folder 11 Seliger

8/7/2019 folder 11 Seliger

1/19

Page 1/19

last modified 30. August 2001 13.07

1 INTRODUCTION

Human creative imagination combined with knowledge,experience and skills provides for continuous change inliving conditions. Mankinds survival on our globe isdependent on how we handle the challenges of everincreasing global population and ecological threat.

New means for knowledge processing, communicationand transport have lead different regions of earth together

to a global village overcoming the burdens of languageand understanding, time and place. Ever increasingmodelling capabilities by modern information technologyhave given access to virtual systems and components outof which the most promising for human goals and pur-poses have to be selected. The framework of market con-ditions provides for competition as an essential criterium ofselection. Division of labour enables for concentration onmost efficient processes thus forming competitive corecompetencies. Effective products meeting complexrequirements of integrating markets are designed in coop-eration of partners with complementary competencies.

The industrial approach of innovation employs the driving

mechanism of market and competition addressing bothsources of technical invention and means for economicexploitation. The potentials of arts, sciences, engineeringand management are analysed with respect to their contri-butions to innovation. Methods and tools of our manufac-turing science community are presented in their characteras instruments to avoid misjudgement and shortcoming inindustrial manufacturing innovation.

2 TERMS OF REFERENCE

2.1 Definitions

Invention is derived from Latin invenire meaning arrive

find, experience, meet, learn, discover, but also manage.There is an accidental aspect indicating that invention isnot planned or scheduled. Innovation comes from Latininnovare standing for renew. So innovation etymolo-

gically is not something totally new but rather a new modeof something already existing. In 1912 the economistSchumpeter defined innovation as establishing new com-binations [61]. He distinguished between product andprocess innovation. Modern management literaturedefines innovation as combining technological inventionand economic exploitation [59]. CIRP unified terminologyon design defines innovation as the process of taking aninvention forward into the first marketable product [10].

Invention covers all efforts aimed at creating new ideasand getting them to work. Exploitation includes all stagesof commercial development, application, and transfer,including the focussing of ideas or inventions towardsspecific objectives, evaluating those objectives, down-stream transfer of research and development results, andthe eventual broad-based utilization, dissemination, anddiffusion of the technology-based outcomes.

The famous economist Adam Smith once stated that thedivision of labour is limited by the size of the market [67].Due to ever increasing market sizes by international tra-ding and globalisation the division of labour has beendeveloped continuously. But not only economic marketexploitation also exponential knowledge increase andresulting technological inventions have stimulated thedivision of labour in arts and sciences. On the other handreintegration of arts, sciences and engineering by modernknowledge processing and communication can enhanceinnovation potentials in cross disciplinary cooperation.

2.2 Disciplinary View

Arts

Arts and sciences in their respective paradigms areessential sources of innovation. Consequently disciplinaryviews are presented in their developing specific patterns of

nurturing innovation in market oriented societies.Music and mathematics represent a specific category ofhuman imagination and invention in that they are createdpurely out of human abilities of intuition and intelligence

Product Innovation Industrial Approach

1Department of Assembly Technology and Factory Management,

Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management, Technical University Berlin, Germany.

Abstract

Innovation consists of technological invention and economic exploitation. Arts and natural sciences considera-bly contribute to invention whereas economics and management deal with the exploitation aspect of inno-vation. In creating artifacts for useful purposes engineering covers both invention and exploitation. Differenttypes of innovation are considered with respect to design rules and business cases. The challenge of findingreasonable paths of innovation is illustrated by industrial shortcomings. Scientific approaches in manufacturingin general and especially in design to avoid these shortcomings are denominated and analysed.

Keywords: Design, Management, Innovation

G. Seliger1 (2) A. Buchholz, F. Szimmat, M. Turowski


2/19

Page 2/19


independent of environmental objects. Our obviousunability to understand the nature of our thinking is in astimulating manner amusingly illustrated in DouglasR. Hofstadter's connecting perspectives of Gdel's mathe-matics all axiomatic formulations free of contradiction innumerical theory contain undecidable statements Escher's paintings and Bach's music all touching the phe-nomenon of strange loops [21]. Dealing with abstract arti-facts can considerably contribute to creative imaginationand resulting inventions.

Although the motives are varying the persistent search fornew ideas to create a work of art has always been thedriving force for artists.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was educated as an artist.His special interest for details and his genius and spirit ofuneasiness drove him persistently from one field of activityto another. It is impossible to categorize him: Artist,painter, sculptor, architect, poet, musician, geologist, anat-omist, mapper, city planner, mathematician, physicist, sci-entist, philosopher, physician, pedagogue or inventor,Leonardo da Vinci was always on research for new know-ledge far beyond the known. Figure 1 e. g. shows a grav-ity-driven machine for precise file manufacturing [11].

Figure 1: A machine for file manufacturing fromCodex Atlanticus f. 6r.-b.

A Leonardo universal type of artist including sciences andengineering can hardly exist in modern industrial societieswhere division of labour is required to be competitive inachieving professional careers. Consequently nowadaysactors, composers, musicians, poets and essayists,painters and sculptors represent professions in arts edu-

cated at respective schools. Arts are not only source forhuman creativity but also areas of application for innova-tive technology. Computer graphics and electro-guitars are

examples of how innovative technology can penetratepictorial art and music respectively.

Natural Sciences

Pure natural scientists are directed to analyzing naturalobjects and phenomena. They are concerned rather withhow things are than with how they should be according togoals and purposes. With respect to innovation natural sci-

ences provide powerful sources for invention. Figure 2describes examples of how natural science phenomenaare exploited for useful products and processes.

Figure 2: Inventions of natural science applied inproducts and processes.

The lotus-flower and a magnification of its surface struc-ture is shown in Figure 2 (a). This structure causes theso-called lotus-effect where soiled surfaces can be easilycleaned just by flowing water. The lotus-effect is used forspecial paints or self-cleaning surfaces as shown in Figure2 (b) [52].

Figure 2 (c) shows the set-up for generating a CO2-laser-

beam. Figure 2 (d) displays the utilization of laser in theindustrial application laser cutting for a broad scope ofmaterials [5].

CO2

Beam

Electrodes

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Ni

-+

i

S

C CF

F

F

F


3/19

Page 3/19


The discovery of the electromagnetic effects e.g. creationof magnetic fields by currents, induction permits theconstruction of a rotator that is driven by magnetic forces.Figure 2 (e) illustrates this rotator [20]. A commercialdc-motor by Maxon Motor GmbH is shown in Figure 2 (f) togive an example for a state-of-the-art application of thiseffect [46]. Maxon Motors have ironless rotors causing avery low mass moment of inertia leading to very highaccelerations. These motors have been used in spaceapplications like the mars-robot Soujourner.

The development of new plastics can be given as anexample from the field of process engineering. Figure 2 (g)shows the chemical structure of polytetrafluorethylene,widely kown as Teflon [12]. Teflon is used in many fieldslike high temperature non-stick coatings for pans or ashigh-performance lubricant for bicycle gears (Figure 2 (h)).

Economics and Management

While natural sciences and arts are addressing invention,economics deal with the exploitation aspect of innovation.Figure 3 shows the Schumpeterian long waves of technicaland economic development [2].

Figure 3: Schumpeterian long waves of technical andeconomic development.

On the level of business administration case studyanalysis contributes to identify successful paths to profit-able business. It is in this framework, where Christensendid research on the Innovator s Dilemma [9]. He drawspatterns of innovation in a variety of industries demonstra-ting why outstanding companies, listening astutely tocustomers and investing aggressively in new technologies,still lost their market leadership being confronted withdisruptive changes in technology and market structure.Keeping close to customers is critical for current success,but long-term growth and profit often depend on not tolisten to traditional customers but to create new markets byfinding new customers for the products of the future.

IBM once dominated the mainframe market but missed byyears the emergence of minicomputers, which were tech-nologically much simpler than mainframes. Minicomputercompanies like Digital Equipment, Data General, Prime,Wang, Hewlett-Packard and Nixdorf in turn missed thedesktop personal computer-market coined by Apple Com-puter, Commodore, Tandy and IBMs stand-alone PC divi-sion. Apple and IBM lagged years behind in bringingportable computers to market. Apollo, Sun and SiliconGraphics were all newcomers to the engineering worksta-tion industry. For a long time Xerox dominated the market

for plain paper photocopiers used in large, high volumecopying centres. Yet it missed huge growth and profitopportunities in the market for small tabletop photocopiers.Steel minimills had captured 40 percent of the North Amer-

ican steel market by the end of the 20th century includingnearly all bars, rods and structural steel. But not a singleintegrated steel company in Asia, America or Europe hadby 1995 built a plant using minimill technology. The power-ful over-the-road cycles made by Harley-Davidson andBMW had lost market share due to the small off-roadmotorcycles introduced by Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha.Some traditional European machine tool companies beingproud of their machining accuracy (CIP, Hauser andLindner) could not compete with numerically controlledless accurate machining centres.

Christensen derives the scheme of sustaining versusdisruptive technologies [9]. Disruptive technologies under-perform established products in mainstream markets. Butproducts based on disruptive technologies are typicallycheaper, simpler, smaller and frequently more convenientto use. Disruptive technologies emerge in the beginning inworse product performance than achieved by establishedsustaining technologies. Sustaining technologies continu-ously improve product performance along the dimensionswhich mainstream customers in major markets have his-torically valued. However, progress in performance by

technologies can be faster than market demands. Suppli-ers give customers more than they need or ultimately arewilling to pay for. Emerging disruptive technologies whichmay underperform today, relative to what users in the mar-ket demand, may be fully performance-competitive in thatsame market tomorrow (Figure 4[9]).

Figure 4: Impact of sustaining anddisruptive technological change.

Christensen has analysed in detail the fast history of diskdrive industry where in just a few years market segments,companies and technologies have emerged, matured anddeclined (Figure 5[9]).

Planning better, working harder, becoming more customer-driven, taking longer term perspective, reducing time tomarket, total quality management, process reengineeringall these proven methods of manufacturing optimisationcan not help companies facing the challenge of emergingdisruptive technologies. Christensen denominates fourprinciples helping to harness disruptive innovation:

Companies depend on customers and investors forresources.

Small markets do not solve the growth needs of largecompanies.

Markets which do not exist cannot be analysed.

Technology supply may not equal market demand.

18001750 1850 1900 1950 2000

Frequency of Innovations

Steam EngineCoal and Iron

Technology

RailwayTelegraphyCementPhotography

Electric bulbElectrificationTelephoneTransformerAutomobile

RadarRadio/TVRocketsElectronicsNuclearTechnology

Microelectr.LaserGlass FibreGene Techn.

Business Cycles

Time

ProductPe

rformance

PerformanceDemands at the HighEnd of the Market

Progre

ssDu

eto

Susta

iningT

echnol

ogies

PerformanceDemands at the Low

End of the MarketPro

gress

Dueto

Susta

iningT

echnol

ogies

DisruptiveTechnologicalInnovation


4/19

Page 4/19


Figure 5: Example for the introduction ofdisruptive technologies.

Although predominantly concerned with the continuouscompetitiveness of companies pursuing sustaining andbeing confronted with disruptive technologies and thuswith the exploitation aspect, the invention aspect of inno-vation is at least addressed in how management cansupport the emergence of disruptive technologies for theircompanies continuous competitiveness.

The invention aspect is also addressed in von Hippelsdefining lead users as sources of novel product concepts.Lead users present strong needs will become general inthe future. Trying to fill the need they experience they canprovide new product design concepts. Driving for success-ful exploitation of inventions to be initiated marketingresearch analyses emerging needs for new products, pro-cesses and services [82].

Strategic decisions on where out of a manifold of techno-logical alternatives to invest the limited amounts ofresources to achieve a sustainable development of a com-pany are often oriented by technology portfolios. Figure 6shows how areas of investment are classified with respectto chances of the technology in the market and to theinvestor's on competitive competencies [55].

Figure 6: Technology portfolio withdecision options.

Engineering and Social SciencesAs Herbert Simon describes in his book on the Sciences ofthe Artificial [66] engineering sciences are concerned notonly with how things are but also with how they might be.

Engineering is concerned with synthesis, while naturalscience is concerned with analysis. Synthetic or artificialobjects are the central objective of engineering activity andskill. Design is concerned with how things ought to be inorder to attain goals and to function.

Our world of today is much more a man-made or artificialthan it is a natural world. For most of us our environmentand communication consists of strings of artifacts, with the

determinants of their contents all being consequences ofour collective artifice. Artifacts are not apart from nature,have no dispensation to ignore or violate natural law. Theyare at the same time adapted to mans goals andpurposes. As mans aims change, so do his artifacts.

Simon outlines a science of the artificial encompassingobjects and phenomena in which human purpose as wellas natural laws are embodied, having means for relatingthese two disparate components. These means for designin particular can considerably inspire invention and exploi-tation as constituent elements of innovation.

An artifact can be described as an interface between aninner environment of goal, function and organisation and

an outer environment representing the surroundings inwhich it operates (Figure 7). If inner and outer environmentare appropriate to each other the artifact will serve its pur-pose. The outer environment sets the conditions for artifactoperations whereas goals, function and organisation canbe shaped by entrepreneurial activities in design and engi-neering for generating artifacts.

The description of an artifact in terms of organisation andfunctioning is a major objective of invention and designactivity. Engineering management can well analyze howan intelligent adjustment of a system to its outer environ-ment its substantive rationality is conditioned by itsprocedural rationality to discover appropriate adaptivebehaviour.

Figure 7: Artifact molded by outer and inner environment.

Engineering sciences are more and more interrelated withsocial sciences in applying social analysis for deciding ongoals. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a helpful guide fordeciding on reasonable goals in engineering (Figure 8)

[45].

1

10

Year

1980 1985

2.5-Inc

hDrive

Techn

ology

3.5-Inch

Driv

e

Tech

nology

8-Inch

Driv

eTec

hnolo

gy

5.25

-Inch

Driv

eTech

nology

Dema

ndinN

oteboo

kMark

etDe

mand

inPort

ablesMa

rket

Dema

ndin

Deskt

opPC

Mark

etDema

ndinMinic

omput

erMa

rket

1990

1,000

100

HardDiskCapacity(MB

)

Own Competitive Competencies

KnowledgeLevel

OwnPotentials

Speed ofAction

ChancesofTechnologyinMarkets

Development PotentialsWideness of Application

Compatibility

InvestmentInvestment

SelectionSelection

DisinvestmentDisinvestment

FUNCTION ORGANI-

ATION

GOAL

AR IF CT


5/19

Page 5/19


Figure 8: Maslows hierarchy of needs.

The guideline for technology valuation of German VDIaddresses design criteria for useful technological products(Figure 9) [80].

Figure 9: Design criteria for usefultechnological products.

2.3 Types

To further enlighten the term innovation, the types of inno-

vation are given in Figure 10 and are illustrated by specificconsiderations and cases.

Product and Process

Porter defines three strategic approaches for keeping acompany competitive in markets comprehensive costleadership, product differentiation and concentration onmarket niches. Cost leadership implies continuous innova-tion in efficient processes with the risk of being imitated bycompetitors. Product innovation enables for differentiationand concentration on market niches with the risk of criticalcustomers not accepting higher prices for differentiatedproduct features, often for brands [56][57].

Fundamental and Incremental

Fundamental innovations are based on new scientific andtechnological principles whereas incremental innovationsadapt already existing functionality [47]. High costs forchanging established procedures hinder the successfulimplementation of fundamental inventions, unlessincreased performance justifies the marketable exploita-tion.

In the field of electronic parts the development of the sur-face mounted technology (SMT) is an example for a newfundamental technology. Figure 11 (a) opposes the olderthrough-hole technology and the newer SMT. Holesbecome unnecessary for part assembly on printed circuitboards (PCBs). Due to the smaller part dimensions and toassembly on both sides the part density can be increased.

Once present the further development of SMT-cases can

be called an incremental innovation. Figure 11 (b) gives anexample for the continuously decreasing dimensions nowreaching part sizes below 1 mm. This continuous miniaturi-zation enabled highly integrated products like cell-phonesor portable computers [14].

Figure 11: Fundamental (SMT) andincremental innovation (package dimensions).

Short and Long Range

Short range innovations are characterized by their narrowapplication area and their relatively short impact on the rel-evant state of the art. Special machinery in manufacturing

engineering like the automated bottle filling machineshown Figure 12 (a) is a good example for a short rangeinnovation.

Figure 12: Short range (automated bottle filling machine)and long range innovation (DNA-double helix).

Long range innovations generally cover a long timespanfrom the invention to the first exploitation. As an examplethe field of human genetics can be quoted where it tookalmost 50 years from the discovery of the DNA-structure

Self-

actualisation

Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs food, sleep

acknowledgement,self-respectlong-time satisfaction

of the fundamentalneeds: materialexistence,minimum wages,

social status

love, affection andbelongingness needs

Often Instrumental RelationsOften Competing Relations

EnvironmentalQuality

Effectivityand

Efficiency

Standardof Living

Functionality Security

Health

Self-ActualizationPersonality Development

Social Quality

ProductProcess

SingleCooperative

FundamentalIncremental

Short RangeLong Range

DisciplinaryCross-Disciplinary

SimpleComplex

Innovation

Elementary TechnicalBusiness System

InternalExternal

Figure 10: Types of innovation.

(b)(a)

PCB

1206

SMT:

Through-Hole Technology:

3mm

1206

0805

0604

0402

0 2 0 1

1206

PackageName

QualitativeSize-Comparison Year

0805

0604

0402

0201

01005

1990

2001

(a) (b)


6/19

Page 6/19


(Figure 12 (b)) by Watson and Crick to the first stepstowards the understanding of the function through func-tional genomics in the human genome project in the recenttime.

Single and Cooperative

The differentiation between single and cooperative relatesto the degree of cooperation in the process of innovation

generation. Single innovations are done by one person orone organisation alone while cooperative innovations aredone by multiple organisations. Bundling the restrictedknowledge of different companies combines complemen-tary core competencies for splitting high developmentcosts, increasing product performance and reachingshorter time-to-market.

Figure 13: Former single innovation (telephone)and modern cooperative innovation (communicator).

The telephone can be stated as an example for a singleinnovation. In 1852 the german teacher Johann Philip Reis(18341874) as a preceding inventor constructed the firstworking communication device. Later in 1876 it was furtherdeveloped into the telephone we know today (Figure13 (a)) by Alexander Graham Bell (18471922) as anentrepreneurial innovator.

The Nokia Communicator 9210 (Figure 13 (b)) as anexample for a cooperative innovation is one of the first andmost famous products of the Symbian Group. Symbianwas established by leaders in the computing and wirelessindustry like Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, Psion and Matsu-shita (Panasonic) to enable the mass market of Smart-phones and Communicators next generation mobilephones, or Wireless Information Devices (WIDs).

Simple and Complex

Simple innovations often stem from highly creative per-sons generating inventive ideas for huge areas of easily

understandable applications. Complex innovations requireassigning many different elements of technology for a use-ful function.

With the invention of the first bottles it became necessaryfind ways to seal them. Today numerous different sealingmethods exist and the cork is most popular. At the end ofthe 18th century the whole cork was pushed into the bottle-neck to open a bottle. Better ways for removal of the corkwere needed and the corkscrew shown in Figure 14 (a) isbasically the instrument we still use today. The bottle, thecork and the corkscrew are examples for simple innova-tions. Further examples are paper-clips, pins, hole-punch-ers.

Figure 14 (b) shows the Power Jets W.1, the first turbojetengine ever built. It was invented by Frank Whittle and runfor the first time in 1937. The first design for a jet aircraftwas patented in 1930. The engine can be considered a

complex innovation since it consists of a great amount ofparts and functional relations.

Figure 14: Simple innovation (corkscrew)and complex innovation (first jet engine).

Whittle could achieve the complex invention up to proto-

type by his access to the big resources of the statefounded Royal Air Force in war time similar to GermanHans von Ohains jet engine implementation in LuftwaffeMesserschmitt Me262. Both could prove functionality inservice. However, the real market exploitation of the Euro-pean jet engine invention was gained years later by theAmerican General Electric Company.

Elementary Technical and Business System Innovation

An example for an elementary technical innovation is agripper designed to handle components with heavy weightin recycling like tumble systems of washing machines. It isshown in Figure 15 and can handle a weight of about

50 kg without any problems [65].

Figure 15: Disassembly gripper with tumble system.

For business system innovations scenario techniques(Figure 16) can be used to identify new business opportu-nities like selling use instead of selling products in cycleeconomy [15][51].

(a) (b)

A. G. Bell, 1876 Symbian Group, 2001

(a) (b)


7/19

Page 7/19


Figure 16: Scenario projections for businessopportunities in cycle economy.

One of these business opportunities is the adaptation ofused products and components (Figure 17) [63][64]. Thiscovers the processes of disassembly, cleaning, inspection,treatment and re-assembly. Selling use instead of sellingproducts is competitive once the cost of the idle capacity ofa sold product is higher than the respective additional

efforts in communication and logistics for providing func-tionality in time and place as required. Thus, the total costsof ownership can be optimised [63][64].

Figure 17: Business opportunities incycle economy.

Internal and External

Internal innovations are based on development work bythe innovating company [44]. External innovations are

based on ideas and developments in another organisation.The innovation process is completed in the company offer-ing the new product in the market [2]. External innovationsoften suffer from psychological not-invented-here syn-droms or from economical legislative local content regula-tions. Internal innovations are often limited by the thinkinghabits of established staff.

A typical internal innovation is the first mechanical pencilinvented in 1915 by Hayakawa and thus named The EverSharp Pencil. This pencil was the main reason to renamehis company from Hayakawa Inc. to Sharp Corp.

An example for an external innovation is the distribution ofthe Apple Macintosh with the first computer mouse in 1984

by Apple Computer Inc. The mouse-concept was originallyinvented by Douglas Engelbart in 1964.

Disciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary

In 1866/67 the chemist Alfred Nobel invented solid dyna-mite. Before only liquid Nitroglycerin had been used forblasting. The problem was the great danger involved withnitoglycerin because it is very shock sensitive with respectto explosion. Nobel discovered that diatomaceous earth, amealy substance, absorbed nitroglycerin and thus defusedthe risks of unintentional explosion without an intolerable

reduction of blast-power.Substantial experience and continuous involvement inwell-defined knowledge domains are a reliable pledge fordisciplinary innovation.

However, synergetic effects tend to be obtained in cross-disciplinary cooperation. Modern manufacturing is basedon Mechatronics. Biotechnology requires the integration ofbiology, information and communication technology. Inte-grated natural, management and engineering sciencesenhance scope and scale in innovation.

Technical products can be derived from natural models.The sharkskin (Figure 18 (a)) served as a model for sur-faces with low drag. Due to the slightly furrowed surface

structure the micro-turbulence engendered by flow frictionis decreased. It is used for modern high tech swim suites(Figure 18 (b)) or for air planes.

Figure 18: Cross-disciplinary innovation (sharkskin).

3 CHALLENGE / TASK

Business and jobs in our societies are more and moredependent on reasonable paths of innovation. Technolo-gical potentials are exploited for useful applications. Tasksdrive for solutions and developments seek for applicationin deductive respectively inductive paths of innovation ascan be seen in Figure 19. Competition in markets finallydecides on whether inventions in engineering will createprofitable business and sustainable jobs.

Figure 19: Inductive and deductive innovation path.

Selling Mobility Instead of CarsSelling Mobility Instead of Cars

Selling Global Communication Instead of ComputersSelling Global Communication Instead of Computers

Selling Production Capacity Instead of Machine ToolsSelling Production Capacity Instead of Machine Tools

Selling Safe Transport Instead of PackagesSelling Safe Transport Instead of Packages

Information-management

Sale of ProductUse

Adaptation

Logisticnetwork

Facility Management

Product dataprovision

Design for Service

Product dataprovision

Process-planning

ProcessControl

FlexibleTools

CleaningProcesses

Productassessment

Design Production Distribution

Dis-

assembly

CleaningInspection

etc.

Re-

assembly

Usage Takeback Repro-cessing

Disposal

(b)(a)

Application:Technology

SolvesTask

Application

BusinessBusiness JobsJobs

DevelopmentSeeks Application

InductivePath

CompetitionCompetition

Solution

WhichTask?

Task Drivesfor Solution

DeductivePath

WhichDevelopment?


8/19

Page 8/19


It is not at all trivial to invest in research and development(R&D) and thus create business and jobs. Figure 20 andFigure 21 show the limited success which global players inelectronic industry could achieve by their R&D investmentsover a period from 1978 to 1990 [81].

Figure 20: R&D and turnover for 30 bigelectronic companies 1990.

Figure 21: Cumulative profits minus cumulative R&Defforts for 30 big electronic companies 19781990.

Out of 30 companies only two could increase their profitsand turnover to a higher percentage than they hadenhanced their R&D budget. Obviously rather concentra-tion on defined corporate goals is required than in fear ofmissing a chance spilling the R&D budget on a wide rangeof activities [81].

Obviously industrial innovation is a complex process withmany risks of misjudgement. Our scientific community'swork in manufacturing in general and especially in designhas provided approaches in methods, tools and exemplaryimplementation to avoid shortcomings in industrial manu-facturing innovation.

4 METHODS

4.1 Trial and Error

One method for solving inventive problems in engineering,as well as in all other areas of human activity, is Trial andError. This method requires a consecutive generation ofideas as solutions to problems. No rules for idea genera-tion exist, and the process of seeking a solution is rathersporadic as can be seen in Figure 22 [13]. If an idea is

considered weak it is discarded and a new idea is gener-ated. This flow of ideas is not submitted to any control, withas many repeated attempts as necessary to discover asolution. A typical exchange when working on a difficultproblem becomes Let's try this approach Have wefailed? Let's try another one.

Figure 22: Trial and error:Sporadic process of seeking solutions.

For instance, while working on a design of light bulb, Tho-mas Edison performed over six thousand experiments ona huge variety of materials before he found a satisfactoryone for a filament.

Although seemingly random, most attempts to solve a

problem have a common attribute: the trials lie along avector of psychological inertia. The inertia are determinedby cultural and educational background, previous experi-ences, and common sense. Psychological inertia urgesthe problem solver to try additional directions, confines theimagination, and is the main hurdle on a road to the bestsolution, which usually lies in unexplored territories.

The construction of a light bulb for a lunar probe can bestated as another example for psychological inertia. Exist-ing light bulbs would not survive the impact of the landingon the moon surface because they would crack at the jointbetween the glass and the screw base. The leader of theresearch programm asked whether a glass bulb was

needed to seal the vacuum around the filament. Since themoon's atmosphere presents a perfect vacuum no glassbulb was needed at all.

4.2 Theory of Inventive Problem Solving TRIZ

TRIZ is the Russian abbreviation for Theory of InventiveProblem Solving, and has been developed by GenrikhAltshuller in the former Soviet Union in the fifties [13][60].The main focus of TRIZ lies in the elimination of systemconflicts. A system conflict is present when attempts toimprove some attributes of a system lead to deteriorationof other attributes, e.g. increase in strength versusincrease of weight in the construction of a crane. Duringhis research Altshuller analysed some thousand inventions

and patents from different fields of engineering and formu-lated several Laws of Evolution of Technological Systems.These laws are very helpful for designers since they give ageneral direction for creative thinking. They are most fre-

1800%, 1978=100

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Gen.El.Co.

Philips

Westinghouse

Siemens

Ge

neralEl.

Nippondenso

IBM

Bosch

Olivetti

TexasInstr.

Plessey

H

ewlettP.

Matsushita

Toshiba

Hitachi

M

itsubishi

Nixdorf

Ericsson

Sony

Motorola

Oki

Fujitsu

Unisys

Nort

hernTel.

NEC

Alcatel-Alst.

Sanyo

Intel

DEC

STC

R&D 1990

Turnover 1990

-30 -20 -10 0Billion US$

10 20 30

R&D Efforts HigherThan Profit

North American CompaniesJapanese CompaniesEuropean Companies

Profit HigherThan R&D Efforts

Problem

Concept1

Concept2

Variants

Psychological

Inertia

Vector

Variants

Variants

Variants

Concept

n

Concept 3


9/19

Page 9/19


quently applied for solving practical problems by usingthree principal subsystems of TRIZ as can be seen in Fig-ure 23 [13].

Figure 23: Structure of the TRIZ-system.

One subsystem, the Algorithm for Inventive Problem Solv-ing, is a set of sequential logical procedures, aimed atelimination of the engineering contradiction causing theproblem. The second subsystem, the Standard Solutionsto Inventive Problems, is a set of rules for problem solving,based on the laws and on the established fact that manydifferent areas of technology can be solved by the sameconceptual approaches. Finally the third subsystem, theKnowledge-Database of Physical, Chemical, and Geomet-rical Effects, greatly facilitates the problem solving proc-ess. While the average engineer usually knows 50100physical effects and phenomena, this database containsmore than 6,000 effects described in scientific literature.

4.3 General Design and Development Methods

General design and development methods are phase ori-ented procedures according to rules with access to knowl-edge and experience. They help to avoid forgettingpotential solutions and to structure the sequence of opera-tions.

Figure 24: Design process by Pahl/Beitz.

Pahl and Beitz design method puts main focus on theabstraction of the customers needs into functions and tobuild subfunctions thereafter. An overview is given in Fig-ure 24[53]. The correlation between the functions is repre-sented in so called functionflows. Principles will be foundfor the subfunctions and a solution will be systematicallyselected among these principles.

All steps are supported by various creative tools, evalua-

tion methods, basic rules and design guidelines. A specialfocus is on the interactions in complex systems. Tools forthe consideration of the interdependencies of tasks, like aninteraction graph or a interaction matrix are proposed.

Another phase oriented approach for product design anddevelopment is presented by Ulrich and Eppinger in. Theproduct development process is divided into five phases(Figure 25) [78].

Figure 25: Product development process byUlrich/Eppinger.

Concept development consists of four phases and startswith the identification of the customer needs. The next stepdeals with the development of product specifications. Inthe following concept generation process the decomposi-

tion of the problem takes place. The later phases are deal-ing with the refinement and detailing of selected concepts,which leads to the testing and the production rampup asthe final phases of the product development process. Eco-nomical and management aspects are also considered invarious methods and tools like design for manufacturing organtt charts.

Tnshoff describes an approach, which supports custo-mers and suppliers in the early phase of product develop-ment. Every customer can establish a company-specificdelineation structure, describing the product-requirementson the basis of constraints (Figure 26) [74]. In course ofdevelopment the supplier follows the requirements of

delineation. Thus the supplier can secure that he hasobserved all requirements of the customer.

Figure 26: Variable description of product requirementsby constraints.

Database ofPhysical,Chemical,

Geometrical

Effects

StandardSolutions

to InventiveProblems

Algorithmfor

InventiveProblem

Solving

Laws of Evolution ofTechnological Systems

improvements,correctiveinteraction

task

information:

solution

requirement list

release for concentual design

develop principle solution

concept

release for embodyment design

clarification of the task

provisional embodyment design

release for final design

final design of product structure

production documents

release for production

develop production documents

final system level design

release for detail design

clarification of the task

Phase 1

ConceptDevelopment

Phase 2

System-LevelDesign

Phase 3

DetailDesign

Phase 4

Testing andRefinement

Phase 5

ProductionRamp-Up

CAD-System A Enveloping Surfaces Fitting dimensions

Description of theproduct requirementsby constraints: geometrical, technological, functional, commercial and administrative.

Delineation

CAD-System B Detail Design

Transportation of therequirements into acustomer specificsolution.

Specification

Cooperation

Customer Supplier

Requirements

Solution

- Bid,- CAD-geometry,- Calculation,

-

- Target price < x DM- Fitting dimensions: CAD-File XY-


10/19

Page 10/19


When the customer changes requirements, he addressesthe existing delineation structure with agreement of thesupplier. Alterations are saved and the developmenthistory is documented. The prototype-software is linkedwith the CAD-model.

4.4 Axiomatic Design

Suh has formulated principles of axiomatic design [69].

The independence axiom states, that the indepen-dence of functional requirements must always be main-tained.

The information axiom demands to minimize the infor-mation content.

As shown in Figure 27, the design process is an interactionbetween four different domains: the customer, the func-tional, the physical and the process domain [69].

The customer domain is characterized by customer needs(CN). In the functional domain, these needs are specifiedin terms of functional requirements (FR). To satisfy thespecified functional requirements, design parameters (DP)must be identified in the physical domain. So the product ischaracterized in terms of design parameters. To finally pro-duce this product the process needs to be specified by

process variables (PV) in the process domain.The relation between functional requirements and designparameters is represented in a matrix, which allows toevaluate the structure of the product. A good design ischaracterized by few or no interdependencies and by asimple description. In other words: Good products arethose, which fulfill the two axioms best. Suh describes thedesign process as an iterative approach towards the pro-duct. This zigzagging takes place between the functionaland the physical domain.

A variety of software tools based on axiomatic design hasbeen developed. Examples for implementations, includingthe background information are given in [18][25][70][71].

Axiomatic Design is helpful in enlightening the interrela-tions between development and application thus findingthe paths of inductive and deductive innovation.

4.5 Design for Specific Goals DFX

A cluster of design methods known as design for easeof. DFX is directed to specific goals in product develop-ment. With respect to innovation these methods of productdesign contribute to save efforts in different phases of theproduct life cycle e.g. manufacturing and assembly, disas-sembly and recycling.

Design for Assembly and Disassembly

In their 1992 keynote paper on design for assembly (DFA)and dissassembly [8] Boothroyd and Alting state, thatdesign for assembly aims to reduce the amount of partsleading to fewer handling and assembly operations. Alsoshould the assembly of the residual parts be eased by

modification of the design. Boothroyd and Dewhurst devel-oped a formalized step-by-step process to achieve thesegoals [7]. As shown in Figure 28, the three main steps arethe selection of an assembly method, the analysis of theassembly as well as the improvement and re-analysis ofthe design [8].

Figure 28: Stages in design for assembly analysis.

DFA helps in simplifying products by reducing costs. Man-ufacturing and assembly as a basis for teamwork andsimultaneous engineering offer potentials towards lifecycle design and design for disassembly.

In a 1993 keynote paper [23] disassembly is addressed asa key issue in product life cycle. Disassembly of usedproducts is needed in order to make recycling economi-cally viable in the current state of the art of reprocessingtechnology, thus avoiding the future high disposal cost.The emerging life cycle concept can be fully exploited todevelop suitable ways of dealing with information relatedto environmental protection and resource optimisation.

Current products are designed for easy assembly andcost-effective use of construction materials with focus onlyon manufacture. In order to meet the new demand forrecyclable products, current products have to be designedfor easy disassembly. Table 1 gives an overview of rules

suited for the design of such products [23].

Design for Ecological Environment

In [3] the life cycle concept is presented as the backbonefor a new industrial culture named sustainable production.Sustainability means design for the whole life cycle: pro-duction, distribution, usage and disposal with minimizedinfluence on the environment, occupational health and useof resources.

With respect to different life cycle phases general environ-mentally beneficial strategies not directly involving specificproducts are listed in Table 2[4].

Customer

NeedsFunctional

Requirements

Design

Parameters

Process

Variables

Customer Domain Functional Domain Physical Domain Process Domain

mapping mapping mapping

Figure 27: Design problems may be represented as mapping between four design domains.

Select theAssembly Method

Analyse forManual Assembly

Analyse for High-Speed Automatic

Assembly

Analyse forRobot Assembly

Improve theDesign andReanalysis


11/19

Page 11/19


Table 1: Generally accepted DfD design rules.

Table 2: Prevailing design strategies.

[19] describes the integration of life cycle oriented environ-mental considerations in procedures of product design and[28] addresses a simulation of the behaviour of used prod-ucts modelling critical functions for product quality withrespect to deterioration or upgrading.

To technically identify and economically assess reasona-ble combinations of disassembly and recycling it is usefulto build a recovery graph describing possible end-of-lifeoptions for each product or component by attaching a deci-sion between using component, utilising materials ordumping (Figure 29) [85]. Efforts in disassembly are justi-fied by profits in selling used components or materials andby saving dumping fees.

Figure 29: Recovery graph.

Modular Design

Modularization of components can considerably improvethe life-cycle characteristics of the product. Gu, Rivin andothers present an integrated modular design methodologyfor rapid product development, ease of assembly, service,reuse and recycling [17]. Different ways of the modulariza-tion have different impacts on the life-cycle characteristicsof the product. Goals of modularization are rapid productdevelopment, ease of assembly, service, reuse, recycling.

Design for Mass Customization

An approach combining comprehensive cost leadershipand product differentiation is design for mass customiza-tions. Figure 30 illustrates the economics of mass customi-zation [76]. In high volume production, the volume issufficient to defray the cost of investment in equipment,tooling, engineering. However, in low to medium volumeproduction, where production quantity can hardly justifythe investment, customers are willing to pay more becausetheir special needs are satisfied. This is the area wheremass customization has a tremendous advantage.

Figure 30: Economics of mass customization.

Effective definition of customer requirements is a prerequisite for mass customization. Design by customer is anapproach to communicate the offerings of a company, to

Benefits

Less DisassemblyWork

Predictable ProductConfiguration

Easy Disassembly

Easy Handling

Easy Separation

Variability Reduction

Design Rules

- Combine elements- Limit material variability- Use compatible materials- Group harmful materials into subassemblies- Provide easy access to harmful, valuable or

reusable parts

- Avoid ageing and corrosive materialcombination

- Protect subassemblies against soiling andcorrosion

- Accessible drainage points- Use fasteners easy to remove or destroy- Minimize number of fasteners- Use the same fasteners for many parts- Provide easy access to disjoining, fracture or

cutting points- Avoid multiple directions and complex

movements for disassembly- Set center-elemtents on a base part- Avoid metal inserts in plastic par ts

- Leave surface available for grasping- Avoid non-rigid parts- Enclose poisonous substances in sealed units

- Avoid secondary finishing (painting, coating,plating etc.)

- Provide marking or different colors for materialsto separate- Avoid parts and materials likely to damage

machinery (shredder)

- Use standart subassemblies and parts- Minimize number of fasteners types

Life Cycle Phase

Pre Manufacture

Relevance

Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens

Environmental Burdens

Supplier performance,Environmental Burdens

Resource Depletion

Strategy

Use of Recycled Materials


Low Energy Consumption


Material Quality Preservation

Environmental Burdens,Working Environment

Use High-Throughput Processes


Use Material Saving Processes

Use of Less Energy

Intensive Materials

Resource DepletionDesign for Maintenance/Long Life

Environmentally ConsciousComponent Selection


Use Recycled Materials forPackaging

Use of Renewable Materials

Environmental BurdensOverhead Reduction

Resource EnvironmentalUse of Renewable Materials

Environmental BurdensImproved Logistics

Environmental BurdensLow Volume/Weight

Manufacture

Transportation/distribution

Use

Disposal

{B1,B2,B3}

{B2,B3}

{B1,B2}

Process Techn.

?

DumpingUtilisingUsingProcess Techn.

?

DumpingUtilisingUsing Process Techn.

?

DumpingUtilisingUsing

{B3}

{B2}

{B1}

$/Unit

Economics of Scope

Price that Customers Are Willing to Pay

Mass Production Cost Curve

Mass Customization Cost Curve

Mass Production Net Value-added

Mass Customization Net Value-added

Economics of Scale

Production Volume

Low Medium High


12/19

Page 12/19


find the customers needs, to assist the customer by choos-ing and to negotiate for agreement. Product family archi-tecture represents the design and manufacturingcapabilities. Adaptive conjoint analysis is applied to assertthe customers needs, define variants, to visualize optionsand assess alternatives [77].

Design for Costing

Achieving the goal of being competitive on markets is to alarge extent dependent from costs. The issue of costingcriteria for decisions in design is addressed in [38]. Activitybased costing is used as a source of cost data for the finalproduct during the design phase. Functional architecturefor costing data support during product design, as well ascorresponding data structure are presented.

The potential of neural networks for the calculation tasks indesign is dealt with in [37]. Tremendous speed in informa-tion processing and good approximation capabilities canhelp assess available product knowledge for tasks in dif-ferent stages of product design.

4.6 Utilization of Design Methods

The use of formal design methods within productionmachinery companies has been investigated in [16].Figure 31 identifies the percentage of designers, out of awhole of 72 companies having been asked by question-naires, who claimed practical relevance for designmethods.

Figure 31: Comparison between the knowledge plan andutilization of formal design methods.

The sobering little percentages are explained by

methods too laborious and time consuming,

lack of training,

inefficiency of extensive paperwork,

only development of feasible not of optimal solutionsand

resistance from designers.

5 MODELLING TOOLS

The powerful push of information and communication tech-nology has meant a heavy impact on modelling tools for

design purposes in our scientific community. Integrateddigital product modelling has proved to be a firm funda-ment of documenting and processing product knowledgefor a multitude of useful applications in product design.Modelling tools are considered in the context of integratedproduct modelling, concurrent engineering, cooperativedesign, learning and organisational aspects.

5.1 Integrated Product Modelling

In their 1990 keynote paper Peters, Krause and Agerman[54] address customers, functional, product and processdomain and distinguish the two phases of creation andanalysis in design. CAD/CAM integration, different ways ofrepresentation in geometric modelling, data exchangestandards, feature based modelling, finite element meth-ods and overall integration by open system architecture,parallel processing and networking are dealt with. Figure32 describes different auxiliary models and data used inproduct modelling [54].

Figure 32: Different auxiliary models and data used inproduct modelling.

In 1991 Krause presented a language for efficient feature-

based product Gestaltung. Product features enable theuser to work in his semantical environment but not onlywith geometric primitives thus speeding the design proc-ess [34].

Figure 33: Complete product life-cycle concerns.

In their 1993 keynote paper Krause, Kimura, T. Kjellbergand Lu gave a general overview on product modelling [35].Although strategies like CIM, lean production, simultane-ous engineering or product life-cycle engineering havesomewhat different focuses and approaches, they all

Brainst

DFA

FMEA

Taguchi

VA/VE

DFM

DFC

Checklist

QFD

FTA

Fish Bone

Pugh

ABC

Combinex

0 10 20 30 40 50 60Percentage of Respondents (%)

DesignMethods

70 80 90100

AwarenessGeneral UtilisationInformal Utilisation

Productstructure

Productorientedprocess

know-Product

ledge

Productgestalt

Processmodel

Applicationmodel

Factorymodel

Product Planning

Abstraction Level

Conception

Design

Specification

Production

Use

Remove

Cost

Accounting D

esign/

Development

Simultaneous EngineeringProject Management

Supplier/

Procurement

Qua

lityAss

uran

ce

Proc

ess-Plan

ning

/

Engine

ering

Marketing/

Distribution

Manufacturing/

Assembly

IntegratedInformation

Models


13/19

Page 13/19


share one fundamental requirement: The need foradvanced information technologies to integrate and coordi-nate various life-cycle considerations during product devel-opment activities. A central issue is generating aninformation reservior of complete product data to supportvarious activities at different product development phases.Therefore product modelling is a key factor in determiningthe success of various development strategies and indus-trial competitiveness in the future (Figure 33[35]).

Product modelling in the evolution of product developmentis described in Figure 34[35].

Figure 34: Product modelling in the evolution of productdevelopment.

Because of the central importance of product models acomplete digital representation of all product and processrelated infomation can be seen as an ideal situation. It isnecessary to segment the product and process informationbasis into logical related smaller components for easiermanagement and higher efficiency. The segmented totalproduct model (Figure 35 [35]) is one approach to step-wise adapt the development and implementation of the

complete description of products and their components. Ittherefore is divided in an internal view of the user companyitself and an external view built by gathering informationfrom outside the company.

Figure 35: Segmented total product model.

CAD traditionally deals with geometry and not with func-tions, which are difficult to represent. FBS (function-behaviour-state) modelling is a methodology to representfunction during functional design. Tomiyama, Umeda andYoshikawa presented an implementaion in 1993 [73].

Petri nets are a formal graph model for the description andanalysis of systems that exhibit both asynchronous andconcurrent properties. Flexible manufacturing systems

(FMS) are systems with such properties and petri netshave been developed over three decades into a powerfultool for representing and analysing these systems. Tomodel the FMS extended petri nets are used as given inFigure 36[79].

Figure 36: Generating a FMS-schedule plan withpetri-nets.

Figure 37 shows how the information generated and used

in design processes can be categorized in two classes:foreground and background information [26].

Figure 37: Background and foreground information.

The foreground information represents mainly what aproduct is, while background information involves howand why. Background information covers design require-ments, design specifications, design history, designmethods, design standards etc. It is collected or generatedduring the design process but often disappears after theprocess is finished. From the background information ofprevious products, a designer can learn the experience ofthe designers engaged in the development of those pro-ducts. Using this information design mistakes can bereduced. Since the background information seems sovaluable for the design of new products, it should be stored

for later access. Kimura and Suzuki propose a method andcomputer supported tools to properly handle und utilizebackground information [26]. It covers methodologies foracquiring/maintaining information, a knowledge/data baseand the integration with existing design support tools.

Currently the modelling of surfaces is rather difficultbecause of the pure mathematical approaches taken. Asone step to a more natural and intuitive technique the useof B-Splines is proposed. This physically based intuitivesystem is aimed at providing intuitive tools for effectivelydesigning curves and surfaces with a large degree of free-dom. The system is based on simulating the behaviour ofelastic beams and plates under forces. The tool can be

used to improve and shorten the development process[24].

Kimura identifies new roles and technology of stylingdesign to cope with emergent markets and environmental

workpiece drawing

geometric

model

product

model

usage

evaluation

economic

evaluation

design ofproduct

modellingprocesses

knowledgeprocessing

organization

simulationalgorithms

general methodsfor teaching

Development

Steps

Year2000195019001850

tryout

prototyping

marketresearch

developmentplanning

Machine

Building

Technical

Design

Methological

Design

Computer

Aided Design

Computer Aided

Product Modelling

Computer Aided Product Development

SegmentedTotal

Product Model

MarketModel

Environ-mentModel

BranchModel

SupplierModel

UsageModel

QualityModel

ProcessModelDesign

Model

ProductConceptModel

Require-mentModel

CustomerModel

Exterior Model

1. Step 2. StepSteps of Realization: 3. Step

Interior Model

FMS configuration

Coloured-TimedPetri Net Models

Product Definiton(Precedence graph)

Petri Net

Generator

Scheduler

Background

RequirementsSpecificationsAssumptionsConstraintsDesign HistoryDesign MethodsRationale etc.

esgnProcess

Foreground

Product Descript.DrawingCAD DataProduct Model


14/19

Page 14/19


requirements. He describes the interplay of styling andengineering design and computer aided tools for stylingdesign (Figure 38) [27].

Figure 38: CAD for styling and engineering design.

Digital product models can be used for maintainabilityanalysis and maintenance planning. It is not feasible to

build digital product models for maintenance purposesonly, but if a digital product model is available, it may beused to support many maintenance-related engineeringtasks. Examples are the influence of product use onproduct performance, the influence of wear on productfunction, failure mode and effect analysis, product model-based monitoring to relate sensor signals to failure modes,failure diagnosis, disassemblability analysis for repair andreplacement. Virtual maintenance systems are developedto support the activities mentioned above and thereforecan be used for robust design.

5.2 Concurrent Engineering

Sometimes materials processing and product design areso much independent, that they must be performedconcurrently. An example for this is filament winding. In[39] this widely used technique for composite structures ispresented. Precise control of fiber orientation is a majordesign consideration. Allowing a high-speed accurate lay-down of continuous fiber reinforcement in pre-describedpatterns, filament winding is particularly attractive formanufacturing components. An example can be the crea-tion of a basket-weave structure by helical winding. Afterthe winding process is finished, curing and finishing followsresulting in a product that can be tested and evaluated [48][50][84].

The term concurrent engineering has stimulated an indus-

trial development towards shorter lead times, lower costand better customer satisfaction. Leadership, developmentof team work and education have been important factors.The main methodology is to integrate product andprocesses development as much as possible in parallelrather than in sequence (Figure 39) [68].

Figure 39: Compressed product and manufacturingprocess design cycle under concurrent engineering.

CAD and rapid prototyping (RP) accelerate the productdevelopment process once a consistent computerinternalshape description is available and RP requirements areconsidered. By decomposing CAD models into criticalworkpiece areas, shape related definition of technologyparameters, layer models for RP, a technological planningsystem for RP is realized to be faster in phases of designand prototyping (Figure 40) [36].

Figure 40: Acceleration potentials through use of CADand rapid prototyping.

5.3 Cooperative Design

As costs and lead times for product development immedi-

ately affect the economic success, outsourcing of develop-ment activities becomes a major element of businessstrategy. Prerequisite is the ability to cooperate efficientlywith partners, jointly developing new products in a flexiblemanner.

In the model fusion approach presented by Lu in 1997 [41]the paradigm of engineering as a collaborative negotiationprocess is implemented in an adaptive and interactivemodelling system. Tichkiewitch in 1997 [72] presents amultiview system allowing to involve marketing agents, ITtechnologists, designers, manufacturers, people frommaintenance or recycling i.e. any participant of the productlife cycle into the product development process. In [62] a

method for distributed design and manufacturing based ona circuit representation of the product architecture support-ing self organizing development-consortia is presented

Computer Graphics Product Modelling

Form FeatureGeometric Modelling

Rapid PrototypingVirtual Reality

CAD

STYLINGDESIGN

Aesthetics

Ergonomics

Functionality

Manufacturability

ENGINEERINGDESIGN

Separationversus

Integration

CompetetiveStrategy

ProductPlanning

Product Design &Modelling

MaterialsSelection

Mfg. Process

DesignMdg. System

Design

PrototypeTesting

Detailed Process &Mfg. System Planning

Implementation &Logistics

Production & Distribution

Strategic

Logistics

LIFE CYCLE ECONOMICS MODEL Activity Based Costing Models

New Product Introduction

Time

CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

Design phase n Prototype Production

Design

Model Preparation

Technological Planning

Manufacturing

Digitization

Rapid

Prototyping

Design process

CAD Time Savings


15/19

Page 15/19


(Figure 41). It is based on a general model of productdevelopment (Figure 42) [83].

Figure 41: Passage of a bus, connecting the front and therear vehicle. Primary, secondary and

tertiary circuits.

Figure 42: General model of distributed productdevelopment.

In [22] agents for the support of collaborative design, formonitoring design activities to identify needs for coopera-tion, to establish links between designers, and to providesuggestions for coordinated decisions are described.

In their 1999 keynote paper [42] Lu and Shpitalni showhow virtual and augmented reality technologies for productrealization can bridge gaps between design and manufac-turing, electrical engineering and computer science, howproduct realization will emerge between people, resources

and organisations distributed in time and space.Identifiying interdependencies among design tasks, thusmanaging technical decisions, social interaction and con-flicts is dealt with in [43].

5.4 Learning and Organisational Aspects

Innovation requires human initiative and open minds forchange. Information technology i.e. artificial intelligence,access to documentation, computer tools for decision sup-port, scenario based assessment, technical and economi-cal calculation can stimulate and support humanjudgement and creative imagination. Continuous learningand permanent organisational adaptation in driving teams

constitute a corporate attitude of readiness for innovation.Existing simulation tools are very often too slow on existingcomputers and prevent interactive decision making.Although most real-world problems involve multiple andcompeting objectives, the majority of optimisation tech-niques are single-objective optimisation tools requiring thatthe designer weighting the competing objectives. A knowl-edge processing methodology is proposed which com-bines the power of simulation and optimisation fromengineering with induction from machine learning researchin artificial intelligence (AI). Software techniques from AIinductive learning are integrated with multi-objective opti-misation to form a modelling system which provides flexi-ble support to engineers during both model formation andutilization phases. The advantage of this methodology isthat the designers can have explicit understanding andflexible control over the trade-off between speed and accu-racy of simulation models for design tasks [40].

Hierarchical and interactive decision refinement (HIDER)is a methodology for system design, that combinesmachine learning based modelling, multiple-objective opti-misation, and interactive refinement techniques to providedecision support for quickly exploring the design space.HIDER starts with an initial design space and uses theresults of optimisation to gradually refine the space until afully specified design is obtained. This is in contrast to thetraditional approach, which starts with a fully-specified

starting design and iteratively modifies its specifications.The shift in paradigm between the traditional and the pro-posed approaches is schematically illustrated in Figure 43[58].

Figure 43: Iterative modification andinteractive refinement.

A 1996 technical report on machine learning approachesto manufacturing [49] states that continuous steadyimprovement is a key requirement to manufacturing enter-prises necessitating flat and flexible organisation, life-longlearning of employees on the one side, and informationand material processing systems with adaptive, learningabilities on the other side. Sustainable production and sus-tainable competitiveness, or learning faster than competi-

tors are notations that describe current trends. As learningfactories, enterprises in manufacturing must be consciousof their duality, i.e. the interdependence of their technical

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 Front Joint

2 Rear Joint

3 Front-Chassis-Connection

4 Rear-Chassis-Connection

5 Folding Bellow

6 Tube-Wire-Package

Tertiary Circuit: Flow Media

TertiaryCircuit:FlowMedia

SecondaryCircuit:Fo

rcesMomentum

s, Displacements

Primary Circuit: Free Space

PrimaryCircuit:FreeSpace

Distributed

Product

Development

Interdependencies

Schedule

Intera

ctio

ns

c b d a e

c

b

d

a

e

x

x

x

x x

x

x

Requirements

a b c d e

A B C

Organization

Organizatio

nstructural

knowledgestructural

knowledge

Proce

ss

Process

Product ArchitectureProduct Architecture

proceduralknowledgeproceduralknowledge

descriptiveknowledgedescriptiveknowledge

a

bc d

e

m

lkj

i

h

gf

Dy

Dz

analysis andoptimisation fully specified

initial design

Dx

Dy

Dz

Dx

initial designspace

paradigm shift


16/19

Page 16/19


and human constituents. Human and machine learning areequally essential for learning enterprises.

A. Kjellberg defines three critical company capabilities:commitment, shared mindset and innovation aredemanded, to create company core excellence values. Allemployees in a company gain holistic understanding, con-sciousness (Figure 44) [29].

Figure 44: Company core excellence values.

Atransparency organizational model supports building upinnovative capabilities of teams competence brokers [30].

Cellular manufacturing systems are introduced as a rapidprototyping and strategic decision-making tool for configur-ing facilities and product task assignment [32]. The cellularsystems consist of atonomous intelligent units having thefollowing characteristics:

Homogeneity use only as few cells as necessary.

Distributed information cellular machine has no cen-tral control.

Autonomy each cell has intelligence and acts inde-pendently.

A self-organisation algorithm based on reinforcementlearning is introduced. By this algorithm, a cellular manu-facturing system can acquire an adequate configuration.

6 CASE EXAMPLES

A promising approach from a manufacturing perspective tocope with unpredictable high-frequency market changesdriven by global competition are reconfigurable manufac-turing systems [33] [75].

The development of upgradeable cellular machines hasbeen presented in 1998 by Kondoh, Umeda andYoshikawa [31].

In a 1999 keynote paper Koren and others present tripod-kinematic machines to be integrated in machining lines forcylinder blocks and also to be installed as stand-alone orportal styled laser centers for machining of sheet metal(Figure 45) [33].

Figure 45: Tripod-kinematic machines integrated intoa machining line.

In 2000 Arai presented a cell based holonic assembly sys-

tem as a modular plug & produce concept (Figure 46).Holons represent autonomous and cooperating systemcomponents [6].

Figure 46: Cell based holonic manufacturing system.

Machine tools equipped with process controlling sensorialdevices to compensate tool wear in cutting processeshave always been product innovations in the machine toolindustry. In [1] Brinksmeyer and others present an intelli-gent grinding wheel (Figure 47) with respective in-processcontrol of grinding. Miniaturized sensors for temperatureand force connected to wireless telemetric units for power

supply and data transmission are integrated in the grindingwheel sufficiently close to the contact zone (Figure 48).

Figure 47: Intelligent grinding wheel.

Comp

any CoreExcellenceValues

Professional

Competence

Innovative

Competence

Holistic Work

Organization Competence

Social Competence

Business Competence

Vision & Goal

Competence

TemperatureSensors

Segment of theGrinding Layer

Grinding Wheel

ForceSensors


17/19

Page 17/19


Figure 48: In-process control of grinding.

7 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

Innovation has been analysed considering art, natural sci-ences, economics and management, engineering andsocial sciences as sources of understanding and initiatinginvention and exploitation. Illustrating cases have been

presented along classifying criteria. The challenge of cre-ating business and jobs by intelligent deciding on how toassign resources to promising paths of innovation withoutin lack of strategy spilling the R&D budget on a wide rangeof activities has been stated. Methods and tools of design,case examples in manufacturing developed and dealt within our scientific community have been evaluated withrespect to meeting the challenge.

Manufacturing in general and especially design empow-ered by integrated knowledge processing beyond tradi-tional disciplinary barriers prove to be areas emergingartifacts. Referencing our creative imagination to meetinghuman goals and purpose for mankinds prosperity will

help us keeping course.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks to Prof. F. Kimura, Prof. T. Kjellberg, Prof.F.-L. Krause, Prof. S. Lu, Prof. A. Y. C. Nee, Prof. M.Shpitalni, and to the following colleagues who contributedvaluable material: Prof. E. Brinksmeier, Prof. J. Corbett,Prof. B. Hon, Prof. E. Rivin, and Prof. H. K. Tnshoff.

9 REFERENCES

[1] Ahrens, O., Seedorf, T., Binder, J., Bhm, C., Brinks-meier, E., 2000, Wearing Sensors for the measure-

ment of temperature in contact zone applications,MICRO.tec 2000, Proceedings Vol. 2, VDE-Verlag,Berlin, 825830.

[2] Albach, H., 1993, Culture and Technical Innovation,Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York.

[3] Alting, L., Jrgensen, J., 1993, The Life Cycle con-cept as a Basis for Sustainable Industrial Production,Annals of the CIRP, 42/1: 163167.

[4] Alting, L., Legarth, J. B., 1995, Life Cycle Engineeringand Design, Annals of the CIRP, 44/2: 569580.

[5] Anders-van Ahlften, A., 1989, Laser Das andereLicht: eine Schlsseltechnologie der Zukunft, GeorgThieme Verlag, Stuttgart.

[6] Arai, T., Aiyama, Y., Maeda, Y., Ota, J., 2000, AgileAssembly System by Plug & Produce, Annals of theCIRP, Vol. 49/1: 14.

[7] Boothroyd, G., Dewhurst, P., 1991, Product Designfor Assembly, Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc., Wakefield.

[8] Boothroyd, G., Alting, L., 1992, Design for Assemblyand Disassembly, Annals of the CIRP, 41/2: 625636.

[9] Christensen, C. M., 2000, The Innovator's Dilemma,Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

[10] Corbett, J., 1994, Unified Terminology on Design,CIRP.

[11] Da Vinci, L., 1488, Codex Atlanticus.

[12] Ehrenstein, G. W., 2000, Polymeric Materials, CarlHanser Verlag, Mnchen.

[13] Fey, V. R., Rivin, E. L., 1997, The Science Of Innova-tion, TRIZ Group, Michigan.

[14] Gastel, S. v., Nikeschina, M., 2000, SMD technologytrends and its implications for SMD placement equip-ment, SMT/ES&S/Hybrid Conference, Nrnberg: 79-86.

[15] Gausemeier, J, 1995, Szenario-Management Planen und Fhren mit Szenarien, Carl Hanser Ver-lag, Mnchen.

[16] Gouvinhas, R. P., Corbett, J., 1999, The use of designmethods within production machinery companies,Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engi-neers, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Vol 213,Part B: 285293.

[17] Gu, P., Hashemian, M., Sosale, S., Rivin, E., 1997,An Integrated Modular Design Methodology for Life-Cycle Engineering, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1: 7174.

[18] Harutunian, V., Nordlund, M., Tate, D., Suh, N. P.,1996, Decision making and software tools for productdevelopment based on axiomatic design theory,Annals of the Cirp, 45/1: 135139.

[19] Hauschild, M., Wenzel, M., Alting, L., 1999, Life CycleDesign A Route to the Sustainable Industrial Cul-ture?, Annals of the CIRP, 48/1: 393396.

[20] Hering, E., Martin, R., Stohrer, M., 1999, Physik frIngenieure, Springer Verlag, Berlin.

[21] Hofstadter, D. R., 1985, Gdel, Escher, Bach: EinEndlos Geflochtenes Band, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart.

[22] Jin, Y., Lu, S. C.-L., 1998, An Agent-SupportedApproach to Collaborative Design, Annals of theCIRP, 47/1: 107110.

[23] Jovane, F., Alting, L., Armillotta, A., Eversheim, W.,Feldmann, K., Seliger, G. Roth, N., 1993, A Key Issuein Product Life Cycle: Disassembly, Annals of the

CIRP, 42/2: 651658.[24] Kagan, P., Fischer, A., Shpitalni, M., 1996, Intuitive

physical-based CAD system for designing of sculp-tured surfaces, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 45/1: 121124.

[25] Kim, S.-J., Suh, N. P., Kim, S.-G., 1991, Design ofSoftware Based on Axiomatic Design, Annals of theCIRP, 40/1: 165170.

[26] Kimura, F., Suzuki, H., 1995, Representing Back-ground Information for Product Description to SupportProduct Development Process, Annals of the CIRP,44/1: 113116.

[27] Kimura, F., 1997, Issues in Styling and EngineeringDesign, Annals of the CIRP, 46/2: 527534.

Grinding Machine

Grinding Wheel

DataAnalyzer

MachineTool

Interface

Telemetric Circuitry

ControlAlgorithms

ProcessData

Energy

Data

ExternalTelemetr.

UnitCoil

InternalTelemetr.

Unit

T

F

f

Coil


18/19

Page 18/19


[28] Kimura, F., Hata, T., Suzuki, H., 1998, Product QualityEvaluation Based on Behaviour Simulation of UsedProducts, Annals of the CIRP, 47/1: 119122.

[29] Kjellberg, A., 1999, Teams Whats Next? FromFragmentation and Consciousness to Responsive-ness by Competence Management for Modular Man-ufacturing Learning, Annals of the CIRP, 48/2: 599609.

[30] Kjellberg, A., Werneman, A., 2000, Business Innova-tion Innovative Teams, Competence Broker andBeehive Structures in a Sustainable Work Organi-sation, Annals of the CIRP, 49/1: 355358.

[31] Kondoh, S., Umedy, Y., Yoshikawa, H., 1998, Devel-opment of Upgradeable Cellular Machines for Envi-ronmentally Conscious Products, Annals of the CIRP,47/1: 381384.

[32] Kondoh, S., Umeda, Y., Tomiyama, T., Yoshikawa, H.,2000, Self Organisation of Cellular ManufacturingSystems, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 49/1: 347350.

[33] Koren, Y., Heisel, U., Jovane, F., Moriwaki, T.,Pritschow, G., Ulsoy, G., Van Brussel, H., 1999,

Reconfigurable manufacturing systems, Annals of theCIRP, Vol. 48/2: 527540.

[34] Krause, F.-L., Kramer, S., Rieger, E., 1991, PDGL: ALanguage for Efficient Feature-Based ProductGestaltung, Annals of the CIRP, 40/1: 135138.

[35] Krause, F.-L., Kimura, F., Kjellberg, T., Lu, S. C.-Y.,1993, Product Modelling, Annals of the CIRP, 42/2:695706.

[36] Krause, F.-L., Ciesla, M., Stiehl, Ch., Ulbrich, A.,1997, Enhanced Rapid Prototyping for Faster ProductDevelopment Processes, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1:9396.

[37] Krause, F.-L., Carl, A., 2000, Optimal CombinedUsage of Formulas, Fuzzy-Logic and Neural Net-works for Calculation in Product Development,Annals of the CIRP, 49/1: 7982.

[38] Liebers, A., Kals, H. J. J., 1997, Cost decision supportin product design, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1: 107112.

[39] Lossie, M., Peters, J., Van Brussel, H., 1989, DesignPhilosophy in Filament Winding, Annals of the CIRP,38/1: 175178.

[40] Lu, S. C.-Y., Tcheng, D. K., Yerramareddy, S., 1991,Integration of Simulation, Learning and Optimizationto Support Engineering Design, Annals of the CIRP,40/1: 143146.

[41] Lu, S. C.-Y., Li, D., 1997, A Model Fusion Approach toSupport Negotiations during Complex EngineeringSystem Design, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1: 8992.

[42] Lu, S. C.-Y., Shpitalni, M., Gadh, R., 1999, Virtual andAugmented Reality Technologies for Product Realiza-tion, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 48/2: 471496.

[43] Lu, S. C.-Y., Cai, J., Burkett, W., Udwadia, F., 2000, AMethodology for Collaborative Design Process andConflict Analysis, Annals of the CIRP, 49/1: 6973.

[44] Mansfield, E., 1988, The speed and Cost of IndustrialInnovation in Japan and the United States: Externalvs. Internal Technology, in: Management Science 34,

10.[45] Maslow, A., 1954, Motivation and Personality,

Harper&Row Publisher Inc., New York.

[46] Maxon Motor GmbH, 2001, Official Product Cata-logue 2001, Mnchen.

[47] Mensch, G., 1972, Basisinnovationen und Verbesse-rungsinnovationen, eine Erwiderung, in: Zeitschrift frBetriebswirtschaft, 42/5: 291f, Gabler, Wiesbaden.

[48] Michaeli, W., et al., 1994, Dimensionieren mitFaserverbundkunststoffen Einfhrung und prak-tische Hilfen, Carl Hanser Verlag, Mnchen.

[49] Monostori, L., Mrkus, A., 1996, Machine LearningApproaches to Manufacturing, Annals of the CIRP,45/2: 675706.

[50] Moser, K., et al., 1991, Entwicklung von Bauteilen ausFaser-Kunststoff-Verbund Konzeption und Gestalt-ung, VDI Gesellschaft Kunststofftechnik, VDI-Verlag,Dsseldorf.

[51] Mller, K., 2001, Wege zur Steigerung der Nutzen-produktivitt von Ressourcen, Dissertation TU Berlin.

[52] Neinhuis, C., Barthlott, W., 1997, Characterizationand distribution of water-repellent, self-cleaning plantsurfaces. Annals of Botany 79: 667-677.

[53] Pahl, G., Beitz, W., 1997, Konstruktionslehre,Springer Verlag, Berlin.

[54] Peters, J., Krause, F.-L., Agerman, E., 1990, Design:an Integrated Approach, Annals of the CIRP, 39/2:599607.

[55] Pfeiffer, W., Dgle, R., 1999, Das Technologie-Portfo-lio-Konzept zur Beherrschung der Schnittstelle Tech-nik und Unternehmensstrategie, Physica-Verlag,Heidelberg.

[56] Plinke, W., 1993, Die Vernderung von Produktsyste-men im internationalen Wettbewerb, in: Albach, H.,1993, Culture and Technical Innovation, Walter deGruyter, Berlin, New York.

[57] Porter, M. E., 1980, Competitive Strategy, New York.

[58] Reddy, S. Y., Lu, S. C.-Y., 1994, An InteractiveRefinement Methodology for Early-Stage Explorationof Design Space during System Design, Annals of theCIRP, 43/1: 115120.

[59] Rogers, E. M., 1983, Diffusion of Innovations, Pren-tice Hall, New York/London.

[60] Savransky, S. D., 2000, Engineering of Creativity,CRC Press.

[61] Schumpeter, J. A., 1911, Theorie der wirtschaftlichenEntwicklung, Duncker und Humblot, Leipzig.

[62] Seliger, G., Karl, H., Weber, H., 1997, Cooperative

Design, Manufacturing and Assembly of ComplexProducts, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1: 6770.

[63] Seliger, G., Basdere, B., Schumann, S. Wapler, M.,2000, Technological Conditions for Selling UseInstead of Selling Products, in: Proceedings of the 7thCIRP International Seminar on Life Cycle Engineer-ing.

[64] Seliger, G., Basdere, B., Keil, T., 2001, E-CyclingPlatform for Profitable Reuse, in: Proceedings of theIEEE International Symposium on Assembly andTask Planning (ISATP): 453-458.

[65] Seliger, G., Rebafka, U., Stenzel, A., Keil, T., 2001,Flexible Disassembly Tools, Proc. of the 2001 IEEEInternational Symposium on Electronics & the Envi-ronment, Denver, Colorado: 30-35.


19/19

Page 19/19


[66] Simon, Herbert A., 1996, The Sciences of the Artifi-cial, MIT Press.

[67] Smith, A., 1904, An Inquiry into the Nature andCauses of the Wealth of Nations, 2 Vols., EverymansLibrary, Dent & Sons, London.

[68] Sohlenius, G., 1992, Concurrent Engineering, Annalsof the CIRP, 41/2: 645655.

[69] Suh, N. P., 1990, The Principles of Design, Oxford

University Press, New York.

[70] Suh, N. P., 1997, Design of Systems, Annals of theCIRP, 46/1: 7580.

[71] Suh, N. P., Do, S. H., 2000, Axiomatic design of soft-ware systems, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 49/1: 95100.

[72] Tichkiewitch, S., 1997, Methodology and ProductModel for Integrated Design using a Multiview Sys-tem, Annals of the CIRP, 46/1: 8184.

[73] Tomiyama, T., Umeda, Y., Yoshikawa, H., 1993, ACAD for Functional Design, Annals of the CIRP, 42/1:143146.

[74] Tnshoff, H. K., Uhlig, U., 1999, Variable Description

of Product Requirements for cooperative ProductDevelopment in Customer-Supplier Chains, Produc-tion Engineering Vol. VI/2: 113116.

[75] Tnshoff, H. K., Schnlle, A., 2000, Highly Productiveand re-Configurable Modular Manufacturing Systems,2000 International CIRP Design Seminar: 377381.

[76] Tseng, M. M., Jiao, X. J., Merchant, M. E., 1996,Design for mass customization, Annals of the CIRP,45/1: 153156.

[77] Tseng, M. M., Du, X., 1998, Design by customers formass customization products, Annals of the CIRP, 47/1: 103106.

[78] Ulrich, K. T., Eppinger, S. D., 1995, Product Designand Development, McGraw-Hill Companies, NewYork.

[79] Van Brussel, H., Peng, Y., Valckenaers, P., 1993,Modelling Flexible Manufacturing Systems Based on

Petri Nets, Annals of the CIRP, 42/1: 479484.[80] VDI 3780, 1991, Technikbewertung, Begriffe und

Grundlagen, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin.

[81] von Braun, C. F., 1994, Der Innovationskrieg, HanserVerlag, Mnchen, Wien.

[82] von Hippel, E., 1986, Lead Users: A Source of NovelProduct Concepts, Management Science 32, no. 7:791805.

[83] Weber, H., 1998, Konzept eines Modells zur Produkt-entwicklung, Dissertation, Technische UniversittBerlin.

[84] Weck, M., Nottebaum, T., Enewoldsen, P., 1994,

bersichtsvortrag: Leichtbauanwendungen imMaschinen- und Apparatebau, Konferenz-Einzel-bericht: Werkstofftag 94, VDI-Berichte, Dsseldorf,Band 1080: 377381.

[85] Zussman, E., Kriwet, A., Seliger, G., 1994, Disassem-bly oriented assessment methodology to supportdesign for recycling, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 43/1: 912.

folder 11 Seliger

Documents

Transcript of folder 11 Seliger