Food Chemistry

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

H.-D. Belitz· W. Grosch· P. Schieberle

Food Chemistry Translation from the Fifth German Edition by M. M. Burghagen

Third revised Edition with 472 Figures over 900 Formula and 620 Tables

, Springer

Professor Dr.-Ing. H.-D. Belitz t Professor Dr.-Ing. W Grosch Institut fUr Lebensmitte1chemie der Technischen Universităt MUnchen and former Deputy Director of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fiir Lebensmitte1chemie, MUnchen LichtenbergstraBe 4 D-85748 Garching, FRG

Professor Dr. rer. nat. P. Schieberle Institut fiir Lebensmitte1chemie der Technischen Universităt Munchen and Director of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fUr Lebensmittelchemie, MUnchen LichtenbergstraBe 4 D-85748 Garching, FRG

Translators:

First edition: Professor Dr. D. Hadziyev

Second edition: Peter Hessel (chapters O and 1) Christiane Sprinz (chapter 2)

ISBN 978-3-540-40818-5

Dr. Sabine Jordan (:chapter 3) Dr. Margaret Burghagen (chapters 4-23)

Third edition: Dr. Margaret Burghagen

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Belitz, H.-D, (Hans-Dieter) [Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie. English] Food chemistry 1 H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Schieberle ; translation from the fifth German edition by M.M.Burghagen ... [et al.]. - 3rd rev. ed.

p.cm. Inc1udes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-540-40818-5 ISBN 978-3-662-07279-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-07279-0

1. Food-Analysis. 1. Grosch, W. (Wemer) II. Schieberle, Peter. III. Title.

TX545.B3513 2004 664'.07-dc22 2004041327

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or par! of the material is con­cemed, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereofis only permitted under the provisions ofthe German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1987, 1999 and 2004 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2004

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imp­ly, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Cover design: KiinkelLopka GmbH, Heidelberg Typesetting: Fotosatz-Service Kohler GmbH, 97084 Wiirzburg 52/3020xv - 5 4 3 2 1 0- Printed on acid-free paper

Preface to the Third English Edition The third English edition of "Food Chemistry" is a translation of the fifth Ger­man edition of this textbook. The text has been revised, but most of the production data are for the year 1999. We are very grateful to Dr. Margaret Burghagen who translated the manuscript. It was a pleasure to work with her. We would also like to thank Mrs. 1. Jauker for assistance in completing the manuscript.

Garching, February 2004 W Grosch, P. Schieberle

Preface to the Second English Edition The second edition of "Food Chemistry" is a translation of the fourth German edition of this textbook. The text has been corrected only in a few places, e. g., most of the production data are presented for the year 1996. The preparation of this edition was greatly delayed due to the deaths of Profes­sor Dr. H.-D. Belitz in March 1993 and of Professor Dr. D. Hadziyev, who trans­lated the first edition, in July 1995. H.-D. Belitz worked on the preparation of the second edition. Dr. Margaret Burghagen translated most of the extensive changes incorporated into this new edition and revised the entire text. I am greatly indebted to her for her excellent work. It was a pleasure to work with her. I gratefully acknowledge the help of my colleagues who made valuable criticisms and contributed to the improvement of the text. I particularly thank Dr. M. C. Kuhn, Holland. I would also like to thank Mrs. R. Jauker for assistance in completing the manuscript and for proofreading and my son B. Grosch for assistance in pre­paring the index.

Garching, January 1999 WGrosch

Preface to the Fifth German Edition

The continuation ofthis textbook was considerably delayed by the death of Prof. Dr. H.-D. Belitz in March 1993. This new edition follows the time-tested con­cept described in the preface to the first German edition. All the chapters have been thoroughly revised and updated. For example, the following changes have been made:

All the data on the composition of foods have been updated. In the chapter on enzymes, the pressure dependence of the activity, the poly­merase chain reaction and the detection of food modified with genetic engineering techniques have all been included. An extension of the chapter on lipids was necessary because of the latest re­search on enzymes (lipase, lip oxygenase and allene oxide synthase) and anti­oxidants. The chapter on carbohydrates now includes a completely new presentation of the Maillard reaction. The chapter on aroma substances has been revised completely. The same applies to the sections on aroma substances in individual foods, where quan­titative results have been presented for the first time. The data on the occurrence and recommended intake of vitamins and minerals have been updated. In the chapter on additives, the sections on emulsifiers and fat substitutes have been extended. The information on the raw materials and production of individual foods has been corrected in accordance with the latest technological advances and new results pertaining to the constituents have been presented. The main empha­sis has been put on milk, meat, fish, cereals, beer, wine and coffee. Some components of foods, which are currently of greater interest, have been included or the text has been extended, e. g., conjugated linoleic acids, aller­genic proteins, bifidogenic oligo saccharides and sexual hormones. The literature pertaining to each chapter has been supplemented.

We would like to thank a number of colleagues who helped us with their con­structive criticism in the preparation of this manuscript. We are specially grate­ful to Prof. Dr. A. Rapp (Chapter 20, Wine), Prof. Dr. H. Scherz (data on the composition of foods), Prof. Dr. J. Weder (corrections) and Dr. H. Wiesser (cere­al proteins). We also thank Mrs. S. Bijewitz and Mrs. R. Jauker for their support in the prepa­ration of this manuscript, Dr. E. Kirchhoff and Prof. Dr. H. Scherz who helped with proofreading and Dipl.-Chem. B. Grosch who cooperated in the prepara­tion of the index.

Garching, November 2000 W Grosch, P. Schieberle

Preface to the First German Edition

The very rapid development of food chemistry and technology over the last two decades, which is due to a remarkable increase in the analytical and manufac­turing possibilities, makes the complete lack of a comprehensive, teaching or reference text particularly noticeable. It is hoped that this textbook of food chemistry will help to fill this gap. In writing this volume we were able to draw on our experience from the lectures which we have given, covering various scientific subjects, over the past fifteen years at the Technical University of Munich. Since a separate treatment of the important food constituents (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, flavor compounds, etc.,) and of the important food groups (milk, meat, eggs, cereals, fruits, vegetables, etc.,) has proved successful in our lec­tures, the subject matter is also organized in the same way in this book. Compounds which are found only in particular foods are discussed where they playa distinctive role while food additives and contaminants are treated in their own chapters. The physical and chemical properties of the important con­stituents of foods are discussed in detail where these form the basis for understanding either the reactions which occur, or can be expected to occur, dur­ing the production, processing, storage and handling of foods or the methods used in analyzing them. An attempt has also been made to clarify the relation­ship between the structure and properties at the level of individual food con­stituents and at the level of the whole food system. The book focuses on the chemistry of foodstuffs and does not consider national or international food regulations. We have also omitted a broader discussion of aspects related to the nutritional value, the processing and the toxicology of foods. All of these are an essential part of the training of a food chemist but, because of the extent of the subject matter and the consequent specialization, must today be the subject of separate books. Nevertheless, for all important foods we have included brief discussions of manufacturing processes and their parameters since these are closely related to the chemical reactions occurring in foods. Commodity and production data of importance to food chemists are mainly giv­en in tabular form. Each chapter includes some references which are not intend­ed to form an exhaustive list. No preference or judgement should be inferred from the choice of references; they are given simply to encourage further read­ing. Additional literature of a more general nature is given at the end of the book. This book is primarily aimed both at students of food and general chemistry but also at those students of other disciplines who are required or choose to study food chemistry as a supplementary subject. We also hope that this comprehen­sive text will prove useful to both food chemists and chemists who have com­pleted their formal education. We thank sincerely Mrs. A. ModI (food chemist), Mrs. R. Berger, Mrs. I. Hof­meier, Mrs. E. Hortig, Mrs. F. Lynen and Mrs. K. Wiist for their help during the preparation of the manuscript and its proofreading. We are very grateful to Springer Verlag for their consideration of our wishes and for the agreeable cooperation.

Garching, July 1982 H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch

Introduction

Foods are materials which, in their naturally occurring, processed or cooked forms, are consumed by humans as nourishment and for enjoyment. The terms "nourishment" and "enjoyment" introduce two important properties of foods: the nutritional value and the hedonic value. The former is relatively easy to quantify since all the important nutrients are known and their effects are defined. Furthermore, there are only a limited number of nutrients. Defining the hedonic value of a food is more difficult because such a definition must take into account all those properties of a food, such as visual appeal, smell, taste and texture, which interact with the senses. These properties can be influenced by a large number of compounds which in part have not even been identified. Besides their nutritional and hedonic values, foods are increasingly being judged according to properties which determine their handling. Thus, the term "convenience foods". An obvious additional requirement of a food is that it be free from toxic materials. Food chemistry is involved not only in elucidating the composition of the raw materials and end-products, but also with the changes which occur in food dur­ing its production, processing, storage and cooking. The highly complex nature of food results in a multitude of desired and undesired reactions which are con­trolled by a variety of parameters. To gain a meaningful insight into these reac­tions, it is necessary to break up the food into model systems. Thus, starting from compositional analyses (detection, isolation and structural characterization of food constituents), the reactions of a single constituent or of a simple mixture can be followed. Subsequently, an investigation of a food in which an individual reaction dominates can be made. Inherently, such a study starts with a given compound and is thus not restricted to anyone food or group offoods. Such gen­eral studies of reactions involving food constituents are supplemented by special investigations which focus on chemical processes in individual foods. Research of this kind is from the very beginning closely associated with economic and technological aspects and contributes, by understanding the basics ofthe chem­ical processes occurring in foods, both to resolving specific technical problems and to process optimization. A comprehensive evaluation of foods requires that analytical techniques keep pace with the available technology. As a result a major objective in food chemistry is concerned with the application and continual development of analytical methods. This aspect is particularly important when following possible contamination of foods with substances which may involve a health risk. Thus, there are close links with environmental problems. Food chemistry research is aimed at establishing objective standards by which the criteria mentioned above - nutritional value, hedonic value, absence of toxic compounds and convenience - can be evaluated. These are a prerequisite for the industrial production of high quality food in bulk amounts. This brief outline thus indicates that food chemistry, unlike other branches of chemistry which are concerned either with particular classes of compounds or with particular methods, is a subject which, both in terms of the actual chemistry and the methods involved, has a very broad field to cover.

Table of Contents

o VVater

0.1 Foreword

0.2 0.2.1 0.2.2

0.3 0.3.1 0.3.2 0.3.3 0.3.4 0.3.5

0.4

1

1.1

1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.2.1 1.2.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.3.1 1.2.3.2 1.2.3.3 1.2.3.4 1.2.4 1.2.4.1 1.2.4.2 1.2.4.2.1 1.2.4.2.2 1.2.4.2.3 1.2.4.2.4 1.2.4.3 1.2.4.3.1 1.2.4.3.2 1.2.4.3.3 1.2.4.3.4 1.2.4.3.5 1.2.4.3.6 1.2.4.3.7 1.2.4.4 1.2.5

1.2.5.1

Structure Water Molecule Liquid Water and Ice

Effect on Storage Life Water Activity ... Water Activity as an Indicator Phase Transition of Foods Containing Water WLF Equation Conclusion

Literature

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins

Foreword

Amino Acids General Remarks Classification, Discovery and Occurrence Classification ...... . Discovery and Occurrence Physical Properties Dissociation . . . . . . . . Configuration and Optical Activity Solubility UV Absorption ..... ... Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . Esterification of Carboxyl Groups Reactions of Amino Groups Acylation Alkylation and Arylation .. Carbamoyl and Thiocarbamoyl Derivatives Reactions with Carbonyl Compounds . Reactions Involving Other Functional Groups Lysine Arginine ... Aspartic and Glutamic Acids Serine and Threonine Cysteine and Cystine Methionine Tyrosine Reactions of Amino Acids at Higher Temperatures Synthetic Amino Acids Utilized for to Increasing the Biological Value of Food (Food Fortification) Glutamic Acid . .

1 1 2

3 3 5 5 6 7

7

8

8

9 9 9 9 9

12 12 13 15 15 16 16 16 16 18 20 21 22 22 23 23 23 23 24 24 24

29 31

XII Table of Contents

1.2.5.2 1.2.5.3 1.2.5.4 1.2.5.5 1.2.5.6 1.2.5.7 1.2.6

1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.2.1 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.4.1 1.3.4.2 1.3.4.3 1.3.4.4 1.3.4.5

1.4 1.4.1 1.4.1.1 1.4.1.2 1.4.1.3 1.4.1.4 1.4.1.5

1.4.2 1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 1.4.2.2.1 1.4.2.2.2 1.4.2.2.3 1.4.2.2.4 1.4.2.3 1.4.2.3.1 1.4.2.3.2 1.4.2.3.3 1.4.2.4 1.4.3 1.4.3.1 1.4.3.2 1.4.3.3 1.4.3.4 1.4.3.5 1.4.3.6 1.4.4 1.4.4.1 1.4.4.1.1 1.4.4.1.2 1.4.4.1.3 1.4.4.1.4 1.4.4.2 1.4.4.3 1.4.4.4 1.4.4.5 1.4.4.6

Aspartic Acid Lysine .... Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine .. Tryptophan Sensory Properties

Peptides ..... . General Remarks, Nomenclature Physical Properties Dissociation . . . . Sensory Properties Individual Peptides Glutathione Carnosine, Anserine and Balenine Nisin ..... . Lysine Pep tides Other Peptides

Proteins .... Amino Acid Sequence Amino Acid Composition, Subunits Terminal Groups Partial Hydrolysis . . . . . . . . . . Sequence Analysis . . . . . . . . . . Derivation of Amino Acid Sequence from the Nucleotide Sequence of the Coding Gene Conformation ................... . Extended Peptide Chains ............. . Secondary Structure (Regular Structural Elements) ~-Sheet Helical Structures . . . . . Reverse Turns ...... . Super-Secondary Structures Tertiary and Quaternary Structures Fibrous Proteins . . . Globular Proteins .. Quaternary Structures Denaturation . . . . Physical Properties Dissociation . . . . Optical Activity .. Solubility, Hydration and Swelling Power Foam Formation and Foam Stabilization Gel Formation . . . Emulsifying Effect Chemical Reactions Lysine Residue Reactions Which Retain the Positive Charge Reactions Resulting in a Loss of Positive Charge Reactions Resulting in a Negative Charge Reversible Reactions ....... . Arginine Residue ......... . Glutamic and Aspartic Acid Residues Cystine Residue . . Cysteine Residue Methionine Residue

31 32 32 33 33 33 33

34 34 35 35 35 37 37 38 38 39 39

39 41 41 41 42 43

45 48 48 49 50 51 52 53 53 53 53 56 56 58 58 60 60 61 62 63 63 64 64 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 69

1.4.4.7 1.4.4.8 1.4.4.9 1.4.4.10 1.4.4.11 1.4.5 1.4.5.1 1.4.5.2 1.4.5.2.1 1.4.5.2.2 1.4.5.2.3 1.4.5.2.4 1.4.6 1.4.6.1 1.4.6.2 1.4.6.2.1 1.4.6.2.2 1.4.6.2.3 1.4.6.3 1.4.6.3.1 1.4.6.3.2 1.4.6.3.3 1.4.7 1.4.7.1 1.4.7.2 1.4.7.3 1.4.7.3.1 1.4.7.3.2

1.5

2

2.1

2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.2.1 2.2.2.2 2.2.~

2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7

2.3 2.3.l 2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.2 2.3.2.l 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2

Table of Contents XIII

Histidine Residue . Tryptophan Residue Tyrosine Residue Bifunctional Reagents Reactions Involved in Food Processing Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions Foreword ...... . Proteolytic Enzymes Serine Endopeptidases Cysteine Endopeptidases Metalo Peptidases . . . . Aspartic Endopeptidases Chemical and Enzymatic Reactions of Interest to Food Processing Foreword ...... . Chemical Modification Acylation ...... . Alkylation . . . . . . . Redox Reactions Involving Cysteine and Cystine Enzymatic Modification Dephosphorylation Plastein Reaction . Cross-Linking ... Texturized Proteins Foreword Starting Material Texturization Spin Process . . . Extrusion Process

Literature ....

Enzymes

Foreword

General Remarks, Isolation and Nomenclature Catalysis ...... . Specificity . . . . . . Substrate Specificity Reaction Specificity Structure ...... . Isolation and Purification Multiple Forms of Enzymes Nomenclature .. ActivityUnits . .

Enzyme Cofactors Cosubstrates . . . Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Adenosine Triphosphate Prosthetic Groups Flavins ...... . Hemin ...... . Pyridoxal Phosphate Metal Ions ..... Magnesium, Calcium and Zinc Iron, Copper and Molybdenum

69 69 69 70 70 74 74 74 75 75 76 78 79 79 79 79 82 82 82 82 83 86 87 87 87 87 88 88

88

92

92

92 92 93 93 94 94 94 96 96 97

97 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104

XIV Table of Contents

2.4 2.4.1 2.4.1.1 2.4.1.2 2.4.1.2.1 2.4.1.2.2 2.4.1.2.3 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.4.2.2 2.4.2.3 2.4.2.4 2.4.2.5 2.4.3

2.5 2.5.1 2.5.1.1 2.5.1.1.1 2.5.1.1.2 2.5.1.2 2.5.1.2.1 2.5.1.2.2 2.5.1.3 2.5.2 2.5.2.1 2.5.2.2 2.5.2.2.1 2.5.2.2.2 2.5.2.2.3 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.4.1 2.5.4.2 2.5.4.3 2.5.4.4 2.5.5 2.5.6

2.6 2.6.1 2.6.1.1 2.6.1.2 2.6.1.3 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.4.1 2.6.4.2 2.6.4.2.1 2.6.4.2.2 2.6.4.2.3 2.6.4.2.4

2.7 2.7.1 2.7.1.1 2.7.1.2

Theory of Enzyme Catalysis Active Site . . . . . . . Active Site Localization Substrate Binding . . . Stereospecificity . . . . "Lock and Key" Hypothesis. Induced-fit Model ..... . Reasons for Catalytic Activity Steric Effects - Orientation Effects Structural Complementarity to Transition State . Entropy Effect . . . . . . . . General Acid-Base Catalysis Covalent Catalysis . . . . . . Closing Remarks ..... .

Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions Effect of Substrate Concentration Single-Substrate Reactions Michaelis-Menten Equation Determination ofK", and V Two-Substrate Reactions Order of Substrate Binding Rate Equations for a Two-Substrate Reaction Allosteric Enzymes Effect ofInhibitors Irreversible Inhibition Reversible Inhibition Competitive Inhibition Non-Competitive Inhibition Uncompetitive Inhibition Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity Influence of Temperature . . . . Time Dependence of Effects Temperature Dependence of Effects Temperature Optimum Thermal Stability .. Influence of Pressure Influence of Water . .

Enzymatic Analysis . Substrate Determination Principles ....... . End-Point Method ... . Kinetic Method .... . Determination of Enzyme Activity Enzyme Immunoassay Polymerase Chain Reaction Principle ofPCR Examples ........ . Addition of Soybeans .. . Genetically Modified Soybeans Genetically Modified Tomatoes Species Differentiation ....

Enzyme Utilization in the Food Industry Technical Enzyme Preparations Production . . . . . . . Immobilized Enzymes

105 106 106 107 107 108 109 110 110 111 111 112 114 117

117 117 117 117 120 121 121 122 124 125 126 126 126 127 127 128 130 131 131 133 134 136 137

137 137 137 139 139 140 141 142 143 144 144 144 144 144

144 146 146 147

2.7.1.2.1 2.7.1.2.2 2.7.1.2.3 2.7.1.2.4 2.7.2 2.7.2.1 2.7.2.1.1 2.7.2.1.2 2.7.2.1.3 2.7.2.1.4 2.7.2.1.5 2.7.2.2 2.7.2.2.1 2.7.2.2.2 2.7.2.2.3 2.7.2.2.4 2.7.2.2.5 2.7.2.2.6 2.7.2.2.7 2.7.2.2.8 2.7.2.2.9 2.7.2.2.10 2.7.2.2.11 2.7.2.2.12 2.7.2.2.13 2.7.2.2.14 2.7.2.2.15 2.7.2.2.16 2.7.2.3 2.7.2.4

2.8

3

3.1

3.2 3.2.1 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.2 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 3.2.2.4 3.2.2.5 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.3.2.1 3.2.3.2.2 3.2.3.2.3 3.2.3.2.4 3.2.4

Table of Contents XV

Bound Enzymes . . . . 147 Enzyme Entrapment . . 147 Cross-Linked Enzymes 147 Properties ..... 147 Individual Enzymes 148 Oxidoreductases . 148 Glucose Oxidase 148 Catalase ..... 149 Lipoxygenase .. 149 Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 149 Butanediol Dehydrogenase 149 Hydrolases . . . . . . . . . 149 Peptidases . . . . . . . . . 149 a- and p-Amylases 150 Glucan-l,4-a-n-Glucosidase (Glucoamylase) 151 Pullulanase (Isoamylase) .. 151 Endo-I,3(4)-P-n-Glucanase . . . . 151 a-n-Galactosidase . . . . . . . . . 151 p-n-Galactosidase (Lactase) 152 p-n-Fructofuranosidase (Invertase) 152 a-L-Rhamnosidase ...... 152 Cellulases and HemiceIlulases 152 Lysozyme ..... 152 Thioglucosidase . . 152 Pectolytic Enzymes 152 Lipases 153 Tannases . . 153 Glutaminase 153 Isomerases . 153 Transferases 154

Literature . 154

Lipids .. 157

Foreword 157

Fatty Acids 158 Nomenclature and Classification 158 Saturated Fatty Acids . 158 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 159 Substituted Fatty Acids 163 Physical Properties 163 Carboxyl Group . . . . 163 Crystalline Structure, Melting Points 164 Urea Adducts . 165 Solubility ..... 165 UV-Absorption .. 166 Chemical Properties 166 Methylation of Carboxyl Groups 166 Reactions of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 166 Halogen Addition Reactions 167 Transformation of Isolene-Type Fatty Acids to Conjugated Fatty Acids 167 Formation of a It-Complex with Ag+ Ions 167 Hydrogenation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Biosynthesis of Unsaturated Fatty Acids . 168

XVI Table of Contents

3.3 3.3.1 3.3.1.1 3.3.1.2 3.3.1.3 3.3.1.4 3.3.1.5 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.2

3.4 3.4.1 3.4.1.1 3.4.1.2 3.4.1.3 3.4.2 3.4.2.1 3.4.2.2 3.4.2.3

3.5 3.5.1 3.5.1.1 3.5.1.2 3.5.2

3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.2.1 3.6.2.2 3.6.3

3.7 3.7.1 3.7.1.1 3.7.1.2 3.7.1.2.1 3.7.1.2.2 3.7.2 3.7.2.1 3.7.2.1.1 3.7.2.1.2 3.7.2.1.3 3.7.2.1.4 3.7.2.1.5 3.7.2.1.6 3.7.2.1.7 3.7.2.1.8 3.7.2.1.9 3.7.2.2 3.7.2.3 3.7.2.4 3.7.2.4.1 3.7.2.4.2 3.7.2.4.3 3.7.2.4.4

Acylglycerols ................ . Triacylglycerols (TG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomenclature, Classification, Calorific Value Melting Properties . . . . Chemical Properties . . . Structural Determination Biosynthesis . . . . . . . Mono- and Diacylglycerols (MG, DG) Occurrence, Production . Physical Properties

Phospho- and Glycolipids Classes ......... . Phosphatidyl Derivatives Glycerolglycolipids Sphingolipids ..... . Analysis ........ . Extraction, Removal of Non lipids Separation and Identification of Classes of Components Analysis of Lipid Components

Lipoproteins, Membranes Lipoproteins . Definition ....... . Classification ..... . Involvement of Lipids in the Formation of Biological Membranes

Diol Lipids, Higher Alcohols, Waxes and Cutin Diol Lipids .......... . Higher Alcohols and Derivatives Waxes .... Alkoxy Lipids . . . . . . . . . Cutin ............. .

Changes in Acyl Lipids of Food Enzymatic Hydrolysis . . . . . Triacylglycerol Hydrolases (Lipases) Polar-Lipid Hydrolases Phospholipases .......... . Glycolipid Hydrolases . . . . . . . . Peroxidation of Unsaturated Acyl Lipids Autoxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundamental Steps of Autoxidation Monohydroperoxides ...... . Hydroperoxide-Epidioxides . . . . Initiation of a Radical Chain Reaction Photooxidation Heavy Metal Ions . Heme(in) Catalysis Activated Oxygen . Secondary Products Lipoxygenase: Occurrence and Properties Enzymatic Degradation of Hydroperoxides Hydroperoxide-Protein Interactions .. Products Formed from Hydroperoxides Lipid-Protein Complexes ... Protein Changes . . . . . . . . Decomposition of Amino Acids

169 169 169 170 171 172 175 176 176 177

177 177 177 179 179 181 181 181 181

182 182 182 183 184

184 184 185 185 185 186

186 186 186 188 188 189 189 190 190 191 194 195 195 198 199 200 201 205 206 209 209 209 211 212

3.7.3 3.7.3.1 3.7.3.2 3.7.3.2.1 3.7.3.2.2 3.7.3.2.3 3.7.4 3.7.4.1 3.7.4.2 3.7.5 3.7.6

3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8.2.1 3.8.2.2 3.8.2.2.1 3.8.2.2.2 3.8.2.3 3.8.2.3.1 3.8.2.3.2 3.8.2.4 3.8.3 3.8.3.1 3.8.3.2 3.8.4 3.8.4.1 3.8.4.1.1 3.8.4.1.2 3.8.4.2 3.8.4.3 3.8.4.4 3.8.4.5 3.8.4.5.1 3.8.4.5.2 3.8.4.6

3.9

4

4.1

4.2 4.2.1 4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 4.2.1.3 4.2.2 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.4.1 4.2.4.2

Table of Contents XVII

Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation . Antioxidant Activity . . Antioxidants in Food . Natural Antioxidants Synthetic Antioxidants Synergists .. . . . . . Fat or Oil Heating (Deep Frying) Autoxidation of Saturated Acyl Lipids Polymerization ........... . Radiolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microbial Degradation of Acyl Lipids to Methyl Ketones

Unsaponifiable Constituents Hydrocarbons . . . . . . Steroids ........ . Structure, NOTI1enclature Steroids of AniTI1al Food Cholesterol ...... . VitaTI1in D . . . . . . . . Plant Steroids (Phytosterols) DesTI1ethylsterols ..... . Methyl- and DiTI1ethylsterols Analysis .......... . Tocopherols and Tocotrienols Structure, ITI1portance . . . . Analysis .......... . Carotenoids ........ . CheTI1ical Structure, Occurrence Carotenes ..... Xanthophylls Physical Properties CheTI1ical Properties Precursors of AroTI1a COTI1pounds Use ofCarotenoids in Food Processing Plant Extracts ..... Individual COTI1pounds Analysis .

Literature

Carbohydrates

Foreword

Monosaccharides Structure and NOTI1enclature NOTI1enclature Configuration .. . ConfofTI1ation .. . Physical Properties Hygroscopicity and Solubility Optical Rotation, Mutarotation Sensory Properties ..... . CheTI1ical Reactions and Derivatives Reduction to Sugar Alcohols .... Oxidation to Aldonic, Dicarboxylic and Uronic Acids

212 213 213 213 216 217 218 219 221 222 223

224 224 224 224 225 225 226 226 227 229 230 231 231 231 232 233 233 235 237 238 238 241 241 241 241

242

245

245

245 245 245 247 251 254 254 255 255 258 258 259

XVIII

4.2.4.3 4.2.4.3.1 4.2.4.3.2 4.2.4.3.3 4.2.4.4 4.2.4.4.1 4.2.4.4.2 4.2.4.4.3 4.2.4.4.4 4.2.4.4.5 4.2.4.4.6 4.2.4.4.7 4.2.4.4.8 4.2.4.4.9 4.2.4.4.10 4.2.4.5 4.2.4.6 4.2.4.7 4.2.4.8 4.2.4.9

4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2

4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.2.1 4.4.2.2 4.4.2.3 4.4.2.4 4.4.2.5 4.4.2.6 4.4.3 4.4.3.1 4.4.3.2 4.4.3.3 4.4.3.4 4.4.3.5 4.4.3.6 4.4.3.7 4.4.3.7.1 4.4.3.7.2 4.4.4 4.4.4.1 4.4.4.1.1 4.4.4.1.2 4.4.4.1.3 4.4.4.2 4.4.4.2.1 4.4.4.2.2 4.4.4.2.3 4.4.4.2.4 4.4.4.3 4.4.4.3.1 4.4.4.3.2 4.4.4.3.3

Table of Contents

Reactions in the Presence of Acids and Alkalis Reactions in Strongly Acidic Media Reactions in Strongly Alkaline Solution Caramelization ............ . Reactions with Amino Compounds (Maillard Reaction) Initial Phase of the Maillard Reaction Formation of Deoxyosones ..... . Secondary Products of 3-Deoxyosones Secondary Products of I-Deoxyosones Secondary Products of 4-Deoxyosones Redox Reactions ........ . Strecker Reaction ........ . Formation of Colored Compounds Protein Modifications . . . . . . . Inhibition of the Maillard Reaction Reactions with Hydroxy Compounds (O-Glycosides) Esters ........ . Ethers ........ . Halodeoxy Derivatives Cleavage of Glycols . .

Oligo saccharides Structure and Nomenclature Properties and Reactions

Polysaccharides .... Classification, Structure Conformation ..... . Extended or Stretched, Ribbon-Type Conformation Hollow Helix-Type Conformation Crumpled-Type Conformation Loosely-Jointed Conformation Conformations of Heteroglycans Interchain Interactions Properties ........... . General Remarks ....... . Perfectly Linear Polysaccharides Branched Polysaccharides . . . . Linearly Branched Polysaccharides Polysaccharides with Carboxyl Groups Polysaccharides with Strongly Acidic Groups Modified Polysaccharides . . . . . . . . Derivatization with Neutral Substituents Derivatization with Acidic Substituents Individual Polysaccharides Agar ........ . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Alginates ..... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Derivatives Utilization . . . . . Carrageenans Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . .

260 260 263 267 268 269 270 272 274 279 280 281 282 284 288 288 289 290 291 293

294 294 295

298 298 298 298 299 300 300 300 300 301 301 302 302 304 304 304 304 304 304 304 304 304 305 305 305 305 305 306 306 307 307 307 309

4.4.4.4 4.4.4.4.1 4.4.4.4.2 4.4.4.4.3 4.4.4.5 4.4.4.5.1 4.4.4.5.2 4.4.4.5.3 4.4.4.6 4.4.4.6.1 4.4.4.6.2 4.4.4.6.3 4.4.4.7 4.4.4.7.1 4.4.4.7.2 4.4.4.7.3 4.4.4.8 4.4.4.8.1 4.4.4.8.2 4.4.4.8.3 4.4.4.9 4.4.4.9.1 4.4.4.9.2 4.4.4.9.3 4.4.4.10 4.4.4.10.1 4.4.4.10.2 4.4.4.10.3 4.4.4.11 4.4.4.11.1 4.4.4.11.2 4.4.4.11.3 4.4.4.12 4.4.4.12.1 4.4.4.12.2 4.4.4.12.3 4.4.4.13 4.4.4.13.1 4.4.4.13.2 4.4.4.13.3 4.4.4.14 4.4.4.14.1 4.4.4.14.2 4.4.4.14.3 4.4.4.14.4 4.4.4.14.5 4.4.4.14.6 4.4.4.15 4.4.4.15.1 4.4.4.15.2 4.4.4.15.3 4.4.4.15.4 4.4.4.15.5 4.4.4.15.6 4.4.4.15.7 4.4.4.15.8 4.4.4.15.9

Furcellaran Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Gum Arabic . . . . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization Gum Ghatti .... Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization . . . Gum Tragacanth . . Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization KarayaGum .... Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . Guaran Gum . . . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization ..... . Locust Bean Gum . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Tamarind Flour ... Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties . Utilization . . . . . . Arabinogalactan from Larch Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Pectin Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Starch ....... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure and Properties of Starch Granules Structure and Properties of Amylose .. Structure and Properties of Amylopectin Utilization . . . . Resistant Starches . . . . . . . . Modified Starches . . . . . . . . Mechanically Damaged Starches Extruded Starches . . Dextrins ...... . Pregelatinized Starch Thin-Boiling Starch Starch Ethers Starch Esters . . . . . Cross-Linked Starches Oxidized Starches . . .

Table of Contents XIX

309 309 309 309 309 309 310 311 311 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312 312 313 313 313 314 314 314 314 314 314 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 316 316 316 316 317 317 317 318 323 325 326 327 327 327 327 327 327 327 328 328 329 329

xx Table of Contents

4.4.4.16 4.4.4.16.1 4.4.4.16.2 4.4.4.16.3 4.4.4.17 4.4.4.17.1 4.4.4.17.2 4.4.4.18 4.4.4.19 4.4.4.19.1 4.4.4.19.2 4.4.4.19.3 4.4.4.20 4.4.4.20.1 4.4.4.20.2 4.4.4.20.3 4.4.4.21 4.4.4.21.1 4.4.4.21.2 4.4.4.21.3 4.4.4.22 4.4.4.22.1 4.4.4.22.2 4.4.4.22.3 4.4.4.23 4.4.4.23.1 4.4.4.23.2 4.4.5 4.4.5.1 4.4.5.1.1 4.4.5.1.2 4.4.5.1.3 4.4.5.1.4 4.4.5.2 4.4.5.3 4.4.5.4 4.4.5.5 4.4.6 4.4.6.1 4.4.6.2

4.5

5

5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5

5.2 5.2.1 5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2 5.2.1.3

Cellulose Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties . Utilization . . . . . . Cellulose Derivatives Alkyl Cellulose, Hydroxyalkyl Cellulose Carboxymethyl Cellulose Hemicelluloses Xanthan Gum .. . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Sc1eroglucan . . . . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties . Utilization Dextran ...... Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . Inulin and Oligofiuctose Occurrence Structure ........ . Utilization . . . . . . . . Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) Structure, Properties . . . . . Utilization ......... . Enzymatic Degradation of Polysaccharides Amylases a-Amylase ................ . ~-Amylase ................ . Glucan-l,4-a-D-glucosidase (glucoamylase) a-Dextrin Endo-I ,6-a-glucosidase (pullulanase) Pectinolytic Enzymes .. Cellulases ....... . Endo-l ,3( 4)-~-glucanase Hemicellulases Analysis of Polysaccharides Thickening Agents Dietary Fibers

Literature .....

Aroma Substances

Foreword Concept Delineation Impact Compounds of Natural Aromas Threshold Value . . . . Aroma Value . . . . . . Off-Flavors, Food Taints

Aroma Analysis . . . . Aroma Isolation . . . . Distillation, Extraction Gas Extraction . . . Headspace Analysis . .

329 329 330 330 330 331 331 332 333 333 333 333 333 333 333 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 334 335 335 335 335 335 335 335 336 336 337 337 337 337 339

339

342

342 342 342 342 344 345

347 347 348 350 350

5.2.2 5.2.2.1 5.2.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.6.1 5.2.6.2 5.2.7

5.3 5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2 5.3.1.3 5.3.1.4 5.3.1.5 5.3.1.6 5.3.1.7 5.3.1.8 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.4 5.3.2.5 5.3.2.6 5.3.2.7

5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2

5.5 5.5.1 5.5.1.1 5.5.1.2 5.5.1.3 5.5.1.4 5.5.1.5 5.5.1.6 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5

5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3

5.7

6

6.1

6.2 6.2.1

Sensory Relevance ........... . Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA) Headspace GC Olfactometry Enrichment ...... . Chemical Structure .... . Enantioselective Analysis . . Quantitative Analysis, Aroma Values Isotopic Dilution analysis (IDA) Aroma Values (AV) ........ . Aroma Model, Omission Experiments

Individual Aroma Compounds Nonenzymatic Reactions Carbonyl Compounds . . . . . Pyranones .......... . Furanones .......... . Thiols, Thioethers, Di- and Trisulfides Thiazoles PyTroles,Pyridines Pyrazines Phenols ..... . Enzymatic Reactions Carbonyl Compounds, Alcohols Hydrocarbons, Esters .. . Lactones ......... . Terpenes ......... . Volatile Sulfur Compounds Pyrazines ........ . Skatole, p-Cresol .... .

Interactions with Other Food Constituents Lipids ............. . Proteins, Polysaccharides ... .

Natural and Synthetic Flavorings Raw Materials for Essences Essential Oils .. Extracts, Absolues . . . . . Distillates ........ . Microbial Aromas . . . . . Synthetic Natural Aroma Compounds Synthetic Aroma Compounds Essences ........ . Aromas from Precursors Stability of Aromas ... Encapsulation of Aromas

Relationships Between Structure and Odor General Aspects . . . Carbonyl Compounds Alkylpyrazines

Literature

Vitamins Foreword

Fat-Soluble Vitamins Retinol (Vitamin A)

Table of Contents XXI

351 351 353 354 355 355 358 358 359 359

361 362 362 362 363 365 369 371 374 376 376 378 380 382 384 391 393 393

394 396 396

398 399 399 399 400 400 400 401 401 401 401 403

404 404 404 406

406

409

409

409 . 409

XXII Table of Contents

6.2.1.1 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.3 6.2.2 6.2.2.1 6.2.2.2 6.2.2.3 6.2.3 6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2 6.2.3.3 6.2.4 6.2.4.1 6.2.4.2 6.2.4.3

6.3 6.3.1 6.3.1.1 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.3 6.3.2 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.3 6.3.3.1 6.3.3.2 6.3.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.4.1 6.3.4.2 6.3.4.3 6.3.5 6.3.5.1 6.3.5.2 6.3.5.3 6.3.6 6.3.6.1 6.3.6.2 6.3.6.3 6.3.7 6.3.7.1 6.3.7.2 6.3.7.3 6.3.8 6.3.8.1 6.3.8.2 6.3.8.3 6.3.9 6.3.9.1 6.3.9.2 6.3.9.3

6.4

Biological Role . Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Calciferol (Vitanlin D) Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . a-Tocopherol (Vitanlin E) Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Phytonlenadione (Vitanlin K I , Phylloquinone) Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation

Water-Soluble Vitanlins Thianline (Vitanlin B I )

Biological Role .... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Riboflavin (Vitanlin B2)

Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Pyridoxine (Pyridoxal, Vitanlin B6)

Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation Nicotinanlide (Niacin) Biological Role .... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Pantothenic Acid Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Biotin ......... . Biological Role .... . Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . FolicAcid ....... . Biological Role .... . Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation . . Cyanocobalanlin (Vitanlin B12)

Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence . . Stability, Degradation . . . . L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitanlin C) Biological Role ..... Requirenlent, ()ccurrence Stability, Degradation

Literature ....... .

409 410 412 412 412 412 413 413 413 413 414 414 414 414 415

415 415 415 418 418 419 419 419 419 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 422 422 422 422 422 422 423 423 423 423 423 424

426

7

7.1

7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6

7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.2.1 7.3.2.2 7.3.2.3 7.3.2.4 7.3.2.5 7.3.2.6 7.3.2.7 7.3.2.8 7.3.2.9 7.3.2.10 7.3.2.11 7.3.3 7.3.3.1 7.3.3.2 7.3.3.3 7.3.3.4 7.3.3.5

7.4

7.5

8 8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4

8.7

8.8 8.8.1 8.8.1.1 8.8.1.2 8.8.2

Minerals

Foreword

Main Elements Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium .. Chloride .. Phosphorus

Trace Elements General Remarks Individual Trace Elements Iron Copper .. . Zinc ... . Manganese Cobalt .. Chromium Selenium Molybdenum Nickel Fluorine .. . Iodine ... . Ultra-trace Elements Tin ..... Aluminium Boron Silicon ... Arsenic

Minerals in Food Processing

Literature ......... .

Food Additives

Foreword

Vitamins

Amino Acids

Minerals ...

Aroma Substances

Flavor Enhancers Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) 5' -Nucleotides . . Maltol ..... . Other Compounds

Sugar Substitutes

Sweeteners

Table of Contents

Sweet Taste: Structural Requirements Structure-Activity Relationships in Sweet Compounds Synergism Saccharin ...................... .

XXIII

427

427

427 427 429 429 429 429 429

430 430 430 430 430 431 431 431 431 431 431 431 432 432 432 432 432 433 433 433

433

433

434

434

434

435

435

435

435 435 436 436 436

437

437 437 437 438 438

XXIV

8.8.3 8.8.4 8.8.5 8.8.6 8.8.7 8.8.8 8.8.9 8.8.10 8.8.11 8.8.12 8.8.13 8.8.14 8.8.14.1 8.8.14.2 8.8.14.3 8.8.15 8.8.16 8.8.17 8.8.17.1 8.8.17.2 8.8.17.3 8.8.18 8.8.19

8.9

8.10 8.10.1 8.10.2 8.10.3 8.10.4 8.10.5 8.10.6 8.10.7 8.10.8 8.10.9 8.10.10 8.10.11 8.10.12

8.11

8.12 8.12.1 8.12.2 8.12.3 8.12.4 8.12.5 8.12.6 8.12.7 8.12.8 8.12.9 8.12.10 8.12.11 8.12.12 8.12.13

8.13

8.14

Table of Contents

Cyclamate .... . Monellin ..... . Thaumatins ... . Curculin and Miraculin Gymnema silvestre Extract Stevioside Osladin Phyllodulcin Glycyrrhizin Nitroanilines Dihydrochalcones Ureas and Guanidines Dulcin .. . Suosan .. . Guanidines Oximes Oxathiazinone Dioxides Dipeptide Esters and Amides Aspartame ... Superaspartame Alitame .... Hernandulcin Halodeoxy Sugars

Food Colors . . .

Acids ..... . Acetic Acid and Other Fatty Acids Succinic Acid ..... . Succinic Acid Anhydride Adipic Acid Fumaric Acid Lactic Acid MalicAcid .. Tartaric Acid . Citric Acid . . Phosphoric Acid Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acids Gluconic Acid and Glucono-<'i-lactone

Bases

Antimicrobial Agents Benzoic Acid PHB Esters Sorbic Acid .. Propionic Acid Acetic Acid .. S02 and Sulfite Diethyl (Dimethyl) Pyrocarbonate Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide Nitrite, Nitrate Antibiotics . . . Diphenyl .... o-Phenylphenol Thiabendazole, 2-(4 -Thiazolyl)benzimidazole

Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . .

Chelating Agents (Sequestrants)

440 441 442 442 444 444 444 444 444 445 445 445 445 445 446 446 446 447 447 448 448 449 449

449

452 452 452 452 452 452 453 453 453 453 455 455 456

456

456 456 457 458 459 459 459 459 460 460 461 461 461 461

461

462

8.15 8.15.1 8.15.2 8.15.2.1 8.15.2.2 8.15.2.3 8.15.3 8.15.3.1 8.15.3.2 8.15.3.3 8.15.3.4 8.15.3.5 8.15.3.6

8.16 8.16.1 8.16.1.1 8.16.1.2 8.16.2 8.16.2.1 8.16.2.2

8.17

8.18

8.19

8.20

8.21

8.22

8.23

9

9.1

9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5

9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2

9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4

9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.5.4

Surface-Active Agents Emulsions ..... . Emulsifier Action .. Structure and Activity

Table of Contents XXV

Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC), Lyotropic Mesomorphism

462 462 463 463 464 466 467 467 468 469 469 469 470

HLBValue ............... . Synthetic Emulsifiers ......... . Mono-, Diacylglycerides and Derivatives Sugar Esters . . . . . . . . . . . Sorbitan Fatty Acid Esters . . . . . . . Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Esters Polyglycerol- Polyricinoleate (PGPR) S teary 1-2-Lactylate

Substitutes for Fat . . . . . Fat Mimetics . . . . . . . . Microparticulated Proteins Carbohydrates . . . . . . Synthetic Fat Substitutes Carbohydrate Polyesters . Retrofats ........ .

Thickening Agents, Gel Builders, Stabilizers

Humectants ...

Anticaking Agents

Bleaching Agents

Clarifying Agents

Propellants, Protective Gases

Literature

Food Contamination

General Remarks

Toxic Trace Elements Arsenic Mercury Lead ... Cadmium Radionuc1ides

Toxic Compounds of Microbial Origin Food Poisoning by Bacterial Toxins Mycotoxins ...

Pesticides General Remarks Insecticides Herbicides . . . . Fungicides . . . .

Veterinary Medicines and Feed Additives Foreword Antibiotics . . . . Glucocorticoides Sex Hormones . .

470 470 470 470 470 471 471

471

471

471

471

471

472

472

474

474

475 475 476 476 477 477

478 478 479

481 481 482 484 490

490 490 491 491 491

XXVI Table of Contents

9.5.5 Psychosomatic Agents 491 9.5.6 Thyreostatica. . 491 9.5.7 Coccidiostatica. . . . 493 9.5.8 Other Compounds . . . 493

9.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's) 495

9.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 498

9.8 Nitrosamines, Nitrite, Nitrate . . . 498

9.9 Cleansing Agents and Disinfectants 502

9.10 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDD) and Dibenzofurans (PCDF) 502

9.11 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503

10 Milk and Dairy Products . . . . . . . . . 505

10.1 Milk .................... 505 10.1.1 Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties 505 10.1.2 Composition . . . 508 10.1.2.1 Proteins · .... 508 10.1.2.1.1 Casein Fractions . 509 10.1.2.1.2 Micelle Formation 515 10.1.2.1.3 Gel Formation 517 10.1.2.1.4 Whey Proteins 519 10.1.2.2 Carbohydrates 519 10.1.2.3 Lipids · ... 521 10.1.2.4 Organic Acids 523 10.1.2.5 Minerals 523 10.1.2.6 Vitamins · .. 523 10.1.2.7 Enzymes ... 523 10.1.3 Processing of Milk 524 10.1.3.1 Purification .. 524 10.1.3.2 Creaming · .... 524 10.1.3.3 Heat Treatment .. 524 10.1.3.4 Homogenization . . 525 10.1.3.5 Reactions During Heating 525 10.1.4 Types of Milk ...... 527

10.2 Dairy Products 527 10.2.1 Fermented Milk Products 527 10.2.1.1 Sour Milk · ... 529 10.2.1.2 Yoghurt · .... 529 10.2.1.3 Kefir and Kumiss 530 10.2.1.4 Taette Milk 530 10.2.2 Cream · ..... 530 10.2.3 Butter · ..... 531 10.2.3.1 Cream Separation and Treatment 532 10.2.3.2 Churning · ......... 532 10.2.3.3 Packaging · ......... 533 10.2.3.4 Products Derived from Butter 533 10.2.4 Condensed Milk . . . . . . 533 10.2.5 Dehydrated Milk Products 534 10.2.6 Coffee Whitener 535 10.2.7 Ice Cream · .. 535 10.2.8 Cheese · .... 535 10.2.8.1 Curd Formation 537

10.2.8.2 10.2.8.3 10.2.8.4 10.2.8.5 10.2.9 10.2.10 10.2.10.1 10.2.10.2 10.2.10.3 10.2.10.4 10.2.11 10.2.12

10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5 10.3.6

10.4

11

11.1

11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.3.1 11.2.3.1.1 11.2.3.1.2 11.2.3.1.3 11.2.3.1.4 11.2.3.1.5 11.2.3.1.6 11.2.3.1.7 11.2.3.1.8 11.2.3.1.9 11.2.3.1.10 11.2.3.2 11.2.3.2.1 11.2.3.2.2 11.2.3.2.3 11.2.3.2.4 11.2.4 11.2.4.1 11.2.4.1.1 11.2.4.1.2 11.2.4.2 11.2.4.2.1 11.2.4.2.2 11.2.4.3 11.2.4.4 11.2.4.4.1

Unripened Cheese Ripening ..... Processed Cheese Imitation Cheese Casein, Caseinates, Coprecipitate Whey Products ........ . Whey Powder ......... . Demineralized Whey Powder . .

Table of Contents

Partially Desugared Whey Protein Concentrates Hydrolyzed Whey Syrups . . . . . . . . . . . Lactose ................... . Cholesterol-Reduced Milk and Milk Products

Aroma of Milk and Dairy Products . . Milk ................. . Condensed Milk, Dried Milk Products Sour Milk Products, Yoghurt . Cream, Butter . . . . . . . Cheese ..... Aroma Defects

Literature ...

Eggs . ..................... .

Foreword

Structure, Physical Properties and Composition General Outline ... -Shell ........ . Albumen (Egg White) Proteins ...... . Ovalbumin ..... . Conalbumin (Ovotransferrin) Ovomucoid ........ . Lysozyme (Ovoglobulin 01) Ovoglobulins G2 and G3 Ovomucin . Flavoprotein . . . . . . . Ovoinhibitor . . . . . . . Avidin ......... . Cystatin (Ficin Inhibitor) Other Constituents Lipids .... Carbohydrates Minerals Vitamins .. . EggYolk .. . Proteins of Granules Lipovitellins . . Phosvitin Plasma Proteins Lipovitellenin . Livetin .... . Lipids .... . Other Constituents Carbohydrates . . .

XXVII

537 537 540 542 542 543 543 544 544 544 544 544

545 545 546 546 546 547 548

549

551

551

551 551 552 553 553 554 554 555 555 555 555 555 555 556 556 556 556 556 556 556 557 558 558 558 559 559 559 559 559 559

XXVIII Table of Contents

11.2.4.4.2 Minerals · .... 560 11.2.4.4.3 Vitamins · .... 560 11.2.4.4.4 Aroma Substances 560 11.2.4.4.5 Colorants 560

11.3 Storage of Eggs 561

11.4 Egg Products 561 11.4.1 General Outline 561 11.4.2 Technically Important Properties 561 11.4.2.1 Thermal Coagulation 561 11.4.2.2 Foaming Ability .. 561 11.4.2.2.1 Egg White ..... 561 11.4.2.2.2 Egg Yolk · ..... 562 11.4.2.3 Emulsifying Effect 562 11.4.3 Dried Products 562 11.4.4 Frozen Egg Products 563 11.4.5 Liquid Egg Products 565

11.5 Literature 565

12 Meat . .. 566

12.1 Foreword 566

12.2 Structure of Muscle Tissue 566 12.2.1 Skeletal Muscle 566 12.2.2 Heart Muscle ....... 571 12.2.3 Smooth Muscle ...... 571

12.3 Muscle Tissue: Composition and Function 571 12.3.1 Overview ................. 571 12.3.2 Proteins · ................. 571 12.3.2.1 Proteins of the Contractile Apparatus and Their Functions 572 12.3.2.1.1 Myosin · ......... 572 12.3.2.1.2 Actin ............ 573 12.3.2.1.3 Tropomyosin and Troponin 573 12.3.2.1.4 Other Myofibrillar Proteins 574 12.3.2.1.5 Contraction and Relaxation 574 12.3.2.1.6 Actomyosin .. 575 12.3.2.2 Soluble Proteins 575 12.3.2.2.1 Enzymes · .. 575 12.3.2.2.2 Myoglobin ... 576 12.3.2.2.3 Color of Meat 578 12.3.2.2.4 Curing, Reddening 579 12.3.2.3 Insoluble Proteins 579 12.3.2.3.1 Collagen · .... 579 12.3.2.3.2 Elastin ...... 586 12.3.3 Free Amino Acids 586 12.3.4 Peptides · .... 587 12.3.5 Amines 587 12.3.6 Guanidine Compounds 587 12.3.7 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 587 12.3.8 Purines and Pyrimidines 588 12.3.9 Organic Acids 588 12.3.10 Carbohydrates 589 12.3.11 Vitamins 589 12.3.12 Minerals · .. 589

12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.4.3

12.5

12.6 12.6.1 12.6.1.1 12.6.1.2 12.6.1.3 12.6.1.4 12.6.1.5 12.6.1.6 12.6.1.7 12.6.1.8 12.6.1.9 12.6.1.10 12.6.1.11 12.6.2 12.6.2.1 12.6.2.2 12.6.2.3 12.6.2.4 12.6.2.5 12.6.2.6 12.6.2.7

12.7 12.7.1 12.7.2 12.7.2.1 12.7.2.1.1 12.7.2.1.2 12.7.2.1.3 12.7.2.2 12.7.2.2.1 12.7.2.2.2 12.7.2.2.3 12.7.2.3 12.7.2.3.1 12.7.2.3.2 12.7.3 12.7.3.1 12.7.3.2 12.7.3.3 12.7.3.4 12.7.3.5

12.8 12.8.1 12.8.2

12.9 12.9.1 12.9.2 12.9.3 12.9.4

Post-Mortem Changes in the Muscle Rigor Mortis . . . . . . . . . Defects (PSE and DFD Meat) .. Aging of Meat . . . . . . . . . .

Water Holding Capacity of Meat

Kinds of Meat, Storage, Processing Kinds of Meat, By-Products Beef ...... . Veal ...... . Mutton and Lamb Goat Meat Pork .... Horse Meat Poultry ... Game Variety Meats Blood .... Glandular Products Storage and Preservation Processes Cooling Freezing ....... . Drying ........ . Salt and Pickle Curing Smoking .. Heating Tenderizing

Meat Products Canned Meat Ham, Sausages, Pastes Ham,Bacon .... Raw Smoked Hams Cooked Ham Bacon ... . Sausages .. . Raw Sausages Cooked Sausages Boiling Sausages Meat Paste (Pate) Pastes ..... . Pains ...... . Meat Extracts and Related Products Beef Extract . . . . . Whale Meat Extract Poultry Meat Extract Yeast Extract . . . . . Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins

Dry Soups and Dry Sauces Main Components Production . . . .

MeatAroma ... Taste Compounds Odorants .... Process Flavors Aroma Defects

Table of Contents XXIX

589 589 590 592

592

594 594 594 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 596 597 597 597 597 598 599 599 599 599

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 601 602 602 603 603 603 603 603 604 604 604 604

605 605 606

606 607 607 609 609

:xxx Table of Contents

12.10 MeatAnalysis. 12.10.1 Meat ..... . 12.10.1.1 Animal0rigin. 12.10.1.1.1 Electrophoresis 12.10.1.1.2 Sexual Origin of Beef 12.10.1.2 Differentiation of Fresh and Frozen Meat 12.10.1.3 Pigments ................ . 12.10.1.4 Treatment with Proteinase Preparations . 12.10.1.5 Anabolic Steroids 12.10.1.6 Antibiotics .... 12.10.2 Processed Meats . 12.10.2.1 Main Ingredients 12.10.2.2 Added Water ... 12.10.2.3 Lean Meat Free of Connective Tissue 12.10.2.3.1 Connective Tissue Protein 12.10.2.3.2 Added Protein 12.10.2.4 Nitrosamines

12.11

13

13.1 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.2.1 13.1.2.1.1 13.1.2.1.2 13.1.2.1.3 13.1.2.1.4 13.1.2.1.5 13.1.2.1.6 13.1.2.2 13.1.2.2.1 13.1.2.2.2 13.1.3 13.1.4 13.1.4.1 13.1.4.2 13.1.4.2.1 13.1.4.2.2 13.1.4.2.3 13.1.4.2.4 13.1.4.3 13.1.4.3.1 13.1.4.3.2 13.1.4.3.3 13.1.4.3.4 13.1.4.3.5 13.1.4.3.6 13.1.4.4 13.1.4.5 13.1.4.6 13.1.4.7 13.1.4.8 13.1.4.9

Literature ..

Fish, Whales, Crustaceans, Mollusks

Fish ... Foreword Food Fish Sea Fish Sharks . Herring CodFish Scorpaenidae Perch-like Fish . . Flat Fish .... Freshwater Fish Eels ..... . Salmon Skin and Muscle Tissue Structure Composition . . . . . Overview ..... . Proteins ...... . Sarcoplasma Proteins Contractile Proteins . Connective Tissue Proteins Serum Proteins ..... . Other N-Compounds ... . Free Amino Acids, Peptides . . Amines, Amine Oxides. . . . . Guanidine Compounds ..... . Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Purines ... . Urea .... . Carbohydrates Lipids ... . Vitamins .... . Minerals .... . Aroma Substances Other Constituents

610 610 610 610 612 612 613 613 614 614 614 615 615 615 615 615 615

616

619

619 619 619 620 620 620 624 624 624 624 625 625 625 625 626 626 626 626 626 628 628 629 629 629 629 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 632

13.1.5 13.1.6 13.1.6.1 13.1.6.2 13.1.6.3 13.1.6.4 13.1.6.5 13.1.6.6 13.1.6.7 13.1.6.8 13.1.6.9 13.1.6.10 13.1.6.11 13.1.6.12 13.1.6.12.1 13.1.6.12.2 13.1.6.12.3 13.1.6.13

13.2

13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4

13.4 13.4.1 13.4.2 13.4.3

13.5

13.6

13.7

14 14.1

14.2

14.3 14.3.1 14.3.1.1 14.3.1.1.1 14.3.1.1.2 14.3.1.1.3 14.3.1.1.4 14.3.1.2 14.3.1.2.1 14.3.1.2.2 14.3.1.2.3 14.3.2 14.3.2.1 14.3.2.1.1 14.3.2.1.2 14.3.2.2

Table of Contents

Post-mortem Changes . . . . . . . . . . . Storage and Processing ofFish and Fish Products General Remarks .. Cooling and Freezing Drying ....... . Salting ....... . Smoking ...... . Marinated, Fried and Cooked Fish Products Saithe ......... . Anchosen ................ . Pasteurized Fish Products ........ . Fish Products with an Extended Shelf Life Surimi, Kamboko .. Fish Eggs and Sperm Caviar ..... . Caviar Substitutes . . Fish Sperm Some Other Fish Products .

Whales ...

Crustaceans Shrimps .. Crabs Lobsters .. Crayfish, Crawfish .

Mollusks (Mollusca) Mollusks (Bivalvia) Snlri1s ........ Octopus, Sepia, Squid

Turtles ..

Frogdrums

Literature

Edible Fats and Oils ........ . Foreword

Data on Production and Consumption

Origin of Individual Fats and Oils . Animal Fats ... Land Animal Fats Edible Beef Fat Sheep Tallow Hog Fat (Lard) Goose Fat . Marine Oils Whale Oil . Seal Oil .. Herring Oil Oils of Plant Origin Fruit Pulp Oils Olive Oil . Palm Oil . Seed Oils

XXXI

632 633 633 634 635 636 636 637 637 637 638 638 638 638 638 639 639 639

639

639 639 640 640 640

641 641 641 641

641

642

642

643

643

643

643 643 643 646 646 646 647 647 647 647 648 648 648 648 649 650

XXXII

14.3.2.2.1 14.3.2.2.2 14.3.2.2.3 14.3.2.2.4 14.3.2.2.5

14.4 14.4.1 14.4.1.1 14.4.1.2 14.4.1.3 14.4.1.4 14.4.1.5 14.4.1.6 14.4.2 14.4.2.1 14.4.2.2 14.4.2.3 14.4.3 14.4.4 14.4.5 14.4.5.1 14.4.5.2 14.4.5.3 14.4.6 14.4.7

14.5 14.5.0 14.5.1 14.5.2 14.5.2.1 14.5.2.2 14.5.2.3 14.5.2.4 14.5.2.5 14.5.3 14.5.3.1 14.5.3.2 14.5.3.2.1 14.5.3.2.2 14.5.3.3 14.5.3.4

14.6

15

15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.1.3 15.1.4 15.1.5 15.1.6

15.2 15.2.1

Table of Contents

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oils Rich in Lauric and Myristic Acids Oils Rich in Palmitic and Stearic Acids Oils Rich in Palmitic Acid ..... . Oils Low in Palmitic Acid and Rich in Oleic and Linoleic Acids

Processing of Fats and Oils Refining ..... . Removal of Lecithin . . . . Degumming ....... . Removal of Free Fatty Acids (Deacidification) Bleaching ...... . Deodorization . . . . . Product Quality Control Hydrogenation . . General Remarks Catalysts .... . The Process .. . Interesterification Fractionation Margarine - Manufacturing and Properties Composition . . . . . Manufacturing . . . . Varieties of Margarine Mayonnaise Fat Powder

Analysis .. Scope Determination of Fat in Food Identification of Fat . Characteristic Values Color Reactions . . . Composition of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerides Minor Constituents ............... . Melting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detection of Changes During Processing and Storage Lipolysis ....... . Oxidative Deterioration . Oxidation State ..... Shelf Life Prediction Test Heat Stability Refining .

Literature

Cereals and Cereal Products

Foreword Introduction Origin ... Production . Anatomy - Chemical Composition, a Review Special Role of Wheat - Gluten Formation Celiac Disease . . . . .

Individual Constituents Proteins ....... .

650 650 651 652 653

656 656 656 656 657 657 658 658 659 659 659 661 661 662 662 662 663 663 663 663

665 665 665 666 666 666 666 668 669 669 669 669 670 670 671 671

671

673

673 673 673 674 676 678 678

678 678

lS.2.1.1 lS.2.1.2 lS.2.1.3 lS.2.1.3.1 lS.2.1.3.2 lS.2.1.3.3

lS.2.1.4 IS.2.1.4.1 lS.2.1.4.2 lS.2.1.S lS.2.2 lS.2.2.1 lS.2.2.2 lS.2.2.3 IS.2.2.4 lS.2.2.S lS.2.2.6 lS.2.2.7 lS.2.2.8 IS.2.2.9 lS.2.2.10 lS.2.3 IS.2.4 IS.2.4.1 lS.2.4.2 IS.2.4.2.1 IS.2.4.2.2 IS.2.4.2.3 IS.2.4.2.4 lS.2.4.3 IS.2.S

IS.3 IS.3.1 IS.3.1.1 lS.3.1.2 IS.3.1.3 lS.3.2 IS.3.2.1 lS.3.2.2 lS.3.2.2.1 IS.3.2.2.2 lS.3.2.2.3

IS.4 IS.4.1 lS.4.1.1 IS.4.1.1.1 lS.4.1.1.2 IS.4.1.1.3 lS.4.1.2 IS.4.1.3 lS.4.1.4

IS.4.1.4.1 lS.4.1.4.2 lS.4.1.4.3

Table of Contents XXXIII

Differences in Amino Acid Composition A Review of the Osborne Fractions of Cereals Protein Components of Wheat Gluten High-Molecular Group (HMW Subunits of Glutenin) Intermediate Molecular Weight Group (wS-Gliadins, wl,2-Gliadins) Low-Molecular Group (a-Gliadins, y-Gliadins, LMW Subunits of Glutenin) ... . . . . . Structure of Wheat Gluten ............. . Disulfide Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contribution of Gluten Proteins to the Baking Quality Puroindolins Enzymes .. Amylases Proteinases Lipases Phytase Lipoxygenases Peroxidase, Catalase Glutathione Dehydrogenase Polyphenoloxidases .... Ascorbic Acid Oxidase .. Arabinoxylan Hydrolases Other Nitrogen Compounds Carbohydrates . . . . . . . Starch .......... . Polysaccharides Other than Starch Pentosans .. ~-Glucan Glucofructans Cellulose Sugars ... . Lipids ... .

Cereals - Milling Wheat and Rye Storage Milling ..... Milling Products Other Cereals Com .... Hull Cereals Rice Oats ... . Barley .. .

Baked Products Raw Materials Wheat Flour . . Chemical Assays Physical Assays Baking Tests Rye Flour ... Storage Influence of AdditiveslMinor Ingredients on Baking Properties of Wheat Flour ...... . Ascorbic Acid . . . . . . . . Bromate, Azodicarbonamide Lipoxygenase ....... .

678 679 681 684 68S

688 692 692 696 697 697 697 698 698 698 699 699 699 700 701 701 701 702 702 703 704 704 70S 70S 70S 70S

707 707 708 708 709 710 710 710 710 712 712

712 712 712 713 714 71S 71S 717

717 717 720 720

XXXIV

15.4.1.4.4 15.4.1.4.5 15.4.1.4.6 15.4.1.4.7 15.4.1.4.8 15.4.1.4.9 15.4.1.5 15.4.1.5.1 15.4.1.5.2 15.4.1.6 15.4.1.6.1 15.4.1.6.2 15.4.2 15.4.2.1 15.4.2.1.1 15.4.2.1.2 15.4.2.2 15.4.2.3 15.4.2.4 15.4.2.5 15.4.2.5.1 15.4.2.5.2 15.4.3 15.4.3.1 15.4.3.2 15.4.3.3 15.4.3.3.1 15.4.3.3.2 15.4.3.3.3 15.4.4 15.4.5 15.4.6

15.5 15.5.1 15.5.2 15.5.3

15.6

16

16.1

16.2 16.2.1 16.2.1.1 16.2.1.2 16.2.2 16.2.3 16.2.3.1 16.2.3.2 16.2.3.3 16.2.3.4 16.2.3.5 16.2.3.6 16.2.3.7

Table of Contents

Cysteine ...... . Proteinases (peptidases) Salt ......... . Emulsifiers, Shortenings a-Amylase ....... . Milk and Soy Products Influence of Additives on Baking Properties of Rye Flour Pregelatinized Flour . . . Acids ......... . Dough Leavening Agents Yeast .......... . Chemical Leavening Agents Dough Preparation Addition of Yeast Direct Addition .. Indirect Addition Sour Dough Making Kneading Fermentation Events Involved in Dough Making and Dough Strengthening Dough Making Dough Strengthening ................. . Baking Process .................... . Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical and Physical Changes - Formation of Crumb Aroma ...... . White Bread Crust White Bread Crumb Rye Bread Crust .. Changes During Storage Bread Types ..... Fine Bakery Products

Pasta Products Raw Materials Additives Production

Literature

Legumes ....... Foreword ....... Individual Constituents Proteins Globulins Allergens Enzymes. Proteinase and Amylase Inhibitors Occurrence and Properties Structure .......... Physiological Function .. Action on Human Enzymes Inactivation .... Amylase Inhibitors Conclusions ....

720 721 722 722 722 723 723 723 723 723 724 724 724 724 724 724 724 725 726 727 727 732 732 732 734 735 735 737 739 739 741 742

742 742 742 742

743

747

747

747 747 747 752 752 754 754 755 757 757 759 760 761

Table of Contents xxxv

16.2.4 16.2.5 16.2.6 16.2.7 16.2.8 16.2.9 16.2.10 16.2.11

16.3 16.3.1 16.3.1.1 16.3.1.2 16.3.1.2.1 16.3.1.2.2 16.3.1.2.3 16.3.1.2.4 16.3.1.2.5 16.3.1.2.6 16.3.1.2.7 16.3.2

16.4

17

Lectins ........ . Carbohydrates . . . . . Cyanogenic Glycosides Lipids ........ . Vitamins and Minerals Phytoestrogens Saponins ..... . Other Constituents

Processing . . . . . Soybeans and Peanuts . . . . . Aroma Defects . . . . . . Individual Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soy Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soy Milk . . . . . . . .... . Tofu ........ . .... . Soy Sauce (Shoyu) Miso Natto ..... . Sufu ..... . Peas and Beans

Literature ...

Vegetables and Vegetable Products

17.1 Vegetables . . . . . . 17.1.1 Foreword ..... . 17.1.2 Composition . . . . . 17.1.2.1 Nitrogen Compounds 17.1.2.1.1 Proteins ..... 17.1.2.1.2 Free Amino Acids 17.1.2.1.3 Amines 17.1.2.2 Carbohydrates................. 17.1.2.2.1 Mono- and Oligo saccharides, Sugar Alcohols 17.1.2.2.2 Polysaccharides .. . 17.1.2.3 Lipids ....... . 17.1.2.4 Organic Acids ... . 17.1.2.5 Phenolic Compounds 17.1.2.6 Aroma Substances. 17.1.2.6.1 Mushrooms . 17.1.2.6.2 Potatoes ..... . 17.1.2.6.3 Celery Tubers .. . 17.1.2.6.4 Radishes . . . . . . 17.1.2.6.5 Red Beets ..... 17.1.2.6.6 Garlic and Onions . 17.1.2.6.7 Watercress.................... . ..... 17.1.2.6.8 White Cabbage, Red Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.2.6.9 Spinach ....... . ................ . 17.1.2.6.10 Artichokes . . . . . . . ................ . 17.1.2.6.11 Cauliflower, Broccoli 17.1.2.6.12 GreenPeas . 17.1.2.6.13 Cucumbers 17.1.2.6.14 Tomatoes 17.1.2.7 Vitamins .. 17.1.2.8 Minerals ... 17.1.2.9 Other Constituents

761 762 762 764 764 764 765 766

766 766 766 767 767 768 768 768 769 769 770 770

770

772

772 772 772 774 774 780 783 783 783 783 786 787 787 787 787 788 788 788 790 790 791 791 791 792 792 792 792 792 792 793 793

XXXVI

17.1.2.9.1 17.1.2.9.2 17.1.2.9.3 17.1.2.9.4 17.1.3

17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.3 17.2.4 17.2.4.1 17.2.4.2 17.2.4.3 17.2.4.4 17.2.4.5 17.2.5 17.2.6 17.2.7 17.2.8 17.2.9

17.3

18

18.1 18.1.1 18.1.2 18.1.2.1 18.1.2.1.1 18.1.2.1.2 18.1.2.1.3 18.1.2.2 18.1.2.2.1 18.1.2.2.2 18.1.2.2.3 18.1.2.2.4 18.1.2.3 18.1.2.3.1 18.1.2.3.2 18.1.2.3.3 18.1.2.3.4 18.1.2.4 18.1.2.5 18.1.2.5.1

18.1.2.5.2

18.1.2.5.3 18.1.2.5.4 18.1.2.5.5 18.1.2.5.6 18.1.2.5.7 18.1.2.6 18.1.2.6.1 18.1.2.6.2

Table of Contents

Chlorophyll .... . Betalains ...... . Goitrogenic Substances Steroid Alkaloids . Storage

Vegetable Products Dehydrated Vegetables Canned Vegetables Frozen Vegetables . . . Pickled Vegetables . . . Pickled Cucumbers (Salt and Dill Pickles) Other Vegetables Sauerkraut . . . . . . . . . . Eating Olives ....... . Faulty Processing of Pickles Vinegar-Pickled Vegetables Stock Brining of Vegetables Vegetable Juices . Vegetable Paste . Vegetable Powders

Literature ....

Fruits and Fruit Products

Fruits Foreword Composition N-Containing Compounds Proteins, Enzymes Free Amino Acids Amines Carbohydrates . . Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Sugar Alcohols Polysaccharides Lipids ..... . Fruit Flesh Lipids (Other than Carotenoids and Triterpenoids) Carotenoids Triterpenoids Fruit Waxes Organic Acids Phenolic Compounds Hydroxycinammic Acids, Hydroxycoumarins and Hydroxybenzoic Acids ..................... . Flavan-3-ols (Catechins), Flavan-3,4-diols, and Proanthocyanidins (Condensed Tanning Agents) Anthocyanidins .. Flavanones . . . . . . . Flavones, Flavonols . . Flavonoid Biosynthesis Technological Importance of Phenolic Compounds Aroma Compounds Bananas Grapes ...... .

793 795 797 797 798

798 798 799 800 800 801 801 801 802 803 803 804 804 804 804

804

806

806 806 806 806 806 806 808 814 814 815 816 816 817 817 818 818 819 821 822

822

826 827 831 833 835 835 835 835 836

18.1.2.6.3 18.1.2.6.4 18.1.2.6.5 18.1.2.6.6 18.1.2.6.7 18.1.2.6.8 18.1.2.6.9 18.1.2.6.10 18.1.2.6.11 18.1.2.6.12 18.1.2.7 18.1.2.8 18.1.3 18.1.3.1 18.1.3.2 18.1.3.3 18.1.3.3.1 18.1.3.3.2 18.1.3.3.3 18.1.3.3.4 18.1.3.3.5 18.1.3.3.6 18.1.4 18.1.4.1 18.1.4.2 18.1.5 18.1.5.1 18.1.5.2

18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2 18.2.3 18.2.4 18.2.5 18.2.6 18.2.6.1 18.2.6.2 18.2.6.3 18.2.7 18.2.8 18.2.9 18.2.9.1 18.2.9.2 18.2.9.3 18.2.9.4 18.2.9.5 18.2.10 18.2.11 18.2.11.1 18.2.11.2 18.2.11.3 18.2.12 18.2.13

18.3 18.3.1

Citrus Fruits . Apples, Pears Raspberries . Apricots ... Peaches Passion Fruit . Strawberries . Pineapples . . Cherries, Plums Litchi Vitamins ... . Minerals ... .

Table of Contents

Chemical Changes During Ripening of Fruit Changes in Respiration Rate Changes in Metabolic Pathways Changes in Individual Constituents Carbohydrates . . Proteins, Enzymes Lipids ..... . Acids ..... . Pigments .... . Aroma Compounds Ripening as Influenced by Chemical Agents Compounds with Retarding Effects . . Compounds Promoting Fruit Ripening ... Storage of Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cold Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage in a Controlled (Modified) Atmosphere

Fruit Products Dried Fruits . Canned Fruits Deep-Frozen Fruits Rum Fruits, Fruits in Sugar Syrup, etc. Fruit Pulps and Slurries . . . Marmalades, Jams and Jellies Marmalades Jams ............ . Jellies ........... . Plum Sauce (Damson Cheese) Thickened Fruit Syrups Fruit Juices ..... . Preparation of the Fruit Juice Extraction Juice Treatment Preservation . Side Products . Fruit Nectars . . Fruit Juice Concentrates Evaporation ..... Freeze Concentration Membrane Filtration Fruit Syrups . Fruit Powders ....

Alcohol-Free Beverages Fruit Juice Beverages .

XXXVII

836 837 838 838 838 839 839 839 840 840 840 841 842 842 843 843 843 844 844 844 845 845 845 845 847 848 848 849

849 849 850 851 851 851 851 852 852 852 852 853 853 853 853 854 854 854 854 855 855 855 856 856 856

856 856

XXXVIII

18.3.2 18.3.3 18.3.4

18.4 18.4.1 18.4.2 18.4.3

18.5

19

19.1 19.1.1 19.1.2 19.1.3 19.1.4 19.1.4.1 19.1.4.1.1 19.1.4.1.2 19.1.4.1.3 19.1.4.1.4 19.1.4.1.5 19.1.4.1.6 19.1.4.1.7 19.1.4.1.8 19.1.4.2 19.1.4.3 19.1.4.3.1 19.1.4.3.2 19.1.4.3.3 19.1.4.3.4 19.1.4.3.5 19.1.4.3.6 19.1.4.3.7 19.1.4.4 19.1.4.4.1 19.1.4.4.2 19.1.4.5 19.1.4.6 19.1.4.7 19.1.4.8 19.1.4.9 19.1.5 19.1.5.1 19.1.5.2 19.1.5.3 19.1.5.4 19.1.5.5 19.1.5.6 19.1.5.7 19.1.5.8 19.1.5.9 19.1.5.10 19.1.5.11 19.1.5.12

Table of Contents

Lemonades, Cold and Hot Beverages Caffeine-Containing Beverages Other Pop Beverages

Analysis .......... . Various Constituents Species-Specific Constituents Abundance Ratios of Isotopes

Literature

Sugars, Sugar Alcohols, Honey . . . . . .

Sugars, Sugar Alcohols and Sugar Products Foreword ............. . Processing Properties ........ . NutritionallPhysiological Properties Individual Sugars and Sugar Alcohols Sucrose (Beet Sugar, Cane Sugar) General Outline . . . . . Production of Beet Sugar ..... Production of Cane Sugar . . . . . Other Sources for Sucrose Production Packaging and Storage ..... . Types of Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of some Sugar Types Molasses ........... . Sugars Produced from Sucrose Starch Degradation Products General Outline . . . . . . . . Starch Syrup (Glucose or Maltose Syrup) Dried Starch Syrup (Dried Glucose Syrup) Glucose (Dextrose) ........... . Glucose-Fructose Syrup (High Fructose Syrup) Starch Syrup Derivatives ......... . Polydextrose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Milk Sugar (Lactose) and Derived Products Milk Sugar .......... . Products from Lactose Fruit Sugar (Fructose, Levulose) Sorbitol .......... . L-Sorbose and Other L-Sugars Xylitol Mannitol ... . Candies ... . General Outline Hard Caramel (Bonbons) Soft Caramel (Toffees) Fondant ........ . Foamy Candies Jellies, Gum and Gelatine Candies Tablets .. Dragees Marzipan Persipan Other Raw Candy Fillers Nougat Fillers . . . . . .

856 856 857

857 857 857 857

860

862

862 862 862 866 868 868 868 868 873 873 874 874 874 874 875 876 876 876 877 877 877 877 878 878 878 878 878 878 879 879 879 879 879 879 880 880 880 881 881 881 881 881 881 881

19.1.5.13 19.1.5.14 19.1.5.15 19.1.5.16

19.2 19.2.1 19.2.1.1 19.2.1.2 19.2.1.3 19.2.1.4 19.2.1.5 19.2.1.5.1 19.2.1.5.2 19.2.1.5.3 19.2.1.5.4 19.2.1.5.5 19.2.1.5.6 19.2.1.5.7 19.2.1.5.8 19.2.1.5.9 19.2.1.6 19.2.1.7 19.2.2 19.2.2.1 19.2.2.2 19.2.2.3 19.2.2.4

19.3

20

20.1 20.1.1 20.1.2 20.1.2.1 20.1.2.2 20.1.2.2.1 20.1.2.2.2 20.1.2.2.3 20.1.2.2.4 20.1.2.2.5 20.1.2.3 20.1.2.3.1 20.1.2.3.2 20.1.2.3.3 20.1.2.4 20.1.2.5 20.1.3 20.1.3.1 20.1.3.2 20.1.3.3 20.1.3.4 20.1.3.5 20.1.4

Croquant ........ . Licorice and its Products Chewing Gum . . . . . . Effervescent Lemonade Powders

Honey and Artificial Honey Honey ....... . Foreword ..... . Production and Types Processing . . . . . Physical Properties Composition . Water Carbohydrates Enzymes .. . Proteins .. . Amino Acids Acids Aroma Substances Pigments ..... Toxic Constituents Storage Utilization . . . Artificial Honey Foreword Production . Composition Utilization

Literature

Alcoholic Beverages

Beer ..... Foreword Raw Materials Barley ....

Table of Contents

Other Starch- and Sugar-Containing Raw Materials Wheat Malt ...... . Adjuncts ............ . Syrups, Extract Powders Malt Extracts, Wort Concentrates Brewing Sugars Hops ..... . General Outline Composition . . Processing . . . Brewing Water . Brewing Yeasts Malt Preparation Steeping .. Germination . . Kilning Continuous Processes Special Malts .. Wort Preparation

XXXIX

882 882 882 883

883 883 883 883 884 884 885 885 885 885 887 887 888 888 889 889 889 889 890 890 890 890 890

890

892

892 892 892 892 894 894 894 894 894 894 894 894 894 896 896 897 897 897 898 898 898 898 898

XL Table of Contents

20.1.4.1 20.1.4.2 20.1.4.3 20.1.4.4 20.1.4.5 20.1.5 20.l.5.l 20.1.5.2 20.1.5.3 20.1.6 20.1.7 20.1.7.1 20.1.7.2 20.1.7.3 20.1.7.4 20.1.7.5 20.1.7.6 20.1.7.7 20.1.7.8 20.1.7.9 20.1.8 20.1.8.1 20.1.8.2 20.1.8.3 20.1.8.4 20.1.8.5 20.1.9

20.2 20.2.1 20.2.2 20.2.3 20.2.3.1 20.2.3.2 20.2.3.3 20.2.3.3.1 20.2.3.3.2 20.2.3.3.3 20.2.3.3.4 20.2.3.3.5 20.2.3.3.6 20.2.3.3.7 20.2.4 20.2.5 20.2.5.1 20.2.5.2 20.2.5.3 20.2.5.4 20.2.6 20.2.6.1 20.2.6.2 20.2.6.3 20.2.6.4 20.2.6.5 20.2.6.6 20.2.6.7 20.2.6.8

Ground Malt Mashing .. Lautering Wort Boiling and Hopping Continuous Processes Fermentation Bottom Fermentation Top Fermentation .. Continuous Processes, Rapid Methods Bottling .. Composition Ethanol Extract ... Acids Nitrogen Compounds Carbohydrates Minerals .... . Vitamins .... . Aroma Substances Foam Builders . . Kinds of Beer .. Top Fermented Beers Bottom Fermented Beers Diet Beers ....... . Low-Alcohol or Alcohol-Free Beers Export Beers ....... . Beer Flavor and Beer Defects

Wine ..... . Foreword Grape Cultivars Grape Must .. Growth and Harvest Must Production and Treatment Must Composition . . Carbohydrates . . . . Acids ....... . Nitrogen Compounds Lipids ....... . Phenolic Compounds Minerals ..... Aroma Substances . . Fermentation Cellar Operations After Fermentation; Storage Racking, Storing, Aging . . . . Sulfur Treatment ...... . Clarification and Stabilization Amelioration Composition . Extract .... Carbohydrates Ethanol Other Alcohols Acids Phenolic Compounds Nitrogen Compounds Minerals ...... .

899 899 899 899 900 900 900 900 900 901 901 901 901 901 901 902 902 902 902 903 903 903 903 904 904 904 904

906 906 906 911 911 914 914 915 915 915 916 916 916 916 916 917 917 918 918 918 919 919 919 920 920 920 920 921 921

20.2.6.9 20.2.7 20.2.8 20.2.9 20.2.9.1 20.2.9.2 20.2.9.3 20.2.9.4 20.2.10 20.2.10.1 20.2.10.2 20.2.10.3 20.2.11 20.2.11.1 20.2.11.2 20.2.11.3 20.2.11.4 20.2.11.5

20.3 20.3.1 20.3.2 20.3.2.1 20.3.2.2 20.3.2.3 20.3.2.3.1 20.3.2.3.2 20.3.2.3.3 20.3.2.3.4 20.3.2.3.5 20.3.2.3.6 20.3.2.3.7 20.3.2.3.8 20.3.2.4 20.3.3.3 20.3.3.1 20.3.3.2 20.3.3.3 20.3.4 20.3.5

20.4

21

21.1 21.1.1 21.1.2 21.1.2.1 21.1.2.2 21.1.2.3 21.1.3 21.1.3.1 21.1.3.2 21.1.3.3 21.1.3.3.1 21.1.3.3.2

Table of Contents XLI

Aroma Substances Spoilage ..... Dessert Wines . . Sparkling Wine Bottle Fermentation ("Methode Champenoise") Tank Fermentation Process ("Produit en Cuve Close") Carbonation Process . . . . . . . . Various Types of Sparkling Wines Wine-Like Beverages Fruit Wines Malt Wine; Mead .. Other Products Wine-Containing Beverages Vermouth ......... . Aromatic Wines . . . . . . . Prescription or Medicinal Wines May Wines and Punches Wine Punch

Spirits .. Foreword Liquor .. Production Alcohol Production Liquor from Wine, Fruit, Cereals and Sugar Cane Wine Liquor (Brandy) ..... . Fruit Liquor (Fruit Brandy) . . . Gentian Liquor ("Enzian") ... Juniper Liquor (Brandy) and Gin Rum ........ . Arrack ............ . Liquors from Cereals .... . Volatile Components of Liquor Miscellaneous Alcoholic Beverages Liqueurs (Cordials) Fruit Sap Liqueurs . . Fruit Aroma Liqueurs Other Liqueurs Punch Extracts Mixed Drinks

Literature

Coffee, Tea, Cocoa .....

Coffee and Coffee Substitutes Foreword ........ . Green Coffee ...... . Harvesting and Processing Green Coffee Varieties Composition of Green Coffee Roasted Coffee Roasting .......... . Storing and Packaging Composition of Roasted Coffee Proteins ... Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . .

921 925 926 927 927 928 928 928 928 928 929 929 929 929 929 929 929 929

930 930 930 930 930 931 931 932 932 932 933 933 933 934 936 937 937 937 937 937 937

937

939

939 939 939 939 940 941 941 941 943 943 943 944

XLII Table of Contents

21.1.3.3.3 21.1.3.3.4 21.1.3.3.5 21.1.3.3.6 21.1.3.3.7 21.1.3.3.8 21.1.3.3.9 21.1.3.4 21.1.4 21.1.4.1 21.1.4.2 21.1.4.3 21.1.5 21.1.5.1 21.1.5.2 21.1.5.3 21.1.5.3.1 21.1.5.3.2 21.1.5.3.3 21.1.5.3.4 21.1.5.3.5 21.1.5.3.6

21.2 21.2.1 21.2.2 21.2.3 21.2.4 21.2.5 21.2.5.1 21.2.5.2 21.2.5.3 21.2.5.4 21.2.5.5 21.2.5.6 21.2.5.7 21.2.5.8 21.2.5.9 21.2.6 21.2.7 21.2.8 21.2.9

21.3 21.3.1 21.3.2 21.3.2.1 21.3.2.2 21.3.2.3 21.3.2.3.1 21.3.2.3.2 21.3.2.3.3 21.3.2.3.4 21.3.2.3.5 21.3.2.3.6 21.3.2.3.7 21.3.2.4 21.3.2.5

Lipids ..... . Acids ..... . Caffeine .... . Trigonelline, Nicotinic Acid Aroma Substances . Minerals ..... . Other Constituents Coffee Beverages Coffee Products . . Instant Coffee . . . Decaffeinated Coffee Treated Coffee . . . . Coffee Substitutes and Adjuncts Introduction . . . . . . . . . Processing of Raw Materials Individual Products Barley Coffee Malt Coffee .. Chicory Coffee Fig Coffee ... AcomCoffee Other Products

Tea and Tea-Like Products Foreword Black Tea .. GreenTea .. Grades of Tea Composition . Phenolic Compounds Enzymes ... Amino Acids Caffeine ... Carbohydrates Lipids .... Pigments (Chlorophyll and Carotenoids) Aroma Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . Minerals ................ . Reactions Involved in the Processing of Tea Packaging, Storage, Brewing Mate (Paraguayan Tea) Products from Cola Nut

Cocoa and Chocolate Introduction . . . . Cacao ....... . General Information . Harvesting and Processing Composition . . . . . . . . Proteins and Amino Acids . Theobromine and Caffeine Lipids ....... . Carbohydrates . . . . Phenolic Compounds Organic Acids . . . . Volatile Compounds and Flavor Substances Reactions During Fermentation and Drying Production of Cocoa Liquor ....... .

944 944 944 945 945 947 947 948 949 949 949 950 950 950 950 951 951 951 951 951 951 951

951 951 952 952 953 953 953 954 955 955 955 955 955 956 956 956 958 958 959

959 959 960 960 961 962 962 962 962 962 963 964 964 965 965

21.3.2.6 21.3.2.7 21.3.3 21.3.3.1 21.3.3.2 21.3.3.2.1 21.3.3.2.2 21.3.3.2.3 21.3.3.2.4 21.3.3.3 21.3.4

21.4

22

22.1 22.1.1 22.1.1.1 22.1.1.2 22.1.1.2.1 22.1.1.2.2 22.1.1.2.3 22.1.1.2.4 22.1.1.2.5 22.1.1.2.6 22.1.1.2.7 22.1.1.2.8 22.1.1.2.9 22.1.1.3 22.1.1.4 22.1.1.5 22.1.2 22.l.2.1 22.l.2.2 22.l.2.3 22.1.2.4 22. l.2.4. 1 22.1.2.4.2 22.1.2.4.3

22.2 22.2.1 22.2.2 22.2.3 22.2.4 22.2.5

22.3 22.3.1 22.3.1.1 22.3.l.2 22.3.2

22.4

Table of Contents XLIII

Production of Cocoa Liquor with Improved Dispersability . Production of Cocoa Powder by Cocoa Mass Pressing Chocolate ..... . Introduction . . . . . Chocolate Production Mixing ....... . Refining ...... . Conching ..... . Tempering and Molding Kinds of Chocolate .. Storage of Cocoa Products

Literature ........ .

Spices, Salt and Vinegar Spices · ......... Composition . . . . . . . Components of Essential Oils Aroma Substances Pepper · . Vanilla · . Dill Fenugreek Saffron .. Mustard, Horseradish Ginger · ....... Basil ......... Parsley ........ Substances with Pungent Taste Pigments ... Antioxidants . Products · .. Spice Powders Spice Extracts or Concentrates (Oleoresins) Blended Spices Spice Preparations Curry Powder Mustard · .... Sambal ......

Salt (Cooking Salt) Composition Occurrence Production . Special Salt Salt Substitutes

Vinegar · ... Production . . . Microbiological Production Chemical Synthesis Composition

Literature .....

965 965 966 966 966 966 966 966 967 967 968

969

970

970 970 970 974 974 974 975 975 976 977 977 977 977 979 979 979 981 981 981 981 981 981 981 982

982 982 982 982 982 983

983 983 983 983 984

984

XLIV Table of Contents

23 Drinking Water, Mineral and Table Water 986

23.1 Drinking Water 986 23.1.1 Treatment 986 23.1.2 Hardness ... 986 23.1.3 Analysis ... 987

23.2 Mineral Water 988

23.3 Table Water 988

23.4 Literature 988

Subject Index .... 989