Many rural farmers have no access toveterinary (animal healthcare) servicesand medicines. Animal vaccine campaignsare often not provided. Governmentveterinary services often have few trainedstaff and lack adequate transport andfunding for medicines and vaccines.

FOOTSTEPSNo.34 MARCH 1998 ANIMAL HEALTH

IN THIS ISSUE

• Paravet training in southern Sudan

• Letters

• Medicinal plants foranimal healthcare

• Drenching

• Mapping animal diseases

• Making the most of water

• Bible study: Who’s incharge of your life?

• External parasites:protecting your livestock

• Resources

• Working in groups

by Robert Bowen and Mirjam Andriessen

Paravets give help to farmers byproviding advice and access to medicinesto treat sick animals. Most paravets livein the villages where they work. Theyshould be highly motivated people,willing to improve livestock in their

community. According to the size of avillage and the number of livestock, avillage could have one, two or even threeparavets. Selection of candidates shouldbe done by the community to ensurefarmers have confidence in them. Someguidelines in the choice of paravetsinclude…

• Age should usually be between 18 and45. Younger people are often lessstable and may not have theconfidence or respect of the farmers.

• A candidate should live in or near thevillage rather than being a travellingtrader or migrant labourer.

• Candidates need to be in good healthas they will need to do a lot of walkingand often treat large animals.

• They must be highly motivated.

• They should, ideally, be literate inorder to follow the training, readinstructions for medicines and be ableto calculate correct dosages.

NEARLY EVERYONE has heard the term community health worker (orprimary health worker). However, the term paravet is likely to be new tomany. Paravets are the equivalent of community health workers butfor animals instead of people! Like health workers, they may notreceive formal training, but instead receive practical training withintheir communities.

Improving animalhealth through paravets

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ANIMAL HEALTH

2 FOOTSTEPS NO.34

FOOTSTEPSISSN 0962-2861

Footsteps is a quarterly paper, linking health anddevelopment workers worldwide. Tearfund,publisher of Footsteps, hopes that it will providethe stimulus of new ideas and enthusiasm. It isa way of encouraging Christians of all nationsas they work together towards creatingwholeness in our communities.Footsteps is free of charge to individualsworking to promote health and development. Itis available in English, French, Portuguese andSpanish. Donations are welcomed.Readers are invited to contribute views, articles,letters and photos.

Editor: Isabel Carter83 Market Place, South Cave, Brough,East Yorkshire, HU15 2AS, UK.Tel/Fax: +44 1430 422065E-mail: imc@tearfund.dircon.co.ukLanguage Editor: Sheila MelotEditorial Committee: Jerry Adams, Dr AnnAshworth, Simon Batchelor, Mike Carter, JennieCollins, Bill Crooks, Paul Dean, RichardFranceys, Dr Ted Lankester, Sandra Michie,Nigel Poole, Louise Pott, José Smith, MikeWebbIllustrator: Rod MillDesign: Wingfinger Graphics, LeedsTranslation: L Bustamante, R Cawston, Dr J Cruz, S Dale-Pimentil, S Davies, T Dew, N Edwards, J Hermon, J Martinez da Cruz,R Head, M Leake, M Machado, O Martin,N Mauriange, J PerryMailing List: Write, giving brief details of yourwork and stating preferred language, to:Footsteps Mailing List, Tearfund, 100 ChurchRoad, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8QE, UK.Tel: +44 181 977 9144Change of address: Please give us the referencenumber from your address label wheninforming us of a change of address.Articles and illustrations from Footsteps may beadapted for use in training materialsencouraging health and rural developmentprovided the materials are distributed free ofcharge and that credit is given to Footsteps,Tearfund. Permission should be obtained beforereprinting Footsteps material.Opinions and views expressed in the lettersand articles do not necessarily reflect the viewsof the Editor or Tearfund. Technical informationsupplied in Footsteps is checked as thoroughlyas possible, but we cannot accept responsibilityshould any problems occur.Published by Tearfund. A company limited byguarantee. Regd in England No 994339. RegdCharity No 265464.

In Somaliland and MozambiqueVETAID provides training and

support for paravets.

• They need to have time to receivetraining.

Paravets inMozambique…In Mozambique VETAID is supportingfarmers in Gaza and InhambaneProvinces in three ways:

• by supporting local governmentlivestock services

• by a restocking programme

• by the training of farmers andparavets.

Government services are at presentinadequate to cover huge areas of thecountry. Though Government policy isthat vaccination campaigns should befree, vaccines are often not available.Many farmers lost livestock during thelong civil war. The paravets are suppliedwith a veterinary kit containing somemedicines. They can sell these to farmersfor a small profit which they keepthemselves as a small payment for theirwork and any costs in transport. It is notenough to provide a salary and theirmotivation needs to come from the desireto support farmers in their owncommunity.

…and SomalilandIn Somaliland communities usually selectcandidates who are livestock owners andwho already have animal health skills.After training, the paravets’ work willinclude the simple treatment of wounds,vaccination and diagnosis of diseases.

Somaliland declared independence in1991 after a devastating civil war. Most ofthe population are pastoralists,depending on their camels, sheep and

goats for their survival. Since the civilwar, government livestock supportservices have not been operating. Formerlivestock staff have sometimes formedtheir own private services. VETAID isproviding training and support forparavets, linking them up to these privateveterinary groups who can providetraining and support and supply themwith medicines.

The initial training of paravets takes 15days. Teaching is based around therecognition and treatment of thecommonest diseases and problems in thearea. Paravets also receive training ingiving injections, drenching, treatingwounds and hoof trimming. Regularfollow-up sessions take place every threemonths. So far, 15 paravets have beentrained, covering three districts.

As well as the training of paravets, farmertraining is also important so that farmershave confidence in the services providedby the paravets.

Robert Bowen and Mirjam Andriessen bothwork with VETAID – Robert in Somalilandand Mirjam in Mozambique. Mirjam can becontacted at: Gaza SPP, Xai Xai,Mozambique, Africa. Tel/fax: +258 22 22843E-mail: vetaid@vetaidgz.uem.mz

VETAID would be pleased to hear fromreaders already involved with paravet trainingand work or seriously considering setting upsuch work. They do not have funding but maybe able to help with training. Their address is:VETAID, Centre for Tropical VeterinaryMedicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian,EH25 9RG, UK. Tel/fax: +44 131 445 3129 E-mail: vetaiduk@gn.apc.org

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ANIMAL HEALTH

The inhabitants of Terekeka belong to theMundari tribe and are pastoralists withlarge herds of cattle, sheep and goats.Besides providing milk and occasionallymeat for the family diet, livestock are keptfor prestige, payment of bride price,ceremonial rituals and payment ofcompensations. They are also used as aninsurance or bank to safeguard againstunexpected environmental problems suchas droughts or floods. Animals can besold or exchanged for grain and othernecessities.

Livestock diseases are a major problemfor farmers. Outbreaks of rinderpest,haemorrhagic septicaemia and contagiouspneumonia result in many deaths. Tick-borne diseases, trypanosomiasis andinternal and external parasites result inpoor production and sometimes death.

The Mundari use traditional treatments totreat diseases in their stock, but they alsouse modern medicines like antibiotics andworming medicines.

There are no veterinary services or trainedvets stationed in the area, so the cattleowners normally have to move longdistances to obtain livestock medicines.Vaccination campaigns launched bygovernment veterinary staff are neververy effective due to poor facilities in thelocal veterinary department, bureaucracyand the inaccessibility of the area toveterinary staff during the rainy seasonbetween April and November.

The project was therefore set up to selectand train paravets from amongst thecattle owners to carry out treatment andvaccination of their stock. Medicinesupplies were also set up on a revolvingfunds basis.

Selection and trainingCandidates were selected from amongthe cattle owners of every chieftainship.The number chosen in each chieftanshipwas determined by the size of the areaand the number of livestock in the area.Criteria for selection included…

• an ability to work hard

• honesty

• knowledge of traditional livestockcare, livestock diseases and theirtraditional cures.

The candidates did not have to beliterate, but skills in numeracy wereimportant for giving correct doses ofmedicines. These people were thencollected together and trained. Thesubjects taught included identifying thedifferent diseases from their symptoms,treatments for disease, correctadministration of medicines, hygienichandling of medicines, equipment andtools, operation of a cold-chain systemfor vaccines and reporting.

The paravet activitiesAfter training, the paravets set to work intheir communities. Each is provided with

a bicycle and veterinary kit. Four centreswere established in the district with stocksof medicines and cold-chain equipment.Each centre is controlled by a supervisor.From time to time the paravets come tothe centre to report, pay in money for themedicines used and collect more suppliesof medicines. Each year the paravets cometogether for refresher training in animalhealth and other husbandry methods.

The paravets receive a small payment foreach medicine they sell. They collect thismoney when restocking with newmedicines. So the more medicines theysell the more they receive. A governmentveterinary officer helps the organisationto supervise the paravets’ activities, ordermedicines for them and organise training.

AchievementsDespite disturbances caused by the civilwar in the project area, the activities havecontinued with few problems. The projectnow has about thirty trained paravets ofwhich three are women. The mainconcern has been a fairly high turnoveramong the literate paravets due to thetraining received which has exposed themto new horizons and job opportunities.

We have been able to build up asustainable revolving fund for medicinesupplies in the district. No outbreak ofrinderpest disease has been reported sincethe establishment of the project.Outbreaks of other diseases are attendedto immediately. Confidence has been builtbetween the paravets and the cattleowners who are now willing to acceptnew medicines supplied by the paravets.In the past, cattle owners selected onlymedicines with trademarks which theyrecognised.

Nimaya Kenyi Mogga is a Livestock Officerwith ACCOMPLISH, c/o OXFAM UK/1, POBox 3182, Khartoum, Sudan.

Paravet trainingin southern Sudan

ACCOMPLISH is a local NGO in TerekekaDistrict in southern Sudan. They have

established a paravet project to improveanimal health care in the area.

by Nimaya Kenyi Mogga

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■ If paravets make a profit from selling medicines, are they more likely to encourage farmers tobuy medicines either when livestock do not need treatment or when herbal treatment wouldbe as effective?

■ How could the community support voluntary paravets?

■ Should dangerous, though effective, medicines be stocked by paravets when farmers maynot have the correct equipment or knowledge to use them safely?

■ How long can paravets remain effective without regular support and in-service training?

Discussion questions

4 FOOTSTEPS NO.34

LETTERS

Food securityWE WORK with a holistic developmentproject in Laos. I am writing to commenton issues raised in the first article in theFood Security issue, No 32, as I questionwhether food security means havingculturally acceptable food available. Doesthis mean only food which people havetraditionally eaten? If so, then we can’tdisagree more.

In the case of the villages where wework, people have always relied onupland rice and vegetables gathered inthe forest. As a primary source of foodthat’s not feasible anymore and it’sirresponsible for us to encourage them torely on that for the future. They need tolearn to produce and eat other foods tosupplement their rice diet.

We’re encouraging soybean products(especially tofu) and peanuts, to nametwo. Both are locally available, but havenever been eaten in these tribal groups.Why shouldn’t they learn to eat newtypes of food? Is survival not moreimportant than preserving culturaltraditions? Of course, where theirtraditional practices have helped them,we encourage them to hold on to those

things, as was pointed out in the articleon traditional potato crops.

With reference to the Bible study by StanCrees, it implied an unbiblicalrelationship between what we have andknowing/praising God. He stated, ‘Outof love for him (God) we must make sureour needy neighbours have that qualityof life which enables them also to givethanks to God.’ However, nowhere doesthe Bible state or imply we need to havebasic needs met before we praise, honourand thank God. On the contrary, Jobpraised God amidst the ashes. TheApostle Paul praised God in the Philippijail as his open wounds bled. We aretaught, rather, to give thanks in allcircumstances, for this is the will of Godfor us in Christ Jesus. Let’s help ourneedy neighbours, but let’s not forgetthat their needs, or ours, should neverhinder us from knowing God today, inthe now. In fact, our needs should driveus to God all the more.

N Saengc/o Oppel, PO Box 27, Chiang Mai,Thailand 50,000

Health and hygiene committees WITHIN OUR PROGRAMME we aim toimprove health and hygiene in ourcommunities. We have establishedHealth and Hygiene Committees withthe active participation of the people inthe nine villages in the programme.

The objectives of these committees are…

• to ensure that weekly ‘cleanliness’days are observed

• to teach people to wash their handswith soap or ashes before eating orserving food and after going to thetoilet

• to ensure that places where water iscollected are kept clean

• to organise classes so people are moreaware of water-related diseases andthe need for good hygiene

• to fight against the increase of rubbishdumps at the edge of the village

• to teach people to build and usesanitation systems.

Before establishing committees, we visitvillages and draw up social maps withthe people to demonstrate their presentstate of sanitation. People discusspossible actions to be taken concerning

health and hygiene. Then we explainabout how the committees operate.People then elect Health and HygieneCommittees. The members receivetraining and encouragement.

We have noticed an improvement inattitudes to hygiene in the first twovillages, Tissi and Salakoira, where suchCommittees have been established. Theynow have successful ‘cleanliness’ days,additional latrines, fewer rubbish dumpsand respect the hygiene rules for usingthe well. We plan to introduce the ‘tippytap’ we learned about from Footsteps 30.

Boubacar BoucoumFormateur PDI SaraféréUJC-AMRADNiafunkéMali

Onion plantsIN ISSUE 30 of Footsteps, AchekaKambaname, Haut-Zaire, was asking forsuggestions on how to produce onionseeds. We have been working inagriculture for 22 years in Cameroon andcan recommend this technique ofmultiplying onions without the need forseeds.

1 Cut onion bulbs into halves as shown.(Eat the top halves.)

2 Plant the lower halves, in well spacedrows, mulch and water well. Leave forone month, by which time the bulbswill be sprouting new shoots.

3 Split off each of the new shoots andplant up in rows, water well and leavefor 3–4 months when they will beready to harvest.

We have been using this method for fouryears and find production of onions isgood in the dry season.

Simon and Susan NgwainmbiBelo Rural Development Projectc/o Mbingo Baptist HospitalPMB 42BamendaCameroon

THE EDITORFOOTSTEPS83 MARKET PLACE

SOUTH CAVE

BROUGHEAST YORKSHIRE

HU15 2ASUK

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community. In the long term this sort ofscheme has the potential to do a lot ofgood in the community.

Don GeorgeMission Evangelique, WEC InternationalBP 80 SeguelaIvory Coast

E-mail: 104030,311@compuserve.com

Fire and waterWE USED THE STORY of the ‘Fire ofAIDS’ from Footsteps 31 to produce adrama here at the Balimo Health Centre inPapua New Guinea. Mona Asipali and thesisters performed the drama for theIndependence celebrations this year.

In this country we are experiencing adrought situation. Here in Balimo, ErnieGunders has produced a simple filter in anoil drum to purify lagoon water. OtherFootsteps readers may find the detailsuseful. The oil drum must be completelyclean. It contains sand and charcoal inlayers. Both must first be washed verycarefully. The layers will mix together intime but this does not matter.

If the water is very dirty you may need tochlorinate it with bleach. Dilute 250ml of

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LETTERS

FOOTSTEPS NO.34

Solidarity in participatory activitiesTHE IWACU Centre for CooperativeTraining and Research began in 1984 tohelp rural people improve their livingconditions through participatory activities.We support cooperatives and otherorganisations, helping them run theirgroups, find finance, stimulate creativityand income generation. We promote thenetworking of groups. Women’s groupsreceive particular support. To become amember, people must accept our rules,agree to participate in activities, and beproposed by two members. We publish aquarterly bulletin to exchange informationand communicate by radio as well. Thereare training programmes inadministration, management and foodprocessing. The centre is well-equippedwith accommodation and conferencerooms and may be able to help with yourtraining needs.

IWACU CentreBP 1313, KigaliRwandaTel: +250 73325/6 Fax: +250 73309

Activities for young peopleTHE BRIMAX ASSOCIATION in Togowork with young people, drawing theminto activities, helping them out of pover-ty, encouraging them to discover andappreciate other cultures, and teachingthem of the dangers of various diseases.They are keen to build up correspondencelinks with other young people.

Association BrimaxBP 13182LoméTogo Fax: +228 22 48 27

Credit schemesHERE IN IVORY COAST we have usedthe guidelines from the Pas a Pas issue oncredit (No 26) to set up our own creditscheme. We have just considered the firstapplications and are about to give out thefirst loans. At this stage we have used ourown money to fund the project but theneeds are much greater than we canhandle. We have restricted the first loansto church members as a trial but thescheme will soon be open to the whole

liquid bleach with 1 litre of water. Add30ml of this solution to every 120 litres offiltered water (one full drum of water).

ECPNGBox 1, BalimoWestern ProvincePapua New Guinea

Take a look at your life!

Look back! See the obstacles that you havealready overcome. See how much you havelearned in this life and how much you havegrown.

Look ahead! Stand up when you have beentripped over. Set up targets, goals andactions for yourself and go ahead steadily.

Look inside yourself! Search for yourmotivations, know your heart and purify it. Donot let pride, vanity and envy dominate you.

Look around! Help those who need you andlove your neighbour as God loves you. Besensitive to the needs of others.

Look downwards! Do not humiliate anyone.See those who are humble and learn fromthem. We are all equal before God and wewill all have to account for ourselves to God.

Look up! There is a God who is greater thanyou, who loves you and has control over allthings. God sent Jesus to be our Lord andSaviour.

Look at God! Note the depth, the richness,the power and the extent of God’s love. Beglad to know that God will always be lookingafter you because he loves you.

Nathanial M Brandão Jr, Lar BatistaEsperança, Rua Ten Cel Manoel M Ribeiro233, Bom Retiro, Curitiba PR, Brazil

wire hook (or a tap could be fitted)

drill undersizehole and forcefit hose

lid cut from topsits on sand tostop erosion

water

200mm of sand

75mm of charcoal

75mm of sand

75mm of charcoal

aluminium can with foam filter (use an empty can to cut up an old mattress)

1/2 inch hose

A simpleoil drum

water filter

The sisters of the Balimo Health Centre, Papua NewGuinea, turned a Footsteps article into a drama.

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ANIMAL HEALTH

6 FOOTSTEPS NO.34

On the centre pages are listed plantscommonly found in the tropics whichhave already been well researched, fieldtested, widely used and found to beeffective by farmers. The plant parts usedand their known uses, together with themethod of preparation and administra-tion are listed. (Most of the plantsmentioned here may also be used forhumans. However, one should firstconsult local herbalists for advice.)

The dosages indicated are for adult cattleand carabaos (buffaloes). Their young andsmaller livestock like goats, sheep andpigs are given half this recommendeddose. As with commercial veterinarymedicines, dosages are partly determinedby the animal’s body weight, so theamount to be given to small adult cattlewould be less than the dose for large

adult ones. Some of the dosages given arein ranges, such as 1/2–1 cup, because of thevariations in the animals’ size or weight.You should adjust the amount to be usedaccordingly.

Use only one plant medicine at a time.This way it will be easier to pinpoint thecause of the improvement in the animal’scondition than if a mixture of many plantsis used.

Planting, collecting,harvesting and processingAlthough most medicinal plants grownaturally in the wild, farm families arebest served if they grow them in theirown backyards. If an animal gets ill, theplant is easily available without needingto walk long distances in search of theplant needed.

The appropriate time and method ofharvesting medicinal plants is veryimportant. Plants contain activeingredients (the compounds responsiblefor the plant’s medicinal value) which areaffected by things such as temperature,humidity and light, and the manner ofhandling during harvest.

In general, it is best to harvest in themorning on a warm, sunny day. Differentplant parts require different methods ofcollection:

• Leaves and flowers should behandpicked.

• If the seed is to be used, the fruit mustbe fully ripe.

• If the whole fruit is to be used, it mustbe harvested before reaching maturity.

Medicinal plants foranimal healthcare

by Ines Vivian Domingo

THE USE OF PLANTS TO CURE AILMENTS is an age-old practice.The preparation of herbal medicines remains an important part ofhealthcare for both humans and livestock, especially in rural areas.Small and subsistence farmers in remote communities depend largelyon the use of medicinal plants in the absence of veterinarians andmodern veterinary medicines. And even if these were available,farmers could ill-afford to pay for the services or buy the medicinesanyway. Medicinal plants, hand in hand with proper nutrition anddisease prevention, can help provide inexpensive animal healthcare.

References:

Paraveterinary Medicine: An Information Kiton Low-cost Health Care PracticesIIRR - YC James Yen Center, Philippines1996

Medicinal Uses of Upland Vegetation(information sheet from Agroforestry Tech-nology Information Kit)IIRR (International Institute of RuralReconstruction), Philippines 1994

DrenchingDrenching is the forced pouring of liquidpreparations down the throat of an animal.

Drenching can be used for all livestock.During drenching, theanimal’s head must beraised so that the liquiddoes not enter the lungs. A bamboo tube,gourd or bottle (glass or plastic) can be usedfor drenching ruminants and pigs. If a bottle isused it must be strong and unlikely to breakand hurt the animal. For chickens, use asyringe without the needle, a dropper or astraw (rice, sorghum or plastic).

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ANIMAL HEALTH

FOOTSTEPS NO.34

• Underground parts are best whencollected before the plant startsflowering.

Collect only the recommended parts,since the relative distribution of theactive ingredient varies within the plantbody. Sometimes the roots or the seedsmay contain more of the activeingredient or vice versa. Collect onlyfrom plants that are healthy, with nosigns of injury, disease or anyabnormality.

Proper drying is necessary if therecommended medicine needs to be dryor has to be stored for future use. Theplant material can either be sun-dried orair-dried. Properly dried leaves crumbleeasily. Small amounts may be dried in alarge transparent container such as an

uncapped large jar by a sunny window.Large amounts may be hung in bundles,baskets or mesh bags in open shade orspread on a clean mat in a warm dryplace indoors. Do not dry on concretepavements or rooftops as extreme heatwill destroy some of the activeingredients.

Keep the dried plant medicines insideairtight containers. Moisture encouragesthe growth of moulds and othermicroorganisms (also insect infestation),resulting in the destruction of the activeingredient and the deterioration of theplant medicine. Store the container in acool, dry place away from direct light.Finally, label the container, indicating thename of the plant and the date ofcollection.

FOR MANY FAMILIES, the animals theykeep often act as their bank, providingthem with a source of income for use inemergencies or for special occasionssuch as weddings and funerals. The lossof an animal through disease is thereforea real blow. If healthcare for people isoften not adequate, it is certainly true thatin many countries healthcare for livestockmay be completely lacking. In this issuewe therefore look at ways of improvinganimal health, through the training ofparavets, through mapping the distributionof diseases, through an understanding ofsome of the many herbal treatmentsavailable, and through sharing the skills ofdrenching and treating animals for para-sites. Though the emphasis in the articlesis on rural livestock farmers, the tech-niques could all be used in urban areaswhere, although livestock officers may beavailable, many families would be unableto afford their services.

Thanks to all those who have offered toact as regional advisers to the FootstepsEditorial Committee. We hope their rolewill improve feedback from Footstepsreaders who don’t get around to writing.Future issues will cover microenterprise,conflict management and sharing theresults of research by the Editor intolocally generated training materials andthe exchange of new ideas within farmers’groups.

FROM THE EDITOR

Ines Vivian Domingo is the Coordinator ofthe SEA Media Support Program, StudioDriya Media, Jl Makmur 16, Bandung40161, West Java, INDONESIA. Shespecialises in developing educationalmaterials to support community developmentefforts. With 15 years’ experience, sheprovides training in communication andmedia production and also carries outconsultancy work.

PigsYou can either set the pig on itsside on the ground and have anassistant hold it down whiledrenching, or tie its upper snoutwith a piece of rope to a post.Hold the snout firmly and drench.

Ruminants –cattle, sheep, goats etc1 Tie the animal to a tree or pole.

2 Lift the nose until it is level with the animal’s neck. Donot raise the head too high as this may interfere withswallowing.

3 Drench the medicine slowly. Do not pour the liquid tooquickly into the animal’s throat.

4 Allow time for the animal to swallow and breathe inbetween drenching. Do not pull the tongue out of themouth; it needs to be free for swallowing. Lower thehead immediately if the animal starts coughing.

Chickens1 If no assistant is available to hold the

chicken, you can restrain the animalby holding it firmly with one armagainst your body.

2 Hold the beak open and give themedicine.

ANIMAL HEALTH

8 FOOTSTEPS NO.34

PART USED juice

TO TREAT wounds

METHOD Pound fresh leavesand apply the milkysap or a poultice offresh leaves to heal cutsand wounds

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT anaemia, internalparasites

METHOD M. charantia canalso be used as adewormer. Poundthe leaves andextract the juice togive as a drench in water 1–3 times within oneday. Repeat after 2 weeks.

Bitter gourd

Momordica charantia

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT diarrhoea,wounds

METHOD Boil half a kilo of leaves in 3glasses of water and use as adrench twice a day for 3–4 days.

Boil fresh leaves and use the liquid to cleanscratches, cuts and wounds.

Make a poultice from fresh leaves to stopbleeding of shallow cuts.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT wounds

METHOD Boil fresh leavesand use the liquidto clean scratches,cuts and wounds.

PART USED rhizomes

TO TREAT wounds

METHOD Pound fresh rhizomand apply the juicea poultice of freshleaves to heal cutsand wounds.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT cold, cough, fever awounds

METHOD Boil half a kilo ofleaves in 2 litres ofwater. Give theliquid as a drench2–3 times a day fo3–4 days. Use as asponge bath to relifever in animals.

Boil fresh leaves aliquid to clean scraand wounds.

Five-leafed ch

PART USED cloves

TO TREAT poisoning

METHOD Burn 3 heads of gapound and mix withof water. Give 1 glamixture as drench the animal vomit. Rno vomiting occurs

Plants foranimalhealthcare

by Ines Vivian Domingo

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT wounds

METHOD Pound fresh leaves andapply the juice or apoultice of fresh leaves toheal cuts and wounds.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT cold, coughand fever

METHOD Boil a kilo of leavesin 4.5 litres of water. Whencool, divide the liquid intosmall doses and drench theanimal with 1 dose 2–3times a day until the animalrecovers.

Boil the leaves and use liquidas a sponge bath to relievefever in animals.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT anaemia,bleeding

METHOD The freshleaves are richin iron. Give toanimals who do not usuallygraze, such as pigs. Pound ahandful of leaves and give 5drops (1cc) of the juice extractper piglet twice a day for 3–4 days.

Apply a poultice of fresh leaves to stop bleedingof shallow cuts.

Guava

Psidiumguajava

Moringa

Moringaoleifera

Tamarindusindica

Tamarind

Curcumalonga

Turmeric

Ervatamia pandacaqui

Ervatamia

Allium

Garlic

Zingiber officinale

Ginger

Artemisia (mu

Artemis

BEFORE USING A PLANT FOR TREATMENT Be very sure youhave identified the correct plant. If you are unsure, ask peoplewith skills in using herbal treatments for their advice. Never usea plant unless you are sure it is the right one.

TO MAKE A POULTICE Pound and soften the fresh plantmaterial. Mix with a little warm oil, apply to the skin and hold inplace with a piece of clean cloth. Sometimes, mashed boiledrice or corn flour is used instead of oil.

TO BOIL LEAVES Use earthen pots if possible and boil for15–20 minutes. Cool and strain liquid before using.

1 cup is approximately 200ml.

9FOOTSTEPS NO.34

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PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT diarrhoea

METHOD Boil half a kiloof the leaves in 3glasses of water. Giveas a drench using 1–2cups of the liquid 3times a day for 1–3 days.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT external parasites

METHOD Pound the freshleaves and rub thejuice on theaffected area 2–3times a day until theparasites are gone.

PART USED water of young coconuts

TO TREAT dehydration

METHOD The coconut water is given to animals withdiarrhoea to prevent dehydration. Mix the waterfrom 3–5 young coconuts with a cup of brownsugar and a little salt and give 2–3 litres of thesolution as a drench 3 times a day until theanimal recovers.

PART USED charcoal from coconutshell

TO TREAT diarrhoea

METHOD Charcoal fromthe coconut shellcan help stopdiarrhoea.Pound thecharcoal and mixwith feed. It can alsobe powdered, mixedwith water and given asdrench 3 times a day.Dosage is 1 cup of the powdermixed in 500ml of water.

Coconut

Cocos nucifera

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT cold, cough and fever

METHOD Boil a handful of leavesin 1 litre of water for15–20 minutes. Useearthen pots for boilingif possible. Allow to cooland strain out the leaves.Use the liquid as adrench within 24 hours.Give 1/2–1 litre twice aday for 1–3 days.

Boil the leaves and use liquid as a sponge bathto relieve fever in animals.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT cold, cough and fever,infested wounds

METHOD Boil 8–15 leavesin 2–3 glassesof water andgive 1/2–1 cup as a drench 2–3times a day for 3 days.

Apply the juice from pounded leaves 2–3 timesa day for 3–4 days to cure wounds withmaggots.

Boil the leaves and use liquid as a sponge bathto relieve fever in animals.

PART USED fresh leaves

TO TREAT bloat

METHOD Chop 3-5 leaves andfeed to the animal twicea day until it recovers.However, this remedy isonly good for mild cases orduring the early stages ofbloat.

PART USED fresh nut

TO TREAT intestinal worms

METHOD Pound the nuts and mixwith enough water to giveas a drench. Repeat after 2weeks. Cattle and buffaloeswould need 8–10 nuts; goatsand pigs, 3; and chickens, 1.

Chrysophyllumcainito

Star apple

Premnaodorata

Alagaw

Gliricidia sepium

Gliricidia

Blumea balsamifera

Musa sapientum

Banana

Arecacatechu

Betel nutugwort)

isia vulgaris

Camphor

ANIMAL HEALTH

10

TRANSMARA WESTERNGROUP (TMWG) in Kenya is asmall team of researchers whichhas volunteered to promotesustainable development.Members encourage the use oftraditional knowledge in agri-culture to help relieve poverty.They work through extensiontraining, research and bynetworking with NGOs inseminars and workshops.One of the methods which they use withfarmers and extension workers is themapping of livestock diseases. Maps aredrawn of the area and the naturalfeatures. Livestock diseases are thenindicated on the map. This technique hasmany advantages. It is easy to use andflexible. It helps in planning how to treatlivestock diseases in any area.

Method■ First select the best people to draw themap. If on the farm, this is obviously thefarmer. If it is with a village community,then village leaders or elders are likely tobe the best people. Maps can also bedrawn at regional level by livestockdevelopment workers or extension agents.

■ At village or farm level, make maps onthe ground, using whatever localmaterials are available to illustrate forests,ponds, hills, villages etc. In office orworkshop situations, people may preferto use paper and pen. Choose items torepresent particular livestock diseasescommon in the area. For example, maizekernels for east coast fever, beans forredwater, yellow flowers for foot and

mouth disease. Place one of these items torepresent every known case of disease.

■ Carefully record the information,location and number of cases of eachdisease.

■ Discuss how to use this information inthe future in planning how to treatdisease cases.

Mapping at workshopsWorkshops which bring together farmersand extension workers for a wholelocation provide an ideal opportunity ofusing mapping for livestock diseases.People first work in small groups,producing maps for their own area. Thesecan then be compiled to produce a largemap with information about livestockdiseases for the whole location.

Once maps are finished, encouragediscussion to draw out all possibleinformation:

• Are diseases much more common incertain areas? If so, why might this be?

• How do people treat the diseases? Arethere herbal treatments?

• What kinds of medicines are farmersable to buy and use? Is their use carriedout safely?

• How easy is it for farmers to ask forhelp quickly from livestock officers?

• What are found to be the most seriousdiseases – causing either seriousdamage or death?

• What help can be provided in thefuture by the government livestockservices?

Information gathered must be carefullyrecorded and a copy made of all maps,using coloured pens to indicate theincidence of different diseases.

ResultsInformation about diseasecases was collected over fouryears through mappingexercises carried out withthe Kipsigis andMaasai communityin Transmaradistrict. In addition

Mappinganimaldiseasesby Naftally Felix Omondi

FOOTSTEPS NO.34

to the detailed information collectedabout disease patterns and incidence, thefollowing points became clear:

• Farmers are no longer able to dip theirlarge herds of cattle regularly, owing tothe rising cost of chemicals.

• Most tick-borne diseases are treated bylocal herbalists.

• East coast fever is the most seriousdisease and farmers are unable toafford the chemical treatment.

• Home spraying of animals is donemainly by women, who lack propertraining and equipment.

• Lack of water is a serious problem inthe area. This means herds travelseveral miles in search of watersources, greatly increasing the spreadof ticks from wayside vegetation.

• There is a great shortage of extensionworkers, livestock workers andcommunity workers from bothgovernment and NGOs.

• There is a lack of credit facilitiesavailable to farmers to enable them tobuy chemicals and improve theirfacilities.

From the information collected and theunderstanding gained from the abovepoints, future planning can now be basedupon sound information. TMWG plan toproduce locally produced, low-costremedies with the help of traditionalhealers.

Naftally FelixOmondi is aresearcher withTMWG, PO Box 16,Kilgoris, Kenya.

11FOOTSTEPS NO.34

WATER

BIBLE STUDY

Who’s in charge of your life?by Irene de Murillo

‘Let your light shine before men, that theymay see your good deeds and praise yourFather in Heaven.’ Matthew 5:16

On many occasions I have asked this ques-tion to community groups, ‘Is anythingimpossible for God?’ The answer is alwaysa loud ‘No!’ Then I ask another question:‘Is anything impossible for God to do…through you?’ The answer has alwaysbeen a deep silence.

If we keep a close relationship with Godthrough prayer and studying his word inthe Bible, we may indeed be asked to dogreat deeds. Instead, however, we canoften feel very small when things gowrong or when we are in trouble. But if wegive our lives completely to Jesus then wecan be sure that he will use us as he wantsin both great and small ways. How can wedo this?

We have to recognise God’s greatnessRead Psalm 135: 5-13 and Hebrews 1:3. We

need to recognise that God is the creator ofeverything and that he supports us all withhis mighty word.

We have to control our prideJesus served with love. He said, ‘Followme.’ Read Mark 8:34-36. He taught thatthose who truly give their lives to him andsurrender their rights, will be richly bless-ed in his eyes. He asks us to become hisservants and give him all we have – justthe opposite of what the world teaches.

We have to understand what God wantsto produce in our lives.Read Colossians Chapter 1:9-12. What roledo other Christians have in helping us tofulfil what God is asking of us? What signsare there if our lives are being obedient toGod’s directing?

Irene de Murillo is the Executive Secretary ofthe National Council of the Christian ReformedChurch of Honduras.

Moulds for water jarsTHE WATER DEPARTMENTin the Diocese of Kigezi,Uganda uses specially shapedwooden moulds which fittogether to form the shape of asmall water jar. Clay is used tosmooth any gaps beforeplastering over the mouldswith layers of cement. Oncethe mortar has set firm (withina day) the moulds can beremoved through the lid of thejar. The Department has about ten similarsets of moulds which can be reused overand over.

Water Dept, Diocese of Kigezi, PO Box 3,Kabale, Uganda

Ferrocement tanksAndrew Maclean in Tanzania writes to saythat he agrees with Willem Klaassen’s viewson moulds (Footsteps 32)…

WE MAKE UP A MOULD for the wallsand roof together and then plaster thewhole thing in one day. Then we stripout the mould through an access hatch inthe roof and plaster the inside. Mouldslet you press the mortar much harder,resulting in stronger walls and fewercracks.

However, our tanks do not leak! In myexperience the usual cause of leakage isusing too much water in the mortar (thismakes it weak and porous). If the mortaris shiny after mixing then there is toomuch water – it should be dull. Use aslittle water as possible to make a mix thatcan be plastered on.

Andrew MacleanMAFTanzania

E-mail: MaraCPT@MAF.org

Making the most of…

WATERa collection of ideas on storing and using it

Simple drip irrigationSECADOS in Guinea, West Africa use avery simple drip irrigation method. Aplastic bucket is tied up at shoulder leveland a plastic hose is forced into a verysmall hole in the base. Small holes aremade in the hose pipe (a heated nailworks well) which is laid on the groundin vegetable beds. When water is pouredinto the bucket, it slowly soaks into thesoil. Watering is much quicker and lesswater is wasted by evaporation.Pieces of the wooden

moulds……fit together to form this shape.

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ANIMAL HEALTH

There are two kinds of parasites, thosewhich live inside an animal’s body, suchas worms and liver flukes, and thosewhich live outside on the skin. Thisarticle looks only at external parasitessuch as mites, ticks and lice.

External parasites arean enormous problem.In India, for example,it is difficult toestimate the actualfinancial loss, but theseparasites reduce milk andmeat production, reducegrowth rate, reduce strength and abilityto work, damage skin or wool and mayeven cause death. Livestock may becomethin with a rough coat and skin sores.

In addition, ticks carry a wide range ofdiseases such as babesiasis (red water),tick-borne encephalitis, anaplasmosis andothers.

Rather than waiting until the problem ofexternal parasites becomes serious,farmers should regularly treat theirlivestock to prevent any infestation ofparasites.

Preventive action• Seal with cement or mud all cracks in

the floor and walls of livestockhousing.

• Keep housing clean each day.

• Spray housing with an appropriatepesticide every two weeks if possible.

• Rotate the land where livestock graze.

• Wash animals regularly.

• Cut hair regularly for sheep.

• Make ash from dry neem leaves, mixinto a paste with water and smear thison the animal every two weeks toprevent parasites.

• If the neem treatment is not effective,spray or dip the animals withappropriate pesticide.

Use of pesticidesVarious chemicals are widely used tocontrol external livestock parasites. Earlychemicals included sulphur, tobacco andarsenic compounds. These were replacedin the 1940s by chemicals such as DDT,Dieldrin and Lindane (chlorinatedhydrocarbons) – now known to be verydangerous both to livestock and humans.These are now banned in most countries.

Organophosphorus chemicals such asMalathion and Diazinon were thendeveloped and are still in use, thoughgreat care must be taken to avoid anycontact with skin, eyes or mouth.

Another group of chemicals is calledOrganocarbamates, such as Carbaryl andBaygon. These are not so toxic and are inregular use.

The safest of all chemicals are known as synthetic pyrethroids, such asFenvalerate and Deltamethrin. These arevery effective but also much safer thanany of the above chemicals. However,they are also very expensive.

Applying chemicals to livestockDipping This is very effective if largenumbers of livestock need to be treated.If this is just for small animals such assheep and goats, a 44 gallon drum can beused and the animals quickly lifted in

External parasitesP R O T E C T I N G Y O U R L I V E S T O C K

by Dr Avijit Haldar

THE WORD PARASITE means ‘one who eats at another’s table’. Inother words, a living thing which lives off another animal (or plant).Livestock parasites are the small pests which live by taking nutrients(usually blood) from their animal host.

cattle tick

Cattle spraying at the Diocesandemonstrationfarm, North Kigezi,Uganda.

Note the lack ofprotective clothingand check with thelist opposite to seewhat they shouldbe wearing.P

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13FOOTSTEPS NO.34

ANIMAL HEALTH

Take care with pesticides!■ Do not treat animals under a month old or any which are

ill or sick.

■ Do not treat livestock just before slaughtering – checkthe time interval recommended for the pesticide used.

■ Do not drink milk from cattle for three days aftertreatment.

■ Store chemicals safely out of reach of children andirresponsible people.

■ Wear gloves (or plastic bags) to avoid any contact withthe skin. If there is any contact, wash immediately withsoap and water.

■ Wear protective clothing, goggles and face mask toavoid any chemical splashing into the eyes or mouth.

■ Never use cooking pots to mix chemicals.

■ Do not eat, smoke or drink while handling chemicals.

■ Do not pour into rivers or ponds any unused solutionwhich might kill fish or damage human health.

■ Clean all containers and sprayers immediately after use.

■ Wash yourselves and your clothes well with soap andwater after treatment is finished.

■ Take care not to damage the environment.

and out. Alternatively, a concrete bathcan be built – especially if larger animalsare to be dipped. Dipping should bedone in the early morning, so thatanimals are not immediately exposed tohot sun. Dipping is not recommended ifthere is likely to be heavy rain soon after,as the chemical may be quickly washedoff.

Spraying is widely used and effective,especially if not too many livestock are tobe treated. If no spray pump is availablethen the pesticide can be applied with apaint brush or a cloth or sponge on theend of a stick.

Dusting Here the chemical is applied as afine dust. This is used especially for smalllivestock and poultry (see illustrationabove). Dusting is not very effectiveagainst ticks as the dust is soon lost, but itdoes control lice and mites

Injection There is a new form of pesticideknown as a systemic pesticide such asIvomac. This is simply injected into theanimal.

Always use the recommended dosagesfor chemicals. Ask for help if you arenot sure. Using too high a concentrationwill not kill more parasites. Instead, itmay kill the animal and make you ill.

Dipping largeranimals is easiest ifa concrete bath isbuilt.

Dr Haldar is a lecturer and researcher inBidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,PO Kalimpong, Darjeeling, West Bengal734 301, India.

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14 FOOTSTEPS NO.34

RESOURCES

Mujer y Salud Mentalby Heve E Otero

Through this pamphlet, EIRENE hope to contribute to a better under-standing of women’s role in thefamily and in society. Their centralobjective is the pastoral and therap-eutic care of the family. There ismuch useful data from a survey of theconcerns and stresses on people today.This pamphlet will supply informationand ideas to those working in develop-ment and family care.

The pamphlet costs US $3 and can beordered from:

EIRENE-InternacionalCasilla 17-08-85-72, QuitoEcuador

Practical PharmacyThis newsletter aims to ensure the safeand rational use of medicines worldwideby increasing knowledge and understand-ing of medicine management and supply,and by improving work practices. It iswritten for health workers who may haveno specific training in this area of workbut whose job involves medicine manage-ment and supply in developing countries.It is particularly useful to pharmacy assis-tants, pharmacists, nurses and doctors.

Topics covered to date include…

• essential medicines – selection,ordering and storage

• the dispensing process

• medicine donations

• use of disinfectants

• medicine interactions.

The newsletter is free and produced fourtimes a year. In order to keep costs as lowas possible, organisations are encouragedto photocopy the newsletter and todistribute it to their health workers. Pleasewrite to:

Georgina StockHeatherlands, Lydford, Oakhampton, DevonEX20 4AUUK

Where Women have no DoctorThis important new book, aimed atwomen living in places where there is nodoctor, or where healthcare is not afford-able, is written in similar manner to Wherethere is no Doctor.

The book uses simple language and hashundreds of illustrations to helpwomen and girls from differentcultures learn how to identify commonmedical problems and ways of treatingthem. The medical information iscombined with an understanding ofhow poverty, discrimination andculture affect women’s health and theiraccess to health care. Subjects coveredinclude sexual and mental health,diseases, pregnancy and childbirth,nutrition, disabilities and injuries.There is also a special section giving alist of common medicines with muchinformation on their use and possibleside effects.

This excellent book has nearly 600pages and costs £9.25 including surfacepostage or £10.25 for airmail postage.Order from:

TALCPO Box 49, St Albans, HertsAL1 5TXUK

Agromisa Advisory ServiceAgromisa produce the Agrodok series,now with over 20 of these practicalbooks on all aspects of agriculture andfood production and preservation.Many of the titles are also available inFrench, Spanish and Portuguese. Eachbook costs US $8, though copies may beavailable free of charge to organisationsworking in Africa, the Pacific andCaribbean countries.

Agromisa also provide a free advisoryservice, sharing knowledge and adviceon small-scale sustainable agriculture.Give all possible details about yourproblem.

For information about the Agrodok seriesor to use the advisory service, write to:

AgromisaPO Box 416700 AA WageningenThe Netherlands

Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease in UgandaDue to its drought resistance, cassava isan important food crop in much of sub-saharan Africa and elsewhere. Cassavamosaic virus is found in all the maincassava growing areas. However, inUganda it has devastated the wholecountry, with many areas unable to growcassava at all. This detailed studydescribes the disease and methods ofcontrol and management.

Single copies are available free of chargeto educational groups, research institut-ions and nonprofit-making organisationsin countries receiving British Aid. Write,using your official title to:

NRICentral AvenueChathamMaritimeKentME4 4TBUK

Dossier de développementAgripromoThis magazine (previously calledAgripromo) is produced by Inades-Formation (African Institute for Socialand Economic Development). It isproduced as a folder of about 80 pagespresented as separate booklets of 4–8pages each. Each issue will be on onetheme: the first will be on food security inAfrica and the world; the second will beon natural resources.

Inades-Formation’s objective is thetraining of adults in rural areas for socialand economic advancement. They run acorrespondence course in agriculture and

15FOOTSTEPS NO.34

RESOURCES

hold training sessions. They also runcourses in development and manage-ment of small projects. To receive thereview or for any further details, write to:

Inades-Formation, 08 BP 8Abidjan 08, Ivory CoastAfrica

Tel: +225 44 31 28

Fax: +225 44 06 41

De la santé animale audéveloppement de l’homme:Leçons de l’expérience de VétérinairesSans Frontièresby Michel Bouy and Jo Casnière

This is No 51 in the series Dossiers pour unDébat and is a fascinating account of thework of vets sent out as volunteers toeleven different countries over the past13 years. Many social, political andmedical issues are raised in the variedsituations experienced. VSF’s firstprogramme was one of emergency aid in1984 in Mali, during a drought. Otherprogrammes, for example in CentralAmerica, have followed after politicaldisturbance, in the form of long-termdevelopment. VSF works in support oflocal organisations and national NGOs,and sees training as an essential part oftheir work. This book (171 pages) wouldbe of interest to NGO workers, andcontains many useful points, but wouldonly be suitable for very fluent readers. Itis available only in French.

The price is 35FF (Order Ref: DD.51)from

Charles-Léopold MayerLa librairie FPH38 rue Saint-Sabin, 75011 ParisFrance

Tel/Fax: +331 4806 4886

E-mail: lib@fph.fr

Paraveterinary Medicine:an information kit on low-cost health care practices

This information kit, written in simplelanguage, is intended for paravetsworking in isolated rural communities. Itis not designed to be a completeveterinary medicine reference material.Rather, it aims to present the healthproblems most commonly encounteredby backyard animal raisers and some ofthe most effective, but simple treatments.

The kit is divided into four separatebooklets on the following topics…

• Restraining animals and simpletreatments

• Basic husbandry practices andveterinary care

• Disease control and treatment

• Herbal medicine for animals.

The kit costs US $16.75 including airmailpostage (US $11.50 within Asia) and isavailable from the address below.

EthnoveterinaryMedicine in Asia:an information kit on traditional animal health care

Local veterinary practices have beencarefully recorded for more than adecade now, but the results have beenlittle used in development work. Littlewritten information exists on practicesthat work and can be recommended.Without such guidelines, developmentprofessionals hesitate to encourageethnoveterinary practices into theirprojects.

This information kit aims to overcomethis limitation. The booklets provide aready-to-use package on ethnoveterinaryremedies and practices that can berecommended and used in villages. Thekit is divided into four booklets, three onparticular species: ruminants, swine andpoultry and the fourth on general topics.

The kit costs US $19 including airmailpostage (US $12 in Asia). Bothinformation kits are available from…

PublicationsYC James Yen CenterIIRR, Silang, Cavite 4118Philippines

Fax: +632 522 2494

E-mail: IIRR@phil.gn.apc.org

Facilitadores de cambioby Frances O’Gorman

Published by MAP Internacional

This book provides a useful tool for thosewho wish to examine critically their ownrole in bringing change to the lives of thepoor. Using a series of case studies, theauthor makes a timely and challenginganalysis of the causes of poverty. This isfollowed by a critical examination of therole played by change agents, providingthe reader with a broad frameworkwithin which they can then evaluate theirown experiences.

The book, which is a translation of theoriginal Portuguese, contains some termsand diagrams which may be difficult tounderstand. It costs US $9 for a singlecopy but the cost for multiple copies ismuch cheaper. It is available only inSpanish and Portuguese.

Isla EspañolaMAP America LatinaCasilla 17-08-8184, QuitoEcuador

Fax: +5932 435500

Reviewed by Andrew Leake

¿Pueden los campesinos serbanqueros?The first part of the book gives thehistory of rural credit since 1926,covering the experience of many differentcountries. Then there is a section on thedifferent forms of credit institution:different kinds of banks, cooperatives,the Grameen Bank, support for smallbusinesses and the role of the State. Thethird section is concerned with practicaladvice on setting up an agriculturalcredit bank, constructing a savings andcredit network, strengthening presentsystems and evaluation.

The book (available only in Spanish) waswritten by members of IRAM,professional consultants in ruraldevelopment with 40 years’ experienceworldwide. It costs US $10 and can beordered from:

SIMAS (Servicio de Informacion Meso-americano Sobre Agricultura Sostenible)Apartado Postal A-136, ManaguaNicaragua

Telefax: +505 222 56 52

E-mail: simas@nicarao.apc.org

Correction

We have recently been informed that theaddress we published in Footsteps 33 forWorld Neighbours (distributors of the StudioDriya Media books on Dryland Farming) isincorrect. We apologise for any difficultiesthis may have caused. The new address is:

World Neighbours, 4127 NW 122nd Street,Oklahoma City, OK 73120-8869, USA

16

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Published by: Tearfund, 100 Church Rd, Teddington,TW11 8QE, UK

Workingin groups

Groups usually produce bigger results.When people realise that change, ofwhatever kind, is needed, then workingas a group is often the best way toachieve the change. Groups can be a forceto reckon with in development work.

Group challengesIn a group, each member brings experi-ence which may be of great help to thegroup. Gathering people’s wisdomthrough sharing knowledge and experi-ences can help find solutions to problems.Such sharing can only be achieved in arelaxed atmosphere. A group may find itdifficult to make progress if somemembers form sub-groups (cliques) ormembers refuse to cooperate in decisionmaking for selfish reasons.

Groups are made up of a variety of peoplebut there are several characters found inmost groups:

Complainers They complain about almostevery decision taken, no matter what theadvantages. To these people, there isnothing good in other people’s ideas.

Know-it-alls They believe only their ideasare right. They can convince others andform cliques for selfish reasons. Wherecliques are formed for personal benefits,the group is likely to collapse.

Passive members They do not want to takeresponsibility for bad decisions. Groupleaders should encourage these people tocontribute ideas.

Reasonable members They are objective andconsider their reasons carefully beforecontributing ideas. They are the hope andinspiration of the group.

Group potentialIn a group, members should avoidindividual tendencies, and learn fromeach other by reasoning, thinking anddeciding together. Sound decisions willthen result from ‘group responsibility’and ‘power’.

Group members will often observe eachother, encouraging healthy competition totry to copy or outdo each other.

An organised and effective group islikely to attract the attention andsympathy of outside agencies.

How to form a group1 Ideas usually come from a common

need, but often just one person takesaction.

2 Interested people are contacted andthe ideas discussed further.

3 Influential people in the communityare informed.

4 A formal meeting is planned, withleaders democratically elected.

5 The group may then be registered asan organisation.

What to look for in a group leader• intelligent and clear thinking

• concern both for individual membersand the group

• self-control and the ability to givenecessary discipline

• approachable and a good listener

• inspiring facilitator and motivator

• good organiser

• able to sacrifice the necessary time.

Contributed by Gideon Njini – a consultantwith Resources Management Consultants,PO Box 5011, Nkwen, Bamenda, Cameroon.

A GROUP is a collection of three or more peoplewho meet on a regular basis for a commonpurpose. People work in groups to achieve whatthey are unable to achieve on their own.

Attitudes towards Change

Not everyone reacts in the same way tochange. The amount of active involvementin setting changes in motion varies fromperson to person. Attitudes towards changecan be divided as follows:

Innovators A small percentage of com-munity members react positively to changeif they can see the benefits. Change stim-ulates them and they see it as a means oflearning and development.

Traditionalists This group represents themajority of members of a community.These people prefer stability and thefamiliar situation to the risks and uncertain-ties of something new. They may also havehad bad experiences of previous changes,making them resistant to all change.

Reactionaries A small number of peoplecriticise and reject any change at all.

Any group wishing to bring about changeshould aim to use all known innovators intheir work, encourage the involvement of asmany traditionalists as possible, but limitthe harmful influence of reactionaries.

If it is possible to succeed in getting a largenumber of people in favour of change, thenthere is a much higher chance of having itadopted.

Some ideas from Boubacar Bocoum – aninstructor with the integrated developmentprogramme at PDI Saraféré UJC –AMRAD, Niafunké, Mali.

A meeting of theBikyiiteng FarmersGroup in northern

Ghana.

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Editor: Isabel Carter, 83 Market Place, South Cave,Brough, HU15 2AS, UK