some minerals, thevegetation should be able to provide all thenutritional needs of the grazing livestock. Wayne Hutchinson/Holt Studios

Sustainable grazing levels can result inattractive landscapes as well as

intimate mosaics of habitat. Peter Wakely/English Nature 22,712

Some habitats, like limestone pavement,benefit from grazing by particularlivestock, such as cattle. Peter Wakely/English Nature 19,692

Suggested stocking levels for bringing heath and blanket bog into favourable condition

Stocking rate Upland dry heath Upland wet heath & blanket bog

Year-round stocking 0.075-0.1 LSU per ha 0.015 LSU per ha*rate not to exceed:

Winter stocking rate Preferably all stock to Preferably all stock to to be reduced by 25% be removed in winter be removed in winterwith all hoggs, cattle and horses removed

LSU = Livestock units * Some recovery can be achieved with up to 0.075 LSU per hain summer and/or complete off-wintering.

Suggested stocking levels to maintain undamaged moorland habitats

Stocking rates Upland dry heath Upland wet heath & blanket bog Upland calcareous grassland

Year-round stocking 0.075-0.225 LSU per ha 0.037-0.075 LSU per ha 0.15 LSU per ha during period 1 May and rates not to exceed: 31 August, grazing not to exceed 8

continuous weeks

Winter stocking rate Not to exceed Preferably all stock to Between 1 September and 30 April,to be reduced by 25% 0.15 LSU per ha be removed in winter grazing levels not to exceed with all hoggs, cattle 0.3 LSU per haand horses removed

LSU = Livestock units Source: Upland management handbook (English Nature 2001).