India is basically an agricultural country and about 70 per cent of its people live in villages. Their livelihood is dependent mainly on agriculture and animal husbandry. Though India has a huge livestock population of over 343 millions, besides poultry, yet the production of milk and other livestock products is about the lowest in the world. The figures regarding the availability per head and the minimum nutritional requirement set by the nutritionists are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Per-head availability and minimum requirements of some livestock products

Product

Availability Minimum requirement

Milk 100 g/head/day 201 g/head/day

Meat1 million tonnes (annually)

7,122 million tonnes (annually)

Eggs 12 eggs/head/year 1 egg/head/yearFrom the figures set out in Table 1, it is evident that we are highly defficient in various livestock products, though we have about one-fourth of the total cattle population of the world. The analysis of this situation reveals that one of the main reasons for the low productivity of our livestock is malnutrition, under-nutrition or both, besides the low genetic potential of the animals. This fact is adequately supported by the figures given in Table 2.

Table 2. Balance-sheet of animal feeds and fodders

Feeds and fodders

Availability Requirement Deficit

Green fodder224.08 m

tonnes611.99 m

tonnes387.91 m

tonnes

Crop residues231.05 m

tonnes869.79 m

tonnes638.74 m

tonnesConcentrates 31.6 m tonnes 65.4 m tonnes 81.8 m tonnes

It is seen from the figures of availability, vis-a-vis the requirement of green-fodder crops, crop residues and concentrates, that there is a huge gap between demand and supply of all kinds of feeds and fodders.

On the other hand, if we examine the land resources available for growing fodder and forage crops, it is estimated that the average cultivated area devoted to fodder production is only 4.4 per cent of the total area. Similarly, the area under permanent pastures and cultivable wastelands is approximately 13 and 15 million hectares respectively. Likewise, the total area under forests is 2.51 crore hectares and that open to grazing is 2.1 crore hectares. All these resources are able to meet the forage requirements of the grazing animals only during the monsoon season. But for the remaining periods of the year, the animals have to be maintained on the crop residues or straws of jowar, bajra, ragi, wheat, barley, etc. either in the form of whole straw or a bhusa, supplemented with some green fodder, or as sole feed. The crop residues are available mainly from wheat, paddy, bajra, jowar, ragi, sugarcane trash, etc.

natural and seeded pastures.   The natural grasslands and the cultivable waste and fallow lands provide some grazing during the favourable growth periods in the monsoon season. These forage resources have been described and measures for their further improvement are high-lighted.

Varietal picture in forage crops.   Though the breeding objectives in forage crops are too many, yet a number of high-yielding and nutritive varieties in some of the important fodder and pasture

crops have been developed by different agricultural institutions. The major breeding objectives, inter alia, include (i) the high yields of dry matter, (ii) higher contents of nutrients, absence of toxic and physiologically active substances, greater intake and digestibility, (iii) a higher response to inputs, (iv) greater tolerance to adverse soil and weather conditions, (v) freedom from major diseases and pests, (vi) greater seed production ability and a higher degree of persistence and aggressiveness. Some of the important high-yielding varieties of fodder grasses, cereal fodders and legumes, popular in different regions, are enumerated below cropwise :

Jowar (Sorghum vulgare) (A) Northern region(i) 'J.S.-20', 'J.S.-29/1', 'J.S.-263', 'J3/53', 'Swarna', 'M.P. chari', 'S.L.-44', 'Pusa chari', 'Haryana chari'

Punjab, Haryana, Delhi

(ii) 'T-3', 'T-4', '8B', 'M.P. chari', 'S-700', 'H1', 'H2', 'Rio' Uttar Pradesh

(B) Western region

(iii) 'Sundhia 1049', 'Chhastia 10-2', 'Dudhia' Gujarat(iv) 'Red Khaki', 'Nilwa', 'Nandyal', 'M-35-1' Maharashtra

(C) Central region

(v) 'Gwalior-82', 'Gwalior-304', 'Vidisha 60-1', 'Ujjain-6', 'Ujjain-8', 'J-195'

Madhya Pradesh

(C) Southern region

'K 3', 'Co 11', 'Co 18', 'Co 19', 'Rungu 1', 'M.P. chari' Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

Maize (Zea mays)

Hybrids-- 'Ganga-Safed-2', 'Ganga-3', 'Ganga-5', 'Ganga-7'Composites--'Jawahar', 'Amber', 'Kissan', 'Vijay', 'Sona', 'Vikram'Open-pollinated--'N.P. Yellow-2', 'K-41', 'Bassi', 'Jaunpur''Emenillo de cuba', 'Kalimpong West Bengal

Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides)

'A-1/3', 'H.B.3', 'S-530', 'T-55' 'D 1941', '2291'

Oat (Avena sativa)

Early varieties--'Western-11'Mid-season varieties--'Kent', 'Craig', 'Afterlee', 'Green Mountain', 'A-17', 'Flaminagolds', 'Fulgham', 'Bamboo-966', 'IGFRI-Soil-3021', 'IGFRI-Soil-2688'Late varieties--'Algerian', '37/14', 'FOS-1/29', 'Kharsai'

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis)

(i) 'FOS-1', 'FOS-10', 'K-395', 'K-585', 'EC 4216', 'IGFRI-S-450', 'IGFRI-S-457

Haryana, Punjab and Delhi

(ii) 'Russian Giant', 'IGFRI-S-978', 'IGFRI-S-985', 'Russian Giant'

Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka

(iii) 'E.C. 4216', 'Russian Giant', 'Chhrodi 14-20', 'Chhrodi 26-28'

Gujarat

(iv) 'Co 1', 'Russian Giant', 'E.C. 4216' Southern states(v) 'Co 1', 'E.C. 4216' West Bengal

Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)

'FOS 1', 'FOS 2', 'E.C. 4216F.S. 277', 'IGFRI-S 212', 'No. 2' Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh 'Durgapura safed' Rajasthan

Velvet bean (Stizolobium niveum )

'IGFRI-S 2276-5'Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana

Field bean (Dolichos lablab var. lignosus)

'IGFRI-S 2214-II',--Broad leaf, erect'IGFRI-S 2218-1',--Medium leaf, decumbent

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)

'Meskawi-Diploid', 'Pusa giant-Tetraploid', 'IGFRI-S-29-1', 'Chhindwara'

Lucerne (Medicago sativa)

'Type-8', 'Type-9' ,'Anand II', 'IGFRI-S-244', 'Moopa', 'IGFRI-S-54', N.D.R.I.-1

Senji (Melilotus parviflora)

'FOS-1', 'F.S. 14', 'F.S. 18'

Methi (Trigonella foenumgraecum)

'FOS-8'

Hybrid Napier

'Pusa Giant Napier', 'NB 21', 'EB 4', or 'Gajraj', 'N.B. 5', 'Coimbatore'

Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese)

'SS-59-3', 'G 287', 'Piper', 'J-69'

Dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum)

'Type-3', '10', '15', or 'IGFRI-S-3808', 'G-73-1', 'T-12', 'IGFRI-S-866-1'

Blue panicum (Panicum antidotale')

'S-297'

Anjan or Buffel (Cenchrus ciliaris')

'Pusa Giant Anjan', 'IGFRI-S-3108', 'IGFRI-S-3133', 'C-357', 'C-358', Cenchrus glaucus

Bird wood (Cenchrus setigerus')

'Pusa yellow Anjan'

Marvel (Dichanthium annulatum)

'M-8', 'IGFRI-S-495-1', 'IGFRI-S-495-5'Cenchrus glaucus

Mustard (Brassica) spp.

'Japan sarson', 'IM-98', 'IM-100', 'Laha 101', 'Chinese cabbage'

Stylos (Stylosanthes) spp.

Butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea')

'IGFRI-S-23-1', 'IGFRI-S-12'

Turnips

'Green Top', 'Purple Top', 'Kenshin--Kaba' SYSTEMS OF FODDER PRODUCTION

The system of fodder production vary from region to region, place to place and farmer to farmer, depending upon the availability of inputs, namely fertilizers, irrigation, insecticides, pesticides, etc. and the topography. An ideal fodder system is that which gives the maximum outturn of digestible nutrients per hectare, or maximum livestock products from a unit area. It should also ensure the availability of succulent, palatable and nutritive fodder throughout the year. Some of the important intensive fodder-crops rotations and the expected yields are given in Table 3 for different regions.

Fodder production for intensive dairy farming

The requisites for intensive dairy-farming are that (i) fodder is required in uniform quantity throughout the year, (ii) the fodder crops in the rotation should be high-yielding, (iii) the area for production of fodder should be fully irrigated, and (iv) other inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, should be available in optimum quantity. The different systems of fodder production fall into two

categories, viz. the overlapping cropping and the relay-cropping. In the overlapping system, a fodder crop is introduced in thefield before the other crop completes its life-cycle. In relay-cropping, the fodder crops are grown in successions, i.e. one after another, the gap between the two crops being very small.

Overlapping system.   The overlapping cropping system evolved by taking advantage of the growth periods of different species ensures a uniform supply of green fodder throughout the year. One such system continues for three years. The best rotation in this system is berseem + Japan sarson - Hybrid Napier + cowpea - Hybrid Napier; (October-April) - (April-June) - (June-October).

HOW TO ADOPT THE SYSTEM.   (i) In this cropping system, berseem + Japan sarson seed mixed in the ratio of 25 : 2, are sown in the first week of October, using a basal fertilizer dose of 20 kg of N and 80 kg of P2O5 per ha. The sowing is done by broadcasting the mixed seed in the seedbeds, flooded with water. Care should be taken to inoculate the berseem seed with Rhizobium culture before sowing, especially when the crop is being sown for the first time. However, if the culture is not available, soil from the top 5 to 7 cm layer is collected from the field in which berseem was grown in the previous year and broadcast along with the seed. Irrigation may be given at intervals of 7-8 days, depending upon the soil and climatic conditions.

(ii) The first cut from the mixture is taken in 50-55 days after sowing. Japan sarson being quicker in growth boosts the yields in the first cut, whereas in the subsequent cuts berseem takes over.

(iii) Hybrid Napier is introduced in the standing crop of berseem after taking the third or fourth cut from berseem. Rooted slips are planted in February (central India) and in March (northern and north-western parts) in lines by keeping a distance of one metre between the rows and 30-40 cm between the plants.

The planting of a hectare would need about 33,000 rooted sets of Hybrid Napier. Hybrid Napier starts growing actively after March and should be cut 8-10 weeks after transplanting and the subsequent cuts are taken at intervals of 40-45 days. After the berseemcrop is over, a basal dose of 100 kg of P2O5 and 50 kg of N per ha is applied.

(iv) Berseem, being an annual crop, completes its lifecycle in April and then the inter-row spaces of Hybrid Napier are prepared with a desi plough and cowpea is sown in lines, 25 cm apart. In this way, in each set of two rows of Hybrid Napier, there will be two rows of cowpeas. Cowpea is cut 60 days after sowing and thereafter Hybrid Napier does not allow any other legume to grow along with it.

(v) Hybrid Napier continues to supply green fodder during the monsoon season. At the time of the last cutting in October, the inter-row spaces are again ploughed up and the land is prepared for sowing berseem and Japan sarson to start the second cycle of the rotation.

(v) This system of intensive fodder production is economically viable only for 3 years. After three years. Hybrid Napier is uprooted and fresh planting is taken up. The stumps of Hybrid Napier become old and the tillering capacity diminishes considerably.

ADVANTAGES.

(1) This system ensures green fodder throughout the year.(2) It takes care of the dormancy period of Hybrid Napier during winter.(3) The inter-row spaces of Hybrid Napier are efficiently utilized for raising berseem in winter and cowpea in summer.

(4) The growing of legumes enriches the soil. (5) Hybrid Napier gets established without much care and cost.(6) Green fodder in the first cut is increased up to 50 per cent by Japan sarson.

Intensive fodder production under relay cropping.   There is ample scope for increasing fodder production from the high-input areas, either by growing high-yielding fodder crops singly or in mixture. The growing of three or four successive fodder crops, helps to boost fodder production per unit area. Some of the important intensive fodder-crops crop- rotations and the expected yields from each are summarized in Table 3.

Fodder production in arable farming.   There is ample scope for fitting in the short-duration fodder crops, either single or in mixture, with the other crops during the gap period between two main cash crops. Two distinct fallow periods are available for raising short-duration fodder crops, provided adequate resources are available. In the case of the wheat-jowar rotation, gap periods between April and June and between October and November are available for each crop as fodders. Thus in the first rotation. M.P. chari + cowpea, maize + cowpea, bajra + cowpea is successfully grown and an additional green-fodder yield to the tune of 300-350 q per ha is obtained. Similarly, in the second gap period (October-November), which is rather short, the growing of fodder turnips and short-duration mustard varieties helps to get 250-300 q per ha of fodder without disturbing the normal cropping systems.

Table 3

1. Maize + cowpea - maize + cowpea + teosinte - berseem + mustard    (300 q/ha) - (450 q/ha) - (1,000 q/ha)2. Sweet sudan + cowpea - berseem + oats     (1,000 q/ha) - (1,000 q/ha)3. Hybrid Napier + lucerne     (1,250 q/ha) - (850 q/ha)4. Maize + cowpea - jowar + cowpea - berseem + mustard     (300 q/ha) - (400 q/ha) - (1,000q/ha)3. Teosinte + bajra + cowpea - berseem + oats     (1,000 q/ha) - (1,000 q/ha)2. Sweet sudan + cowpea - mustard - oats + peas     (1,000 q/ha) - (250 q/ha) - (500 q/ha)3. Jowar - turnips - oats - 1800 q/ha     Other high-yielding fodder crops for different regions are given in table 4.

Fodder production under dryland farming.   A large proportion of the area of our country is located in the dryland regions. In these areas, the farmers usually grow at least one crop in the rabi season after conserving the soil moisture. Thus there is a great scope for raising two crops under such situations. First, the growing of a fodder crop which gets ready in 45-50 days after sowing (cowpea, jowar, guar, sanwa, moth, etc.), yield 150-250 q per ha of green fodder. After harvesting the fodder crops, crops such as gram, linseed, barley, wheat and safflower are raised on the conserved moisture. The package of practice for maximizing fodder yields from the cultivated and pasture species are given in table 5 (a,b).Table 4. Stratified fodder-production potential of the best fodder-crops rotations in various regions

(Based on All-India Co-ordinated Project for Research on Forage Crops)Best 2-3 rotations at various centres Green fodder yield (q/ha)

(1) Jhansi1. Hybrid Napier + cowpea - berseem + sarson 2,863

2. Maize + cowpea - M.P. chari - berseem + sarson 1,972

3. M.P. chari - turnips - oats

(2) Hyderabad1. Hybrid Napier + cowpea - Hybrid Napier + cowpea - Hybrid Napier + berseem 1,3342. Maize + cowpea - bajra +cowpea + berseem 1,2673. Madikattujonna + cowpea - jonna (ratoon) + cowpea - berseem 1,098(3) Anad1. Hybrid Napier alone 2,8772. Hybrid Napier + guar - lucerne 2,5293. Maize + cowpea - maize - cowpea - oats - maize + cowpea 1,685(4) Kalyani1. Maize + cowpea - P. pedicellatum - oats 1,3082. Maize + cowpea - rice bean - berseem + sarson 1,1153. Maize + cowpea + jowar + cowpea - oats 884(5) Kanke1. Maize + cowpea - oats - bajra + cowpea 1,0262. Jowar + cowpea - berseem + sarson - maize + cowpea 9603. Bajra + cowpea - berseem + sarson - maize + cowpea 959(6) Pantnagar1. Napier + berseem intercropped and cut at the optimum time 2,1412. Napier + berseem intercropped and cut at the same time 1,9983. Napier + lucerne intercropped and cut at the optimum time 1,960(7) Jorhat1. Hybrid Napier alone 1,4422. Maize + cowpea - maize - jowar - oats 6643. Guinea alone 607(8) Hissar1. Napier - bajra hybrid intercropped with berseem 2,1172. Napier - bajra hybrid + lucerne 1,7603. Berseem + Japan rape - jowar + cowpea - jowar + cowpea 1,705(9) Coimbatore1. Sorghum + cowpea - maize + cowpea - maize + cowpea 1,1072. Maize + cowpea - maize + cowpea - maize + cowpea 1,0603. Guinea grass round the year 935(10) Palampur1. Maize + cowpea - lucerne + oats + sarson 8442. Maize + cowpea - turnip - oats + pea - cowpea 8333. M.P. chari + cowpea - oats + pea - cowpea 782(11) Jabalpur1. Hybrid Napier intercropped with cowpea - berseem and cowpea 1,7612. M.P. chari - cowpea - berseem + sarson - jowar + cowpea 1,686

Some of the cultivated fodder species for different regions are given below :

Rainfed Irrigated

(a) Arid tracts

Jowar, bajra, moth, guar, lobia Lucerne, berseem, oats, maize, jowar, bajra

(b) Semi-dry

Bajra, jowar, lobia, moth, guar, velvet bean, field bean, moong

Jowar, maize, lobia, teosinte, lucerne, berseem, sarson, turnips, Hybrid Napier, oats, Sudan gras, guinea grass, Setaria sphacelata, Rhodes

(c) Semi- Dinanath grass, jowar, lobia, rice bean, Berseem, oats, Sudan grass, Hybrid Napier, guar, jowar, maize, para, Rhodes,

wet velvet bean, teosinte, sunnhemp Setaria(d) Wet regions

Jowar, Dinanath, rice beanBerseem, oats, Hybrid Napier, guinea, lucerne, berseem, sarson, turnips, Hybrid Napier, oats, Setaria , para, jowar

(c) Lower hills

Jowar, lobia, bajra, velvet bean, field bean, guar

Maize, jowar, oats, berseem, lucerne, Hybrid Napier, Sudan, Setaria, Rhodes

SUITABLE GRASS-LEGUME MIXTURES

Grass-legume mixtures are always desirable because of their complementary functions in providing nutritive, succulent, palatable forage for the grazing animals. In addition, they are capable of creating much greater quantities of digestable dry matter and protein throughout the growing season than either component. Legumes usually maintain their quality better than grasses even at maturity, and being rich in protein, enhance the forage value, and also add substantially the much needed nitrogen to the soil. The mixtures also improves the physical conditions of the soil, check soil erosion, resist the encroachment of weeds and withstand the vagaries of weather better than pure stands. They also help to check the spread of certain diseases and insect pests. Some of the important grass-legume mixtures are given below :

(A) With cereal and miscellaneous fodder crops

Maize Jowar BajraMaize + cowpea(summer kharif)

Jowar + cowpea(summer kharif)

Bajra + cowpea(summer kharif)

Maize + velvet beanJowar + velvet bean(kharif)

Bajra + velvet bean(kharif

Maize + teosinteJowar + guar(summer kharif)

Bajra + field bean(summer kharif)

Maize + mungJowar + field bean(summer kharif)

Bajra + field bean(summer kharif

Teosinte Oats MustardTeosinte + cowpea Oats + senji Mustard + berseemTeosinte + rice bean Oats + methi Wheat + vetchesTeosinte + velvet bean Oats + vetches Mustard + oatsTeosinte + field bean Oats + mustard Mustard + lucerneTeosinte + guar Oats + peas Mustard + styloTeosinte + maize Oats + berseem

Oats + lucerne

(B) Cultivated grasses

(Mixtures for supplying green fodder all the year-round under assured irrigation)

Hybrid Napier Para GuineaHybrid Napier + cowpea Para + rice bean Guinea + cowpeaHybrid Napier + rice bean Para + centro Guinea + rice beanHybrid Napier + velvet bean Para + lucerne Guinea + velvet bean

Hybrid Napier + berseem + mustard

Para + cowpea Guinea + glycine

Hybrid Napier + maize + cowpea Para + velvet beanGuinea + berseem + mustard

Hybrid Napier + berseem + cowpea

-- Guinea + lucerne + mustard

Hybrid Napier + berseem + oats -- Guinea + field bean

Hybrid Napier + lucerne + oats --Guinea + DesmodiumGuinea + stylo

Setaria Rhodes Sudan grassSetaria + cowpea Rhodes + centro Sudan + cowpeaSetaria + rice bean Rhodes + Siratro Sudan + rice beanSetaria + field bean Rhodes + cowpea Sudan + field bean

Setaria + centroRhodes + rice bean

Sudan + guar

Setaria + Siratro Rhodes + oats Sudan + velvet beanSetaria + guar Rhodes + mustard Sudan + centroSetaria + berseem + mustard Rhodes + guar --Setaria + Lucerne + oats -- --

(C) Pasture grasses

Buffel Anjan SainBuffel + Stylo Sain + SiratroBuffel + Siratro Sain + DesmodiumBuffel + bankulthi Sain + Phasemy beanBuffel + butterfly pea Sain + field beanBuffel + field bean Sain + bankulthiBuffel + moth Sain + guarBuffel + guar Sain + moth

Sain + butterfly peaMarvel Spear grass

Marvel + bankulthi Spear + Desmodium sp.Marvel + indigofera Spear + SiratroMarvel + butterfly pea Spear + StyloMarvel + Stylo Spear + butterfly peaMarvel + horse-gram Spear + bankulthiMarvel + Phasemy bean Spear + field bean

Lasiurus Blue panicLasiurus + Rhynchosia Blue panic + SiratroLasiurus + indigofera Blue panic + DesmodiumLasiurus + field bean Blue panic + Phasemy beanLasiurus + guar Blue panic + velvet beanLasiurus Blue panic + field bean

Blue panic + guarDinanath Chrysopogon

Dinanath + cowpea Chrysopogon + SiratroDinanath + rice bean Chrysopogon + StyloDinanath + field bean Chrysopogon + butterfly peaDinanath + guar Chrysopogon + Phasemy beanDinanath + Desmodium Chrysopogon + filed bean

Suitable fodder trees for silvi-pastural system

1. Koo babul Leucaena latisqua2. Vilaiti babool Acacia tortilis3. Anjan tree Hardwickia binata4. Babool Acacia arabica5. Albizia Albizia amara6. Khejri Prosopis cineraria7. Shevri Sesbania aegyptiaca

GRASSLAND WEALTH OF INDIA

According to the land-utilization statistics, the area under permanent pastures and grasslands is 13 million hectares. In addition, there are another 15 million hectares classified as cultivable wasteland, and still another 7-8 million hectares under the saline and alkaline soils. This large area, comprising areas effected by soil acidity, salinity and alkalinity, droughts, floods and ravines, can be utilized for the growing of various fodder species.

The grasslands of our country are essentially the monsoon grasslands and the grasses in them show their best biological potential for a period of about four months, after which owing to moisture stress and the advent of winter, the grasses enter dormancy till the next monsoon.

The grasslands normally considered to be the cheapest source of animal feed are in a degraded and denuded state because of overgrazing and faulty management over the ages. Thus the amelioration of the natural grasslands and pastures deserve special and careful attention and priority in our drive for increasing forage production. The Grassland Survey carried out by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has led to the recognition of four distinct grass covers in the plains and the lower hills and one at high altitudes. Information, in brief, on these grasslands and their important forage species is given below :

(A)Tropical and subtropical grasslands

Four main grass covers have been recognized in the tropical and subtropical parts of the country. Details of the climate, area, rainfall, elevation, soil type, the present level of production and production potential of the four covers are given in Table 6.

Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus cover is distributed in northern Gujarat, Rajasthan, excluding, the Aravalli ranges, western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and part of Jammu. The chief forage species are Dichanthium annulatum, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus, Lasiurus sindicus and Sporobolus marginatus.

Sehima-Dichanthium is the largest grassland cover and is distributed in the Central Plateau, Chhota Nagpur, the Aravalli ranges, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, south-west Bengal, southern Bihar, the eastern hilly portion of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The dominant forage species are Sehima nevosum, Dichanthium annulatum, Iseilema laxum, Ischaemum indicum, Themeda triandra, Chrysopogon fulvus and Heteropogon contortus.

The third, Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata cover mainly consists of tall coarse species exclusively utilized for thatching huts and in rope-making. It is found in the humid and per-humid regions of the Gangetic Plains and in the Brahmaputra Valley. The chief species are Phragmites karka, Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus munja, Imperata cylindrica.

The fourth cover, Themeda-Arundinella is distributed in Manipur, Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir up to an altitude of 2,100 metres. Important economic

grass species of this cover are Themeda anathera, Arundinella nepalensis, Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, etc.

Table 6

Type of grasscover

Climate

Area (million hectares)

Rainfall range (mm)

Soilstype

Productionlevel (tonnes)

Present Potential

Sehima-Dichanthium

Tropical

20.27 grassland36.13 (forest)

300-2000

Red, black laterite

72.23 96.32

Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus

Sub-tropical, arid and semi-arid

9.3545.0 open to forest grazing

100-450

Alluvial 63.7 84.7

Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata

Humid and per-humid

1.176.21, forest area excluded

300 to over 4,000 mm

Undifferentiated alluvial soil

Negligible

9.36

Themeda-Arundinella

Sub-tropical hill grasslands

0.523.7 forest area excluded

1,000-2,000

Undifferentiated forest hills soils

1.96 5.90

Temperate alpine cover

Temperate

0.233.34, forest area excluded

375-3,750 mm

Undifferentiated forest hills soils

1.74

Can be increased three-

fold

Table 7. Fodder and forage species suitable for different agro-climatic regionsName of tracts Grasses Legumes

1. Western Rajasthan, south-east Punjab, western Gujarat, including Kutch and western Saurashtra

Lasirius sindicusCenchrus ciliarisC. setigerusPanicum antidotale

Atylosia scarabaeoidesRhynchosia minimaDolichos lablab var. lignosus

2. Central Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Gujarat, Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka plateau

Cenchrus ciliarisSehima nervosumCenchrus setigerusPennisetum pedicellatumCynodon plectostachyusDichanthium annulatum

Atylosia scarabaeoidesDolichos lablabClitoric ternateaStylosanthes humilisVelvet beanStylosanthes hamataSiratro

Panicum antidotaleHeteropogon contortus

3. Central and eastern Uttar Pradesh, Central Madhya Pradesh, southern Bihar, southern Gujarat, coastal Andhra Pradesh, and Coastal Tamil Nadu

Dichanthium annulatumPennisetum polystachyumBrachiaria muticaB. brizanthaPanicum maximumChloris gayanaCynodon dactylonPennisetum pedicellatum

Dolichos lablabStizolobium deeringianumCentrosema pubescensGlycine wightiiStylosanthes gracilisSiratro

4. West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, eastern Madhya Pradesh, Konkan

Dichanthium annulatumPanicum repensSetaria sphacelataUrochloa mosambiensisPennisetum clandestinum

Stylosanthes gracilisPhaseolus calcaratusCentrosema pubescensCalapogonium sp.Desmodium sp.

5. Lower hills of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, montane tract of West Bengal

Chrysopogon fulvusDichanthium annulatumIseilema laxumThemeda anatheraArundinellaspp.

Stylosanthes humilisS. gracilisDolichos lablabSiratroAtylosia scarabaeoides

6. High hills of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir

Lolium perenneL. multiflorumDactylis glomerataFestuca arundinaceaPoa sp.Bromus sp.

Trifolium repensT. pratenseT. subterraneumMedicago sativaM. falcata

7. Saline and alkaline soils of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat

Paspalum notatumP. dilatatumSporobolus marginatusDesmostachya bipinnataCynodon dactylonChloris gayanaDichanthium annulatum

Sesbania aegyptiacaS. aculeataAtriplex sp.Acacia arabicaProsopis cineraria

8. Ravine areas of Uttar Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc.

Chrysopogon fulvusCenchrus ciliarisC. setigerusPennisetum pedicellatumHeteropogon contortus

Dolichos lablabStizolobium niveumS. deeringianumPueraria sp.

(B)Alpine, subalpine and temperate regions

The temperate alpine cover is found in the high hills of the northern montane belt comprising Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam. The chief forage species are Agropyron spp., Agrostis spp., Dactylis glomerata, Phleum alpinum, Poa pratensis, Festuca ovina, Fetuca rubra and Bromus ramosus

Though we have excellent grasses in our natural grasslands, yet owing to the continual use and misuse of grasslands, for centuries in the past, the proportion of perennial species has considerably dwindled, resulting in the preponderance of annual, inferior and less palatable grasses, coupled with a high density of undesirable bushes and shrubs. Thus, these reservoirs of forage require careful attention, care and scientific management. The following steps should be adopted, depending upon the condition of the grassland to be brought under biological improvement.

Table 5(a) Package of practices for increased fodder production in cultivated fodder crops

Name of crop

SoilSowing time

Seed-rate (kg/ha)

Row-spacing (cm)

Manuring/ha

Harvesting (days from)

Fodderyield (q/ha)

1. Jowar(Sorghum vulgare)

Sandyloam toclay

Mar-July (N)Feb-Nov (S)

40-50 25-30

Farmyard manure 20-25 tonnesN-60 kg (2 doses)P2O5-30 kgK2O-30 kg

80-90 (late var.)

70-50 (early var.)

300-400500-700

2. Maize(Zea mays)

Sandy

loam toclay

April-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

40-4060-75

(Hybrid)25-30

Farmyardmanure 25 tonnesN-50-60 kg (2 doses)P2O5-30 kgK2O-20 kg

70-80350-450

3. Bajra(Pennisetum typhoides)

Sandy

loam

Mar-Aug (N)

10-12(rainfed)

30-4050-60

Farmyardmanure 10-12

50-60 300-400

to clayloam

Feb-Nov (S)

tonnesN-40 kg (2 doses)P2O5-30 kg

4. Teosinte(Euchlaena mexicana )

Loam to clay loam

Mar-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

35-45 40-50

Farmyard manure 25-30 tonnesN-50 kg (2 splits)P2O5-40 kgK2O-30 kg

75-80 1st60-70 2nd60-70 3rd

400-500

5. Cowpea(Vigna unguiculata )

Sandy

to sandyloam

Mar-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

30-40 40-50

Farmyard manure 10tonnesN-20 kgP2O5-40 kgK2O-120 kg

60-70450250-300

6. Guar(Cyamopsistetragonoloba )

Sandy to sandy loam

Apr-Aug (N)Mar-Nov (S)

25-30 30-40

Farmyardmanure 5 tonnesN-10 kgP2O5-30 kgK2O-10 kg

60-70250-300

7. Oats(Avenasativa )

Loamy to clayloam

mid-Oct tomid-Nov

80-90 20-25

Farmyardmanure 20tonnesN-80 kg (2 splits)P2O5-30 kgK2O-20 kg

70-75,

early cut120 days, single cut

400-450

8.Berseem(Trifoliumalexandrinum)

Loamy to clayloam

Oct-Nov

20-25Broadcas

t

Farmyardmanure25 tonnesN-20 kgP2O5-60 kgK2O-30 kg

60-70 days

subsequent

cut40-day

intervals

750-800

9.Lucerne(Medicagosativa)

Loamy to clayloam

Oct first week

15-20Broadcas

t

Farmyard manure 20 tonnesN-20 kgP2O5-80 kgK2O-30 kg

70-80 days

subsequentcuts

at 30-40-day

intervals

800-1000

10. Senji(Melilotusparviflora)

Loam to clayloam

End ofSept toOct

25-30Broadcas

t

Farmyard manure 5 tonnesN-10 kgP2O5-30 kgK2O-20 kg

80-90 days

250-300

11. HybridNapier

Sandy Mar-Aug

(i) 27,780(ii)

or (i) 60 X 60 cm

Farmyard manure 25

1st cut-75

250-300

loam to clay loam

(N)Feb-Nov (S)

33,346(iii)10,00

0 rooted slips

   (ii) 1 m X 30 cm    (iii)1

m X 1 m

tonnesN-40 kg after each cutP2O5-30 kgK2O-20 kg

dayssubsequen

tcuts at45 day intervals

per 1200-1500total (N)

2,000-2,500

(S)2,500-2,800

12. Paragrass(Brachiaramutica)

Loam toclay loam, waterlogged

and moist

Mar-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

(i) 27,780

(i) 60 X 60 cm

(ii) 50 X 60 cm

Farmyard manure 25-30 tonnesN-40 kg after each cutP2O5-30 kg

1st cut-80-85 days

subsequent

cuts 30-35 days

2,000-2,500

(S)1,500-1,750 (N)

13.Rhodes grass(Chlorisgayana)

Loam to sandy loam

Mar-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

5-8 or27,780

60 X 60 cm

Farmyardmanure 20tonnesN-20 kgafter each cutP2O5-30 kg

1st cut-80days

subsequent

cuts 30-35days

intervals

700-800 (N)1,500-1,750

14. Ginea(Eanicummaximum)

Loam to clay loam

Mar-Aug (N)Feb-Nov (S)

3.4 kg or20,000 rooted slips

1 m X 50 cm

Farmyardmanure 20-25 tonnesN-30-40 kg after each cutP2O5-30 kg

1st cut-70-75

dayssubsequen

tcuts at 40-45 days intervals

750-850 (N)1,500-

1,600(S)

15. Sudangrass(Sorghiumsudanense)

Loam toclay loam

Mid Marto MidJuly

20-25 25-30

Farmyardmanure 15-20 tonnesN-30 kgaftereach cutP2O5-20 kg

1st cut, 50-60 dayslater

cuts at 40-4

5 day intervals

400-500

1,000

16. Mustard(BrassicaSpp)

Sandyloam to loam

1st week of Sept to1st week of Oct

6-8 30-40

Farmyard manure 10-15tonnesN-30 kg

60-65 days

300-350

17. Turnip Loam tosandy loam

1st week of Sept to1st week

4-5 25-30 Farmyard manure 10-12 tonnesN-60 kg (2 splits)

70-80 days

300-400

of Oct

Table 5(b) Package of practices for pasture grasses and legumes

Name of crop

Rainfall (mm)

SoilSowing time

Seed-rate (Kg/ha)

Row/Plant spacing (cm)

Manuring/ha

Number of cuts

Cutting height (days)

Fodder yield (q/ha)

1. Anjan(Cenchrus ciliaris)

125-1250well-

drained

Light to medium

June-July (N)Feb-Nov (S)

5-6

50 X 30

75 X 50

Farmyard manure 5 tonnesN-45 kgP2O5-20 kgK2O-20 kg

1st year - 1 cut2nd year - 2-3 cuts

6-10300-350

2. Anjan(Cenchrus setigerus)

125-1250

Sandy to sandy loam

June-July (N)Feb-Nov (S)

8-10

50 X 30

75 X 50

Farmyard manure 5 tonnesN-45 kgP2O5-20 kgK2O-20 kg

1st year - 1 cut2nd year - 2-3 cuts

6-10250-300

3. Marvel(Dichanthium annulatum)

300-2000

Medium to heavy

June-July (N)Feb-Nov (S)

4-5

50 X 30

40 X 40

Farmyard manure 5 tonnesN-60 kgP2O5-20 kgK2O-20 kg

1st year - 1 cut2nd year - 2-3 cuts

6-8200-250

PROTECTION OF GRASSLAND OR CLOSURE TO GRAZING

The condition survey of the natural grasslands should be conducted to assess the botanical composition and the overall percentage of grasses present in them. Depending upon the physical statistics, decisions regarding the protection against uncontrolled grazing or complete renovation through reseeding can be taken if it is felt that the desired grasses are not present in good proportion, then, offering protection to such areas would result in an abundance of growth and coverage of the area within 2-3 years through auto-reseeding. For

giving protection, fencing the areas is a prerequisite. Though angle-iron poles with barbed wire or woven-wire fencing is costly to begin with, yet it proves economical in the long run. In addition, other types of fencing material, such as cement or stone posts with wire fencing or the live hedge or thorny fencing can be used successfully. The best live-hedge materials are mehndi (Lawsonia alba), jangal jalebi (Inga dulcis), Zizyphus nummularia, Parkinsonia, etc. In the rocky terrain, stones may be stacked to an optimal height to serve as stone-wall fencing. The protected grasslands yield rich dividends in terms of animal gain

Bush clearance.   The natural grasslands in our country are heavily infested with undesirable bushes, shrubs, etc. These bushes and shrubs compete with grasses for space, light, nutrients, besides being poisonous to the grazing animals and harbouring some carnivorous animals which prove detrimental to economic livestock production and thus considerably reduce the biological yields. Common bushes, namely jharberi (Zizyphus nummularia), Flame of Forest or dhak (Butea monosperma), Carissa spp., Lantana spp. and Mimosa, should be cut manually at ground level and the stumps should be treated with 0.4% solution of 2, 4, 5-T to kill them.

In inaccessible areas or on steep slopes where the complete bush clearance would lead to serious soil erosion and it would be difficult to establish the grass-legume components, very little soil-working is necessary and bush clearance is achieved by the application of Gramoxone. It has been proved beyond doubt that even the protection of grasslands without bush clearance increased the dry grass yields to 5.5 q per ha as compared with 0.8 q per ha from the unprotected area. It has also been demonstrated that the yield of dry grass can be increased to 40-42 q per ha with complete protection and bush clearance whereas the grass yields were of the order of 12.5 q per ha and 5.59 q per ha with, 2,175 and 3,575 bushes per ha respectively.

Adoption of soil and water conservation measures.   The undulating topography in certain areas and ravine areas poses serious problems in their improvement. In such difficult areas, adequate soil and water-conservation measures, viz. pitting, contour-bunding and contour-furrowing, should be adopted. The spacing may vary according to the steepness of the slope. For 3-4% slopes, contour-furrows, 8-10 metres apart should be opened.

The harvesting of rain-water by plugging gullies, streams or nullas, especially in the areas with undulating topography or to put the check bunds at several points on a stream, is done so as to harness water for utilization during the periods of moisture stress (November onwards) for rejuvenating the grasses. Similarly, the low-lying areas vulnerable to frequent floods are drained of excess water and utilized during the periods of moisture stress for increasing fodder yields.

Reseeding with better species.   Under the completely denuded and worst condition of the grassland, reseeding with better-yielding, adaptable, persistent and aggressive species would become essential. The technique of reseeding is quite simple and can be followed successfully. It involves the following steps :

(a) The land is cleared of undesirable bushes. One or two disc harrowings, followed by one planking will give good tilth and land preparation. At the time of the final land preparation, 25-30 cartloads of farmyard manure should be thoroughly mixed with the soil.

(b) Grass seeds, being very small, light and with appendages are likely to be washed or blown away by the currents of water or wind. Thus for efficient and easy reseeding, the seed is processed into small pellets which are easy to handle and are less vulnerable to water and wind currents. The seed is worked into a homogenous thick paste, made by mixing three parts of sand, one part of clay, cowdunf and fertilizer, and pellets of convenient size are prepared in such a way that each pellet contains 2 or 3 seeds.

(c) Pellets prepared in this way are either placed in shallow furrows opened either with a bullock- or tractor-drawn cultivator at a recommended distance for each species or variety or are broadcast with the onset of the monsoon.

Enhancing herbage quality through legumes.   The tropical and subtropical grasses at the time of their optimal utilization contain, on an average, 6% crude protein. The nutritive value and palatability of these grasses are increased at least twofold by overseeding them with leguminous forage species. With the introduction of siratro (Macroptilum atropurpureum) and banulthi (Atylosia scarabaeoides), the protein level in dry hay was increased substantially. Thus the inter- and intra-row spaces of the grasses should be utilized by adopting suitable seed-rates of the compatible species of the legumes. Like grasses, the legume seeds are also turned into pellets by the tumbling action of lime so as to protect the rhizobia on them against the acidic action of soil, fertilizers and the injury due to ants, birds and rodents.

Use of adequate fertilizers to boost yields.   The tropical and subtropical grasses show a good response to the application of nitrogen, but in view of the shortage of chemical fertilizers, farmyard manure and sheep or goat foldings should be used. Their use will not only improve the fertility of this but also its structure, thereby also increasing its water-holding capacity. For instance, an application of 60 kg of N per ha increased the production of hay in the case of spear grass (Heteropogon contortus), sain (Sehima nervosum) and anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris). The hay yields were 64, 50.1 and 47.9 q per ha respectively as compared with 27-30 q per ha given by the controls. Thus the fertilizer should be applied at least once in 2-3 years, to keep up the grass species in optimum botanical composition and at high production level.

Feeding the tree tops during lean periods.   All the tropical and subtropical grasses, owing to their faster rate of growth during the monsoon provide grazing for the livestock, mainly in the monsoon and post-monsoon periods. With the advent of winter, and owing to the lack of sufficient moisture in the soil in a ready available form, they enter dormancy. Thus during the lean periods of spring and summer, tree-tops come to the rescue of the livestock-owners. The young leafy, succulent material, highly nutritive and rich in crude protein and minerals, serves as a concentrate, even if fed in small quantities along with other dried grasses and crop residues. The loppings of the trees obtained in spring and summer also contain some substances which bring the animals quickly into the reproduction phase. Some of the important trees giving loppings and producing gum are koo-babul (Leucaena leucocephala) and Sesbania aegyptiaca and Saculeata. The gum content in the seeds of the two species of Sesbania is of superior quality and has a property to reduce the cholesterol content in the blood. These trees, therefore, need immediate attention and may be planted on the boundaries of the fields, in the cattle-yards, etc. to serve as shade-cum-fodder-cum-gum-producing plants. The spacing between the trees should be 6-8 metres or even more in cattle-yards and 5-6 metres on the bunds of the fields.

Besides the use of trees on the farm for various purposes the trees are planted in the pastures as companion species with grasses. This practice of growing fodder-cum-fuel-trees in association with the grasses is popularly known as the silvipastural system. Under this system, compatible fodder-trees are planted 5-7 metres apart both ways during the monsoon. The fodder from the trees is available after 4-5 years. Under this system, an extra yield of the order of 40-41 q per ha of dry grass (hay) is obtained without affecting the yield and growth of the fodder-trees. For the terrains and difficult areas, some of the fodder-trees that have shown promise and compatibility with the grass species are :

Trees Grasses1. Israeli babool (Acacia tortilis) Anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus) 2. Babool (Acacia arabica) Dhaulu (Chrysopogon fulvus)3. Siris (Albizia lebbeck) Sain (Sehima nervosum)4. Unjal (A. amara) Dinanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum)

A list of the fodder trees is given below :

North-Western Region

Acacia tortilis, A. catechu, A. nilotica (Syn. A. arabica), Albizia amara, A. lebbeck, Anogeissus pendula, Azadirachta indica, Capparis spinosa, Dalbergia sissoo, Grewia oppositifolia, Ficus carica, Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora, Quercus incana, Q. semecarpifolia*, Salix tetrasperma*, Robinia psedacacia*, Salvadora oleoides, Dendrocalamus strictus.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Albizia amara, A. lebbeck, Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, A. pendula, Azadirachta indica, Artocarpus integrifolia, A. chaplasha, Basia latifolia, Bridelia retusa, Bauhinia spp., Cassia fistula, Cordia dichotoma, Castania sativa*, Dalbergia sissoo, Ehretia laevis, Syzygium cumini (Syn. Eugenia jambolana), Fagus sylvatica*, Ficcus spp., Gmelina arborea, Grewia oppositifolia, Helicteres isora, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala, Mallotus philippinensis, Millettia auriculata, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus spp., Ougeinia dalbergioides, Musa sapientum, Pithecellobium dulce, Delonix regia, Quercus spp., Schleichera trijuga, Sesbania grandiflora, Terminalia spp., Tamarindus indica, Ulmus wallichiana, Zizyphus jujuba , Dendrocalamus strictus.

Central Zone

Adina cordifolia, Abizia lebbeck, Anogeissus spp., Azadirachta indica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Basia latifolia, Bridelia ratusa, Bauhinia spp., Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium cumini, Ficcus spp., Gmelina arborea, Gliricida maculata, Hardwickia binata, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus spp., Ougeinia dalbergioides, Pithecolobium saman, Delonix regia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia spp., Zizyphus jujuba .

Coastal Zone

Acacia tortilis, Cassia siamea, Tamarix articulata, Albizia amara, Syzygium cumini, Ficcus retusa, Erythrina indica, Ailanthus malabarica.

North-Eastern Zone

Albizia spp., Bamboos, Artocarpus integrifolia, A. chaplasha, Bauhinia spp., Castania sativa*, Desmodium spp., Fagus sylvatica*, Syzygium cumini, Ficus benghalensis, F. religiosa, Gliricida maculata, Gmelina arborea, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus alba, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Delonix elata, Schleichera oleoides, Terminalia tomentosa, Tinospora cordifolia.

* Species for high altitudes.

FODDER CONSERVATIONNowadays, greta emphasis is being laid on the evolvement of high-yielding, nutritive and short-duration varieties of fodder crops, since the possibilities of increasing the area under cultivated fodder crops beyond 4.4% are very bleak. With the availability of high-fodder-yielding varieties of season-bound and perennial fodder crops, there is a glut of fodder during the peak-periods of growth and scarcity during other periods. The best way to regulate the supply of palatable and nutritive fodder during the lean periods of October and November and May to July is to conserve the surplus fodder in the form of hay and silage.

A similar situation is also experienced in the case of grassland species which essentially comprise the monsoon grasses. These grasses give abundant fodder during the monsoon, but in the post-monsoon period and summer the forage production is almost negligible owing to their dormancy with the advent of winter and acute moisture stress. Thus it is essential that surplus fodder should be conserved during the

period of excess growth, in the form of hay, silage, etc. The need for the conservation of fodder is all the more warranted in the drought-prone areas where crop failures are frequent.

Silage-making. nbsp Silage is the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container, and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions ,  without undergoing   much loss of   nutrients. Fermantation under anaerobic conditions preserves the nutritive value and enhances the keeping quality of the fodder. The process of conserving green fodder in this way is termed as ensiling.

QUALITIES OF GOOD SILAGE.   The quality of a  very good silage is determined by the colour and odour of the conserved material. A good silage should  be greenish or yellowish brown, with pleasant odour, and possess a high acid content. On the  other hand, if the silage has content of butyric acid, is yellow and emits offensive odour or has become dark brown and gives out tobacco-like odour owing to heating, it is poor silage, though it may be palatable to the livestock, but decidedly its feeding value is very low. Shephered et al. (1948) have classified the silage into the following categories :

1. Very good silage. Silage having acidic taste and odour, being free from butyric acid, moulds, sliminess, showing a pH range of 3.4-4.2, and with ammoniacal nitrogen less than 10% of the total nitrogen.2. Good silage. Silage possessing acidic taste and odour, traces of butyric acid, pH 4.2-4.5 and ammoniacal nitrogen 10-15% of the total nitrogen.3. Fair silage. Ensiled material with some butyric acid, a slight proteolyses, some moulds, pH 4.8 and above and ammoniacal nitrogen 20% of the total nitrogen.

CROPS SUITABLE FOR SILAGE MAKING.   Generally, the fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates and low to medium in protein content are ideally suitable for silage-making. A high content of soluble carbohydrates provides an excellent growth medium for the anaerobic bacteria to form abundant acids which increase the keeping quality of the silage. Thus maize, jowar, bajra, guinea grass, para grass and Napier grass are highly suitable for making good-quality silage. On the other hand, leguminous fodders, which normally have high moisture and high crude protein and low soluble carbohydrates at the comparable growth stage, are not considered fit for silage making. Some of the problems encountered in the case of these crops owing to high moisture and high protein are :

(a) A high moisture level in the fodder causes a tremendous loss og digestible nutrients in the form of an effluent and, to some extent, by a high rate of fermentation.

(b) A high protein content induces a buffering action owing to which there is a gradual decline in the pH value, resulting in an unstable product.

Types of silos.   The term silage and the conservation of fresh foder into such a form has come from the Western countries, where owing to prolonged spells of snowfall and severe winters practically nothing is available for feeding to the licvestock during such exigencies. Thus silage making is adopted out of necessity there. Different kinds of structures, varying in design and cost, are used for silage making and storage. The size and the shape of the structure depends upon the livestock strength, soil and financial inputs available with the livestock owner. Some of the important types are briefly described below :

TOWER SILOS.   Tower silos or upright silos are among the permanent types and are relatively costly. They are constructed above the ground level in the form of cylindrical towers. The diameter, and height above the ground level vary according to the needs. The loss of dry matter in such silos is 5 to 10 per cent only.

PIT OR TRENCH SILOS.   Pit silos are less costly than the tower silos and are widely adopted for silage making. They may be pucca or katcha, depending upon the climatic conditions. Pits of desired size are dug in well-drained soils. In the case of katcha silos, the floor should preferably be bric lined, so as to avoid contact between the chaffed material and the excessive soil moisture and easy percolation of

excessive moisture from the ensiled product. In the case of such silos, when opened for feeding, a definite top layer of the silage (5-7 cm or more) is uniformly removed and fed daily to prevent spoilage.

BUNKER SILOS.   These silos are constructed on the surface of the ground and mainly consist of two retaining walls, 2-2.5 m high, and with a slope of 2-3 cm so as to make the silage settle tightly against them. They should always be built on firm soils having good surface and sub-surface drainage.

STEPS FOR MAKING SILAGE.   For preparing a goo-quality silage, the following procedure should be followed : (1) The fodder crops should be harvested and chaffed at the proper stage of growth so that the moisture, protein and carbohydrates contents are optimum for anaerobic fermentation. The carbohydrates are converted into lactic, acetic, and propionic acids and to some extent they serve the same purpose as vinegar does in the case of pickles by checking the growth of bacteria, moulds, etc., producing fouls smells. The early harvesting of crops affects the production of different acids, thereby reducing the storage period and affecting the quality of the silage. Thus the green fodder should have about 30-35 per cent dry matter. This is achieved by wilting the crops for certain periods before filling the silo pits, if they have excess moisture, or by sprinkling a small quantity of water on each layer of the chaffed material, if it has less moisture.(2) In the case of katcha silo pits, their bottom and sides should be carpeted with dry grass of kadbi or the long straw of grasses, cereal crops, etc. so as to make a 5-6-cm-thick carpet all around. This carpeting helps to prevent the direct contact between the freshly chaffed material and the soil. The direct contact between the chaffed material and the soil decreases or increases the moisture content in the ensiled material, depending upon the soil type and the water-table.(3) The fodder to be ensiled should be chaffed into small pieces, preferably of the size of 1-2 cm, either with the help of a manually operated chaff-cutter or with a power-driven chaff-cutter.(4) The silo pits must be filled very quickly (say within 3-4 days) and the material must be compacted in such a way as to remove as much air as possible through constant pressing either by manual labour, or with bullocks or tractor or with combination of all three. The exclusion of air causes fermentation under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation under aerobic conditions causes excessive respiration, over-heating of the ensiled material and the loss of carbohydrates through the production of carbon dioxide.(5) The level of the chaffed material should be about 1-2 metres above the ground level. During the course of fermentation, the material will gradually settle down.(6) Urea at the rate of 3-4 kg per tonne of the chaffed material is mixed with, or sprinkled thinly and evenly on different layers, if the chaffed material happens to be very low in protein content, especially in the case of cereal fodders.(7) The silo pits, after filling and compacting the material carefully, should preferably be given a dome-like shape. Such shape facilitates the drainage of rain-water, which otherwise would enter the ensiled material, and deteriorate the quality.(8) The ensiled material is then covered with a polythene sheet or a tarpaulin from all sides so as to protect it from the direct rays of the sun and from rains.(9) After a week, the polythene sheet is removed and the material is compacted again so as to consolidate the chaffed material and remove the air to the greatest possible extent. The polythene sheet is then placed back. However, if the polythene sheet is not available, a thick layer of straw is put on the chaffed material from all sides, and over the straw, a thick layer of moist soil (10-12 cm) is spread. The surface is covered in a mud plaster prepared by adding dung and water, to the earth, in suitable quantities. This avoids the contact of atmospheric nitrogen with the ensiled material, since the atmospheric nitrogen will prevent fermentation under anaerobic condition.(10) The chaffed material ensiled by the above procedure is ready for feeding to the livestock after 2-3 months. A silo pit is opened and the material is removed daily for feeding by exposing as little as surface of the ensiled material as possible. This is done mainly to prevent the direct contact of the feeding material with sunlight and to prevent air-drying.(11) The feeding of the silage should be regulated in such a way that the silage is used within a reasonable period. In other words, the silo pits are normally opened during a fodder scarcity. Long exposures to atmospheric action cause drying and deterioration in the keeping quality of the silage.(12) Silage may be fed in small quantities (4-5 kg per cow) to start with, and later the quantity may be

increased to 15-20 kg so that the animal is able to adjust itself to the new feed. During an acute fodder scarcity when nothing is available for feeding, it has been reported that silage is able to meet the full requirements of the animal in respect of dry matter and essential nutrients.

Hay-making.   Hay can be defined as the conversion of green forage into dry form without affecting the quality of the original material. It can be safely stored for long periods. The quality of hay largely depends on the species, the stage of harvesting and freedom from moulds and bacteria. A good-quality hay must retain a larger proportion of leaves which become brittle on drying and fall off quickly. In addition, the cured hay should have a natural green colour, pleasant aroma, optimum moisture content, freedom from moulds, etc. During hay-making, particularly in the hot summer, excessive and direct exposure to sunlight should be avoided, since it causes bleaching.

CROPS SUITABLE FOR HAY-MAKING. the efficiency and quality of hay-making are determined by the moisture content in the fodder species and the ease with which moisture can be removed. Thus all the thin-stemmed grasses namely anjan, sain, moshi, dhaulu, spear, blue panic, sewan, marvel, dinanath, oat, Rhodes grass, thin guinea, thin Napier; and legumes, viz. lucerne, berseem, senji, peas, methi, vetches, cowpea, field bean, rice bean and velvet bean, can be conveniently and quickly dried, unlike thick-stemmed fodders, which take more time for drying. However, if the thick-stemmed fodders are required to be dried quickly, they should necessarily be chopped into small pieces or crushed by passing the material in between rollers

HAY-CURING STRUCTURES.   In some countries, hay-making is done in hay-barns which are specially designed structures in which horizontat air is circulated for drying the material quickly. However, in India, the most prevalent systems are as follows :

Fence method. In this method, the fodders are cut and spread evenly and thinly over the fences of the paddocks, fields, or over specially erected fences. This method helps to dry the material quickly and the turning of the material after every 2 or 3 hours daily can be avoided.

Tripod method. In this system, tripods of convenient height are erected by using the local materials, e.g. wood or galvanized iron poles. In between these poles, horizontal supports are erected to increase the carrying capacity. Unchopped fodders are dried in the manner described under the fence method.

GABLE-SHAPED STRUCTURES.   The gable-shaped structures are made by using galvanized woven-wire fencing material of desired width and angle iron poles. The fencing material is fixed in such a way as to provide a slopinfg support and good ventilation for quick drying. This system also permits the excessive shedding of the leafy material with less handling unlike the ordinary ground method.

This structure can be made economical further by using netted ropes of medium diameter and wooden poles.

HAY-CURING SHEDS.   Hay-curing sheds of convenient size 18 m X 9 m X 3 m with a slanting rod supported by pillars, are constructed with corrugated asbestos. Chain-link fencing of 5 cm X 5 cm mesh and 1-1.25 m in width is arranged lengthwise in a 4- or 5-tier system. this types of sheds are good for making hay during the monsoon and summer. The cost is further reduced by thatching the roof with sarkanda (Phragmitis kerka) and by using wooden poles for support.

GROUND METHOD.   In this method, the chaffed or unchaffed material is thinly or evenly spread over a pucca floor so as to prevent soiling. The material is turned 2 or 3 times daily till it dries completely.

STEPS FOR MAKING HAY.   Good quality hay is prepared by adopting the following procedure.

1. The quality of the hay is directly related to the stage of the growth of the fodder species, the leaf-stem ratio and the moisture content. Thus the fodder crops, namely cowpea, velvet bean, guar, moth, jowar, bajra, Sudan grass, teosinte, and oats, should be cut for hay-making at the flowering stage. Pasture and the cultivated grasses are cut at 50 per cent blossoming or slightly earlier to prevent the lignification of the cellulose, losses of protein, energy and palatability which are caused owing to the advancement of plant growth. Lucerne and berseem are cut for hay-making at 30-40 days intervals.2. The fodder crops should not be harvested immediately after irrigation. They should rather be harvested in the afternoon and before applying irrigation, so that they have less moisture and more of dry matter. They will also take less time to dry.3. Though the fodder species may be dried as such, yet the best-quality hay is made by chaffing the species into small pieces with a hand-driven chaffing machine or with a power-driven chaff-cutter. The chaffed material is spread evenly in thin layers and is turned two or three times daily. In the evening, the half-dried material is raked and collected in the form of a cone so as to prevent the exposure of the material to dew-fall at night. On the second day, the material is again spread evenly after the dew jas disappeared. The material is turned frequently, depending upon the climatic conditions, namely, the degree of sunshine, the wind velocity, and humidity. In the case of lucerne, berseem and cowpea, the leaves are very brittle and fall down quickly. During summer, the hay of lucerne, cowpea, etc. may preferably be made in shade so that the bleaching action may be reduced to the minimum.4. The hay made by adopting the above steps, and possessing about 15 per cent moisture is finally transported to the hay-barn. It should retain the green colour, good aroma and flavour. It should preferably be stored at a low temperature and humidity so as to prevent losses owing to the oxidation of the carbohydrates. The losses may be as high as 40-50 per cent if not stored properly.

In order to minimize the space for storage and for effective long-term storage, the hay is turned into bales of suitable sizes with manually-operated or power-driven hay-balers.

CROP RESIDUES

It is a known fact that a large proportion of our livestock subsists on the dry straw or crop residues of the cereal or other grain crops practically throughout the year. The chief sources of the crop residues are paddy, wheat, barley, maize, jowar, bajra and ragi. The straws of these crops are highly deficient in protein and some minerals, but are fairly rich in carbohydrates. The estimated figures for the availability of the crop residues are of the order of 231.05 million tonnes against the estimated requirements of 869.67 million tonnes annually, based on the present livestock population. Consiering the estimated increase in cattle population to the extent of 1.96% annually, the production of, and improvement in, these low-grade straws is inevitable.

Improvement of crop residues. nbsp Taking the advantage of high dry matter and fairly rich carbohydrates, these low grade roughages are improved by fortifying them with suitable additives and by using suitable fodder crops.

The dry straws are also improved by the addition of suitable additives namely, urea, mineral mixture and water. The straws are chaffed into five pieces (2-3 cm). One kg of urea and 1.5 kg of mineral mixture are dissolved in 20 kg of water and mixed with 97.5 kg of the chaffed material. The material in this way is stored in silo-pits like silage and is allowed to ferment under anaerobic conditions. The soluble carbohydrates present in the dry straw act as a source of energy for the bacteria to grow well. After about two months, the silo-pits are opened and the material is fed to the livestock. Vitamin A deficiency in the processed product is taken care of by feeding 2 kg of green fodder per day per animal. This product is termed as "haylage".

The quality of the straws of jowar, ragi, wheat, paddy, and bajra, and that of sugarcane trash is also improved by treating them with urea (1-2%), molasses (10-15%), salt (2%) and mineral mixture (1%). After chaffing the dry straws into five pieces, urea, salt and mineral mixture are mixed with the chaffed material and later sprayed with molasses and mixed thoroughly before feeding.

TECHNOLOGY OF FORAGE SEED PRODUCTION

The seed production of forage crops is beset with many difficulties since it is a specialized job requiring skill, intimate knowledge of the flowering and seeding behaviour of the species, cutting and grazing-management systems, and above all, the timeliness of the operations. All the tropical and subtropical forage species are, by nature, shy seed-producers. The main problems encountered in the perennial forage grasses are :

1. Prolonged period of growth and flowering.   Owing to the continuous vegetative growth, the tillers between plants and even with plants are at different stages of growth and, accordingly, the panicles or inflorescences are also in different stages of excretion. Therefore, anthesis also occurs at different times.2. Longer duration of anthesis and spikelet maturity.   It takes a longer time for the completion of anthesis which starts from the top and proceeds downwards. The maturity of the spikelets also follow the same sequence.3. Abscission of spikelets.   Before the whole inflorescence reaches maturity, owing to the poor spikelet-retention capacity, a lot of immature spikelets are shed. In some of the grasses, even the shedding of mature spikelets takes place, as and when maturity takes place, thereby causing heavy seed losses and making commercial grass-seed production difficult and costly.

In the case of the forage legumes, the main problems which pose hindrances in commercial seed production are :

(i) Diffused flowering and flower-shedding. The flowering in the case of the forage legumes is diffused and is of longer duration, resulting in the formation of pods at different intervals. In addition, there is a heavy shedding of flowers after anthesis in the case of velvet beans, lucerne, field beans. guar (Atylosia, Siratro), etc.(ii) Uneven pod-setting and maturity. Owing to non-synchronous flowering, pod-formation also takes place at different periods.(iii) Pod-shedding and shattering. Owing to the continuous vegetative growth, the pods droop down into the vegetative growth of the crop, thereby slowing down the development of pods and delaying pod maturity. Pods on maturity shatter violently, dispersing the seed all around the plants. Thus all these situations call for collecting the ripe pods frequently and finding out remedies for increasing the spikelet-retention capacity of the inflorescences. Thus the seed production industry connected with the forage crops is not making a good headway.

Estimated forage seed requirement.

According to land-utilization statistics (1963-64), the total area under cultivated fodder crop is only 4.4 per cent (6.8 million hectares) and the estimated requirement of seed and plant material in respect of different fodder crops is estimated at 2.0-2.5 million tonnes (Seed Review Team Report, 1968). Similarly there is about 13 million hectares under cultivable wasteland, including the saline-alkaline soils and drought-prone areas. Even if the reseeding programme is undertaken on a small portion of the area, the annual estimated requirements for grass-seed works out to 8,000-10,000 quintals per hectare.

The seed production of forage crops is considered secondary in importance, because the economic product if the vegetative growth which is cut for animal consumption before the seed matures. Thus the new and high-yielding forage crops and their varieties will not be popular with the farmers and the overall impact of the increased yields of fodder crops will not be adequate unless the forage seed of the right

quality and in the right quantity is made available to the growers at the right time and in the right place and above all at a reasonable price which a farmer can afford to pay.

Agronomy for high seed yields.

Like other cash crops, the forage crops show a good response to higher levels of nutrient supply for a higher out-turn of seed both in the case of cultivated and pasture species.

(a) Effect of nitrogenous fertilizers.   All the tropical and subtropical grasses show a linear response for seed production to the application of nitrogen. In Cenchrus ciliaris, the soil application of 670 kg of N per ha increased the seed yield from 8 to 500 kg per ha in Australia. Similarly, seed yield of the order of 20-60 kg per ha were obtained in the case of para (Brachiara mutica with 240 kg of N per ha. in Golden Timothy (Setaria sphacelata, 70 to 120 kg per ha of seed was obtained with 330 kg of N per ha. Likewise in India, the application of 40 kg of N per ha in two split applications during the monsoon increase the seed yields from 17 to 30 kg per ha in the case of C. ciliaris, 23 to 143 kg per ha in the case of C. setigerus and 70 to 239 kg per ha in the case of moshi (Iseilema laxum).

(b) Effect of phosphatic fertilizers.   Phosphatic fertilizers have a greater tendency to affect the fodder and seed yield, especially in the case of leguminous crops. Foliar spraying with 4 per cent phosphoric acid (40 kg of P2O5/ha) in the case of berseem, 15 days after the third cut in February resulted in 50 per cent increase in seed yield over that from the control. Similarly, in cowpea (Vigna sinensis) three split foliar sprays of 2 per cent phosphoric acid (25 kg of P2O5/ha) starting from the first flush of flowering and at intervals of 3-5 days, coupled with 50 kg of P2O5 per ha as soil application at the time of sowing in July, increased the seed yield by 30 per cent.

(c) Rational use of irrigation.   Seed-setting in the case of cash crops and forage crops is influenced by the available soil moisture at the critical periods of plant growth, i.e. flowering and anthesis. Taking advantage of this fact, water can be economized greatly and made available for other crops. Thus in the case of berseem, the application of two irrigations at 30 and 45 days after the third cutting resulted in a slightly higher seed yield than with four irrigations given at the recommended 15-day intervals, starting from the third cut. Likewise, the seed production in Kent oats, with two irrigations (after the crop establishment at 20 and 95 days growth) was of the same order as with five irrigations applied at 20, 45, 70, 95 and 115 days of growth.

Physiological approach to seed yield

The forage crops because of their excessive vegetative growth fail to produce sufficient seed for further multiplication on an appreciable scale. Some of the growth-regulators play an important role in increasing the seed yields. Foliar spraying with Cycocel (CCC), a growth-retardant, has been found to enhance seed production in the case of oats and jowar ('M.P. chari'). Spraying with CCC at the rate of 8.5 kg active ingredient per hectare at about 45 days' growth in the case of 'M.P. chari' and 2.0 kg of active ingredient per hectare just before the elongation stage in the case of 'Kent' oats increased the seed yield from 6.3 to 15.4 quintals per hectare in the case of 'M.P. chari' and from 11.8 to 27 q per hectare in the case of 'Kent' oats.

Similarly, a composite spray of micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mo, B and Mn) in the form of zinc sulphate, manganese sulphate, and iron sulphate (each 100 ppm) and borax and sodium molybdate (each 10 ppm) at the rate of 700 liters per ha resulted in 30-50 per cent increase in seed yield in the case of berseem.

Flower abscission in the case of crops such as lucerne, berseem, cowpea, velvet bean, field bean, etc. is very common, but the growth-regulators when applied in low concentrations have a tendency to check abscission and produce more flower-bud primordia, resulting in a good seed-set per fruiting pod and a higher number of pods per plant. Thus the spraying of B-nine and CCC (each at 500 ppm) and Phosfon (100 ppm) in the case of cowpea, lucerne and berseem increased the seed yield by 60-90 per cent.

Role of external agencies

Other extraneous factors, such as the optimum population of efficient insect-pollinators in the case of cross-pollinated crops, such as lucerne and berseem, play a very significant role in seed production. It has been observed that temperate clovers, i.e. white and alike clovers, can be pollinated by all kinds of bees, but bumblebees work much faster in red clover than the hardy bees. The efficiency in pollinating the flowers of lucerne also varies. It has been observed that the honey-bees do not trip the flowers as efficiently as some of the other insect-pollinators, such as Ceratina binghami and Megachile flavipes.

In the case of legumes with a trailing growth habit, namely cowpea, velvet bean, field bean, Siratro, Clitoria ternatea, Atylosia, etc., the seed-setting and pod development is poor because of the competition for light, since the pods after development get buried in the vegetative mass. Thus the staking of the plants or making them climb on the fences and other suitable structures increases the pod- and seed-set two to three times in the case of field bean, velvet bean, siratro and cowpea.

Whom to contact to obtain forage seeds

For your requirements of seed or planting material of the fodder and pasture species, the following organizations may be contacted : 1. Director, Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.2. Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.3. Director, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.4. Director of Regional Station of Forage Production and Demonstation of the following states

(i) Suratgarh, Rajasthan(ii) P.O. Textile mills, Hissar, Haryana(iii) Dam road, Surat, Gujarat(iv) Jammu and Kashmir(v) Rajendra Nagar Agricultural University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh(vi) Alamadhi, via Redhills, Tamil Nadu(vii) Kalyani, West Bengal

5. Fodder Development Officer of every state.6. Manager, National Seeds Corporation, Jhandewalan, New Delhi.7. Officer-in-charge, Regional Station on Fodder Production and Grassland Research, IGFRI, Safapur, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.