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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

LY

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY MMARCH 1951

DEPARTMFENT OF THE ARMYWASrHINGTON 25, D. C, 8 March 1951

FM 55-130 is published for the information andguidance of all concerned.

[AG 00.7 (11 Jul 49)

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARM¥:

OFFICIAL: J. LAWTON COLLINSChief of StaffU1i:ed Sates Aw.

EDWARD F. WITSELLMajor General, USAThe Adjutant Gen eri

DISTRIBUTION:

Tech Svc (2) except 55 (50) ; Arm & Svc Bd (2)except 55 (10); AFF (5); OS Maj Comd(10); Base Comd (5); MDW (2); A (20);CHQ (5); FC (2); Sch (10) except 55 (100);PE (25), OSD (10); T/O & E 55-37 (5); 55-47 (5); 55-110-1 (5); 55-117 (10); 55-120-1(5); 55-500, AA, AL, BA, BM, CA, CC, HA,HK, IA, II (1).

For explanation of distribution formula, see SR310-90-1.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

FM 55-130

This manual supersedes FM 55-130, 31 January 1944

THE HARBOR CRAFTCOMPANY

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY MARCH 1951

United States Government Printing OfficeWashington :1951

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 30 cents

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Paragraphs Page

Section I. General -------------------- 1-2 1II. Mission and organization -.-.- 3-6 2

III. Training ------------------- 7 6CHAPTER 2. TYPES OF VESSELS

Section I. General -.------------------ 8 8II. Classes of vessels .---. -- 9-14 9

CHAPTER 3. DUTIES OF PERSONNELSection I. Deck department, class A and

class B vessels ------------- 15-23 26II. Engine room department, class

A and class B vessels ------ 24-27 33III. Communications department,

class A and class B vessels__ 28-31 35IV. Class C and class D vessels --- 32-34 54

V. Cranes .................... 35-36 58CHAPTER 4. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

AND REPAIR, GENERALSection I. Procedure for repairs -------- 37-38 62

II. Maintenance and repair team-_ 39-40 62III. Basic preventive maintenance

requirements --.---------- 41-43 64CHAPTER 5. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

AND REPAIR OF HULL,GEAR, AND EQUIPMENT

Section I. Steel hull ------------------ 44-45 69II. Wooden hull .............. 46-47 72

III. Rigging ....... ............ 48-50 75IV. Cargo-handling gear --------- 51-52 77

V. Anchor gear .............. 53-57 78VI. Lifeboats and equipment ----- 58-61 82

VII. Cargo holds .. ............. 62-67 86VIII. Miscellaneous maintenance

work _---------- --------- 68-74 90CHAPTER 6. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

BEFORE AND DURING VES-SEL OPERATION

Section I. Check of equipment beforevessel operation . ....... 75-85 93

II. Proper performance of equip-ment during vessel operation_ 86-94 103

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES ................. ..... 113II. GLOSSARY ....................... 116

This manual supersedes FM 55-130, 31 January 1944

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Section I. GENERAL

1. PURPOSE

This manual is published for the information andguidance of personnel concerned with the harborcraft company, a Transportation Corps organiza-tion. It contains instructions pertaining to stand-ard harbor craft organization, functions, and pro-cedures.

2. SCOPE

a. This manual includes a general explanation ofsuch topics as mission, training, and organization ofthe harbor craft company; types and characteristicsof its vessels; harbor craft crews and their duties;and preventive maintenance and repair.

b. It is not intended that this manual set fortha rigid set of operational functions and practicesof a harbor craft company but rather that it furnishsome rules, regulations, and procedures which are inuse and are recognized as good harbor craft practice.Operating conditions vary under different circum-stances, and information contained herein may re-quire corresponding adjustment. Successful opera-tion of the harbor craft company demands intelligent

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adaptation of its personnel and equipment to pre-vailing circumstances.

Section II. MISSION AND ORGANIZATION

3. MISSION

The mission of the harbor craft company will varywith the circumstances under which it operates. A.company may be assigned both or only one of thefollowing missions: to operate and maintain barges,tugs, cranes, power boats, and liaison craft within aharbor and in the protected waters in the vicinityof that harbor, and/or to transport freight and pas-sengers from that harbor or central port to smaller,outlying installations. The type, size, and numberof craft assigned to the company for a particularoperation will depend upon the amount and natureof the cargo and personnel to be transported, cli-matic conditions, urgency, and many other circum-stances pertinent to the operation.

4. RELATIONSHIP TO BATTALION AND FORT

A harbor craft company operating overseas is or-ganized to fulfill the specific mission assigned to it.Depending on the local situation, the company maybe assigned to an oversea port or to a TransportationCorps composite battalion. The battalion in turnmay be assigned to an oversea port, major or medium.

a. Each port presents its own organizationalproblems and the organization of the harbor craftcompany must be flexible enough to permit adapta-tion to local conditions of operation and organization.

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b. The battalion headquarters to which a harborcraft company might be assigned normally wouldperform the administrative duties and would beresponsible for all organizational equipment and itsmaintenance and repairs.

c. From three to six companies may be assigned toa battalion headquarters which may requisition suchadditional service units as medical type units.

d. Maintenance and repair teams would be assignedto the battalion on the basis of the total number ofvessels assigned to the harbor craft companies inthe battalion.

5. USE IN WORLD WAR II

a. The original need for the harbor craft companywas felt in World War II in the Southwest Pacificwhere vast ocean areas separated the scene of com-bat from the source of supply. All available trans-ocean shipping was needed to bring the supplies fromthe continental United States to the theater of opera-tions and large cargo ships and tankers could notbe spared to carry supplies to subports along coastsor to small, isolated islands. Many installationswere so situated that it was impossible for transoceanshipping to service them because of shallow channels,lack of berths and piers, scarcity of cargo-handlingequipment, and undeveloped beaches and depot areas.Consequently, the larger vessels unloaded at centralpoints and harbor craft distributed cargo to smallerports and coastwise installations in the area.

b. The greatest utilization of the harbor craft com-pany in the congested ports of Europe was in the

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harbor itself, where its cranes unloaded cargo ves-sels unable to berth at damaged wharves, its tugs,lighters, and barges transported cargo, while thesmaller craft were used for water taxi and messen-ger services.

c. At the end of World War II the Army had atotal of 12,466 harbor craft type vessels, of which7,563 were assigned to oversea theaters. These wereoperated by 57 harbor craft companies whose author-ized strength was 1,785 officers and 13,792 enlistedmen. Of the total, 4,597 vessels were nonpropelledbarges, 2,676 were launches, 1,065 were motor tow-boats, 1,113 were marine tractors, 510 were freightsupply vessels, 104 were class B tankers, and 746were tugs of all classes.

6. ORGANIZATION

To perform the varied types of operations withwhich it is concerned, the harbor craft company mustbe flexible and adaptable in structure. Unlike themajority of Army units organized under tables oforganization and equipment, the harbor craft com-pany does not have a fixed, authorized strength. Itis formed under the following cellular organizationalsystem.

a. Company head7quarters. Company headquar-ters, cell AC listed in T/O&E 55-500, provides per-sonnel for administration and housekeeping purposesand conducts all administrative duties pertaining tothe company. Its officers include the company com-mander and a supply officer. Its enlisted men,usually nine, include a first sergeant, motor sergeant,

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supply sergeant, company clerk, armorer, supplyclerk, bugler, and two truck drivers.

b. Vessel crewos. The type, size, and employmentof a vessel determine the size and organization ofthe crew assigned. Parts VIII and IX of T/O & E55-500 prescribe the authorized crew for the severalclasses of vessels. The crew of each vessel comprisesone cell. If 15 vessels are assigned to a company,the 15 appropriate cells comprise the operatingstrength of the company. Duties of crew personnelare described in chapter 3 of this manual.

e. Maintenance and repair teams. While crews areable to perform daily maintenance aboard their ves-sels, additional personnel may be required to performfurther maintenance and light repairs for the harborcraft vessels. This personnel will be found in themaintenance and repair cells listed in T/O & E 55-500. Some cells provide personnel skilled in mainte-nance and repair, some in maintenance only, andsome in repairs only. The number and type of vesselsassigned to the harbor craft company will be factorsin determining the number and type of maintenanceand repair teams to be assigned to the company.

d. Mess teams. Crews of the larger vessels messaboard their vessels, but crews of the smaller vesselsusually mess with company headquarters. Messteams listed in T/O & E 55-500 are attached to thecompany as required. The size of the mess team isdetermined by the number of personnel to be fed.

e. Auto mechanic teams. Auto mechanic teamsare added to the company in accordance with thenumber of motor vehicles assigned.

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Section III. TRAINING

7. TYPES OF TRAINING

Training of the harbor craft soldier is dividedinto three broad phases: basic military training, tech-nical training, and unit training.

a. Basic military training. The first few weeksof training (usually 6, 8, or 13) are devoted to basicmilitary subjects. This training gives the traineean understanding of fundamental military prin-ciples and practices and establishes a uniformity ofbasic military knowledge among all soldiers. Thistraining is accomplished in accordance with currentArmy training programs.

b. Technical training. A period of technicaltraining follows the basic military training and isof approximately the same duration. Each man isgiven training in a particular skill. This enableshim to become a member of a skilled team or unit.MITP 55-1 lists the technical courses to be given forTransportation Corps enlisted personnel.

(1) A soldier who successfully completes hisbasic technical training earns a military oc-cupational specialty (MOS) which is repre-sented by an MOS code number. A soldiermay earn several MOS's during his Armycareer.

(2) Enlisted specialist skills required by harborcraft company personnel include marine en-gineer, boatswain, small boat operator, sea-man, cook, electrician, marine oiler, craneoperator, and radio operator, low speed.

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c. Unit training. Upon completion of basic mili-tary and technical training, unit training is initiated.Each soldier, now a military specialist, learns to cor-relate his individual skill with those of others work-ing together as an integrated organization. In orderto provide practical experience for each specialist,the several teams in a company work on problemsunder simulated tactical conditions whenever pos-sible. The training program for TC units is out-lined in MTP 55-2.

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CHAPTER 2

TYPES OF VESSELS

Section I. GENERAL

8. TRANSPORTATION CORPS MARINE FLEET

The marine activities of the Transportation Corpsare limited to operations in harbors and inlandwaterways. The Military Sea Transportation Serv-ice (MSTS), under the direction and control of theDepartment of the Navy, has responsibility for trans-oceanic, intratheater, and coastwise movement ofpersonnel and cargo. The principal types of ves-sels, together with their uses, which comprise theTransportation Corps Harbor Boat Service are givenbelow.

a. Barges and lighters, self-propelled and non-propelled-these are used within harbor limits andon other sheltered waters for the movement of Armydry, liquid, and refrigerated cargoes.

b. Tugs and towboats-these are used for dockingand undocking of larger vessels and for the purposeof moving Army nonlpropelled barges within harborlimits or on other restricted waterways.

c. Utility boats-these carry a limited amountof light Army cargo either on deck or below deck,are self-propelled, and are used for various otherduties such as movement of small groups from ship toshore, etc.

d. Personnel boats-these are of several types andsizes and are used for command and inspection pur-poses as well as movement of personnel.

e. Floating cranes-these are used in the loadingand unloading of heavy Army cargo when the ship'sgear is unable to handle the lifts.

/. In addition to the above listed types, the Trans-portation Corps furnishes special types of vesselsfor use of Amphibious Special Brigade, harbor craftcompanies, continental armies, and oversea com-mands. Some of these are listed below.

(1) Patrol boats, wooden construction, Diesel-powered.

(2) Landing craft, normally of steel construc-tion, Diesel-driven.

(3) Ferries, automobile and passenger, nor-mally steel constructed, Diesel-driven.

(4) Pier barges, steel construction, nonpro-pelled.

(5) Floating machine shops, steel construction,nonpropelled.

(6) Floating drydocks, steel construction, non-propelled.

(7) Training vessels, normally steel constructed,Diesel-driven.

(8) Shallow draft river vessels, normally steelconstructed, Diesel-driven.

Section II. CLASSES OF VESSELS

9. GENERAL

Harbor craft company vessels of the self-propelledtype are divided into four classifications: classes

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A, B, C and D. Other vessels used by harbor craftcompanies, which are classed as E vessels, are non-propelled barges and floating cranes. Outboardpropulsion units are sometimes used in connectionwith these otherwise nonpropelled vessels. Themanning crews for the various classes of vessels aremade up from cells of T/O & E 55-500.

a. Class A vessels include-(1) Dry, reefer, and liquid cargo vessels 125 feet

and over in length.(2) Harbor tugs 100 feet in length (fig. 1).

b. Class B vessels include-(1) Cargo vessels under 125 feet in length.(2) Harbor tugs 51 feet to 99 feet in length.

c. Class C vessels include launches over 50 feetin length (fig. 2).

d. Class D vessels include-(1) Launches under 50 feet in length (figs. 3

and 4).(2) Harbor tugs and towboats under 50 feet in

length (fig. 5).e. Class E vessels include-

(1) Floating cranes (figs. 6, 7, and 8).(2) Cargo barges, dry and liquid (figs. 9 and

10).(3) Other harbor craft.(4) Outboard propulsion units.

10. CLASS A VESSELS

a. Cargo vessels over 125 feet in length.(1) Dry, reefer, and liquid cargo vessels of the

self-propelled type are used for supply ofArmy forces in small subports or other in-

stallations around the perimeter of a har-bor, or along rivers and inland waterways.These vessels are of steel construction, aretwin Diesel-powered, and have moderatedraft and other characteristics which makethem suitable for harbor and limited coast-wise operation. They are approximately150 feet in length and in loaded conditionattain a speed of 11 to 12 knots.

(2) The dry-cargo vessel has a carrying capac-ity of approximately 300 tons below decks.Modifications of the basic design allow formovement of bulk liquid and reefer cargoes.

b. Large harbor tug.(1) This tug (fig. 1) is 100 feet in length, has

a beam of 26 feet, 5 inches, and a draft ofapproximately 9 feet, 9 inches. Power issupplied by one 6-cylinder 1200 hp Dieselengine.

(2) This tug is used for docking and undockingof large ships and for heavy towing withinharbor areas and around the perimeter ofa harbor. The vessel has been designedwith exceptionally good freeboard, amplestability, and good cruising range. It iscapable of proceeding under its own powerto a theater of operations. Fire-fightingequipment is provided in all units of thisdesign.

11. CLASS B VESSELS

a. Cargo vessels under 125 feet in length. One ofthe standard vessels of this class is of steel construc-

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tion and is used within harbor areas for movement ofcargo and personnel.

(1) This vessel is 65 feet long with a beam ofapproximately 16 feet, 5 inches, and a draftof 5 feet, 2 inches.

(2) WVhen loaded, it has a speed of 11 knots.Power is furnished by a 6-cylinder 300 hpDiesel engine.

(3) Its cargo capacity is 30 tons. In addition,24 people can be accommodated in the deck-house aft.

(4) The vessel is fitted with fire-fighting equip-ment and is capable of being shipped ondeck of transports.

b. Harbor tug's 51 feet to 99 feet in length. Repre-sentative of this class is the all-steel 65-foot harbortug, powered by one 500 hp Diesel engine. Dimen-sions of this vessel are such that better than averagetransverse stability and freeboard are attained. Itis used principally for docking and undocking pur-poses and to move loaded barges from point to pointin a harbor area.

12. CLASS C VESSELS(Launches over 50 feet in length)

The principal example of this class vessel is the63-foot patrol boat (fig. 2). This is a wooden vesselwith a beam of 15 feet and draft of 3 feet, 10 inches.It is powered by twin Diesel engines and has a speedof 15 knots. The boat is used for transporting per-sonnel within harbor areas, for command and inspec-tion service, and for patrol work within harborlimits or around the perimeter of a harbor.

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Fig'ure 2. Class C patrol boat.

13. CLASS D VESSELS

a. Launches under 50 feet in length.(1) A typical vessel of this category is the off-

shore patrol boat (fig. 3), with a length of

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36 feet, 6 inches, a beam of 10 feet, 7 inches,and a speed of 15 knots. It is used to carrymail and light-packaged cargo, and to movepersonnel within harbor limits as well as topatrol restricted areas.

(2) Another boat in this class is the 26-footutility boat (fig. 4) with a beam of 8 feet,1 inch, and a draft of 3 feet. It has a speedof 10 knots; power is furnished by one 75hp Diesel engine. This utility boat is usedfor many purposes including movement oflight-packaged cargo and towing of smallbarges within harbor limits.

b. Harbor tugs and towboats under 50 feet inlength. The 45-foot steel tug (fig. 5) is typical ofthis class. It is powered by one 200-hp Diesel en-gine and has: a beam of 12 feet, 6 inches, and a draftof 5 feet, 6 inches. It is used extensively in the move-ment of light barges within harbor areas.

14. CLASS E VESSELS

a. Floating cranes. Floating cranes are of threesizes. The smallest one (fig. 6) has a lifting capacityof 30 tons; the intermediate size (fig. 7) is rated at60 tons; while the largest (fig. 8) has a capacity of100 tons. All three are revolving cranes of theDiesel-electric type mounted on welded steel barges.These cranes are used within harbor limits in theloading and unloading of heavy cargo which is be-yond the capacity of the ship's cargo handling gear.

b. Cargo barges: dnry, liquid, and reefer.(1) These nonpropelled vessels are of different

sizes, the smallest (fig. 9) being 45 feet in

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length, the next larger size 81 feet, and thelargest (fig. 10) 120 feet long. For thepurpose of standardization, the basic designfor the movement of dry cargo is used in the81-foot and 120-foot sizes for the accommo-dation of reefer and liquid cargoes.

(2) All barges in the standard fleet are ofwelded steel construction. The 45-foot and81-foot sizes are sectionalized for shipmenton deck of transports. Because of theirsimplified designs they are easily assembledin theaters of operations. The various sizesand types of nonpropelled barges are as fol-lows:

45'81' (dry cargo)81' (liquid cargo)81' (reefer cargo)120' (dry cargo)120' (liquid cargo)120' (reefer cargo)

c. Other harbor craft. Craft in this category in-clude the 210-foot nonpropelled floating machine-shop barge. This vessel is a seagoing barge withlarge deckhouse. It is equipped with all necessaryshop tools for maintenance and repair of machineryinstalled in harbor craft as well as for performanceof hull repairs.

d. Outboard propulsion units. These units are ofthe Diesel type and are supplied in two sizes. Thesmaller size. 200 hp, when applied to units of the81-foot barge designs give these vessels a speed of

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approximately 6 knots in sheltered waters (fig. 11).The larger size develops 300 hp and is applied to120-foot barges and to floating cranes. The units areof sturdy construction and are easily installed.Their use eliminates the necessity for many smalltugs and towboats within harbor limits.

Fiiyure 7. Sixty-ton floating crane.

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CHAPTER 3DUTIES OF PERSONNEL

Section I. DECK DEPARTMENT, CLASS A AND CLASS BVESSELS

15. GENERAL

Primary responsibilities of the deck departmentare the cleanliness, maintenance, supply, and safeconduct of the vessel. Although this department isseparate from other departments such as engineroom, communications, and steward, the necessarycoordination of all departments is facilitated if eachmember of the deck department familiarizes himselfwith the duties of other departments.

16. MASTER

The master has supreme command of his vessel,notwithstanding the presence of a pilot, and is heldresponsible for proper navigation and the safety ofthe vessel and all those on board. He must have athorough knowledge of navigation principles and beable to apply them. The duties of a master aremany, covering technical, practical, and personnelproblems. The duties of mess officer are the respon-sibility of the master, and he may delegate these du-ties to one of the deck officers, who should be famil-iar with TM 10-205 on mess management and train-ing and TM 10-405 on the Army cook. Comprehen-

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sive lists of the duties of the master may be found inAR 55-310, AR 55-510, and SR 55-510-1. It is theduty of the master to-

a. Be familiar with the mechanical operation ofhis vessel and its equipment.

b. See that maintenance of all equipment is per-formed and that all necessary repairs are made ex-peditiously.

c. Be certain that his vessel is fully supplied in alldepartments at all times.

d. Know cargo stowage and security.e. Know fuel consumption of vessel, average rpm,

and other engine data to compute speed and range.f. Assure himself that all necessary inspections

have been performed fully and that certificates areposted.

g. Have all station bills and licenses posted.h. Conduct fire and boat drills as prescribed.i. Be responsible for the safety, conduct, and train-

ing of his crew.j. Be responsible for the safe and proper navigation

of his vessel.

17. FIRST MATE

The first mate is executive officer of the ship andacts as assistant to the master ini every way. Sincethe position of master is largely a supervisory one,it is the mate's duty to see that the master's instruc-tions are fully and promptly obeyed. He observesall regulations prescribed for the master wheneverhe acts for the master during the latter's absence. Acomprehensive list of the duties of the mate may befound in SR 55-510-1. The first mate-

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a. Is in immediate charge of the deck departmentand is responsible for the good order and cleanlinessof the ship, the discipline and efficiency of the crew,and the maintenance in a serviceable condition ofall deck, lifesaving, firefighting, and navigation ap-pliances, keeping a constant check on the entire ves-sel and its equipment.

b. Assist the master in the duties of navigation byrelieving or assisting him on the bridge at any timethe master requires his services and is responsibleto see that the deck log is properly kept.

c. Has charge of the daily inspection of the ship.d. Is in charge of checking the handling and stow-

age of cargo.e. Keeps an inventory of all stores, allows no ex-

penditure without his order, and before arrival inport submits requisitions for each trip to the master.

f. Stations deck officers and seamen by postingcomplete watch and station bills before sailing.

18. SECOND MATE

The second mate serves as assistant to the firstmate and, indirectly, to the master. He is fre-quently called upon to assume the duties of the firstmate. - For this reason he should be familiar withthe responsibilities of the first mate.

a. The second mate on a class A boat usually as-sumes the duties of the navigation officer. Hechecks and cares for all navigating instruments, con-fers with the master on courses to be followed, keepscharts, books, and all data up to date, checks thechronometers, and keeps all ship's clocks syn-chronized.

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b. He usually acts as the ship's mess officer, and,as such, is responsible for the mess account, orderingstores in conjunction with the chief cook, and check-ing the quality and preparation of food.

c. The second mate may be called upon to assist themaster with records and other paper work.

d. Although all ship's officers are qualified forfirst-aid work, the second mate is usually designatedas the first-aidman and keeper of the medicine chest.

19. OFFICER OF THE WATCH

A long list of duties could be given, but they canbe summed up in one statement: While on duty, theofficer of the watch is in charge of the vessel underthe master and is responsible to him for its safe andproper navigation. He has full authority for theduration of his watch, subject only to orders fromthe master. When in doubt of the course of actionto be taken, he must never hesitate, but must call onthe master immediately.

a. When coming on duty, the officer of the watchchecks the log, barometer, lights or other identifiableobjects expected on course, position, course, and allother pertinent information contained in the cap-tain's orders.

b. It is the duty of the officer of the watch to keepthe log and to notify the master immediately of anyunusual situations which may develop.

20. BOATSWAIN

The duties of the boatswain are comparable tothose of a foreman. In addition to being a compe-

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tent able seaman, he must be a leader of men, con-scientious in performance of duty, and alert. Themate and the boatswain work closely together. Themate plans the day's work and the boatswain seesthat it is done. If he is efficient, no interference bythe mate is necessary. The maintenance of disci-pline, efficiency, and harmony among the crew is theboatswain's prime responsibility.

a. The boatswain must understand the ship's rig-ging and be able to repair or replace any part of it.He must maintain and replace all ship's gear andshould know the operation of all gear, especially thecargo winches, anchor windlass, capstans, and boatfalls and davits.

b. The boatswain must know how to secure the shipfor sea and how to check the cargo holds. He shouldknow the fundamentals of mixing and applyingpaints, for much of this will be done under his super-vision. Under the supervision of the mate, the boats-wain must lead the men in all ship drills, includingthe launching and handling of lifeboats and ship'slaunches.

21. ABLE SEAMAN

Before qualifying for able seaman, the individualusually serves as ordinary seaman. He must be con-siderate, respectful to officers, and versatile, for hisduties concern every phase of seamanship.

a. The able seaman must have a thorough knowl-edge of marlinspike seamanship and should have hadenough experience to apply himself expertly. Hemust know how to inspect and care for rigging and

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gear, including anchor windlasses, boat falls anddavits, capstans, and lead lines.

b. He must be a competent lifeboatman, knowingall the phases of handling from launching to usein heavy weather, and be able to handle the ship'slaunch and know enough of the rules of the road tooperate it correctly and safely.

c. He must conduct himself expertly in all ship'sdrills and observe all safety precautions. He mustbe a first-class helmsman, familiar with the peculiar-ities of his own ship.

d. It is necessary that the able seaman know sema-phore. It is desirable that he know blinker signal-ing, but it is not a requirement. He must be ableto identify the single-letter international code flagsand know the meaning of each.

e. Each able seaman must be conscientious in theperformance of his lookout duties, able to recognizenot only danger, but to distinguish between aids tonavigation, shore lights, lights of other ships, anddistress signals.

22. LOOKOUT

The lookout is the man on watch with the specialduty of searching for planes, other ships, land, rocks,discolored water, buoys, beacons, floating objects, andany other object and reporting them to the watch of-ficer. Safety depends on the man assigned to a look-out post, since he is the eyes of the ship. Good dayand night vision and perfect hearing, augmented byproper training, are the requisites for a lookout. Hereports all objects sighted in relation to the fore and

31929575°--51---

Figure 12. Relative bearings used in reporting objects sighted.

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aft line of the ship, using the 32 points of the com-pass (fig. 12).

23. WATCHES

a. While the ship is under way, the safety of theship and its crew is the direct responsibility of themen on watch. The watch may be divided into threeparts: the officer of the deck, the wheel watch, andthe lookouts. The watch officer or officer of the deckis stationed on the bridge where he maintains a con-stant alert, especially at night, and from which hesupervises the wheel watch and the lookouts. A com-plete description of the duties of the watch officer isgiven in paragraph 19.

b. When the vessel is in port, the watch includes awatch officer or an officer of the deck and an anchorwatch or fireguard. The fireguard may also be usedas a gangway watch.

Section II. ENGINE ROOM DEPARTMENT, CLASS AAND CLASS B VESSELS

24. GENERAL

Close cooperation between the engine room de-partment and the deck department is essential forthe safe operation of the ship. The master shouldnotify the chief engineer of docking and sailing time24 hours in advance if possible. In return, the chiefengineer or watch engineer should give the bridgeas much advance warning as possible should it benecessary to slow down or stop the main engine.

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25. CHIEF ENGINEER

The chief engineer should have an expert knowl-edge of technical subjects in connection with the oper-ation of engines and other machinery. A compre-hensive list of the duties of' the chief engineer maybe found in SR 55-510-1.

a. He is responsible under the master for the effi-cient and economical operation of the engine roommachinery and the prompt and careful execution ofall orders from the master. With the help of hisassistant or assistants, the chief engineer supervisesand directs all activities of the engine room crew toinsure discipline and efficiency.

b. He is responsible for keeping the engine roomlog and all other records necessary for the efficientoperation of his department.

o. He is responsible for all deck machinery andthe ship's fuel and water supply.

26. ASSISTANT ENGINEER

The assistant engineer acts as assistant to the chiefengineer in every way and sees that his instructionsare fully and carefully executed. Whenever he actsin the absence of the chief engineer, he observes allregulations prescribed for his chief and performsany duties assigned to him.

27. OILER

The oiler's principal duty is the lubrication ofmain engines, auxiliaries, and electric motors. Inaddition, he assists the engineers in repair and main-tenance work. Hle is responsible for keeping his

34

station clean at all times and for carrying out anyorders given him by the engineers on duty.

Section III. COMMUNICATIONS DEPARTMENT, CLASSA AND CLASS B VESSELS

28. GENERAL

The communications department is one of the mostimportant departments aboard ship. Its functionis the maintenance of communication and signals,both visual and auditory, vital to the ship's opera-tion. Visual signals include semaphore and flaghoists used during the day and 'blinker and pyro-technic devices used at night. Auditory types ofcommunication include radio voice and radio code.H. O. No. 87 and H. O. No. 88 have been compiled forflag signaling with the International alphabet flags,numeral pennants, substitutes, and answering pen-nants; for blinker signaling with the InternationalMorse code; for sound signaling with the Interna-tional Morse code; and for flag signaling with sema-phore. This code is printed in seven languages, in-cluding English, French, Italian, German, Japanese,Spanish, and Norwegian. Further information maybe found in the following manuals: FM 24-10 forcombined radio-telegraph procedure and TM 11-454 for information pertaining to the radio operator.

29. SIGNAL OFFICER

The signal officer, who may also be the secondmate, has charge of all signal equipment and itscondition. His department sends and receives allmessages under direct responsibility to the master

35

of the ship. This officer and the other communica-tions personnel aboard comprise the signal team.

30. RADIO OPERATOR

Since actual operation of radio communicationequipment is the duty of the radio operator, he musthave an accurate knowledge of all types of communi-cation, procedure, and code, as well as call letters,emergency signals, identification letters for flaghoists, and the various frequencies in his radio set.

31. METHODS OF SIGNALING

Both visual and auditory types have specific ad-vantages and disadvantages with which communica-tions personnel should be familiar.

a. Semaphore. This is a form of daytime visualsignaling. Messages are transmitted by means oftwo flags, using the semaphore alphabet (fig. 13).

(1) When a communication is about to be madeby semaphore, the international code flag"J" is hoisted either singly or inferior toa group of signal letters to denote that acommunication is about to be made bysemaphore. It is to be hoisted where mostconvenient and where best seen. Seefigure 17.

(2) As soon as the flag "J" is observed, theanswering pennant is dipped by the shipaddressed, then hoisted close up when readyto read.

(3) If there is any doubt as to which vessel isintended to answer the signal, the flag "J"

36

1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-en, > 3

Z

ti

O X CY x a

C's

iiI< Y. -j 7 ,'ok++Y n * E z

37

is hoisted with a tackline inferior to thesignal letters of the ship with which it isdesired to communicate.

(4) If a man-of-war wishes to communicate bysemaphore with a merchant vessel, shehoists the code pennant in a conspicuousposition and the signal letters of the mer-chant vessel with a tackline superior to the"J" flag.

(5) The flag "J" is kept flying while the mes-sage is being made and is hauled down atthe completion of the communication.

b. Blinkers. Transmitting messages by blinker isa form of visual communication useful for ship-to-ship communication and for ship-to-shore communi-cation where no radio facilities are available. Ithas a high degree of flexibility and employs theMorse code (fig. 14) which is also used for radiocommunication.

(1) The portable blinker (fig. 15Q) is a tubeclosed at one end with a light enclosed.This light is turned off and on by a trigger-operated switch. On shipboard a perma-nent unit (fig. 15)) may be installed eitheron the bridge wing or on the flying bridge.The unit consists of a light mounted on astaff with a swivel enabling it to be turnedin any direction. Refer to TM 11-392 fortypes of portable blinker lights.

(2) The blinker has several advantages. It maybe used when no radio is available or whensignal security prevents the use of radio.

38

Brief messages may be sent with consider-able speed. Since the equipment is light-weight and portable, it is useful on smallcraft when size and construction prevent theinstallation of elaborate radio equipment.

(3) There are certain disadvantages in thetransmission of messages by blinker. It iscomparatively slow and not well adapted tolong messages. Its range is limited evenunder ideal conditions, and atmospheric andlight conditions may prevent its use entirely.If it is used in theaters of operation, it iseasy for a nearby enemy to locate the com-

.~ ~ _. . *,_ A

C

F igure4. Morse code.

39

(). Blnicer, portanBe.

Figure 15. Types of blinkers.40

41

I aZ, .

0

.S Ii: 4

k1

p't

municating parties and subject them to at-tack.

c. Radio code.(1) The Morse code (fig. 14) is used in radio

signaling by ship, aircraft, and shore instal-lations. With this code long messages maybe sent in a minimum of time. The codehas disadvantages in that both sender andreceiver must be experienced men, andwhile they are using the code they are giv-ing the enemy a chance to determine theirposition and to intercept and decode theirmessage.

(2) FM 24-10, which was approved and pub-lished by the authority of the CombinedCommunications Board, is used for jointArmy-Navy communication. A thoroughunderstanding of this manual will providean operator with the procedure needed tohandle radio communications. Proceduremust be precise if the message is to be un-derstood.

d. Radio voice. The radio is standard equipmenton all ships of any size. It ranges from small setscapable of transmitting up to 5 miles to sets whichtransmit several thousand miles. As a rule, thesmaller sets are limited to one or two transmittingfrequencies but as receivers, they have a much greaterrange in distance and in frequencies. Radio trans-mitters conform to specifications of the Signal Corpsand are designed for transmitting on frequencies al-located to the type of service for which they are in-tended.

42

(1) All sets are registered and given a call let-ter which must be used for identificationwhen sending. In wartime, call letters arechanged at frequent intervals by the Navyport director's office to insure secrecy of shipmovements.

(2) Just as in any other form of signaling, thereis a definite procedure for use of a radio,and it should be known by anyone whomight be called upon to use a radio at sea.

(3) Radio has the advantage of having a longrange. It is the fastest method to send amessage of any length, and it is much sim-pler to learn and operate than any otherform of signaling at sea.

(4) Radio has certain disadvantages which can-not be overlooked. Weather, other stations,and mechanical contrivances are able to in-terfere with radio transmission and renderit useless. In the event of power failure,the radio will be similarly useless, and re-pairs and spare parts are frequently hardto obtain. In theaters of operation, radiomessages may be picked up by the enemy,and bearings may be taken on a radio set,leaving the position open to attack.

e. Pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnics include signals sentin the form of a flare, rocket, or smoke apparatus,or a spontaneous signal such as a fire or a gunshot.Pyrotechnics are most commonly used as distresssignals, and many types are manufactured for thatpurpose. Special signals applying pyrotechnics ofone kind or another may be worked out by a unit or

43

between two persons. One method of firing pyro-technics is through the use of the Very pistol, whichis a simple, single-loading type with a steel barrelabout 9 inches long tapered at the muzzle (fig. 16).

(1) Pyrotechnics may be found in many forms,some in the form of cartridges to fit gunsbuilt particularly for that use and some inthe form of hand flares, such as rockets,used especially in lifeboat equipment.Smoke apparatus is not common but servesmany purposes. Before surfacing, a sub-marine may release a yellow smoke bombto warn ships that may be in the vicinity.

(2) Flares, rockets, and other pyrotechnic de-vices have certain advantages, especially inlifeboats where radios are impractical.They are very effective for their size, maybe seen at night at a great distance, and maybe used to mark a definite position.

(3) Pyrotechnics have several disadvantageswhich restrict their use. They have a lim-ited range of visibility during the daytime,and they may be seen by the enemy. Whenthey are improperly handled they can bevery dangerous, and because they must beignited to be effective they are useless ifwet.

f. Flag hoists. Flag hoists provide a method ofcommunication which utilizes a set of flags of dif-ferent patterns and colors. The set consists of 26alphabetical flags, 10 numeral pennants, 3 repeaters,and 1 code pennant. The purpose of the repeaters

44

F'igure 16. Very pistol.

45

is to enable the sender to use the same letter or num-ber more than once in the same message. The codepennant is used preceding a group of flags to indi-cate that the message is in code. Each flag has ameaning in itself which should be known to every-one who may come in contact with this method ofcommunication. These flags are referred to as theInternational code flags and are used by all principalmaritime nations. See figure 17.

(1) There is a definite procedure to be used inflag hoist communication. The starboardoutboard yardarm is the truck used first inthe sending of a single flag message, andfrom there the hoists are worked to port.If more room is needed or more than onemessage is being sent, the triatic stay is putinto use.

(2) Since flag hoist signals are published inmany languages, this method has the ad-vantage of allowing ships of different na-tionalities to communicate. Furthermore,it is possible to communicate with severalships at once when the flags are visible toall, or if secrecy is demanded, a code maybe worked out between two or more shipsto eliminate all others. Simple signals fortowing and other activities may be workedout to facilitate routine movements.

(3) This method has the disadvantage of beingslow and unsuitable for long messages.Flag hoists may be used only for short dis-tances and may be obscured by heavyweather or darkness. A book of flag

46

ABLE BAKER

CHARLIE DOG

EASY FoxFigure 17. International code flags and, pennants.

929575°-51 4 47

GEORGE How

ITEM JIG

KING LOVEo

Figure 17-Continued.

48

MIKE NAN

OBOE PETER

QUEEN ROGER

Figure 17-Continued.

49

SUGAR

I iUNC LE VICTOR

WILLIAM XRAYFigure 17-Continued.

50

TARE

ZEBRA

DiCODE I st REPEAT

2nd REPEAT 3rd REPEAT

Fi!/urc 17--(ontinued.

51

YOKE

�

I 2

4

6

Figure 17-Continued.

3

5

52

IN"

7 8

F---

9

0

Figure 17-Continued.

53

___j

combinations, H. O. No. 87, is necessary toread messages of more than one flag.

(4) General instructions for the use of a flaghoist include the following:

(a) As a general rule, only one hoist shouldbe shown at a time, but each hoist orhoists should be kept flying untilanswered.

(b) When several flags are displayed simul-taneously, they are to be read in the fol-lowing order: masthead, triatic stay, star-board yardarm, port yardarm.

(c) When more than one is shown on thesame halyard, they must be separated bytacklines and must be read in numericalorder of superiority.

(d) A signal is superior to another whenhoisted before, either in regard to timeor hoist.

(e) The transmitting ship should hoist sig-nals where they can be seen best by thereceiving ship.

Section IV. CLASS C AND CLASS D VESSELS

32. RESPONSIBILITIES OF SMALL BOAT OPERATOR

The small boat operator, although in command ofa smaller boat and crew, is accountable for the op-eration, maintenance, and welfare of his boat andcrew. Class C and class D boats are used for manytypes of work and are in demand during long periodsof time. This means that the master must coordi-nate the activities of his crew so that the boat is

54

maintained in as near perfect condition as possible.All lines should be kept in proper shape and stowedcorrectly, the boat should be painted and kept clean,bilges and floorboards, as well as the hull, must becleaned regularly, and the engine should be kept inproper working order with fuel and oil supplies atthe maximum. All safety equipment must be in aserviceable condition and properly stowed. Theoperator, while supervising such work, must bear inmind that the small size of his crew makes him a partof it, and he must work side by side with his seamenand engineer. The small boat operator has the fol-lowing duties and responsibilities:

a. Care of boat. The small boat operator islargely graded by the appearance and care he giveshis boat. On small boats, care is as important as ona large freight supply vessel, and the smallest boatsof class D should be painted regularly, carry ade-quate fenders, and be in good running order at alltimes.

b. Safety' of passengers and crew. The smallboat operator is responsible for the safety of hiscrew and passengers. He must see that they aresafely placed aboard and discharged. While underway, they are in his charge, and he must provideproper safety equipment for them. The mastershould check with the engineer and the deck depart-ment before leaving the pier to make sure that thevessel is ready for use.

G. Skill in boat handling. A great proportion ofthe work of the small boat operator will be shorttrips, which means that he will have to make num-erous landings and often operate in rough sea. It

55

is necessary that he be able to handle his craft withskill. He must plan maneuvers in advance and havein mind landing procedures before arrival at thelanding site.

d. Knowledge of rules of the road. The smallboat operator is bound by the rules of the road asis any craft. While working in congested harborsit is essential that he keep his craft out of dangerand prevent it from becoming a source of danger toothers.

e. Piloting and navigation. The small boat op-erator must know advanced seamanship, navigationprinciples, piloting, dead reckoning, and the use ofcharts, compass, and other navigational instruments.He should become familiar with the water which hisboat will operate and with harbor regulations.

f. Keeping a log. All craft must keep a roughlog. It should include running time, nature ofduties, running conditions, and other pertinent data.

33. RESPONSIBILITIES OF ABLE SEAMEN'

The able seaman on class C and class D boats hasan opportunity for a more general knowledge ofboat handling and maintenance than would be pos-sible on a larger vessel. His duties are to handlelines while docking or towing and to assist in freighthandling and stowage. Although generally respon-sible for the cleanliness of the boat, including paint-ing, mopping, and washing down, he is usually as-sisted by the operator and the engineer. When neces-sary, he assists the engineer in maintenance and re-pair of the engine. The operator instructs the sea-

56

man and should give him an opportunity to operatethe boat.

a. Care of craft and equipment. The able sea-man is an important member of the crew. One ofhis main tasks is to keep the vessel painted and ship-shape.

b. Knowledge of duties. The able seaman mustknow every phase of his job. He must have a com-plete knowledge of marlinspike seamanship, of pres-ervation of surfaces, and of fundamentals of boatmaintenance. The able seaman should report de-fects in the vessel's gear. He must know the funda-mentals of safety aboard ship. Above all, he mustremain mentally alert.

c. Knowledge of craft operation. The able sea-man stands a wheel watch or, on a small vessel, as-sists the operator. It is necessary that he be ableto steer a compass course. A knowledge of the con-trols of the vessel is helpful in an emergency. Therules of the road should be familiar to the able sea-man and to all members of the deck crew.

34. RESPONSIBILITIES OF ENGINEER

The engineer of a small launch or towboat is re-sponsible for complete maintenance of the powerplant. If no maintenance and repair section isavailable, he must do all general repairing with thehelp of the crew. He is responsible for the properoperation of the engine, as a shortage of fuel, oil,or water, or a bad engine would immediately haltoperations. On class C and class D craft the sea-men assist the engineer and the engineer aids othersin their duties, as necessary.

a. Work boats. Class C and class D boats areusually classified as work boats and may be in opera-tion for long periods of time. They are assignedto work under a dispatcher who assigns them tovarious jobs. They may be sent to tend a floatingcrane by changing crews, carrying rations and mail,or securing small supplies, which is a 24-hour opera-tion. Some of these craft are held by the dispatcherfor short jobs or the hauling of passengers and thetowing of barges.

b. Maintenance and repair. Harbor craft com-panies have a maintenance and repair section whoseprimary duty is that of repair or replacement ofparts made necessary through wear or accident.These maintenance and repair teams are assisted bythe engineer of the craft, but the repairs actuallycome under the chief of maintenance and repairs.When such service is not available, the engineer, as-sisted by all the crew members, does this work.

Section V. CRANES

35. TYPES OF CRANES

The floating cranes of the harbor craft companiesare usually of two types, either the revolving (orwhirley-type) floating crane or the type commonlycalled the stiff-leg crane. The revolving or rotary-type crane is mounted on a steel floating barge.Length, width, and tonnage of the barge depend onthe capacity of the crane. Revolving cranes are ef-ficient in handling tonnage because of their 360 °

turn. They are used for unloading all types ofheavy lifts and may be useful also in salvage opera-

58

tions. The stiff-leg crane is also mounted on a float-ing barge which may differ in length, width, andtonnage according to the capacity of each crane.The difference between the revolving and the stiff-leg crane is found in the boom. The boom of thestiff-leg is anchored by means of a kingpin at theheel of the boom, and the entire boom can move in a750 vertical arc; its horizontal movement is limitedto 1800 (fig. 6). The revolving crane has a boom an-chored to the cab and moves horizontally 3600 withthe turn of the cab and vertically in a 750 are (fig.7). These cranes range in size from 15 to 100 tonsand are powered by Diesel, electric, or steam engines.

36. DUTIES OF PERSONNEL

The crews of the various cranes are determined bysize, capacity, type of engine, and other factors. Asteam crane carries one or more firemen, while aDiesel crane has none. The deck crew consists of themaster and his seamen. The engine crew consists ofthe engineer and his firemen or oilers. It is their re-sponsibility to keep the main engine and all auxil-iaries in an efficient state of operation.

a. Crane naster. The master of the crane is re-sponsible for the upkeep of his crane. He makessure that all controls, engines, and sheave blocks areoperating efficiently, and he supervises the periodicgreasing and cable coating of all load lines to keepthem in good condition and to prevent frequent re-placements. The master of the crane has the addi-tional responsibility of supervising the loading orunloading of heavy equipment. It is his job to see

59

that no load is lifted which has not been properlyrigged for lifting or which is greater than thecapacity of the crane.

b. Crane operator. The crane operator is re-sponsible for the operation of the crane. He is inthe control tower which contains all the necessarycontrols, and from there he lifts all loads that themaster directs to be lifted. His job is a responsibleone, for on him depends the safety of every manworking the load at the time of lifting. He mustwatch his signalman constantly, especially when thecontrol tower is below the level of the load, or theload is in a hatch beyond his view.

c. Engineer. He is directly responsible for theoperation and maintenance of the engine room, itsauxiliaries, and the electrical connections aboard thecrane. It is his duty to instruct the men in propercare of the engine to insure its running efficiency.He is responsible for supervising the cleaning of allelectrical circuits and contact points. On the newand modern Army cranes, there are numerous elec-trical units to be serviced, requiring the engineer tohave a working knowledge of electricity.

d. Marine oiler. The duties of the marine oileraboard a crane include keeping all moving parts ofthe engine lubricated. The working parts of a cranemay be protected from friction by the use of twolubricants, oil and grease. It is necessary to oil andgrease regularly other machinery aboard the crane,such as traversing gears, bull wheels, and sheaveblocks. Negligence can cause damage to any partof the crane.

e. Seaman. The duties of the seaman include

60

painting, chipping, scraping, handling of lines, andgeneral duties necessary to maintain the good ap-pearance of the crane and the gear at a high levelof efficiency. It is desirable that at least one of theseamen be trained in rigging.

6i

CHAPTER 4

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR,GENERAL

Section I. PROCEDURE FOR REPAIRS

37. WORK ORDER FOR GENERAL REPAIRS

,;When a vessel is due for drydocking and generalrepairs, a thorough check of all work to be doneshould be made by the master and chief engineer.All work should be listed, properly identified, anditemized in the work request. Each item should bebroken down in detail as far as possible, so that acomplete and final specification of repairs may be'readily executed. The master should submit hiswork request through proper channels for furtheraction.

38. INSPECTION DURING AND AFTER REPAIRS-

It is important that constant inspection of all re-pair work be made during actual repairs. The ship-yards should be notified of improper or deficientwork before it is too far advanced. When the jobis completed, it is too late to complain.

Section II. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR TEAM

39. GENERAL

Ship maintenance and repair teams are authorizedin three classes, and personnel and equipment vary

with number and class of boats to be serviced. Referto T/O & E 55-500.

a. A maintenance and repair team, comprised ofmen with trades necessary to perform field mainte-nance of small boats and harbor craft, is normallyincluded in the complement of a harbor craft com-pany.

b. A maintenance team is added when it is antici-pated that adequate maintenance requires more ma-rine engine mechanics.

c. A repair team is added when it is anticipatedthat adequate maintenance requires more diversifiedskills.

40. PERSONNEL

a. Ship maintenance and repair officer. This offi-cer plans and supervises the maintenance and repairof vessels, including mechanical and electrical equip-ment.

(1) He inspects vessels to determine the extentand nature of repairs to hull and super-structure,and prepares working drawingsand specifications.

(2) He inspects repair operations for qualityof materials, workmanship, and conformitywith specifications.

(3) He is responsible for coordinating shop andinspection procedures to insure the service-able condition of a vessel and its equipment.

(4) He makes arrangements for docking a ves-sel for underwater repairs.

(5) He maintains records and files of opera-

929575°--51 5 63

tions performed by outside contractors ofArmy maintenance ships.

(6) He also requisitions supplies for repairs andmay supervise the conversion of harborcraft.

b. All members of maintenance and repair teamsshould be qualified in their military occupationalspecialties. In addition, they should be trained asa unit to accomplish all necessary repairs in a satis-factory and expeditious manner.

Section III. BASIC PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCEREQUIREMENTS

41. CLEANLINESS

Keeping a vessel clean is the first and most im-portant step in proper maintenance. It is essentialto general welfare, efficient operation, and goodhealth.

a. Decks. Decks must be scrubbed often with freshwater or salt water if fresh water is not obtainable.A fire pump and hose may be used for this purpose.Clean decks prevent the tracking of dirt throughoutthe vessel. If available, canvas or cocoa mattingmay be laid on the deck wherever people walk.Washing the deck is important not only for sanita-tion but in the case of wooden vessels to prevent thedecks from drying out and to stop leakage to thespaces below. Drain holes will be kept clean to al-low water to flow over freely. Pools of water ondeck should be mopped up immediately.

b. Topsides. Topsides and superstructures should

64

be washed often, with fresh water if possible. Iftopsides and superstructures are very dirty, a smallamount of washing soda added to the wash waterwill help in the cleaning, but too much soda will af-fect the paint. Parts washed with soda and watershould be given a final wash with fresh water.

c. Interior. Quarters will be cleaned daily andclose attention given to dark corners and spacesblocked by lockers, furniture, and other articles.Dust, dirt, and filth collecting in these spaces resultin unsanitary conditions which may breed vermin orcause dry rot on wooden ships.

d. Cargo holds. Cargo holds should be cleanedwhen necessary and excess dunnage stowed and se-cured. Sources of any fumes or odors should betraced and the cause eliminated.

e. Galley. The galley will be kept clean at alltimes and cooking utensils, porcelainware, and sil-verware put away spotless. All cooking and eatingimplements should be steamed or washed with waterhot enough to remove all traces of grease or foodparticles.

(1) The stove should be provided with a suctionfan to draw all fumes and smoke from thegalley.

(2) Food handlers will keep their bodies clean,wear clean clothes, and will have a certifi-cate of health.

(3) Refrigerators and coolers will be kept cleanat all times. Duckboards, hooks, andshelves should be scrubbed and the box de-frosted at least every 2 weeks.

(4) Food should be checked daily for spoilage,

65

especially in the cooler and vegetable bins.Potable water will be tested periodicallyand the tanks flushed and cleaned every 6months.

f. Paint lockers, boatswain's lockers, deck boxes,storerooms. These areas should be kept clean andneat. Dirty rags and other trash are fire hazardsbecause of spontaneous combustion, especially inpaint lockers or boxes where ventilation is poor.Spilled paint, fresh or old, should be removed.

42. ORDERLINESS

Deck and engine room gear carelessly left arounda vessel may result in injury or loss of life. Thereis a place for everything aboard the vessel; all gearand equipment must be put in the proper place whennot in use so that it will be on hand when needed.Crew quarters should not be cluttered with odds andends; storerooms and lockers have shelves, hooks,and other fixtures where loose articles may be placed.Lines should be neatly coiled and, if possible, stowedon gratings so that the lines, as well as the deckunderneath, may be kept dry. A vessel's constantmotion will shake all objects loose, and even heavygear must be properly stowed. Life rafts, lifeboatgear, and provisions have a definite place and willbe properly stowed. Lifeboats or life rafts may beneeded only once, but if needed, gear and equipmentmust be complete and in good condition.

66

43. VENTILATION

Proper ventilation aboard a vessel is importantnot only from a preventive maintenance standpointbut also from the standpoint of safety of the cargoand the health of the crew.

a. Wooden vessels are subject to dry rot which eatsaway the wooden fibers, weakening the wood.Proper ventilation will help prevent dry rot, whichthrives in damp places. On clear days, hatches,escape scuttles, manholes, and doors should be openedso that fresh air may circulate, removing stagnantair. This is especially important in the bow and thestern of the vessel where circulation of air is usuallypoor. To be sanitary, living quarters should beaired and cleaned at least once a day.

b. When possible, all lines and ropes should bebrought on deck, looped loosely, and laid in the sunto dry. Storerooms should be cleaned and airedfrequently. Since sea air is moist, clothing, bedding,and other fabrics will mildew if not exposed to thesun as often as possible.

c. Improper ventilation of the cargo holds causesdamage to cargo. Sometimes fumes accumulatecausing a fire or explosion by spontaneous combus-tion. Some cargoes remove oxygen from the air;these include tobacco, oranges, resin, potatoes, wool,cotton, leather, coal, cereal grains, hemp, jute, andall petroleum products. Fuel products not onlyremove oxygen from the air, but they also producehydrogen sulfide, a gas which is poisonous if thereis a large quantity present in a confined space.

d. The two most common noxious conditions in

67

tanks are presence of carbon monoxide and oxygendeficiency.

(1) Carbon monoxide is usually found aroundrunning engines where exhaust gases arenot properly carried off, their heavier-than-air property causing them to settle near thedeck or in bilges.

(2) Oxygen deficiency is a lack of sufficient oxy-gen to permit normal breathing. Fresh,circulating air contains 21 percent oxygen,but 16 percent is considered safe. From 8to 11 percent will cause loss of conscious-ness, and 6 percent can cause death within6 to 8 minutes.

e. Certain precautions should be taken before en-tering a tank or hold for cleaning, painting, or in-spection of cargo. When a tank or hold is knownto have been gaseous, testing equipment should beused to determine purity of the air within since bothcarbon monoxide and oxygen are colorless, odorless,and tasteless. If no testing equipment is available,tanks or holds must be ventilated thoroughly andthen entered cautiously. If approved gas masks areavailable, worker should be so equipped. If gasmasks are not available, worker should be properlysecured with a line before being lowered. He willnot be left unattended and a constant check will bemade of his condition.

CHAPTER 5

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIROF HULL, GEAR, AND EQUIPMENT

Section 1. STEEL HULL

44. CLEANING

a. Rust chipping. It is highly important that allsteel surfaces be properly cleaned of rust, grease,and dirt before painting.

(1) Equipment for descaling consists of electricand pneumatic chipping hammers, handchipping hammers, chisels, scrapers, and.wire brushes of different shapes. The pneu-matic tool, or air gun, is highly effectiveas all-purpose descaling equipment; it maybe used to clean large, open areas, as wellas corners, narrow channels, and openings,performing efficiently in a minimum oftime compared with other types of chip-ping hammers.

(2) When descaling steel surfaces, care shouldbe taken to prevent the use of chisels whichare too sharp. A smooth steel surface offersmore resistance against rust than a roughsurface; therefore, it is advisable to use ablunt type of chisel and avoid cutting intothe steel and ruining the surface. Chiselsof various shapes should always be at handso that the hammer operator may select the

69

one most suitable for the area which is to bedescaled.

(3) Certain areas, when covered with loose,heavy scale, may be descaled with a squareblow from a rather heavy hammer. A firmrap will descale several square feet of theplate without doing any harm to the steelsurface.

b. Scraping and cleaning. Not all types of rustcan be removed by descaling. There will always bea certain amount which must be eliminated by theuse of scrapers and wire brushes. Soft or loose rustis just as injurious as hard scale and must be removedbefore the steel is painted. Scrapers used for thiswork are of different types, depending on whichpart of the vessel is to be scraped. Deck scrapers areusually of the straight type, with a scraper blade ofhard steel, varying in width from 2 to 5 inches, and awooden handle long enough to let a man work withstraight back. Scrapers used on the outside of thevessel have two scraping edges set at a 900 angleand a wooden handle 6 to 15 feet long. In addition,there are different types of hand scrapers of con-venient size for use in narrow compartments, wherelong-handled scrapers cannot be used. It is excel-lent to use a sharp scraper before using a wire brushto clean the pores in the steel surface. A wire brushmay be used also in places where it is impossible touse a scraper.- Where possible, an electrically oper-ated wire brush should be used to remove all rustremaining after the use of chipping hammer andscraper. The final cleaning of the horizontal sur-

70

faces may be done with a suitable broom to removethe remaining dust and dirt.

45. PAINTING

a. Paint should be applied in dry weather only,preferably on warm days. Temperatures below 450are damaging to wet paint and should be avoided.A priming coat of red lead or zinc chromate is rec-ommended; when the first coat is completed, checkto see that no bare steel is exposed. The paint shouldbe left to dry until it forms a tough, hard film; thenapply a second coat of the same paint to form a firm,protective base for the finishing coat. If red lead isused for priming, care should be taken not to diluteit with oil below the safety limit. The paint shouldcontain not less than 25 pounds of red lead to eachgallon of oil (thirty-three pounds of red lead to 1gallon of oil is considered the best mixture).

b. When the priming coat has hardened sufficiently,a coat of flat paint of the desired color should be ap-plied before the final coat. All outside surfaces re-quire a better grade of paint than more protectedsurfaces such as inside shell plates, bulkheads, andother parts of the vessel not directly exposed to theeffects of sun, air, and salt water. All surfaces in-side living quarters, mess hall, galley, and compart-ments which are subject to frequent cleaning withsoap and water should have a final coat of enamelpaint; this forms a hard and highly glossy finishwhich is easily cleaned and resistant to wear andchemical action.

e. Application of paint with a spray gun is chieflya time-saving operation. If a long-handled nozzle is

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used, large areas may be coated in a comparativelyshort time without the use of elaborate stagings andladders, otherwise necessary when painting a surfacesuch as the outside of a vessel. A spray gun alsoexpedites a paint job in an engine room or storeroomwhere obstructions make brush application imprac-ticable. However, a sprayed application is a rela-tively thin coat and is not considered so satisfactoryas a brush application, which provides better andlonger lasting protection to a surface. It is pref-erable to use the brushing method when painting thebottom and outside surfaces of a vessel. The brush-ing method involves more time and manpower, butthe adhesive qualities of the paint are increased bybrushing and working it into the pores and cracks ofthe surface. Also, the painter is able to observewhether the area is evenly coated with paint becauseof the short distance between himself and the paintedsurface.

d. It is important that the painter be well quali-fied for the job and that he use the proper type ofpaint and the correct kind of brush. Enamel paintrequires a rather stiff brush, while flat oil paint maybe applied more effectively with a softer brush.

e. Consult current directives and technical bulle-tins (TC series) regarding the quality and color ofpaint to be used for various purposes.

Section II. WOODEN HULL

46. PREPARATIONS BEFORE PAINTING

a. Paint removal. A heavy coat of old paint maybe removed by using a blowtorch and a scraper.

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Apply the flame of the torch close to the paintedarea which is to be cleaned until the paint begins toboil and blister; the paint may then be easily scrapeddown to the bare wood. Only a limited area shouldbe heated at a time. Be careful not to use any excessheat, and keep the flame constantly circling the areabeing worked on. A scraper for woodwork, prop-erly honed to a sharp edge, should be used immedi-ately after the paint has been softened by the heat.Areas covered with a comparatively thin coat ofpaint may be cleaned by using a chemical paint re-mover and then scraping. This method is also ex-cellent for removal of varnish and lacquer, particu-larly on surfaces where a blowtorch would have adamaging effect. When using paint remover, aheavy coat should be applied with a paint brush;it should be left on until the chemicals have hadsufficient time to dissolve the paint, and then thepaint may be removed with a sharp scraper. It isrecommended that work be done on a limited areaof 2 to 3 square feet at a time. Paint has a tendencyto harden again if the paint remover is left to dryafter the application. Removal of a heavy coat ofold paint with only a scraper is unsatisfactory and,in most cases, ruins the surface of the wood.

b. Calking. After removing the old paint on thehull, all seams and butts should be examined forproper condition. Test the hardness of the calkingby using a wooden mallet and a calking iron of thecorrect shape and thickness. A gentle stroke or rap-ping with the mallet on the calking iron will indi-cate whether the calking material (oakum or cottonthread) is tight in the seam. If it is soft, the seam

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should be recalked where necessary and repaired withcalking compound. A proper calking job requiresa skilled calker. The pressure exerted on the calk-ing material depends upon the type, thickness, andwidth of the planking. Oakum is used chiefly onthe heavier planking, while cotton thread is moresuitable for small craft. The seams should neverbe filled flush with calking material; sufficient spaceshould be left for a good seal of marine type puttyor calking compound, which will prevent the oakumor cotton thread from becoming water-soaked.After completing repairs to seams and butts, thefinishing compound should be left for hardening.After it has hardened, all excess compound maybe scraped off flush with the wood. When the hullhas been scraped clean of paint and all repairshave been completed, such as replacement or re-newal of planking or other outside work, the sur-faces should be sanded down to a smooth finish andall dust brushed off, thus completing the prepara-tions for the first coat of paint.

47. PAINTING

Current directives, technical bulletins (TC series),and specifications covering Government-approvedpaints for various purposes will be followed. Paintfor the first coat on wooden surfaces should be "cut"only as specified. When the priming coat has driedsufficientlyto form a hard film, all cracks and exposedfastenings and bolt heads should be checked andwhere necessary filled with putty or other suitablecompound. Make sure the putty or compound issmoothed flush with the surface. A second coat of

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paint of the desired color, thinned less than the firstcoat, should be applied. Be sure that a uniform,relatively thin coat is obtained. The third coat ofpaint will usually give the surface the desired protec-tion and appearance. In painting the outside of thehull, all final strokes of the brush should be in thefore and aft direction; otherwise, the strokes shouldbe in the direction permitting the longest strokes, orparallel with the longest beams. The underwaterpart of a wooden vessel is usually protected by twoor more coats of copper paint. The instructions forapplying copper paint should be read and followedcarefully, particularly those regarding the last coat,which should be applied immediately before launch-ing the vessel or refloating it after drydocking.

Section III. RIGGING

48. MASTS AND CARGO BOOMS

It is important that masts and cargo booms begiven care and attention at all times. All perma-nently installed sheaves, cleats, and padeyes must bechecked for good condition at regular intervals.Bolts and pins in sheaves and shackles should bekept free from rust and corrosion by regular greas-ing or lubrication with heavy oil. The gooseneckconnection between the mast and cargo boom shouldbe examined for proper condition at least once everyyear by lifting the boom out of the socket. After athorough cleaning, check the parts for defects andreinstall all parts well lubricated. Keep the mastsand booms coated with paint; prevent rusty spots on

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the surfaces by patching the scratched and bareareas with paint.

49. SHROUDS AND STAYS

All standing wire rope rigging must be protectedfrom deterioration with a coat of paint or tar atregular intervals of approximately every 6 months.The quickest way to paint the rigging is to soak asoft rag with paint and wash it on by squeezing therag loosely around the shroud or stay. Place thepaint container inside a bucket to prevent spillingpaint on the deck. The rag may then be dipped inthe container and excess paint squeezed off withoutgetting paint on the decks and equipment below.Begin at the top of the rigging and work downwardwhile sitting in a boatswain's chair.

50. TURNBUCKLES

Turnbuckles should be kept in good working con-dition so that they may be adjusted or released ifnecessary. The threaded parts must be free of paintand rust, protected by grease and a canvas cover orcoated with a mixture of tallow and white lead. Thelatter, when melted and mixed, may be brushed onin a heavy coating; when cooled, it will form a goodfirm protection, watertight and easily removed.Shackles used in connection with turnbuckles shouldhave the threaded ends, as well as bolts, protectedin the same manner.

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Section IV. CARGO-HANDLING GEAR

51. CARGO WINCHES

The electric motor should be given care and main-tenance. All bearings for moving parts must beproperly lubricated and protected from accumulationof water in the lubricating oil pockets under thebearings. Grease cups should always be in work-able condition and never left empty. Fill the cupsas soon as the last grease is pressed out. Use speci-fied lubricant on all gears and transmissions and besure that they are never operated in dry condition.Bearing surfaces for free-running or sliding gearsand clutches should be protected from rust by keep-ing a heavy coat of grease on the shafts at all times.Maintain the brakes in good working condition.Check the brake linings and renew them if they areexcessively worn; lubricate all moving parts regu-larly to prevent them from freezing. Gaskets onall watertight handholes and inspection doors mustbe kept in good condition, forming a tight sealagainst leakages. Keep lubricating points free frompaint and dirt. Maintain lubricating pads andwicks in serviceable condition.

52. CARGO GEAR

Running wire ropes for handling cargo need lubri-cation which penetrates to the inner parts to preventexcessive friction. The strength of a runner or anywire used for hoisting purposes may be roughly de-termined by checking the outside wires. If worndown to half the original size or diameter, the run-

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ner should be replaced with a new or better one.Wire rope having numerous broken wires or show-ing evidence of being subjected to excessive strainis unsafe for cargo handling and should be replaced.All blocks for topping lifts, as well as others usedfor working cargo or heavy lifts, should be takenapart for inspection once a year if used regularly.The check should be thorough, followed by a pulltest to ascertain safe working condition. Properlubrication of all moving parts, as well as paintingof the frames, is routine maintenance work. Defec-tive cargo hooks and shackles should be replacedwith new ones of approved type and strength. Wirerope and chain used for operating and securing thetopping lift on the cargo boom must be checked fre-quently. They are also subject to annual inspec-tion and testing for safe operating condition.

Section V. ANCHOR GEAR

53. ANCHOR WINDLASS

When operating the anchor windlass, first observewhether all bearings and moving parts are properlylubricated. See that all oil cups have good wicksand are filled with lubricating oil. Check greasecups for sufficient grease, and squeeze the grease inuntil it appears at the ends of the bearings. Applygrease or oil on those parts of shafting supportingsliding gears and clutches. Lubricate all threadedends and bushings on spindles for brake mechanism,bolts, and other moving parts. See that the wild-cats are well lubricated when running free. Disen-gage the wildcats and try out the windlass before

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working the anchors; then engage one side at a timeand take the weight of the anchor. Release thedevil's claw and other stoppers, if any, and veer outthe anchor until it is free from the hawsepipe. Tryout the brake carefully, making sure it works prop-erly. Always maintain the locking rings for thewildcats so that they operate freely. After eachoperation of the windlass, check to make s1ure thatall moving parts are protected against rust. A coatof watertight grease is excellent on the moving parts,threaded ends of brake mechanism, locker rings, andshaftings. Prevent water accumulation in the oilcups, and squeeze extra grease into the bearings.Open lubricating points should be plugged withgrease or tallow. Operate the anchor windlass oncea week to maintain good working condition.

54. ANCHORS

The maintenance work required on an anchor con-sists chiefly of a coat of paint and occasional lubrica-tion of the connecting parts between the crown andthe shank (if a patent anchor). If the anchor isseldom used, the belt in the crown shackle shouldbe taken out and lubricated to prevent rusting ofthe sliding parts. All anchors are tested by a sur-veyor of the American Bureau of Shipping at thetime of completion by the manufacturers. Stampsare placed on the fluke and shank of each anchorafter it is tested. These stamps should never becoated so heavily with paint that they are illegible.If necessary to remove paint or rust from these parts,clean them with a wire brush (a chipping hammerwould ruin the markings) and apply only a thin

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coat of paint as protection from rust. It is advis-able to frame the marking with red paint so that itmay be easily located. The following informationis usually stamped on an anchor:

a. Number of the certificate (furnished by thesurveyor).

b. Initials of the surveyor who witnessed the test.c. Month and year of test.d. Proof of test applied in pounds.e. Signification that the testing machine is recog-

nized by the American Bureau of Shipping.f. Weight of the anchor in pounds.g. Weight of the stock (if a stock anchor) in

pounds.

55. CHAINS

Ground tackle is very important to the safety ofa vessel and must be given the best of care. A checkof the condition of the links and shackles should bemade at the time the anchors are weighed, and athorough examination should be carried out at thetime of drydocking or at least once a year. Thechains should then be arranged for inspection andrepairs if necessary. The chains are cleaned byhosing down with a heavy stream of water, removingall mud and dirt. Each link is tested with a ham-mer. Defective links will have a false ring or soundwhich indicates a loose stud or a crack in the ma-terial. All shackle bolts, locking pins, and swivelsmust be examined for good and safe condition. De-fective parts will be repaired or renewed. Uponcompletion of repairs, the chains should be coatedwith tar, oil, or paint. W5hen ready to heave the

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chains aboard, the outboard end should be connectedto the anchor and the inboard end fastened in thechain locker. By reversing them once a year, a moreuniform wear of the chains will be obtained; this isconsidered an important factor in their maintenanceand care. When reversing the chains, rememberthat all connecting shackles must be put in with thebowed end toward the anchor or they may foul thewildcats when the anchor is dropped. The Amer-ican Bureau of Shipping specifies that chains,shackles, and other connecting devices be given aseries of tests to determine their strength and per-fection. After passing the test, each separate con-necting unit and each shot of 15 fathoms of con-tinuous chain must be stamped by the manufacturerswith the following data:

a. Number of the certificate (furnished by the sur-veyor).

b. Initials of the surveyor.c. Month and year of test.d. The breaking test in pounds.e. Proof of test applied in pounds.f. Signification that the testing machine is recog-

nized by the American Bureau of Shipping.

56. CHAIN LOCKERS

Keep mud and dirt from the chain lockers by hos-ing down the chains when the anchors are broughtup. Overhaul the lockers when the chains are outfor inspection or repairs. The lockers should thenbe thoroughly cleaned, descaled, and painted.Drainages should be opened and valves cleaned andput in good working condition. Rings, padeyes, or

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other fastenings for the chains should be checked forsafety and the chains properly secured afterward.

57. CAPSTAN

Aside from the usual routine work on the electricmotor and controllers, a capstan needs little atten-tion. The reduction gear, bearings, and stopperpawls must be lubricated regularly. The capstanshould be operated at least once a week to maintainproper working condition and prevent freezing.

Section VI. LIFEBOATS AND EQUIPMENT

58. BOATS

a. Lifeboats and equipment will be kept up to U. S.Coast Guard standards for the maintenance and careof lifesaving and firefighting equipment. This isusually the responsibility of one officer; it is his dutyto see that they are in good condition and ready forimmediate use at all times. Once every year theboats should be stripped of all equipment and airtanks; all parts should be examined thoroughly todetermine their perfection and safe service condition.Necessary repairs or replacements should be carriedout immediately. Air tanks showing rusty or cor-roded spots should be subjected to a test of low airpressure; use soapy water to detect any leaks. Uponcompletion of tests and repairs, the tanks should beproperly cleaned. Steel tanks should be coated withapproved paint; copper tanks do not require paint-ing. The boats should be painted inside and outside,and when the paint has hardened, the tanks should bereinstalled and secured in place, protected by wooden

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strips on the inboard sides. The numbering andmarking of lifeboats and equipment should be in ac-cordance with current rules and regulations. Dur-ing storage on board, lifeboats are protected by a can-vas or wooden cover. It is important to remove thesecovers and air the interior of the boats at least onceeach month. Stagnant, moist air is damaging to theboats and equipment and is the chief destructive fac-tor. Prevent accumulation of water in the bottomsof the boats by keeping the drain holes open and theplugs attached to brass chains, lying beside the holes.Inspect all lifelines or grabrails to see that they arein good condition, arranged with fastenings 3 feetapart, and properly secured. All releasing gearmechanism must be checked carefully for free andeasy operating condition.

b. A motor-powered lifeboat should be operatedunder service conditions once each week to see ifthe engine is in good working order. One engineershould be responsible for the maintenance and careof the motor; he should see that fuel, lubricatingoil, grease, tools, and replacement parts are in theboat at all times, stored in tanks and suitable con-tainers, and properly protected and secured.

59. EQUIPMENT

All lifeboat equipment must be inspected fre-quently to see that it is in proper condition. It mustbe useful and of good quality. The boats must befully equipped before the vessel departs from a port.Items not required should never be stowed in a life-boat, nor should any of the required equipment beremoved from the boat, except when checking.

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Replacement of defective items is carried out underthe supervision of the responsible officer. A routineinspection of all equipment is necessary to maintainsatisfactory conditions. Food ration containers,water containers, distress signals, boat-handlingequipment, etc., must be examined for defective con-dition and replaced with new items if necessary. Itis most important that all tanks used for stowage beemptied and aired thoroughly; they must be com-pletely dry before the equipment is replaced. Allairtight gaskets on container lids must be checkedand replaced if found defective. Different items,such as oars, buckets, boathooks, buoyancy tanks,and others, should be marked with the vessel's nameand US Army (or port of registry) for identifica-tion. To prevent leakage, water breakers shouldnever be left empty for any length of time; aconstant replacement of drinking water is neces-sary because of the lack of fresh air circulation inthe breakers.

60. DAVITS AND FALLS

a. Davits. All moving parts should be lubricatedregularly. If Welin-type davits are used, the cogson the quadrant should be free of paint and coatedwith grease to reduce the mechanical friction duringoperation. The crank spindle, with bearings, guides,and bushings, must also be coated with grease orheavy oil to operate freely and easily. Cranksshould be kept in their respective holders on thedavits ready for use. Radial davits need lubrica-tion at the deck brackets and the lower ends of theheel sockets. Provisions should be made to protect

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the friction points at the deck brackets with a canvascollar; the lower end sockets should have suitabledrainage holes to prevent accumulation of water.All sheaves, fairleads, and swivels must be lubri-cated and kept in good working condition. Thedavits should be coated with paint to prevent rustand corrosion.

b. Falls. All fiber rope used for boat falls is sub-jected to rapid deterioration if not protected againstthe atmosphere by watertight covers. Thus, theparts between the blocks, which for practical reasonsare unprotected, should be inspected every 6 monthsfor safe working condition. It is recommendedthat the falls be changed end for end after beingused for 6 months so that the free end of the fallis fastened to the blocks, and vice versa. Thismeans that the bulky part of the fall coil whichhas been stored and protected in a canvas-coveredreceptacle is reversed and put into use where the loadis heaviest. This arrangement gives a more uni-form wear on the falls and increases the safety fac-for for handling the boats. The falls should be re-newed after being used for 12 months. When re-versing or renewing the falls, all blocks should betaken apart for overhauling and lubrication. Re-move the sheaves from the frames, clean the rustand other impurities from bearings and pins, andreinstall the well-lubricated parts. Care should betaken not to use coarse emery paper when cleaningthe bearing pins, as this will weaken them.

c. Miscellaneous. The maintenance and care ofboat covers, cradles, lashings with slip hooks, davitguys, spans with lifelines, and debarkation ladders

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(if such are used) are fully as important as the main-tenance and care of items discussed in a and b above.Decks on which lifeboats and other lifesaving equip-ment are carried must be kept clear of freight, loosedeck gear, or other obstructions that will interferewith the immediate launching of the lifeboats.

61. LIFE PRESERVERS

All life preservers should be properly checked fordefects and laid out on deck to air at least everymonth. Fastenings on life preservers should be ex-amined for safe strength and condition; attachedflashlights and other equipment (if required) mustbe in serviceable working order. Make sure thatequipment and storage places are completely drybefore restowing; at the same time check to see thatthe required number and types of preservers are onboard and properly distributed. All lifesavingequipment must be marked with the vessel's name foridentification.

Section VII. CARGO HOLDS

62. HATCHES AND COVERS, TARPAULINS

Hatch coamings, covers, and strongbacks shouldbe handled carefully to prevent undue damage. Awooden or steel hatch cover should slide easily intoplace without the use of another cover as a ramrod.If it is too tight to slide into place, have necessaryalteration made so that easy handling is possiblewhen opening or closing the hatches. Maintain thehandholes and grips in good working condition forsafe handling. Tarpaulins should be rolled up

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neatly when not in use and stowed out of the way.They should be protected from cuts and the damagefrequently caused by sharp corners, bolts, and nailswhen covering certain deck cargo. Battening-down beams and wedges should be properly caredfor. Examine all gaskets, if they are used, and re-place those that appear to be loose or lack suffi-cient flexibility. Protect all threaded ends anddogs for clamping-down bolts to assure smoothoperation. Recut the threads and fair the bolts ifdamaged.

63. LADDERS

Broken or damaged hold ladders are dangerous.Proper repairs must be made immediately. Lad-ders must be securely fastened at both top and bot-tom ends, and sometimes in between, depending onthe length of the ladder. Broken or bent rungsshould be renewed and fastened so that there is nodoubt about their safety. Keep the ladders cleanand free of grease or other slippery substance whichmay cause accidents.

64. WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS AND DOORS

No holes or openings should be cut through thebulkheads other than those equipped with watertightdoors and valves. Keep the bulkheads coated withpaint to prevent rust and corrosion. Watertightdoors must always be clean and well lubricated atsliding supports and mechanical moving parts forsafe and easy operation. Under the supervision of aresponsible officer, routine inspections of the doorsshould be made to see that they are in satisfactory

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operating condition. No paint should be applied toany moving parts where it will interfere with theclosing or opening of the doors. The operating de-vices at the doors and the remote control must be insuch condition that either one may be used in case ofemergency. Wrenches, ratchets, or other auxiliaryequipment for operation of the doors must be in theirrespective brackets or racks at all times; if removedor lost, they should be replaced immediately.

65. SOUNDING PIPES

Make immediate repairs or replacements of dam-aged sounding pipes leading through cargo holds intodouble-bottomed tank compartments or other tankslocated in these areas. These pipes are usually pro-tected by wooden boxes, and damage may be pre-Vented by careful handling of the cargo. Soundingpipes should never be used as supports for lashingsof cargo or other heavy equipment, nor should theybe used for anchoring of snatch blocks or fairleadswhen shifting cargo in the holds. Gastight capsmust be provided on each sounding pipe extendingup to the weather deck; both a counterbalanced, self-closing cock and a cap must be provided on eachsounding pipe leading partly up in a cargo hold topoint above the waterline. Keep the sounding pipesclosed properly when not being used to take sound-ings.

66. TANK-TOP MANHOLE COVERS

It is important to the safety of the vessel, as wellas to the cargo, that manhole covers be packed with

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the proper type of gasket when the covers are re-placed. An old or used gasket is usually unfit forre-use and should be replaced with a new one beforeclosing a manhole cover. Any type of watertightand oiltight packing of sufficient flexibility may beused. Certain types of manhole covers are con-structed for the use of a square type of tallow pack-ing or rubber composition. Where a plain steel plateis used for a manhole cover, the gasket should be cutout of flange packing of the proper type and thick-ness. Use the cover as a template for correct size andlocation of holes. Clean the flanges properly, re-moving the old gasket and any paint or compoundbefore the new gasket is installed. It is advisableto apply a coat of heavy red or white lead on bothsides of the gasket to insure tightness of the coverwhen bolted down.

67. BILGES

Accumulation of dirt, rags, and trash should neverbe permitted in bilges and waterways in the cargoholds. Keep them clean and empty at all times andmake a daily check of their condition. Proper ven-tilation should be maintained by opening the bilgehatches as often as conditions permit. Bilges insteel vessels may be coated with appropriate paint,sludging oil, or emulsified asphalt, while those inwooden vessels require a penetrating coat of paint ortar.

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Section VIII. MISCELLANEOUS MAINTENANCEWORK

68. SKYLIGHTS

All moving parts for the operating devices andhinges must be lubricated regularly to maintainproper working condition. Overhaul battening-down bolts and dogs and replace broken glass, aswell as defective rubber gaskets. All coated partsshould be protected with paint to prevent rust.Keep the skylights clean at all times and make surethey close completely to prevent leaks.

69. VENTILATORS

To maintain good working condition of ventila-tors, it is necessary to remove the cowls from theirbases so that the sliding parts may be thoroughlycleaned and lubricated. Remove all rust and scalefrom the guide rings, using chipping hammer andwire brush. When clean, apply a thick coat ofgrease on the surfaces to protect them from rust.Paint should never be used because it will increasethe friction and make the turning operation difficult.Lubricate turning gears and cranking devices regu-larly. Ventilator screens must be kept in good shapeand properly secured in the cowls.

70. VENT PIPES (TANKS)

Fire screens on vent pipes leading to fuel oil tanksshould be examined for safe condition. Damagedscreens must be replaced immediately as a safetyprecaution against fire.

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71. PORTHOLES

Portholes must be prevented from leaking. Checkeach gasket; if defective, remove it and clean thegroove properly. The new rubber gasket should beinstalled with suitable glue or rubber cement. Makesure that it is the correct size. Do not cut the gasketuntil the full length is in the groove so that it willnot be too long or too short. Keep the dogs andhinges in easy-operating condition; the threaded endsof the bolts should be free of paint to enable a properclosing of the porthole. Cracked glass may be re-newed, but during this operation the ring nut whichholds the glass in the frame must be handled care-fully with a special wrench. After the old glass isremoved, the frame should be properly cleaned andthe new glass embedded in putty before the ringnut is screwed firmly into place.

72. OUTSIDE DOORS AND HATCHES

Action should be taken to prevent frozen hingesand defective locks caused by lack of proper lubrica-tion. The condition of the doors should be checkedregularly to see that they operate without difficultyand fit tightly to prevent leakage of water whenclosed. Defective gaskets must be renewed and thebolts and dogs kept free of rust if the steel doors areequipped with this closing mechanism. The doorsshould always be properly coated with paint to pre-vent deterioration. Do not paint hinges with paintthat is too thick, as this will cause broken hinges.Check weather strips for satisfactory condition; theyshould permit easy operation of the doors and serve

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the purpose for which intended. Steel watertightdoors and hatches on weather decks require frequentattention regarding condition of knife edges and gas-kets as well as lubrication of hinges and closingmechanisms. Knife edges should be kept clean andfree of the rust and should be unpainted. Gasketsshould be clean and unpainted.

73. WIRE REELS

Keep the wire reels painted and well lubricated.Bent or buckled parts may be faired in cold condi-tion by hammering or bending. Check to see thatthe fastenings to the deck are secure, that the brakebands work properly, and that the cranks are con-venliently located beside the reels.

74. MOORING LINES AND CABLES

When not in use, all mooring lines should be driedthoroughly, then coiled neatly and stowed in an ap-propriate space. Small ropes should be hung underdeck or on suitable pegs on a bulkhead; the heavyropes and hawsers should be stowed on wooden grat-ings raised from the deck to allow the air to circu-late freely. Wire rope must be lubricated if put intostorage after use. This is necessary to protect itagainst rust. For ease in handling, short lengths ofcable, preventers, slings, and runners should be coiledand each coil secured individually by lashings.Heavy mooring cable should be stored in a well-lubri-cated condition on the wire reels. Fiber ropes andwire ropes in use should be checked for safe and serv-iceable condition.

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CHAPTER 6

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE BEFORE ANDDURING VESSEL OPERATION*

Section I. CHECK OF EQUIPMENT BEFORE VESSELOPERATION

75. CYLINDER HEAD ASSEMBLIES

Before starting an engine it is essential that itscondition be thoroughly checked. This precautionshould be taken for the protection of the engine aswell as for the safety of personnel.

a. Make sure that the propellers are clear beforeturning the engine over. Carelessness in this re-spect has caused many accidents.

b. Using a bar wrench, move the rocker arms tomake sure the exhaust and intake valves are movingfreely. Check the tappet clearances carefully. Ifthe engine can be turned over with a bar, use a feelergage to determine the clearance between the rollersand cams. For correct clearance, refer to the tech-nical manual for the type of engine with which thevessel is equipped.

c. Look for any accumulation of water or fuel oilon the cylinder tops. This condition usually indi-cates leaks which should be repaired at once.

*The information in this chapter is presented only as a guide tothe maintenance of machinery. Additional general information maybe obtained from TM 55-320. Detailed information should be ob-tained from the appropriate instruction manual published by themanufacturer or from specific technical manuals listed in SR310-20-4.

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d. After making certain that all tools, rags, andother objects have been removed from the enginetop, close the cylinder head inspection covers.

76. ENGINE CONTROL

a. Engine controls are usually intricate mecha-nisms, the degree of complexity depending upon thetype and make of engine. Therefore, only qualifiedpersonnel should be entrusted with the disassembly,repair, and assembly of these parts. Careful inspec-tion and proper maintenance during operation willnormally keep the controls in good working orderand major repairs will seldom be necessary. Theconnecting links and other visible parts should bechecked frequently for proper operation and lubri-cation. The controls should be adequately protectedand never subjected to abuse.

b. The engineeer should include in his inspectionthe following items and check for proper perform-ance of the operations indicated: Controlair, actu-ator, pneudyne, camshifting interlock valve, throttlelatch pilot valve, fuel cut-off valve, relay air valve,reducing valves, and direct drive reverse mechanism.Proper inspection of these items is explained inTM 55-320.

77. BEARINGS

a. Lubrication. Proper lubrication of every en-gine bearing is important for proper operation.When a bearing has become hot, it is too late to addoil, for by then heat has damaged the babbitt.

b. Crankpin bearings. Usually trouble will

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develop first in the crankpin bearings. In order todetect trouble it is necessary to remove the doorsopposite each bearing.

(1) To inspect for proper clearance, it is pos-sible on most engines to insert a bar underthe lower half of the crank bearing and,using the bar as a lever, move the rod andpiston assembly up and down. During thisoperation excessive clearance can be deter-mined by hand feeling.

(2) All bolts, nuts, cotter pins, and other lock-ing devices should be checked for tightnessand security.

(3) The crank pit should be inspected for sedi-ment, loose pieces of bearing metal, andwater. The pit should be cleaned whennecessary.

(4) To check for proper lubrication of all bear-ings, put on the lubricating oil pressure byusing either a hand pump installed for thispurpose or an independently operated elec-tric oil pump. Using a bar, turn the engineover. If the lubricating system is function-ing properly, a small stream of oil will bevisible in each bearing, showing that theoil lines are open and adequate lubrication isprovided.

(5) All pipe-line connections inside the engineshould be tested for tightness before the in-spection doors are closed.

c. Thrust bearing. If this bearing is equippedwith forced lubrication, make sure that the oil flows

929575°-51 7 95

freely through the inspection glass or overflow con-trol while testing the internal bearings. If thebearing has a self-contained lubricating oil pit orsump, maintain a full-mark oil level and check regu-larly for sediment and water. Renew the oil when itbecomes discolored.

d. Propeller shaft becrings. In most cases thesebearings are supplied by individual oil sumps andeither a ring or chain type oiling device. Check forproper oil level and make certain that the rings orchains are all in place and operate properly. Shaftbearings provided with grease cups, usually commonon small craft, need special attention. See thatgrease cups are filled before the engine is started;press grease in until it appears on both sides betweenthe shaft and bearing. If a grease cup lubricatesthe stern tube bearing, this same procedure is fol-lowed.

78. LUBRICATING OIL AND COOLING WATERPRESSURE

If the engine is equipped with hand-operated orelectrically driven, independent lubricating oil andcooling water pumps, test these systems under pres-sure. Check the engine thoroughly for proper pas-sage of oil and water. Observe the pressure gagesand other indicators, such as warning signals, forcritically low pressures. The oil and water systemsshould run under full operating pressure until allairlocks have disappeared. Airlocks are dangerousbecause they expose parts of the metal in the coolingspaces to a high temperature, or interfere with theproper lubrication of other parts, thus increasing

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friction. The presence of airlocks is usually indi-cated by vibration of the hands of the pressure gages.It is reasonably safe to assume that no airlocks existwhen the hands of the gages are steady at the pres-sure readings recommended by the appropriate tech-nical manual.

79. FUEL OIL AND INJECTION SYSTEM

First check to see that the fuel oil in the day or en-gine tank is at a satisfactory level. Bleed the tankby opening the test or drainage valve on the bottomand drain out all water and sediment. Open thevalves on the engine feed line and make sure that allstrainers are clean and in good condition. It is alsoadvisable to open the bleeder plugs on the injectionpump to permit the escape of air from the housing.Prime the pump until resistance indicates that allfuel oil lines and valves are under pressure. Have aman on the engine look for leaks in the system fromthe pumps to the valves. If any leaks are discov-ered, repair them immediately. In order that allcylinders will have an equal workload and give theirbest performance, there must be no defects in the in-jection system.

80. CLUTCH AND REVERSING GEARS

a. Clutch drive. Before engaging or disengagingthe clutch, test the clutch lever for satisfactory freetravel (as specified in the appropriate technical man-ual). See that the lever releases the clutch com-pletely before the lever has completed its stroke.Note any unusual noises in the clutch release bear-

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ings. Check for defective clutch plates and pilotbearings. When engaging the clutch and when theclutch is fully engaged, look for any indication ofslipping due to improper adjustment of the linkages.

b. Reversing gears. See that the lever operatesfreely and snaps into each position. On multiple-engine installations equipped with hydraulic or aircontrols, make certain that the controls shift prop-erly and that the transmissions shift simultaneously.

81. WARMING UP ENGINES

Engine temperature should be increased grad-ually, as the greatest wear on an engine occurs dur-ing starting and running an engine while it is cold.A warm engine will also take a- heavy load muchbetter than a cold one. Preheating, by circulatinghot water through the cooling spaces before engineoperation, is recommended, and some vessels areequipped for this. When preheating is provided,start the hot water circulation soon enough to in-sure normal operating temperature by the time thevessel is scheduled to move. Engines that do nothave preheating systems should be warmed up bystarting them and allowing them to idle or run atslow speed, preferably with a little load on. Thiscan be effected by engaging the propellers. Do notengage the propellers until a check has been madewith the man in charge on deck to determine thatthe vessel is tied up so that the propellers can beengaged safely and are clear of all lines, other craft,or debris.

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82. STARTING AIR SYSTEM

a. Air tanks and valves.(1) Water will always accumulate in the bottom

of the air tanks whenever air is beingpumped. There is also a possibility thatoil may enter the tanks from the air com-pressor. It is important for two reasonsthat these tanks be drained regularly. First,these accumulations will reduce the airvolume, leaving less air for starting pur-poses. Secondly, if water rises high enoughin the tanks, the water may be carried withthe air into the cylinders of the engine.This may cause a cylinder head to crack.Therefore, whenever the compressor is beingoperated, drain the tanks by opening thevalves at the bottom of the tanks.

(2) When starting the engine, make sure thatall valves on the filling and discharge linesare open. Check the pressure gages withthe engine pressure gage to insure proper airpressure for starting.

b. Compressors. Examine the air compressor-forany defects. If it is driven by a separate engine,check the lubricating devices for proper amounts ofoil and grease and then start the compressor engine.When the compressor is operating, inspect for properfunction of the clutch or belt drive, seeing that noslipping is evident. Make certain that the unloadervalve cuts out at maximum and in at minimum airpressure. For correct maximum and minimumpressures, see the proper technical manual for thecompressor.

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83. STEERING ENGINE

The steering engine should be inspected while themain engine is warming up.

a. Mechanical. Check the handwheel, cable con-nections, sheaves, and bearings. Fill all grease cupsand press grease in until it appears clean at the endsof the bearings and bushings. Fill all oil cups andmake sure that all wicks or pads are present and ingood condition. Test the assembly by spinning thewheel from hard port to hard starboard, or viceversa, making sure that it operates freely. Test thetiller or quadrant for complete freedom of move-ment, making certain that nothing will obstruct itsmovement when the vessel begins to roll and pitch.

b. Electrical. On vessels equipped with electricor a combination of electric and mechanical steeringengines, a man should be stationed at the wheel tooperate it while the engineer makes his inspection.As the rudder moves from side to side while beingoperated from the bridge, check for sparks on allelectric contact points on the controllers. Make surethat all mechanical parts are operating correctly.See that the rudder takes the time prescribed in theappropriate technical manual to travel through itsarc of movement. Make certain that the brake stopsthe rudder at any desired position.

84. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

a. Telegraphs. A deck officer operates the tele-graph control on the bridge, and the engineer an-swers from the engine room. When instructions aresent from the bridge, the engineer should make cer-

100

tain that the hand of the engine room telegraphpoints to the sector which correctly describes thespeed or maneuver directed by the bridge. The offi-cer on the bridge should make sure that the repeaterhand on the bridge telegraph stops in the selectedsector when the message is repeated from the engineroom. This procedure should be repeated until allspeed and maneuver selections on the telegraphs havebeen tested. Any inaccuracies should be correctedimmediately. Improper indicator readings canusually be remedied by adjusting the slack in thecables connecting the two telegraphs. It shouldalso be remembered that all telegraph controls, cablesheaves, and bearings will need occasional lubri-cation.

b. Telephones. Telephones should be tested forproper operation because they will be the next bestmeans of communication between the bridge andengine room should the telegraph system fail. Thenoise of the engines' will usually prevent the use ofvoice or speaking tubes.

c. Bell acd jingle. Inspect the cable and cableconnections for defects. Lubricate all moving partsand check for smoothness of operation.

85. STARTING ENGINES

a. Prestarting check.(1) Before the engine is actually started, the

engineer should take a minute or two tomake a mental check of all items thatshould have been inspected. This reviewis vital since some parts may be hidden fromview by protective coverings and thus

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missed. It may be necessary, for example,to recheck the turning device on the mainengine to make certain that it is disengaged.

(2) It is advisable to open the indicator valvesuntil the engine has made a couple of revo-lutions. This precaution is taken in theevent cooling water may have found its wayinto the cylinders through cracks in theliners or cylinder heads.

(3) Close the indicator valves and start theengine, keeping all personnel away fromthe top of the engine while it is beingstarted.

(4) Do not race the engine; run it at a reason-ably slow speed.

(5) Check all pressure gages for proper read-ings.

(6) Keep a close check on all temperatures.(7) Make certain that all cylinders are firing.(8) If necessary to have a little load on the

engine, communicate with the man in chargeof the deck and await his instructions.

b. Maneuvers. When the engine is performingsatisfactorily and is warmed up enough, the engineershould notify the bridge or wheel house that theengine is ready and stand by for orders. He shouldexecute all orders from the bridge promptly and ac-curately. He should make certain that the engineis reversed to go astern or ready to go ahead whenso ordered by the bridge. Remember that success-ful operations and safety of the vessel depend to alarge extent on an alert engineer who is faithful inthe performance of his duties.

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Section II. PROPER PERFORMANCE OF EQUIPMENTDURING VESSEL OPERATION

86. TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES

a. Effect on material structures. Check tempera-tures and pressures constantly while the engines areunder load. Since the engine absorbs the heat gen-erated by combustion in the chambers and frictionin bearings and guides, more cooling water will haveto be added to reduce heat as the engine operates. Ifcooling water is exhausted, the high combustion tem-perature to which cylinder heads, liners, and otherparts are subjected will cause them to melt. Ifwater pressure drops below safe operating range,stop the engine immediately.

b. Effect of heat on salt water. When salt wateris used for cooling, a scale is formed on the surfacesover which the water passes. This scale acts as aninsulator, confining the heat to the combustion cham-bers. If sea water reaches a high temperature, thesalt in the water will crystallize and a heavier scalewill be formed. This scale may become so thick thatthe water will have little, if any, cooling effect. Theengine will then be damaged by overheating. Toprevent crystallization, the cooling water tempera-ture should be kept below 140 ° F. Frequent checksof the temperature of the cooling water should bemade at the discharge side of the cylinders. Thecooling surfaces should be cleaned frequently andall scale removed to insure normal heat radiationfrom the metal.

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87. LUBRICATION

a. Forced lubrication. Forced lubrication is con-sidered the most dependable way to supply variousmoving engine parts with adequate lubricating oil.This reduces friction in such important places asbetween shafts and bearings and between cylinderliners and pistons. As the oil absorbs heat, its vis-cosity decreases and the oil offers less resistance.This is indicated by a decrease in oil pressure. Fre-quent checks must be made to see that proper oilpressure is maintained. In addition, all strainersand filters must be kept clean; all cartridges andother types of cleaners must be in good condition;and all inserts, such as perforated metal or meshscreen cages, must be repaired or replaced whenfound defective.

b. Manual lubrication. A great number of movingparts require hand lubrication by the use of differentdevices made for different types of lubricants. Be-cause many hand-lubricated parts move slowly and,therefore, do not create enough heat to become warmor hot, there is danger that such parts may beneglected. Inadequate lubrication causes excessclearance of bearings, worn pins and shafts, and mal-adjustment of important engine parts.

88. EXTERNAL MOVING PARTS

All external moving parts, whether they moveconstantly or only occasionally, should be adequatelylubricated at regular intervals. If possible, thecamshaft, rocker arms, and valves in the cylinderhead assembly should be inspected for proper func-

104

tion during operation. Chain drives and gears onsome engines are usually provided with inspectioncovers so that these parts can be checked for properlubrication. All bearings, moving linkages, andother types of power transmissions should be in-spected hourly.

89. INTERNAL PARTS

a. Conmbu-stion and compression. Pistons, to-gether with wrist pins, connecting rods, and bearingstake the greatest workload when the engine is op-erating. It is essential, therefore, that the engineergive these parts ample attention. Complete com-bustion cannot take place without adequate com-pression in the cylinders. Compression is affectedby the condition of the pistons, piston rings, cylinderliners, cylinder heads, and valves. Proper and com-plete combustion is indicated by a smokeless exhaustgas. If the exhaust gas is smoky, check each cyl-inder separately. Incomplete combustion may becaused by a leaky valve, improperly operating fuelinjector valve, or too large an amount of fuel beinginjected. Replace all defective parts at the earliestopportunity. The engine should not be operatedwith improper combustion.

b. Mechanical trouble. Most trouble with the in-ternal parts of the engine can be detected beforeserious damage occurs if the engineer is alert andrecognizes danger signals. These danger signs maybe seen, heard, felt, and even smelled. Regardlessof the noise of a Diesel engine in operation, a goodengineer can detect any unfamiliar sound, knock,

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or rattle from any part of the engine. Excess bear-ing clearance will cause an unusual sound dependingupon the type, material, and location of the bearingand extent of clearance. The condition of bearingsmay be indicated also by their temperatures. Crankbearing temperatures can be tested by feeling thedoors outside of each bearing, and main bearingscan be checked by feeling the discharge lubricatingoil pipe lines from each main bearing.

90. CLUTCH REVERSING GEARS, AND PROPELLERSHAFT BEARINGS

Check these parts for adequate lubrication duringengine operation. Check the gear case for leaks andthe gears and other internal parts for unusual noises.Inspect the oil-seal ring at the end of the gear shaft.Inspect the clutch, levers, and linkages for propercondition. Feel the propeller shaft bearings everyhour for normal temperature and check for adeQuatelubrication.

91. AUXILIARY MACHINERY

a. Generators. A Diesel generator engine shouldreceive the same careful attention as that of the mainengine. There is little difference in principle betweena small Diesel engine and a large one; both are ofequal importance in vessel operation. Try to mini-mize the generator load as much as possible. Ifthere are two or more generators aboard, operatethem so that their running times will be equalized.Maintain the idle generator in good operating con-dition.

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b. Air compressors. Check the working conditionof each stage by observing the pressure gages whichindicate the relationship between pressures in thedifferent compressor cylinders. The appiropriatetechnical manual for the air compressor covers op-erating instructions and procedures for adjustment,repair, or reconditioning. For these reasons itshould be read carefully. Insufficient lubrication andthe use of improper lubricants are the two most prev-alent causes of air compressor troubles. Anothercause is inadequate cooling. The resulting hightemperatures may cause combustion of lubricatingoil or grease accumulations in the medium-pressureand high-pressure cylinders. Combustion in a com-pressor is very dangerous and has caused many fatalaccidents.

c. Pumps. The kinds of pumps found on differentvessels will vary, but all types require good care andmaintenance.

(1) The piston and plunger types require themost maintenance. The chief item of pre-ventive maintenance is the check for goodcondition of all strainers and mud boxesalong the suction line. Inspect all valves,including bypass, snifting, and safetyvalves, for proper operation. Neveroperate these types of pumps dry for anylength of time because no lubrication is pro-vided other than the liquid being pumped.Compliance with this rule will prevent ex-cessive wear on the pistons and cylinderliners.

(2) On centrifugal type pumps, check bearings

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for lubrication, stuffing boxes for correctkind of packing, and strainers and mudboxes for good condition. Do not operatethe pump with too tight a packing on thespindle or with a type of packing not speci-fied in the appropriate technical manual.

92. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

a. Wiring. Defective wiring is one of the greatestfire hazards aboard ship. The engineer should,therefore, make it a standard watch routine to checkthe wiring for defective insulation and connections.If there are any indications of defects, such as areoften found on portable electric-powered tools andhand lights, shut off the current supply, disconnectthe wiring, and make temporary repairs. Perma-nent cables and wires may start to give trouble aftera few years. Therefore, frequent checks should bemade and necessary repairs and replacements re-quested.

b. Electric motors. Check the work load of eachelectric motor and make certain that each is operat-ing within its safety limit (see appropriate techni-cal manual). Check for sparks at the commutatorsand brushes. Make sure that the temperature isnormal on the outside of the stator. See that nowater can get into the assembly and that no excessoil from the bearings will get into the armature.

c. Power panels and switchboards. Only author-ized operators should be allowed near panels andswitchboards, and they should work only whenstanding on a dry wooden grating covered with rub-ber matting. All power panels and switchboards

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should be kept dry and clean. Corrosion on switchesand circuit breakers should be removed but onlywhen proper precautions have been taken to assurethat the current to the panel being worked on willnot be turned on. All instruments must be handledwith utmost care, and adjustments and repairs madeonly by specialists in electrical instrument work.

d. Starters.

(1) When an electric motor is started by auto-matic or press-button starter, the motorshould reach its normal operating speedwithin a relatively short time. This indi-cates that the starter has functionedproperly.

(2) The manual starter must be operated slowlyand the motor allowed to gain speed grad-ually until all resistance in the starter hasbeen used and the full flow of current hasreached the motor. The starter handle mustbe in running position and not left betweenstop and start. Improper position of thehandle will burn out the starter, and themotor will not receive sufficient current forproper operation.

93. FUEL OIL TANKS

a. Storage tanks. On large vessels fuel oil isusually stored in the ship's double-bottomed tanks,while on small vessels fuel oil storage tanks areplaced in the most convenient spaces. The contentsof these tanks are recorded once a day. When re-fueling from a dock, a static chain should be

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installed before the fuel oil hose from the dock is con-nected to the fuel line of the vessel. Before thepumps are started, all valves and connections shouldbe checked. All safety rules must be followed toprevent fire. The engineer on duty will arrange fortransfer of sufficient fuel oil from the storage tanksto the clay tank to maintain a proper oil level forfeeding the engine injection pumps. The oil ispumped from the storage tanks to the day tank bythe transfer pump. If this pump is automatic,the engineer must make certain that it functionsproperly.

b. Day tanks. The day tank as a rule is locatedin the engine room and high enough so that gravitywill insure a steady flow of fuel to the engine in-jection pumps. It is vital that proper oil level bemaintained in this tank. The engineer must keepa constant watch on this oil level, even if high andlow levels alarms are provided. An empty day tankresults in air in the injection pumps and a longstoppage of the engine. A vessel with a dead en-gine is hazardous to its own personnel as well as amenace to other craft, especially if it is in dangerouswaters or amid harbor traffic. A test for water andsediment in the day tank must be made every 4hours and immediately after each oil transfer fromthe storage tanks. The 4-hour inspection should bemade by the engineer coming on watch. This testis made by examining a sample of the fuel oil takenfrom the drain in the bottom of the tank.

c. Transfer of oil and trimn of vessel. To helpmaintain proper trim of the vessel, oil in storagetanks outside the centerline of the vessel should be

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transferred according to a predetermined schedule.The master decides on the trim of the vessel andadvises the chief engineer regarding the transfer offuel oil. The chief engineer informs his assistantengineers from which tanks oil is to be pumped fortransfer to the day tank. For stability of the ship,the master may order that empty storage tanks befilled with ballast water.

94. CONDITION OF ENGINE ROOM

Cleanliness is a vital part of preventive mainte-nance. Dirt causes unnecessary wear, especially inbearings and moving parts, and accumulations ofgrease and dirt obscure defects. Greasy lever han-dles, handrails, floors, and ladders are safety hazards.The appearance of the engine room reflects the effi-ciency of its crew.

a. Machinery. Men of each watch will wipe theengines and remove all dirt, grease, and oil frompainted areas. They will dry off polished parts andmaintain a clean engine. Rust and corrosion canbe prevented by stopping leaks and by covering theskylights on wet days.

b. Floors. Floor area should be divided into asmany sections as there are oilers or wipers availablefor cleaning work, and each man should be maderesponsible for the cleanliness of the floor and lad-ders in his section. The engineer should inspect tosee that each section has been properly cleaned.

c. Bilges. Bilges are a fire hazard on vesselsequipped with Diesel or gasoline engines. Waterand fuel, mixed with lubricating oil, will collect in

'the bilges. In many vessels access to the bilges is

929575°-51 8 111

difficult which further increases fire hazards. Thebest way to minimize this hazard is to keep a con-stant check of the engines and pipe lines for fuel andlubricating oil leaks and have such leaks repairedimmediately. Inspect the bilges daily and keepthem clean and as dry as possible.

d.. Storerooms and toolrooms. For maximumefficiency, these rooms must be kept clean and orderly.All personnel using storerooms and toolrooms shouldbe informed regarding individual responsibility formaintenance and upkeep of parts, tools, and generalengine stores. The chief engineer is responsible forall equipment used in the engine room and should,therefore, establish policies and rules governing theuse, maintenance, and safekeeping of all parts andtools. These rules and policies will be executed bythe first assistant engineer.

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APPENDIX I

REFERENCES

1. FIELD MANUALS

FM 21-8FMT 21-22FM I22-5FM 24-10

Military Training Aids.Survival at Sea.Leadership, Courtesy and Drill.Combined Radiotelegraph (W/T)

Procedure.

2. TECHNICAL MANUALS

TM 10-205 Mess Management and Training.TM 10-405 The Army Cook.TM 11-392 Signal Lamp Equipment SE-11.TM 11-454 The Radio Operator.TM 20-205 Dictionary of United States Army

Terms.TM 55-310 Stevedoring.TM 55-320 Small Boat and Harbor Craft Pre-

ventive Maintenance.

3. ARMY REGULATIONS

AR 55-310 Transportation Master.AR55-370 Flags, Honors, and Salutes on

Army Transports.AR 55-430 Conduct of Passengers on Trans-

ports.AR 55-440 Boat and Fire Drill, Collision, or

"Man Overboard" on Transports.AR 55-510 Harbor Craft.AR 260-10 Flags, Colors, Standards, Guidons,

Streamers, Silver Bands, Tab-

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ards and Automobile Plates; De-scription and Use.

AR 600-115 Leaves of Absence and Delays.

4. SPECIAL REGULATIONS

SR 56-20-1SR 55-510-1SR 110-1-1

SR 310-20-3

SR 310-20-4

SR 310-20-5

Marine Casualties.Harbor Craft.Index of Army Motion Pictures

and Film Strips.Index of Army Training Publi-

cations.' (Field M a n u a 1 s,Training Circulars, F i r i n gTables and Charts, ArmyTraining Programs, Mobiliza-tion Training P I' r a ms,Graphic Training Aids, JointArmy-Navy-Air Force Publi-cations, and Combined Com-munications Board Publica-tions).

Military Publications. Index ofTechnical Manuals, TechnicalBulletins, Supply Bulletins,Lubrication Orders, Modifica-tion Work Orders, Tables ofOrganization and Equipment,Reduction Tables, Tables ofAllowances, Tables of Organi-zation, and Tables of Equip-ment.

Index of Administrative Publi-cations (Army Regulations,Special Regulations, Read-

114

SR 310-20-6

SR 320-5-1SR 320-50-1

justment Regulations, JointArmy-Air Force AdjustmentRegulations, General Orders,Bulletins, Circulars, Commer-cial Traffic Bulletins, JointProcurement Circulars, De-partment of the Army Pam-phlets, and ASF Manuals).

Index of Blank Forms and ArmyPersonnel Classification Tests.

Dictionary of U. S. Army Terms.List of Authorized Abbrevia-

tions.

5. MOBILIZATION TRAINING PROGRAMS

MTP 55-1 Mobilization Training Program forTransportation Corps EnlistedPersonnel of the Army ServiceForces.

MTP 55-2 Mobilization Training Program forTransportation Corps Units ofthe Army Service Forces.

6. TABLE OF ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENTT/O&E 55-500 Transportation Service Or-

ganization.

7. HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE PUBLICATIONS

H. O. No. 87 International Code of Signals,Volume I, for Visual andSound Signaling.

H. O. No. 88 International Code of Signals,Volume II, for Radio Signal-ing.

115

APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY

Aft. At, near, or toward the stern.Anchor. A heavy metal implement attached to a

vessel for holding it at rest in the water.Anchor watch. The watch while at anchor.Astern. Behind the vessel; in the direction of the

stern.Ballast tanlks. Compartments which may be flooded

when necessary to add weight to produce a changein trim or in stability of a ship.

Batten. A strip of wood' or steel used in securingtarpaulins in place. To secure by means of bat-tens, as to batten down a hatch.

Beam. Extreme width of a vessel. Also anathwartship or longitudinal member of the vessel's

structure supporting the deck.Bight. A loop or bend in a rope; strictly, any part

between two ends of a rope.Bilge. The rounded portion of a vessel's shell which

connects the bottom with the side.Block. The name given to a pully or sheave, or a

system of pulleys or sheaves, mounted in a frameor shell and used for moving objects by means ofropes.

Boathook. A wooden staff with a metal hook at oneend used for fending off or holding on.

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Boatsuwain's chair. Ropes and board seat on whicha man working aloft or overside is swung.

Boom. A term applied to a spar used in handlingcargo.

Bow. The forward part of a vessel. The sides ofthe vessel at and for some distance abaft the stem,designated as the right-hand or starboard bow,and the left-hand or port bow.

Bridge. A high transverse platform, often formingthe top of a bridge-house, usually used for navi-gating and control of the vessel, extending fromside to side of the ship, from which a good viewof the weather deck may be had.

Buzkhead. A term applied to any one of the par-tition walls which subdivide the interior of a shipinto compartments or rooms. The various typesof bulkheads are distinguished by the addition ofa word or words explaining the location, use, kindof material, or method of fabrication, such as fore-peak, longitudinal, transverse, watertight, wiremesh, pilaster, etc.

Buoyancy. Ability to float.Butts. That end of a plank or plate where it comes

squarely against another piece, or the joint thusformed.

Calking. The operation of jamming material intoa contact area to make a joint watertight or oil-tight.

Capstan. A vertical, revolving drum, spool-shaped,generally used for heaving in towing or mooringlines.

Cargo. Merchandise or goods accepted for trans-portation by ship.

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Cargo boom. A heavy boom used in handling cargo(see also Boom).

Cargo hatch. A large opening in the deck to permitloading of cargo.

Cathead. A small auxiliary drum usually fitted onone or both ends of a winch or windlass.

Chain locker. Compartment in forward lower por-tion of ship in which anchor chain is stowed.

Chains. Usually refers to heavy chains attachedto the anchor. Also applied to the lower parts ofstanding rigging which are attached to the chainplates.

Chocks. Oval-shaped castings, either open or closedon top and fitted with or without rollers, throughwhich hawsers and lines are passed. Also, blocksof wood used as connecting or reinforcing pieces,filling pieces, and supports for lifeboats; also,brackets fitted to boiler paddles to prevent fore andaft motion and small brackets on the webs offrames, beams, and stiffeners to prevent tipping ofthe member.

Chronometer. Portable timepiece of high precision.Cleats. Pieces of wood or metal of various shapes

according to their use. May have two projectingarms or horns upon which to belay ropes. Theterm "cavil" is sometimes applied to a cleat ofextra size and strength.

Coaming. Side wall of a hatch projecting above thedeck around perimeter of the hatch.

Compartment. A subdivision of space, or room ona ship.

Compass. An instrument designed to indicate themagnetic or true north. The mariner's compass

consists essentially of a magnetized pointer, freeto turn horizontally on a pivot in a liquid, andtending to point to the magnetic north. Thegyroscopic compass is not magnetized but uses theprinciple of the gyroscope and points to true north.

Davit. A device used to lower and raise ship's boatsor other equipment.

Deck. The floorlike planking or covering of anytier of beams above the inner bottom forming afloor, either in the hull or superstructure of a ves-sel. Designated by location as upper deck, maindeck, etc., and forward lower deck, after super-structure deck, etc.

Dog. A hold-fast; a short metal rod or bar fash-ioned to form a clamp or clip used for clampingwatertight doors, manholes, or pieces of wood inplace.

Draft. The depth of the vessel below the waterlinemeasured vertically to the lowest part of the hull,propellers, or other reference point. Whenmeasured to the lowest projecting portion at thebow of the vessel, it is called the "draft, forward";and when measured at the stern, the "draft, aft."The average of the "draft, forward" and the"draft, aft" is the "draft, mean"; and the meandraft, when in full load condition, is the "draft,load."

Draft marks. Numbers placed on each side of avessel near the bow and stern and often amidships,to indicate the distance from the number to the bot-tom of the keel or a- fixed reference point. Thesenumbers are 6 inches high, are spaced 12 inches

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bottom to bottom vertically, and are located asclose to the bow and stern as possible.

Engine room. Space where the main engines .of aship are located.

Fairlead. A term applied to fittings or devices usedin changing the direction of line, chain, or wireso that it may be delivered fairly or on a straightlead to the sheave or drum. They may be drumguide sheaves, rollers, or merely smooth eyes orguides over which the line or chain can slide easily.

Fair-water cap. Cap which protects propeller nut.Fake down. To lay a rope or chain down in long

bights side by side or in coils in regular order sothat it will run out clear or can be easily and rap-idly paid out. Also one complete circle of a coil ofrope.

Fall. By common usage, the entire length of ropeused in a tackle; sometimes limited in applicationto that end to which the power is applied. Theend secured to the block is the standing part; theopposite end, the hauling part.

Fender. A device fastened to or hung over the sidesof a vessel to prevent rubbing or chafing againstother vessels or piers.

Flash point. The temperature, lower than the burn-ing point, at which a volatile liquid gives off vaporin sufficient quantity to ignite.

Flying bridge. Topmost location on a bridge-house.Fore. Parts of a ship at or adjacent to the bow;

also applied to parts of a ship lying between themidship section and stem, as forebody, forehold,and foremast.

Fore and aft. Lengthwise of a ship.

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Forward. At, near, or in the direction of the bow.Foul. Sea growth or foreign matter attached to the

underwater portion of the outside of a vessel'sshell. Also, obstructed or impeded by an inter-ference, etc.

Galley. Ship's kitchen.Gangway. The opening in the bulwarks of a vessel

where persons come aboard or disembark.Gear. The total of all implements, apparatus, ma-

chinery, etc., pertaining to and used in the per-formance of any given operation, as "cleaninggear," or "anchor gear."

Gravity flow. Flow of a liquid into a tank by itsown weight without use of pumps.

Ground tackle. The anchor and chain.Gudgeon. A metal eye or socket attached to the

sternpost to receive the rudder pintle.Halyards. Light lines used in hoisting signals, flags,

etc. Also applied to the ropes used in hoistinggaffs, sails, or yards.

Hatch. Opening in the deck which gives access to acargo hold.

Hatch cover. Cover for closing the hatchway, usu-ally made of wood planks or steel.

Hawsepipe. Tubes leading the anchor chain fromthe deck on which the windlass is located, down andforward through the vessel's bow plating.

lawser. Large rope for towing or heavy work.Hold. Space between the lowermost deck and the

bottom of a vessel, or top of the inner bottom ifone is fitted; space below decks allotted for thestowage of cargo.

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Hull. The framework of a vessel, including all decksand the inside and outside plating ot planking, butexclusive of masts, yard, rigging, and all outfit orequipment.

Keel. A centerline strength member running foreand aft along the bottom of a vessel and oftenreferred to as the backbone.

Lanyard. A rope used for making anything fast.Lashing. Securing two pieces of rope together; se-

curing cargo with rope.Lazarette. Small space below decks, aft, for stowing

provisions or spare parts.Lead line. Small line attached to lead, used for

measuring depth of water.Leeward. Away from the wind.Lifeline. Any line used in connection with life-

saving.Lighter. A large open barge used in loading and

unloading vessels or in carrying freight arounda harbor.

Line. A length of rope, usually with a supplemen-tary name indicating its use, such as mooring line,gantline, or heaving line.

Log. Book containing a complete official record ofship's position and activities. A log is kept in theengine room as well as on deck.

Manhole. A hole cut in decks, tanks, boilers, etc.,to provide access.

Marlinspike. A pointed iron or steel tool used toseparate the strands in splicing rope, and as a leverin putting on seizings.

Mast. A long, vertical pole of steel or wood orig-inally used on sailing vessels for carrying sails;

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now used as a support for rigging, cargo boat-handling equipment, and wireless.

Masthead. Top of the mast.Mooring lines. The wire or manila lines used to tie

up a vessel.Outboard. Away from the center toward the out-

side; outside the hull.Padeye. A fitting, attached to a deck or flooring,

having an integral base plate and an eye to whichlashings and guys may be secured.

Pintle. One of the metal braces or hooks upon whicha rudder swings.

Poop. The structure or raised deck at the after endof a vessel.

Port. The left-hand side of a ship when lookingfrom aft forward.

Quarter-deck. The part of the main or appropriatedeck which is set aside for official or ceremonialfunctions.

Raft, life. A framework fitted with air chambers tosupport people in the water.

Rigging. A term used collectively for all the stays,shrouds, halyards, and lines to support the mastsand booms of a vessel and to operate the movableparts.

Rudder. A device used in steering or maneuveringa vessel.

Runner. The wire or rope fall used in hoistingcargo in or out of the vessel (see also Fall).

Scuttle. A small opening generally fitted in decksto provide access, often termed "escape scuttle";when fitted with means whereby the covers can

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be removed quickly to permit exit, called "quickacting scuttle."

Sea chest. An arrangement for supplying sea waterto condensers and pumps, and for dischargingwater from the vessel.

Sea cock. A valve secured to the plating of the ves-sel below the waterline for use in flooding tanks,magazines, etc.; may be used to supply water tothe pumps.

Sea worthy. In condition to put to sea and meetusual sea conditions.

Shackle. Piece of iron or steel, U-shaped, witheyes in both ends. Fitted with a pin and split keyor threaded for closing the two ends.

Sheave. The wheel inside a block.Shell plates. Plates which form the hull of the

ship.Shipshape. Neat in appearance; in good order,

ready for a sea voyage.Ship's log. (see also Log).Sling. A length of chain, rope, or wire employed

in handling weights with a crane or davit; therods, chains, or ropes attached near the bow andstern of a small boat into which the davit orcrane tackle is hooked.

Sounding pipe. Pipe, leading to tanks, throughwhich a sounding rod is lowered to measure theamount of liquid in the tank.

Starboard. The right-hand side of a vessel lookingforward from aft.

Stays. Heavy lines, usually wire, that support themast of a vessel in a fore and aft direction.

Stern. The after end of a vessel.

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Stringer. Horizontal plate or plank made fast toa vessel's frames to support the beam ends.

Strongback. A heavy girder, usually as deep asthe hatch coaming, extending fore and aft in theexact center of the hatch and fitted into slots orslides in the end coaming; often secured by bolts.

Superstructure. A structure built above the upper-most complete deck; a pilot-house, bridge, etc.

Tackle. Any combination of ropes and blocks thatmultiplies power. Also applied to a single whipwhich does not multiply power but simply changesdirection.

Tackline. A length of halyard about 6C feet longused to separate each group of signal flags which,if not separated, would convey a different mean-ing from that intended.

Tailshaft. The aft section of the shaft which re-ceives the propeller.

Template. A pattern or guide, as of wood or metal,adapted to the purpose of shaping something.

Thwarts. Boards extending across a small boatjust below the gunwale to stiffen the boat and pro-vide seats.

Tiller. An arm attached to the rudderhead foroperating the rudder.

Topsides. The portion of the side of the hull whichis above the designed waterline.

Triatic stay. A rope secured to the heads of theforemast and the mainmast.

Trim. The difference in draft at the bow and at thestern of a vessel.

Turnbuckle. A form of coupling composed of aloop or sleeve with a screw thread at one end and a

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swivel at the other, or a right and left screw link,used for tightening a rod, stay, etc.

Valve. Device used for controlling or shutting offthe passage of a fluid or gas into or out of a con-tainer or through a pipe.

Waterline. The line of intersection of the surfaceof the water with the hull of the vessel at any draftand any condition of trim.

Watertight compartment. A space or compartmentconstructed in such a manner as to prevent theleakage of water.

Wildcat. A drum or wheel on a windlass or cap-stan having in its circumference a deep groove withpropections which engage the links of a chain asit passes, preventing the chain from slipping.

Winch. A hoisting or pulling machine used prin-cipally in the handling, hoisting, and lowering ofcargo from a wharf or lighter to the hold of a ves-sel and vice versa.

Windlass. Apparatus used in handling heavyanchor chains, hawsers, etc.

Yard. Spar suspended horizontally from the mast.Yardarm. Either end of a yard.

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