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Fluvial interconnectionin the context of LatinAmerican integraldevelopmentJose Curiel Rodriguez aa President, Orinoquia A.C. , VenezuelaPublished online: 04 Jun 2010.

To cite this article: Jose Curiel Rodriguez (1982) Fluvial interconnection in thecontext of Latin American integral development, World Futures: The Journal ofNew Paradigm Research, 18:1-2, 71-116

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02604027.1982.9971949

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Fluvial Interconnection in theContext of Latin AmericanIntegral Development

JOSE CURIEL RODRIGUEZ

President, Orinoquia A.C., Venezuela

South American population and economic activities are concentrated along the pe-riphery of the continent, while the vast resources and opportunities of the interiorgo under-exploited. The integration of the inner regions into the development proc-ess will be hastened if river transportation systems are further developed. The detailsof future fluvial development are closely analyzed in this article.

INTRODUCTION

By the end of the 20th Century, Latin America will continue tostand firm on its challenge to reach true human living conditionsfor the majority of its people. This challenge cannot be perceivedindependently of the task that incorporates, to the process of devel-opment, the large "empty territories" situated in the inner area ofSouth America.

From the perspective of the integral process of development ofSouth America, the interconnection of its rivers is expected to be-come an efficient instrument towards the physical, economical, so-cial and cultural integration, and a major factor in the stimulationof economic activity.

PART I: MODEL OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION ANDECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN SOUTH AMERICA IN ITSHISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The unequal geographical distribution of population and eco-nomic activities is a characteristic of the South American conti-nent. This uneven geographical distribution described further onoriginates in a long historical process that has consolidated thepresent configuration after four and a half centuries.

World Futures Vol. 18, pp. 71-116 © Gordon and Breach, Science Publishers, Inc. 19820260-4027/82/1801-0071$06.50/0 Printed in the United States of America

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72 RODRIGUEZ

1. From Pre-hispanlc America to the industrial city

The discovery of America occurred precisely when the Europeanmercantilist process developed an immense interest in expandingits frontiers. The undertaking of conquering and colonizing Amer-ica by the Europeans soon changed its objective to obtain an eco-nomic surplus that, once appropriated by the metropolises, werecommercialized in the flourishing European markets. In this way,markets specialized in merchandise destined for Europe were estab-lished in different parts of the continent and the complete eco-nomic process was basically controlled by the metropolises.

Different from Asia, where the Europeans found a people withrelatively high craftsmanship development and whose merchandisewas traded according to the desires for luxury of the European aris-tocracy, in America they did not find craftsmanship productionthat could expand the consumption of the upper class of the OldContinent. It is for this reason that the conquest was decisively ori-ented towards the search for precious metals. Despite the intensesearch developed in the 16th Century, the significant findings ofgold and silver were located in the Highlands of Peru. In the vastregion today called Brazil, the search for gold was fruitless until thelatter part of the 18th Century.

If the geographical location of the pre-hispanic people consid-ered by the first Spaniards to be culturally more advanced wascompared to the European settlements in the 16th Century, itwould be noted that, in general terms, the centers inhabited byEuropeans have a tendency to form in the areas where a higherconcentration of Indians were located, up to the point that oftenthe Spaniards did not found new settlements, but settled directly onthe traditional centers of the Inca empire. This fact seems to de-pend on at least two factors:

a. The more relevant gold and silver deposits were found in theterritories near the more densely populated areas during the pre-hispanic period.

b. The exploitation of the mines demanded servile manual laborwhich could only be gotten in the sufficient quantities where aconcentration of people had settled before the conquest.

In the case of what is now Brazil, during the 16th Century sinceno significant quantities of precious metals were found nor werethere findings of culturally indigenous structures that could form a

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 73

social organization situated in areas where the population was rela-tively high, these Portuguese colonists geared the economic activitytowards the production of sugar in the northeastern part of the ter-ritory, through the system of large farms that used slaves fromAfrica. Simultaneously, the exploitation of the Palo of Brazil wasdeveloped together with precarious coastal settlements. It was inthe 17th Century when Portugal, making use of the experiencegathered in the Madeira Islands with the cultivation of sugar cane,initiated the process of populating the northeastern part of what isnow Brazil through the endless flow of slaves from Africa to beused in the sugarcane plantations.

Around 1630, the more important inhabited centers of the conti-nent were the following:

TABLE 1 South America: Main Settlements 1630-1650

LimaPotosiCuzcoRecifeRioBahiaQuitoBogotaCartagenaLa PlataAsuncionTunjaSantiago de Chile

9,500 inhabitants4,500 inhabitants3,500 inhabitantsno recordsno recordsno records3,000 inhabitants2,000 inhabitants1,500 inhabitants1,100 inhabitants

650 inhabitants600 inhabitants500 inhabitants

Observing the population centers the following can be noticed:

a. All the centers mentioned, are either natural exits to the sea orare directly linked to a port that allows direct contact with the Eu-ropean metropolises receiving the merchandise to be traded fromthe surrounding region of each center. During the complete colo-nial period, there existed a constant link between the administra-tive centers where the surplus to be exported was concentrated andthe departure ports. The link to which we are referring brings as aconsequence the populating pattern during the colonial periodwhich, in general terms, is characterized by the population settle-ment and the economic activities of the periphery of the subconti-nent, in a belt of approximately 100 kms inland. Those cases in

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which the population and the economic activities are found furtherin beyond this peripheral belt are intimately linked with the depar-ture ports for the exportation of goods.

A strong predominance of nuclei exist over the maritime coastswith the exception of a reduced number of centers in the southerncone that operated as military or transportation posts.1

b. Since the economic structure of the colonies was sustained bythe provision of precious metals and tradable merchandise to Eu-rope, and the reception of products manufactured in Europe, it isevident that all the communication networks are oriented towardsthe exterior of the continent.

The difficulties of communicating and penetrating the innerareas are evident: the geographical accidents, the continuous ag-gressiveness on the part of the indigenous population confined tothe internal areas, the precarious health conditions, the scarce de-velopment of transportation and communication systems, etc. . . .However, it must be noted that populated centers have closer rela-tions with the European metropolises than among each other.

In other words, the populated centers and the locations of theeconomic activities do not relate by forming a subcontinental inte-gral system but by forming a fragmented and disconnected set.

c. If the exports to Europe during the 16th Century are exam-ined, it would be discovered that the external market of SouthAmerica maintained itself as extremely specialized. With the excep-tion of just a few insignificant lines, the surplus of products thatcould be exported were gold, silver and sugar. From the 18th Cen-tury a greater diversification is noted: cacao (in Venezuela), cotton(northeast of Brazil), tobacco (Brazil) and leather (La Plata).

As can be noted, all the significant economic activities duringthe colonial period were extractive or agricultural and, generally,in each region emerged a specific specialized economic activity ori-ented towards the foreign market. However, the production of thedifferent regions did not unite nor did it complement with the oth-ers, but perpetuated the economic separation since the dynamicprocess was led by foreign countries and did not respond to endog-enous integrating processes.

"In this manner, an urban system was created in America with the basic purposeof supporting the colonial exploitation system. The city of the conquering period isimplanted as a fortified center from which colonial power irradiates, subduing in-

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 75

digenous populations, . . . exploiting and redistributing land, . . . repressing smug-gling and the incursions of corsairs and of the rival colonialistic forces."2

If the map of South America during the 18th Century is observed,a certain populating phenomenon can be noted, as well as the relo-cation of the economic activities towards the inner area of the con-tinent. This process, as related to the territory of Brazil, seems to re-spond to the fall of sugar production in the northeast after theexpulsion of the Dutch from the city of Bahia, who worked as deal-ers of the product, and the displacement of sugar production to theAntilles; and simultaneously to the discovery of important gold-bearing deposits in Minas Gerais that propitiates the inner settle-ment and stimulates a flow of European immigration.

The reduction of sugar production in the north brought the scat-tering of its manual labor and saw it forced to engage in cattle ac-tivities which were considered marginal with respect to the produc-tion of sugar. This led to an increase in the cattle production andthe cotton plantations in the northeastern part of the countryfollowed.

The gold-bearing exploitation of Minas Gerais, despite the sup-posed human and economic location in the inner area, only recon-firms the general pattern in which the principal specific weight isthat of the exporting ports: Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Santoswill consolidate themselves as colonial exporting ports.

Thus, the South America of the 18th Century experiences a cer-tain population increase in the inner sections of the country, butwithin the model of subordination of the peripheral export centersand without significant improvements concerning the economicintegration of the different regions. The populated centers are es-tablished in association with the exploitation of mines, or someagricultural activities for export and, generally, on the banks ofnavigable rivers that expedite the links with exporting ports. Thefollowing towns could be mentioned among others:

• Manaos, on the banks of the Amazon River, founded in 1674.• Associated with the gold-bearing exploitation of Minas Gerais:

Diamantina, Paracatu, Sahara, Vila Rica. (Founded in the firstthird of the 18th Century).

• More towards the inner section of the country are: Santa Annade Goiaz, Ciudad Real, Nova Coimbra (1775), Corumba (1788),Guiaba, Mato Grosso (1752).

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76 RODRIGUEZ

In other areas, cattle breeding was introduced in significant pro-portions (plains of Colombia, Venezuela and Argentina) and theagricultural products were diversified for exportation. The urbancenters were revitalized through the agricultural exchange and theimportation of luxury articles.3'4 In this manner the centers tradi-tionally dealing with exports consolidated with centers in charge ofthe distribution of products in the regions that are under its influ-ence, thus consolidating its predominance.

In the 19th Century, the fragmentary structure of disarticulatednational spaces consolidated. "It is clear that in the Spanish Amer-ica, the long and bloody groups of battles that resulted, not only inthe independence, but also in the fragmentation of the continentinto numerous nations . . . each one organized around an impor-tant urban nuclei: Argentina functions around Buenos Aires, Chilearound Santiago, Venezuela around Caracas . . . etc."2 "Brazil, acountry too large to be able to unify around only one urban center,avoids fragmentation because of the ability of the central govern-ment to force its authority through military means, whose eco-nomic foundation was constituted by the centralization, inheritedby the colony, of a great portion of the surplus in the Capital."2

The 19th Century ends with the victory of the central forces ofeach country, with settlement in the urban centers, over the federal-ists tendencies, with settlement in the rural sections, and in thismanner the national sovereignties are consolidated over the vastspaces with dispersed population, lacking economic integration,and dependent upon the large urban centers. This process is gener-alized throughout the sub-continent, with particular differences ex-isting in each case.

National independence does not cause any alteration in the tradi-tional economic structures; instead it changes to other metropoli-tan receivers of exports: it will no longer be Spain and Portugal,but the industrialized nations of Europe and subsequently theUnited States of America. However, the battles for independencedisorganized, in part, the foreign market, which experienced a con-traction until the second half of the 19th Century when a notableexpansion of exports was produced in different nations. In differ-ent places the increase in exports allowed an expansion in im-ported manufactured products from Europe and North America.This factor is responsible for the crisis undergone by the traditionalproduction of craftsmanship.

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 77

2. The 20th Century and the process of substltutiveIndustrialization

"After the crisis that occurred in 1929, in the majority of the coun-tries was noted a tendency of depletion of the exogenous stimuli forgrowth, which was reflected in a 'relative' standstill of the exports,or in a deterioration of the buying power of these."5

The reduction of the capacity to import stimulated an attempt toindustrialize each nation by substituting the traditional importswith national manufactured products. This process of industriali-zation, which was not put into effect at the same time in each na-tion, reached different levels in different countries: while the south-ern part of South America seems to have experienced it since 1935,Venezuela for example, initiated its process of industrializationmuch later near the end of 1950 and during the 1960s.

In any case, in this process of industrialization can be observed amarked tendency "to locate the process in the prevailing regionwithin each national territory, concentrating around or near thetraditional export nucleus."5

The industrial location, which strengthens the regional concen-tration of the economic activities maintaining the traditional pat-tern, seemed to respond to the following factors:

a. The possibility of taking advantage of the existing foreigneconomies, in the traditional export centers, due to the highestlevel of development of the infrastructures within these.

b. Concentration of the consuming population with greater buy-ing power in the traditional centers.

c. The preponderance of the market for the industrial locationthat, at least during the first stage, was geared towards the produc-tion of consumption goods.

d. A good part of the industrial input had to be imported fromthe industrialized nations, determining the fact that the exportingcenter be transformed into the principal source of the inputs.

e. Furthermore, the lack of basic industry led to the decision toimport capital assets, which, in addition, strengthened the impor-tance of the ports.

The subsequent expansion of industry did not cause its effectivedecentralization, but only its extension of industrial centers asso-ciated with export centers located in the continental periphery.

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On the other hand, the process of industrialization definitelystimulated the rural exodus towards the cities and the overconcen-tration of population in the traditional centers: since the industrieslocated here were absorbing completely the capacity of manuallabor, the rural population developed expectations of improved liv-ing conditions in the industrial centers and large numbers of man-ual labor contingents were dismissed and steered towards the citiesdue to the introduction of new techniques in agriculture or becauseof the crisis undergone by the agricultural sector (the case ofVenezuela).

One of the consequences of this process is the overpopulationand overconcentration of population within the large urban cen-ters, which not only accepted contingents from the countryside, butalso from the intermediate cities, which brought about variousproblematic social phenomena of major importance: severe unem-ployment of a vast amount of the new contingents, proliferation ofsub-employment and of the unproductive occupations protected byfiscal spending, overflowing of the capacities of the public servicesinstalled in the cities . . . the generalized phenomenon of urbanmarginality in the large cities of our sub-continent.

It seems then clear that populating and location models of theeconomic activities in South America do not constitute, in generalterms, an integrated continental system, which is better

characterized as being a centrifugal system, multipoint, possessing peripheral cen-ters based on economies with an unilateral scale of transport offered by a few ports,that receive no compensation from an international land transport system. As a re-sult, we are faced with a number of coastal centers undergoing continuous growthsurrounded by a narrow strip of land of 'peripheries not integrated.' The inner sec-tions of the continent, and in particular those (inner sections) of the vast majority ofthe countries, lack the basic infrastructures and the level of modernization that al-lows them to absorb the self-sufficient impulses of growth proceeding from central

Another explicative element of the scarce land integration is thefractional structure of transport networks. "The transport infra-structure has developed, in general, with a radial orientation andconvergent to the export nuclei, in such a way, that certain areas orregions obtain benefits from each national land, especially fromthose linked to the export activity, thus leaving the remaining por-tion of the regional system at the margin of the economic increaseforced exogenously."5 The research carried out by ECLA in 1975,

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which dealt with Latin American transport networks, emphasizedthat in spite of the relative expansion of the highway networks dur-ing the industrialization process, the joint networks continue to be,to a certain extent, complementary to the main oceanic points oftransport which join Latin America with the great centers of worldeconomy.

At this point, the conclusion which states that the formation ofSouth America is a conjunction of national areas linked moreclosely with the developed centers of Europe and North Americathan among each other, continues to be generally accepted.

The consequence and reflection of the previous fact is the foreigntrade structure of the countries that constitute the sub-continent.The following tables show the total exports and imports of theSouth American countries, specifying in detail the proportion ofthe exports and imports carried out among the countries of thesub-continent:

TABLE 2 Imports in Millions of Dollars (1979)

Country

VenezuelaColombiaEcuadorPeruBoliviaChileArgentinaUruguayParaguayBrazilGuyana

Total

Total Imports

10,7474,0712,1422,670

764 •4,2187,5691,173

51218,058

311

52,235

Imports Proceeding fromSouth American Countries

786720244592231996

1,319489182

1,8765

7,440

7%18%11%22%30%24%17%42%36%10%1%

14%

Scarcely 14% of the value of the exports and imports of the coun-tries in South America is traded among themselves. This is an addi-tional indicator of the non-integrated structure at the economic ac-tivities level. Approximately 80% of the international trade value iswith industrialized countries, in particular, with the United Statesof America.

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TABLE 3 Exports in Millions of Dollars (1979)

Country

VenezuelaColombiaEcuadorPeruBoliviaChileArgentinaUruguayParaguayBrazilGuyana

Total

Total Exports

13,0553,7531,9032,892

6233,7648,142

789304

15,042301

50,568

Exports Destined toSouth American Countries

1,144579300297170883

1,67831393

1,7085

7.171

9%15%16%10%27%23%21%40%31%11%2%

14%

Source: Figures worked out according to data from the Direction of Trade Year-book, International Monetary Fund. 1980.

According to some researchers, the action of different variablesdevelops an inertia during the process of distributing populationand economic activities:

The excessive concentration of economic activity in a few important nuclei and theinsufficient provisions or inadequate infrastructure constitute two variables whichinteract, in a cumulative manner, causing a strong tendency towards the consolida-tion of prevailing nuclei and their respective areas of influence within Latin Ameri-can grounds and even within the component national grounds.5

In other words, the dynamics of the process tends to increase theconcentration, without guaranteeing the development of a struc-ture in which the inner areas of the continent are integrated in re-gional, economic and social aspects.

The visualization of the large urban centers of the continent,preferably located in the peripheries and where there is a greaterconcentration of inhabitants which yield the most important eco-nomic activities may result as an interesting factor. There were 26cities in South America near the end of the 1970s with a populationof half a million:

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TABLE 4 Latin American Cities over One/Half Million Population

City

Buenos AiresSao PauloRio de JaneiroBogotaSantiago de ChileLimaCaracasBelo HorizonteMedellinCaliRecifeSalvador (Bahia)MontevideoFortalezaPorto AlegroGuayaquilBarranquillaMaracaiboCordobaCuritibaCuiabaBelemBrasiliaLa PazQuitoGoiania

Population

10,891,0007,198,6084,857,7163,831,0983,614,9472,836,3742,664,0031,557,4641,442,2241,255,1981,249,8211,237,3731,229,7401,109,8371,043,964

941,009825,487818,000790,508765,716765,617771,665763,254697,480635,713518,469

Source: Different census and estimates obtained from the respective countries be-tween 1975 and 1980.

One notices, when observing the geographical location of theprevious centers, the strong, long-lasting inertia of the urban net-work from the colonial period.1 In general, the important centersduring the colonial period continue to be outstanding today andthe new ones obtain their importance according to the tendenciesdetected during the colonial period: on the coasts, in connectionwith some exporting port or on the banks of navigable rivers withexits towards the ocean. The centers which have been located in aspontaneous or induced fashion in the inner areas of the countriescannot be forgotten, but the land-locked urban agglomerations re-

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veal less relative importance . . . the transfer of the urban concen-tration to the peripheries of the continent has become worse."1

3. Characterization of the actual pattern of populationdistribution and economic activities

In synthesis, the actual pattern which distributes population andthe economic activities in South America could be characterized byway of the following points:

a. An existing imbalance in the occupation of the land since themore relevant centers are found in the continental peripheries.These centers are preponderant to those, relatively scarce, locatedin the inner areas of the continent.

b. The population distribution responds fundamentally to thenature of economic activities concentrated in the large centers or inclose relation with them. Economic activity has leaned preferablytowards the production of raw materials for export, and the estab-lished industry requires a great amount of imported input from theindustrialized cities.

These facts turn the ports and distribution centers situated on thecontinental peripheries into the headquarters of distribution.

c. Political, social and economic fractioning exists. The struc-ture lacks internal cohesion and integration. In general, the link ofeach national territory and its macrocephaleous centers with theindustrialized centers of North America and Europe is greater thanthe existing links among each other.

d. The infrastructure network of transportation lies radiallyaround the peripheral centers without linking the different na-tional territories, and this impedes economical, territorial and socialintegration.

e. The process of modernization, and particularly that of indus-trialization, has freed manual labor from the rural regions, thusstimulating the rural exodus towards the large cities. The produc-tion establishment is unable to provide work for the whole popula-

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tion which is concentrated in those few centers, thus creating mar-ginal areas.

f. The infrastructure of public services in the urban centers isunable to satisfy the increasing demand, thus diminishing progres-sively the living conditions in the large urban centers with theirhigh level of poverty.

g. The existing overpopulation and economic activities withinthe few centers emphasizes increasingly the disadvantages of theconcentrated economies.

h. An over-exploitation of the fertile land and a complete deple-tion, deterioration or lack of relative vital resources exists in theperipheral areas where the large urban centers are located.

i. Vast practically unpopulated inner territories are not incorpo-rated into the economic and social processes of the respective na-tional territories, as there is lacking a communications network,which hinders their development.

j . Historical analysis reveals that the pattern of population andeconomic distribution activities generates its own dynamics of cu-mulative causation, and the peripheral concentration tends to per-petuate itself. This implies that the spontaneous modification ofthe pattern will probably never occur; instead it will be necessary toprovoke its modifications.

k. From all that has been mentioned, there seems to be no pro-posal concerning the national and supranational initiativesthat possess both of the following characteristics:

1. Reorientation of the economical development plans andpopulation distribution located in inner territories of the con-tinent achieving:

• The incorporation of the continental land-locked areasand its incalculable resources with the process of eco-nomic and social development.

• Modification of the pattern of concentration in a few peri-

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pheral centers of the continent and the resulting decon-gestion of the over-populated urban areas.

• The generation of productive activities capable of assimi-lating a large amount of manual labor presently under-employed.

2. Territorial, economical, social and cultural integration ofthe national territories of the continent is hindered without ameans of communication. This second characteristic is pre-sented as a necessary condition for the previous achievements.

PART II: THE SOUTH AMERICAN LAND-LOCKED AREAS

The inner territories of the continent, the South American land-locked areas, are located opposite the overpopulated continentalperiphery, victim of grave problems concerning social and eco-nomic development. These land-locked territories continue to be,in many ways, a real unexplored world. One of the principal ob-stacles or present limitations for its development is, without doubt,the lack of reliable information about its potentials.

In the case of the Orinoco basin, CODESUR and the C.V.G.,have started a systematic inspection and investigation of the terri-tory located south of the Orinoco which comprises 45% of theVenezuelan territory and has 3% of the total population. At thisstage, the inventory of the potential resources for development isstill incomplete and lacks methodological homogeneity.

It has not been until the last decades that the world has becomeconscious of the potentialities of the Amazon Basin. An example isable to show us how experts, for a long time, misjudged its poten-tialities: in 1953 an official report confirmed the existing poverty ofthe Amazon region in relation to the mineral resources, conse-quently dissuading the exploitation of the subsoil. As an alterna-tive, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing indus-try and forest production was recommended. Today we are awareof its immense hydraulic potential and of the relative limitationsthat it possesses to exploit agriculture.

In 1970 the O.A.S. included in its project of regional develop-ment research for the planning and development of the Rio de LaPlata. The study included an inventory and analysis of the basic in-formation dealing with the natural resources. Recently the O.A.S.has updated the study of the Basin of Rio de La Plata.

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Despite the actual insufficient sources of information, it seemsnecessary to draw nearer in such a way that we can visualize andidentify the more significant matters concerning the developmentof the land-locked territories of the Continent. The Basins of theOrinoco, Amazon and La Plata Rivers constitutes the South-Amer-ican interior, with an area of 10,232,000 km2 which practically rep-resent 57% of the 18,000,000 km2 which comprise South America.The population density of the majority of the area does not reachone inhabitant per km2.

1. Orinoco River Basin

The Orinoco River Basin occupies the majority of the Venezuelanterritory and the Eastern Plains of Colombia, comprising a totalarea of 960,000 km2, a third of which is located in Colombian terri-tory and the rest in Venezuela. In spite of the fact that in manymatters it is difficult to quantify the resources potentially capableof being developed today, it is possible to identify and locate them.

The hydroelectric resources are located preferentially on the rightbank of the Orinoco. It is estimated that here lies 76% of the grosshydroelectric potential of Venezuela which is estimated at 36 mil-lion kilowatts.

Among the identified and estimated hydroelectric reserves, thosewhich attract attention are the following: Sipapo, Orinoco at itssource, Ventuari in its rapids of Atures and Maipures, Suapure,Cuchivero, Caura, with multiple possibilities of development in atleast three different points of its course, at Paragua, Caroni andYuruari.

The project important to our objectives is the hydroelectric de-velopment of the Orinoco in at least five points upriver from Ciu-dad Bolivar. These developments would be linked to the improve-ment of navigation, canals and eventually the locks. It is estimatedthat the potential of these developments reaches six million kilo-watts, equivalent to a sixth of the gross Venezuelan potential.

The energy resources of the Orinoco Basin include oil deposits ofgreat significance. Apart from the modest production yielded bythe oil wells located on the Eastern section of Venezuela, the oilbelt of the Orinoco should be mentioned, which extends at theNorth of the Orinoco along the last 600 kms of its course and at itsleft side. The average width of the belt along its 600 kms is approx-imately 50 kms. The petroleum of the belt is mainly, although not

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exclusively, heavy and of high viscosity. It was estimated that theoil deposits of the belt reach 700,000 million barrels. "The beltcould eventually produce one million barrels a day."7 The exploi-tation of the Orinoco oil belt has been started systematically and atthis moment the Orinoco River will become the natural exit or wayout of a good proportion of the production allocated to interna-tional markets. The mineral resources constitute another chapter ofgreat relevance and are located mainly south of the Orinoco in theGuayana region of Venezuela.

In 1979 the Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana estimated at13.922 million metric tons the mineral reserves of iron are in theGuayana Region, broken down in the following manner:

TABLE 5 Guayana

Total

13.922

Region: Iron Ore Proved Reserves,(Millions of Metric Tons) 1979

Proved

2.132

Probable

1.320

Probables and Possibles

Possible

10.470

Source: C.V.G—Ferrominera.

The iron ore belt of the Imataca Range covers 95.000 km2 and con-stitutes the most important iron ore deposit of Venezuela. It devel-ops along an axis parallel to the Orinoco River from the borders ofVenezuela with Guyana to the plains of the state of Apure.

TABLE 6 Guayana Region: Iron Ore: Volume and Value of Exports,Period 1970-1980

Year

197019711972197319741975197619771978

Volume inMetric Tons

21,093,76119,140,85716,508,89521,650,37126,276,93821,065,93515,781,74511,829,77412,821,664

Value inBolivars

647,578,493631,648,281569,099,476793,486,097

1,145,648,2591,210,869,943

982,869,943745,985,548639,929,250

Note: Does not include San Isidro.Source: Iron ore and other mineral statistics 1976

Mineral-Industrial Statistical Summary of Venezuela 1978Ministry of Mines and Energy.

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The exploitation of the belt without doubt will require the im-provement of the navigability of the Orinoco upstream of CiudadBolivar. Table 6 shows the volume and value of exports of Venezu-elan iron ore between 1970 and 1980.

CODESUR has identified the existence of quartzite, sandstone,and shale laterite in the basin of the Parguaza River that should beexploited at a medium or short term to cover the demand of the in-dustrial complex of Ciudad Guayana. South of the Ventuari Riverthe existence of manganese deposits of high content are knownwhose exploitation would imply the use of the waterway Orinoco-Ventuari. Between Caicara and San Juan of Manapiare, considera-ble deposits of dumortierite required for the manufacturing of re-fractary materials demanded by the industrial complex of CiudadGuayana have been detected. The township of Caicara in the Stateof Bolivar is the center of a sizeable diamond mining activity.Table 7 shows the volume of production of diamonds in Venezuelabetween 1970 and 1978.

TABLE 7 Guayana Region: Diamonds: Volume of Production by Use,Metric Carats, Period: 1970-1978

Year

197019711972197319741975197619771978

Total

508,661499,019456,295780,829

1,248,9791,060,032

849,572687,119755,869

Industrial

172,651187,827187,847315,965540,341449,146404,713307,751261,084

Use

Cut

131,106113,679141,087233,753279,454238,691195,688203,598269,398

Bort

204,904197,513127,361231,111429,184372,195249,171175,770251,387

Source: Iron ore and other statistical mining data 1978Ministry of Energy and Mines.

The volume of production of gold in the Venezuelan Guayanaregion during the same period is shown in Table 8.

Also within the basin of the Orinoco River and in Colombianterritory, the largest coal deposits of the South American continentare found that without doubt will play an important part in theenergy supply destined for the large industrial centers in the inner

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TABLE 8 Guayana Region: Gold: Volume of Production by Type ofExploitation, Period: 1970-1978

Year

197019711972197319741975197619771978

Type of

Free Mining Grains

3,1302,572

15,76915,16711,72811,70854,21654,4503,429

Exploitation

Concession Grains

691,091573,048615,393579,061517,739551,015458,595238,121

79,162

Source: Iron ore and other statistical mining data 1978Ministry of Energy and Mines.

areas of the continent being developed in the future. Samples takenat the foothill of Duica confirm the presence of molybdenum.8 Thereserves of bauxite, dolomite, quartz, and gold as well as their geo-graphical location are presented in Table 9. Special attention isowed to the deposits of bauxite at the Pijiguao site.

The cattle resources are developed mainly in the plains (llanos)of Venezuela and Colombia and in the savannah (sabana) of thesouthern part of Venezuela. The impeding factors that slow downits development are respectively the periods of drought and floods,the acidity of the soils, small population, and difficult communica-tion means.

To counteract the drought and flood cycles Venezuela has devel-oped, in its low plains (llanos bajos) and floodable areas, a systemof closed circuit dikes conforming to grid modules. The project hasamong its objectives the combination of the flood controlling ef-fects of the dikes and a water holding capacity to fight droughts.Each module constitutes a hydrologically independent unit capableof collecting and conserving rain water. Within this context thepossibilities offered to cattle raising activities became trulypromising.

In the south of Venezuela, cattle exploitation is located preferen-tially on the Manapian Basin, where the soil conditions favor cul-tivating pastures. A modest possibility of development is seen inthe areas around Puerto Ayacucho.

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TABLE 9 Guayana Region: Bauxite, Dolomite, Quartz, Gold: Type, Content,Amount of the Reserves and Date for Initiation of Exploitation

Resources

Bauxite

Dolomite

Quartz

Gold

Location

DistritoCedenoLos Pijiguao

DistritoPiar:Guaicaipuro

DistritoPiar:Las Patillas

Type

ProvedProbablePossible

Probable

Probable

Possible

Proved

Probable

Content

Above 49%Above 48%Average 49%

Average 93%

Average 90%

Average 90%

Above 18grams/M.T.

Above 14grams/M.T.

AmountMetric Tons

150,000,000650,000,000

1,500,000,000

43,000,000

606,000

719,000

2,100

6,500

Date ofInitial

Exploitation

1982

1963

1978

( - )

( - )

Source: Bauxite, Dolomite and Quartz: Corporation Venezolana de Guayana, Sub-gerencia de Estudios GeologicosGold: Ministerio de Energia y Minas: Division de Fiscalizacion y Control.

Seventy percent of the Venezuelan forests are located South of theOrinoco—a total of approximately 8 million hectares. "It has beenestimated that the potential of the forests located in the followingreserves: Imataca, La Paragua and Caura could provide the lumberthat the country (Venezuela) needs for almost two centuries if thesame level of consumption was maintained."7 These reserves oc-cupy an area larger than 4 million hectares. The forest reserve ofthe Caroni River, extending over approximately half a million hec-tares, has a potential development of 44 million m3 of lumber.

Apart from the forestal resources utilized for lumber production,there is a great variety of species which could be used because oftheir fibers, latex, and chemical and pharmacological derivatives.

The aged soils of Guayana hinder agricultural possibilities. Theextent of these soils is easy to locate. The expansiveness of the jun-gle has encouraged the myth of the Amazon as a reservoir of fooddestined for humanity. However, today we know that the povertyof the soils where the leafy jungle lies determines a very fragile eco-system where human intervention wishing to make use of the landcould produce fateful and irreversible results: the extensive vegeta-

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tion of our jungles is due strictly to the intense recycling of nutri-ents growing on the surface of the ancient soils, and not to thepresence of nutrients within the soils.

2. Amazon River Basin

The Amazon River Basin is the most important in the world interms of fresh water production: it is estimated that between 20%and 15% of all the fresh water in the planet is produced here. TheAmazon issues around 200,000 mVsec. into the sea through itsdelta.

The total extension of the basin reaches 6,060,000 Km2, of which3,841,000 Km2 belong to Brazil, 952,000 Km2 to Peru, 744,000 Km2

to Bolivia, 330,000 Km2 to Colombia, 150,000 Km2 to Ecuador and43,000 Km2 to Venezuela.'

The potentialities of the Amazon Basin which could be used forexploitation are still inexact and insufficiently known. Its highlypromising character is known, although the particular identifica-tion of the resources and their dimensions are still preliminary.The immense surface of the basin, the inaccessibility of some of itsregions and the inexistence, until at least a few years ago, of a sys-tematic program of investigation seem to contribute to the precar-ious knowledge available.

Both for the great sanitation works of Amazonia and the con-struction of a large interim lake facilitating interior navigation insignificant proportions, an estimate was reached which stated thatthe hydroelectric plant of Obidos would be able to produce 70 mil-lion kilowats. This is the sole indicator of the hydroelectric poten-tial of the basin.

A very significant amount of bauxite deposits have been detectedon the large tributaries of the Branco and Peru rivers. According tothe opinion of some specialists, the lateral conditions of theAmazon are ideal for the formation of bauxite. The large extensionof the deposits can be deduced from the small lateral variation ofthe tertiary sediments. Some consider wise a prediction accordingto which Amazonia could produce up to 10 million tons annually(almost double the annual production of Jamaica), which wouldbe transformed into 2.5 million tons of aluminum and would de-mand 5.5 million KW for its transformation. Presently, the onlyavailable deposits are those of the State of Amapa and of the SierraRoraima.

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Very extensive deposits of salt have been detected on the Forma-cion de Nueva Olinda. These salts can be industrialized for theproduction of caustic soda also required for the purification ofbauxite.

The deposits of salts rich in halite and anhydrite (of great indus-trial value) are significant between the Madeira and Tapajos rivers.Cassiterite deposits have been confirmed in the Rondonia territory.

Many years ago, highly significant deposits of manganese werediscovered on the Amapa territory. The most significant manga-nese deposits are those of Sierra de Navio in the Amapa territoryand those of the Aripuana river in the Amazon state.

The most significant iron deposits are those of Vila Nova river inthe Amapa territory, between the Xingii and Tocantins rivers, andthe deposits of the Jatupu river in the Amazon state. Brazil alsopossesses the list of the raw materials needed for the production ofsteel.

The deposits of limestone have been significant in the State ofPara. Along the Tapajos river on the Formacion de Itaituba cal-careous deposits useful for the cement industry have been formed.Also the exploitation of gold in this region seems economicallyjust. Evidence confirms the existence of significant quantities ofdiamonds in the Machado and Tocantins rivers as well as in theRoraima territory.

Additionally, Brazil is searching for oil, especially on the Con-tinental Amazonic platform.

The chemical analysis of Amazonia soil samples reveals that, ingeneral terms, these are very poor acid lands. The lands may lookfertile; however its depletion is amazingly fast when systematic cul-tivation is attempted.

The mineralogical analysis seems to show the absence of ele-ments whose disintegration could constitute nutrients. The smallavailability of chemical elements at the disposal of the vegetableroots is found in the water of the soil, but not in its solid part. Thesoil simply plays the part of a physical sustainment for the vegeta-tion, but supplies very little nutrients to it. This means that, ingeneral, the possibilities of using the soil for agriculture are se-verely limited.

Here lies the importance of a rational treatment of an ecosystemas fragile as the Amazonic one: the millenary jungles should beprotected because of their role as protectors of water.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to admit that a conjunction of heter-

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ogeneous spots exist in the Amazonic territory which would allowthe thought of certain agricultural developments well located,scarce, but eventually promising.

In relation to the forest resources, vast woody areas could be de-veloped in order to produce cellulose. At least 50 species of highyield trees from which cellulose could be obtained have been listed.The exploitation of wood to obtain cellulose is presently difficultbecause of the unavailability of more promising woody areas. Prog-ress made in the exploitation of forests would render irreplaceablethe role played by the waterways.

To calculate the lumber exploitation potential it was estimatedthat 247 lumber species were available for civil construction, 29 fornaval construction and more than 30 for the furniture industry.

3. La Plata River Basin

La Plata River Basin has a surface of approximatley 3,100,000 Km2.Up to the present time,

the accomplishment of the development has been in conformity to its potentials,and the only essence is to steer towards its optimum improvement. The impedingproblems of factors are much less related with developing the natural resources thanwith economic and political aspects.10

The areas of low agricultural yielding capacity are relatively ad-vantageous for the development of mining. Only a small portion ofthe land presents severe limitations for development because ofbeing located, as Andean lands, at more than 4,000 m above sealevel or because of the low yielding capacity of the soil and hydricdeficiencies.

The iron ore deposits of Matun and those of manganese in Uru-cum, both located on the Alto Paraguay River, are of importance.At the present time, the large production of manganese exploitedin Urucum could be increased if the infrastructure were improved.

The La Plata River Basin is also the home of "the majority ofthe soils yielding higher production capacity in all of South Amer-ica. While this continent holds 5% of soils fit for agriculture, 20% ofthe La Plata region is comprised of these types of soils. On theother hand, around 50% of the basin area could increase its agricul-ture and cattle output if its soil was handled better".10

The development of the region seems to depend on its vegetable

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resources which served as a historical basis for the consolidation ofthe Argentinian and Uruguayan cattle.

Paraguay, West of Brazil and east of Bolivia, holds great promiseof developing advantageously the forest resources whose study onyielding possibilities was recently begun.

In some places the pressure to cultivate the land led to its defor-estation, producing negative results on the soils and on the subse-quent economic output. Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay are under-taking plans for reforestation.

Traditionally, agricultural production has been the basis for thedevelopment of the region, providing the national economies ofthe region with plenty of employment and significant contribu-tions. The production of meat, coffee and cereal in the region tradi-tionally has been important in the international market, and an in-crease in the agricultural production is foreseeable if the surfacecultivation intensifies due to the abundant soil resources.

Bovine and ovine cattle breeding exists throughout almost the whole basin. How-ever, those areas of an intensive production of beef, milk, and, in general, of almostall ovine cattle are located on the regions of sub-tropical and moderate climates,which yield greater agricultural development. Ovine cattle are bred in the tropicalregions, while bovine, especially to produce meat, are bred on a large scale overareas with natural pastures yielding low sustaining capacity.10

The calculation of the hydroelectric potential of the basin is 60million kilowatts because of the advantageous hydric and topo-graphic conditions.

The previous brief inspection of the potentialities for develop-ment of the three basins comprising the land-locked territories ofthe South American continent, reveals how, to us, the majority ofthe continent is still an immense reservoir of the most varied re-sources awaiting incorporation into the most harmonious, bal-anced and integrated development process of our countries. Oppo-site the continental periphery where, in our times, the populationand the most relevant economic activities are concentrated, andwhere they are already experiencing severe social and economicproblems and relative scarcity of vital resources, as well as a certaindeterioration of the environment . . . lies the South American land-locked territory, abundant in resources, non-populated, lacking therequired infrastructures for its exploitation, but possessing an at-tractiveness and a promising challenge for the generation that willexperience the close of the 20th century.

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PART III: TOWARDS THE INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENTOF THE LAND-LOCKED TERRITORIES OF SOUTHAMERICA: THE CREATION OF CONDITIONS

It is probable that the previous analysis allows the formulation ofthe following tentative hypotheses dealing with the integration anddevelopment of the "empty" and land-locked territories of SouthAmerica.

a. A tendency to maintain the historically proven inertia of thepresent model of population distribution and the economic activitypreferably in the continental periphery and the frontiers of eco-nomic activity distribution lingering around the immediate area ofthe periphery centers, will surely maintain its historical rigidness,unless by way of an integration proposal of continental dimen-sions, willful decisive policies are taken to steer the population dis-tribution and the economic activity towards the land-locked ter-ritories.

b. To penetrate the land-locked territories will progressively be-come a demand as is suggested by the present indicators of deterio-ration, diseconomies, social problems and depletion of vital re-sources from the over-exploited peripheral centers.

c. The decentralization of population and economic activity willcompel transportation authorities to draw up coherent and boldproposals with the purpose of making possible the communicationand access to the land-locked territories and inexpensive energysources. The communication facilities made possible by the trans-portation methods in the inner sections of the continent are notsufficient cause for the economic development of the empty spaces:it would be difficult to justify the large investments made on theinternal and integrated transport systems without effective initia-tive from regional development able to generate the quantity andquality of cargos required by such transport networks.

d. However, it can be equally assumed that such transport net-works and the availability of inexpensive energy sources will be nec-essary for such regional improvements and will form part of astimulating factor of the economic regional development.

e. Likewise, the integral development of the empty spaces lo-cated in the inner areas of the continent within the economical in-tegration framework will be linked to the transport facilities, phys-

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ical communication and free trade policies among the countries ofthe continent.

1. Vital policies

Without pretending to present an unilateral version of the devel-opment process suitable for the continent, it seems appropriate toinsist on policies which focus their attention on the objective of in-corporating the land-locked areas and their enormous natural re-sources into the development task. Such policies will contemplatethe considerable colonization of the empty spaces, stimulating thedecentralization of human and financial resources towards non-colonized territories. It is fundamental, for the drawing up of suchpolicies, to verify that the areas traditionally developed have expe-rienced depletion or relative scarcity of the natural resources esti-mated necessary for the economic and social growth, which, how-ever, are abundant in the non-colonized areas. The development ofnon-colonized areas also presents itself as an efficient means totransfer the excessive population from the overpopulated urbancenters, to steer the markets towards the inner sections of the conti-nent, and to create improved living conditions for the populationso as to reduce social differences.

According to the attempted proposal, two basic policies are ofvital importance:

a. A policy to create development centers rich in natural resources.b. A policy to provide transport and communication in the land-

locked areas.

1.1 Policy of development centers and natural resources Themain objective of such policy would be the induction and expan-sion of self-supporting economic growth in those areas which offerrelative advantages because of the abundance of various natural re-sources and because of the agglomerate and scale economies exist-ing in the production and services rendered. The result is reachedby merging the investments and human resources from other cen-ters of relative major development of the continental peripherywith the interior, advantageously rich in natural resources.

The advantageous existence of only one natural resource doesnot seem to guarantee the conditions that are required to obtain aself-supporting development; however, there are varied and nu-

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merous places in the inner sections of the continent offering poten-tial to create agricultural and industrial complexes based on mul-tiple resources, in addition to the abundant hydroenergetic poten-tial, which is a decisive factor for the feasibility of this basic policy.

In these places, the investments will be destined fundamentallytowards the creation of industrialized centers specializing in proc-essing natural resources and towards the provision of urban infra-structures for the new development centers in the inner sections.

1.2 Policy to provide transport and communications in theland-locked areas The main objective would be to facilitate theaccess and physical communication to the land-locked areas inorder to thrust trade operations towards the markets located in therecently planned development centers which deal with industrial re-sources and products, and in order to facilitate the flow of humanresources, investments, etc. from periphery centers to the land-locked areas. Additionally, it would pursue the objective of linkingthe respective national and land-locked areas and through them thelinkage of peripheral areas.

The specific functions are the following:

a. Communication means from the periphery towards the land-locked area to facilitate the establishment of development centersand provide them with facilities and a variety of infrastructures.

b. Communication means between the peripheral centers andthe exploitation areas, and the future industrialization of naturalresources.

c. Communication means between the periphery centers andagricultural development areas, located preferably south of theAmazon Basin.

The policies of Development Centers and Natural Resources aswell as those of Communication, Transportation and Energy willeventually be linked with joint concrete development projects ofbordering areas, as the process of integration will demand, whichhave, up to now, held valuable records and performances.

The previous proposal of the basic policies which was presentedin very general and schematic terms, will evidently require very de-tailed studies, but for the time being it aids us in locating an as-pect, which to our judgement, will play a major role in the devel-opment of the land-locked areas of the continent: the use of the

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South American waterways within the framework of the integratedsocial-economic development process.

Once the transportation, energy and communication policieshave been accomplished according to the development of the land-locked areas of the continent, the continental waterways will be,without doubt, one of its outstanding integrating components, ifnot the most outstanding of its components.

In the following section, we wish to emphasize the role played bythe waterways in the development process and its first-rate impor-tance in the South American development process.

2. The role of the waterways In the development process

The incorporation of the waterways into the national and interna-tional systems of transport is considered of crucial importance inthe development process of our countries.

In addition to the general advantage of increasing the transporta-tion and communication facilities in specific areas where water-ways join the other means of transportation, a noticeable reductionin large cargo costs will occur, as well as an improved distributionbetween the integrated transportation facilities frequently causinga general improvement in the quality of the transportation services.

In different areas of the world, waterways have facilitated the es-tablishment of industrial agricultural and cattle raising centers in-tensifying the economic activity in regions traditionally unreach-able by conventional means.

Simultaneously, the intensifying of the economic activity in-creases the demand for transportation services which to a certainextent are met by the waterways themselves.

2.1 A multiple use resource The waterways and their improve-ments are especially advantageous to general development becauseof their multiple uses and advantages.

2.1.1. An economical means of transportation The waterwaysare particularly advantageous for the transportation of big volumesof cargo between centers separated by great distance and when thetime factor is not decisive. Often, the case of the Mosela river ismentioned to stress the cost reduction obtained by its canalizationfor navigation purposes: it is estimated that between 1952 and 1969the transportation costs were reduced approximately to 70%.

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The following are some indicators of the cost reductionsachieved by fluvial transportation in comparison to railroad trans-portation and road transportation:11

a. Low fuel consumption Fluvial transportation consumes onethird of the fuel of railroad transportation and one seventh of roadtransportation per ton, per kilometer travelled.

b. Low environmental pollution Since the production of en-vironmental pollution is directly related to the volumes of fuelconsumed, the fluvial transportation pollutes one third of railroadand one seventh of automotive transportation.

c. Higher weight carried per H.P. The fluvial transportationcarries 3 tons per H.P. whereas using the same power railroadtransportation can carry 1 ton and automotive 0.33 tons. This isequivalent to power savings of 3 and 9 times respectively.

d. Higher weight per unit of propulsion One fluvial tug boatmoves between 6,000 and 7,000 tons, whereas a locomotive movesapproximately 300 tons and a truck only 30 tons. The weight capac-ity per propulsion unit is 20 times and 200 times higher respectively.

The comparison can be better visualized if it takes into accountthe fact that to move 6,000 tons only one tug boat is necessarywhereas to move the same load 8 trains of 750 tons each or 200trucks of 30 tons are needed.

e. Higher weight per unit of transportation The maximumweight capacity of a river barge is 1,200 tons whereas a rail car car-ries 40 tons and a truck carries 30 tons.

f. Less loading and unloading operations As a consequence ofthe previous statement a considerable reduction in the number ofloading and unloading operations is achieved in fluvial transport:to transport 1,200 tons only one loading operation is required,whereas 30 operations are required with railcars and 40 with trucks.

Table 10 summarizes the previous considerations:In addition to the previous advantages the possibility of integrat-

ing the different means of transportation facilitates the adoption ofnew techniques especially in the field of crating the load, reducingconsiderably the transfer of loading and unloading operations towhich a sizeable percentage of the increasing cost can be allocated.

Finally, it has been observed how the integration of fluvialtransport stabilizes the irregular patterns of communication whichaffect other means of transportation and reduces the resulting con-

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TABLE 10 Productivity of Different Means of Transportation

Fluvial Railroad Automotive

1) Volume of fuel per ton/km 1 vol 3 vol 7 volcarried

2) Environmental pollution 1 3 7

3) Weight carried per H.P. 3 ton/HP 1 ton/HP 0.33 ton/HP(Ton/HP)

4) Weight carried per unit of 6,000-7,000 ton 300 ton 30 tonpropulsion

5) Requirements to move 6,000 1 tugboat 8 trains of 750 30 ton/trucktons ton/each

6) Cargo capacity per unit of 1,200 ton/barge 40 ton/railroad 30 ton/trucktransportation car

7) Operations of loading and 1 30 40unloading for 1,200 tons

Source: Gomez C, Hernan La Productividad en el Transporte Fluvial.Merida, CIDIAT, 1976.

sequences arising from the interruption of the service of the othermeans of transportation.

2.1.2. Incentive for industrial development The experience si-multaneously undergone in other countries indicates the gain fromaccomplishing improvements of fluvial navigation and the devel-opment of hydroelectrical projects.

Evidently, this is one of the decisive factors that make improve-ment works for fluvial navigation feasible: the large investmentsare promptly compensated financially by the production of abun-dant, permanent, clean and inexpensive energy. If the developmentof hydroelectric projects combined with improvement works (recla-mation projects) for fluvial navigation were not possible the in-vestments required would be very costly. The energy productionacts as a stimulus to indusrial development of other areas of activity.

Finally, the improvement works for fluvial navigation allow theabundant supply of industrial water to the factories of the sur-rounding areas solving a common problem of zones developed atthe periphery of the continent. The stabilization of the rivers' an-nual flow permanently makes available large volumes of water re-quired by refineries, power stations, steel mills, chemical indus-tries, etc.

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100 RODRIGUEZ

2.1.3. Incentive for urban development Frequently, at least inour continent, the waterways pass through regions not yet inhab-ited, facilitating, therefore, the process of colonization for differentreasons.

First of all the improvement works for fluvial navigation ofteninclude reservoirs and channels which allow natural decantation,thus reducing the purification requirements for human consump-tion. Furthermore, they become important water reserves for citiesand towns during drought periods.

A basic function of the improvement works for fluvial naviga-tion is the stabilization of the water flow reducing the possibility offlood in lands traditionally floodable and also providing perma-nent irrigation for agricultural areas. Frequently, such swampyareas are drained and protected permanently against floods, re-claiming them for agricultural purposes. In this sense, the sewer-age services reparation made possible by these works are notneglectable.

Finally, the large volumes of water stored in reservoirs guaranteethe easy purification and decantation of water allocated to industries.

2.1.4. Incentive for tourist development Frequently it is possi-ble to join imposing natural landscapes with useful improvementworks for fluvial navigation which opens up the tourist develop-ment of the area, as other countries have already experienced.

3. The experience in other contexts

To illustrate the impact produced by the utilization of waterwaysin other countries some aspects will be presented.

In Europe, the utilization of the Rhine river is salient due to itsinternational importance in benefitting directly Germany, France,Holland and Switzerland. This is a typical case representative of aconsiderable reduction in transportation costs of large cargoes forinternational trade. The complete network was made possible bylarge multi-purpose developments: improvement works for fluvialnavigation and hydroelectric power generation. Between Strasburgand Basel 125 kms. of improvement works were developed. BetweenBasel and Vogelgrun lies the Grand Canal of Alsace 52 kms. long,with four dams with power houses to generate electrical energy. InVogelgrun four navigation branches were built, each of them pro-vided with hydroelectrical power stations. The work was carriedout in different stages according to priorities established by thecountries concerned. The following table shows the reduction of

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 101

transportation costs for steel mill products in the Rhine Regionmoved by fluvial transportation compared to railway transportation.

TABLE 11 Reduction of Transportation Costs for Steel Mill Products inthe Rhine Region

City Reduction of Freight Costs

Hamburg 48%Stuttgart 46%Basel 40%Lyon 48%Metz 33%Cologne 50%Paris 50%Rotterdam 38%

In the U.S.A. it is worth mentioning the development of theTennessee River started in the 30's. The fluvial navigation consti-tuted a secondary objective when the plan was formulated, wherethe hydroelectric development was the main purpose. The estab-lishment of the waterway facilitated the growth of industrial cen-ters in areas that otherwise would have remained economicallystagnant and generated a considerable economic growth in otherregions mainly due to the low transportation cost of raw materialsand industrial inputs. Between 1955 and 1965 the cargo trafficalong the Tennessee increased from 10 million tons to 17 milliontons, achieving concurrently an optimum conbination of road,railroad and fluvial transportation. Another example is the devel-opment and utilization of the Volga River and its main affluents inthe U.S.S.R. that has allowed Moscow, a city located in an innerregion of the continent to become directly linked to five seas:White, Baltic, Black, Azov and Caspian. This linkage was madepossible by the construction of the Moscow canal that joins it withthe Volga River and has a length of 130 kms. with 10 water locks;the canal between the Volga River and the Don River; the canal be-tween the Volga River and Lake Onega; and the canal betweenLake Onega and the White Sea. The network that links Moscowwith the five seas is navigable throughout all its extension by shipsof 4.5 meters of draught, and links 120 European ports.

The experience of different countries seems to allow some con-clusions:

a. It is possible to integrate profitably different transportationmeans associated with fluvial navigation.

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b. The transportation costs of large volumes of raw materialsand industrial inputs can be reduced considerably by incorporatingthe fluvial media into the transportation network.

c. The hydroelectrical development and utilization concurrentwith improvement works for navigation makes both economicallyfeasible, yielding a return on the investment much faster than ifcarried out as improvment works for fluvial navigation alone.

d. The waterways activate positively the industrial and economicactivities of the regions that are benefitted in such a way that fre-quently, the economic activity is not an antecedent cause to the ha-bilitation of the waterways but an effect. In this sense many water-ways have to be developed, not as a function of the existingdemands of the areas to be benefitted but from the demand thatmight be generated with its development.

e. The great improvement works for fluvial navigation are gen-erally built in consecutive stages and with the involvement of sev-eral countries in multinational projects.

All these elements together with the positive advantages relatedto fluvial transportation compared to railroad and automotivetransportation allows the thought that the operation of waterwaysin South America will be a crucial element in the basic communi-cation and transportation policy that would eventually permit theincorporation of the vast uncolonized spaces of the inner regions ofthe continent into the process of integrated development. It is alsonecessary to stress the possible multiple utilization of the rivers forthe generation of clean, inexpensive and inexhaustible energy; forflood control purposes; irrigation; water supply to urban centers,industrial complexes and recreation centers.

All these possibilities will be available within a plan of integrateddevelopment of the basins.

PART IV: A WATER HIGHWAY: FROM THE ANTILLES TOTHE LA PLATA SEA

It is estimated that the navigable fluvial network in South Americareaches a length of 50,000 kms. At least 13 fluvial interconnectionshave been proposed, some of which involve the three large basinsof the Orinoco, Amazon and La Plata Rivers and would be interest-ing for Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uru-guay and Argentina. To the extent that the mentioned interconnec-

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 103

dons imply an agreement between two or more countries, it will bemore viable when "not requiring transfer of water flows from onebasin to another at that such transfers be truly insignificant"9 be-cause it should not be forgotten that interconnections, "independ-ently from branch off or transfer, implies a certain balance betweenthe water flows exchanged among the connected basins".9 How-ever, presently, several technical means are available that allowphysical or economic compensation in cases of unavoidabletransference.

In any case, the navigable fluvial network of South America ap-pears as a complex communication system covering almost entirelythe inner regions of the continent.

The majority of the different interconection projects are at aproposal level. A few, due to their basic importance, count on rela-tively advanced studies.

TABLE 12 Latin America. Fluvial Interconnections

Basin A Basin B Rivers

La Plata Basin

Amazon

AtlanticAmazonAtlantic

Amazon

AtlanticAtlantic

Del PlataDel PlataAtlanticAtlanticAmazonAtlanticAmazonDel PlataDel PlataDel PlataAtlantic

Atlantic

Orinoco

Ibicuy (Uruguay R.)-JacuiTiete (Parana R.)-Paraiba R.Iguazii (Parana R.)-Uruguay R.Miranda (Paraguay R.)-Ivinhema (Parana R.)Casim (Parana R.)-Verde (Paraguay R.)Paranahiba (Parana R.)-San FranciscoAraguaia (Atlantic-Amazon)Tacuari (Paraguay-Plata)San Lorenzo (Paraguay R.)Das Mortes (Araguaia)Juruena (Amazon) Jaurii (Paraguay R.)Guapore (Amazon) Jaurii (Paraguay R.)Xingii (Amazon R.)-Guiaba (Paraguay R.)

Sonho (Tocantins)-Preto (San Francisco R.)

Parnaiba-ItapicuniNegro (Amazon R. Casiquiare-Orinoco R.)

Source: Piano Hidroviario Nacional Porto Alegre 1964Taken from Viladrich, M.A., 1976, p. 21.

1. Fluvial interconnection Orinoco-Amazon-La Plata

In spite of seasonal limitations practically the only means of per-manent trasportation for the inner regions of the continent are the

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rivers. Crafts of up to 100 tons provide communication means tothe most diverse points. Navigation on the ocean or high sea ispossible and common once the final point of the river has beenreached. However, several reasons reduce the possibilities of navi-gation on other stretches: low regions and flat topography fre-quently favors winding courses; large amount of sediment draggedby the flow and the variation of currents frequently modify thedepth of the rivers: the speed of the current varies seasonally, andfrequently there are large time differences for journeys upstreamand downstream.

In rivers like the Madeira, tree logs travel in the currents makingnavigation difficult. These limitating factors emphasize the need toimprove some river conditions when canalization works are under-taken.

In any case, in our judgement, the waterway that might becomethe international fluvial axis of South America is presently naviga-ble in all its length by crafts of up to 1 meter of draft with the ex-ception of two stretches where the continuity is assured by roadconnection. This has been proven by the expedition of Georgescuin 1980-1981. We would like in the following lines to describe thedistance travelled that is known as the "water highway" betweenthe La Plata sea and the Antilles sea (Caribbean sea) and that, inour judgement, is bound to become an authentic inner fluvial axisof the continent.7

1.1 Orinoco River The beginning of the journey takes placefrom the month of the Orinoco in the Atlantic Ocean and entersthe continent through Boca Grande located in the Delta. FromBoca Grande until Ciudad Guayana the rivers extend 303 kms., andare considered apt for oceanic navigation (vessels of 10 and 12 me-ters of draught in low and high water levels respectively).

In Ciudad Guayana is located the major Venezuelan industrialcomplex where iron is shipped for exportation on vessels of up to30 feet in draft. The following table shows the amount of irontransferred from Ciudad Guayana to the ocean on the Orinoco be-tween 1970 and 1978.

The river course is 83 kms. between Ciudad Guayana and CiudadBolivar, and is navigable during the high rainy season by vessels of6.5 meters in draft, and by vessels of 2.5 meters in draft during thedry season.

From Ciudad Bolivar to Puerto Ayacucho the course is 728 kms.long and navigable by vessels of even 3.5 meters of draught during

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 105

TABLE 13 Guayana Region: Iron: Volume of Exports. Period: 1970-1978

Years Volume (Metric Tons)

1970 21,093,761

1971 19,140,8571972 16,508,8951973 21,650,3711974 26,276,9381975 21,065,9351976 15,781,7451977 11,829,774'1978 12,821,664

'does not include San Isidro.Source: Iron and Other Statistical Mining Data. Ministry of Energy and Mine.

Venezuela and Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana.

the rainy season, and of 2 meters during the dry season. Varioushydroelectric development plans are underway for this distance, aswell as improvements of navigation in at least five locations of thestretch. A hydroelectrical potential of 6,000 MW is calculated forthis development. Rio Apure flows into the Orinoco somewhere onthe already mentioned distance; 670 of its kms. are navigable up toGuasdualito, and in union with the Orinoco it constitutes a com-municational axis which crosses from West to East the inner areaof the Venezuelan territory and links the West of the Andes withthe industrial complex of Guayana.

Returning to the river-bed of the Orinoco, 3.7 kms. upstream ofPuerto Ayacucho, the navigation is interrupted by the rapidstreams of Atures and Maipures, and is renewed at Samariapo, ap-proximately 60 kms. upstream. Presently, there is a side road 65kms. long between Puerto Ayacucho and Samariapo, which per-mits overcoming the fluvial interruption. In the rapid streams ofAtures and Maipures, it would be possible to construct lateral con-traction dams that would facilitate safe permanent navigation orcanalization works. Upstream from the rapids of Atures and Mai-pures, naviation is renewed up to the rapid streams of Guaharibosafter the joining of the Orinoco and Carlo Casiquiare river. TheCano Casiquiare gives rise to an uncommon characteristic andprobably is unique in the world and thus is the natural connectionof the Orinoco and Amazon basins. Cano Casiquiare "withdrawsapproximately 25% of the Orinoco waters, which corresponds to100 mVsec. during the dry season and empties them into RioNegro, a tributary of the Amazon River".12

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The navigation by vessels of 1 meter draft is possible from theOrinoco to Rio Negro by way of the Casiquiare river; however,sand banks make the journey difficult during the dry seasons.

1.2. From the Orinoco to Rio Negro It is known that naviga-tion is possible between the Orinoco and Rio Negro with certainlimitations posed by its natural connection, Carlo Casiquiare. Inorder to improve navigation the following proposals have beendrawn up:

a. Modification of the Casiquiare river using dredgings on sandbank areas, or lateral contraction dams.

b. A canal construction in the Pimichin region where the Guai-nia and Atabapo rivers nearly join their flows. It is located at aconsiderably lower level than the Casiquiare-Orinoco junction,hundreds of kilometers to the west. Two low dams of relativelyeasy and economical construction due to the topographic advan-tage of the region, would allow the creation of an artificial lake of200 kms. and the hydroelectric advantage would allow simultane-ously clear navigation.

The linking area of the Atabapo and Guaim'a rivers is basicallyflat, swampy and, in effect, the waters of both rivers unite in thisarea. That is to say, that in reality no obstacle or division exists be-tween these rivers.

This alternative could be studied in more detail because of theeconomic advantages it could present.

c. The construction of a canal 120 kms. long to join the Orinocowith the Casiquiare river between San Antonio and Playa Candelarespectively.

1.3 From Rio Negro to the Amazon river. The Casiquiare ex-tends approximately 400 kms. until it empties into the Guainiaand joins with the latter, thus creating Rio Negro. The completeextension of the river is navigable by vessels of one meter draft. Therapid streams of Sao Gabriel are the present obstacle . These rapidsare navigable by vessels of one meter draft under precarious safetymeasures.

The hydroelectric utilization of Sao Gabriel has been proposedin connection with improvements of navigation by the use of locks.To overcome the rapids of Sao Gabriel vessels of higher power ortugboats are used. Downstream from Sao Gabriel, from Tapuru-

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 107

cuara and up to the outlet located in the Amazon river in Manaos,Rio Negro is wider and offers excellent navigating conditions. Upto its junction with the Amazon, the length of the Rio Negro is 950kms. from the Casiquiare river.

1.4 From the Amazon river to the Madeira river. From Manaosto Belem on the Atlantic, navigation is excellent on the Amazon forvessels between 9 and 11 meters draft during the dry and rainy sea-sons respectively. This stretch has a length of 1,480 kms.

From Manaos, it is also possible to travel to Leticia (Colombia)and Iquitos (Peru).

Between Manaos and the outlet of the Madeira river, the Amazonruns 130 kms. Here the "water highway" continues its journey onthe Madeira river, a major tributary of the Amazon. From its juc-tion until Porto Velho city it runs approximately 1,000 kms. with-out meeting obstacles that could interrupt navigation. However,the navigation is interrupted further on for almost 360 kms. be-tween Porto Velho and Guajara Mirim due to the presence oftwenty-three rapids. This obstacle could be overcome through thecanalization of the flow of the water by using four dams with locksthat would allow the neutralization of the total uneveness, measur-ing 72 meters. The other possible alternative is to construct a lat-eral canal.

Presently a road and a railroad which is out of order exist be-tween Porto Velho and Guajara Mirim.

1.5 From the Guapore" to the Paraguay river. "The coursefrom the La Plata estuary, from Guajara-Mirim, continues on theMamore river and its tributary the Guapore which is navigablethroughout the whole year, but during the dry season only by ves-sels of approximately 0.60 meters up to the bridge of Mato Grossoto Cuyaba road."7 Among the tributaries is the Alegre river whosesources are not distant from Aguapei tributary of the Jarii whichflows towards the Paraguay river.

It is in this region where the fluvial interconnection of theAmazon and La Plata basins will take place. The region is flat,partially subject to flooding and uninhabited. At least two inter-connecting alternatives have been proposed:12

a. The construction of low dams to flood the region and createan artificial lake which would join the basins and would allownavigation.

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108 RODRIGUEZ

b. Canalization works from which various alternatives have beenproposed, the most convenient from the investment point of view,according to PORTOBRAS, should take place between the Para-guay and Guapore rivers, "measuring approximately 300 kms. inlength and being able to be carried out due to the canalization ofthe Alegre river on the slope of the Guapore and of the Aguapei onthe slope of the Paraguay river. The altimetric elevation of thisjunction from Caceres to Mato Grosso city was accomplished, al-lowing the preparation of a scheme of the necessary works: 4 lockson the slope of the Paraguay river overcoming 100 meters of leveldifference and 6 locks on the slope of the Guapore river overcom-ing 174 meters of level difference".

The interconnection indicated would allow a fast route betweenBuenos Aires and Manaos, 7,000 kms. in length.

1.6. From the Paraguay to the Parana" river. Near Caceres theminimum depth of the Paraguay river is 1.5 meters and is main-tained in these conditions by the use of permanent dredgings. TheBrazilian Enterprise of Puertos has constructed closeby a terminalto load rice produced in the area which is transported to Ladarioby way of the Paraguay river and from there by railroad.

The cattle of the area are loaded in Pantanal and shipped on theParaguay river by freight boats capable of carrying 600 heads ofcattle to Ladario where then railroads transport the load to theinner areas of Brazil.

Throughout the journey on the Paraguay, the river crosses lowsloped plateaus of 2 to 3 cm. per kilometer. It is navigablethroughout the whole extension although it requires dredgingwork to allow the navigation of mineral convoys of 10 to 20,000tons. The average minimum depth between Puerto Sastre and Con-cepcion is 1.8 meters.

The river is dredged between Asuncion and Corrientes to guaran-tee a depth of 1.8 meters, particularly, in the mountain passes ofMontanel and Abajo Bermejo.

1.7. From the Parana" river to the La Plata estuary. In Argenti-nian territory, the Paraguay river flows into the Parana river whichalso receives the waters of the Uruguay river further down andforms the La Plata River.

The possibility of navigation exists throughout its entire exten-sion, an average of 6.4 meters in depth and when it joins the Uru-

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 109

guay river, it constitutes the La Plata estuary, 222 kms. in widthwith a surface of 35,000 kms.

In this manner terminates the journey through the fabulous"water highway" which allows navigation from the Antilles to LaPlata Sea without leaving the inner areas of the continent.

The following table shows in detail the stretches of the journeywith partial and cumulative distances.

TABLE 14 Orinoco-Amazon-Parana-La Plata (Boca Grande—Buenos Aires)

Stretch

Boca Grande-Ciudad GuayanaCiudad Guayana-Puerto AyacuchoPuerto Ayacucho-PatoInterconexion: Pato CabariiaCabarua-CocuyCocuy-Sao GabrielSao Gabriel-ManaosManaos-D. MadeiraD. Madeira-Porto VelhoPorto Velho-Guajara MirimGuajara Mirim-D. GuaporeD. Guapore-Mato GrossoInterconexion: Mato Grosso-ParaguayJauru-CorumbaCorumba-CorrientesCorrientes-RosarioRosario-Buenos Aires

Distance

Partial

340811499120115250

1,093130

1,150360250

1,180260550

2,160650300

in kms.

Cumulative

1,1511,6501,7701,8852,1353,2283,3584,5084,8685,1186,2986,5587,1089,2689,918

10,218

Source: De Leon, R. Diaz Rodriguez, A. 1976.

If it is taken into account that the length of the navigable water-ways of South America is estimated to be more than 50,000 kms.,the referred "water highway" comprises 20% of the total navigablerivers of the continent.

Observing the waterways of the continent on a map it is appar-ent that the waterway described above becomes the North-Southaxis of the river system and that at Manaos it intersects with theAmazon which is the West-East axis.

The entire system forms a communication network covering al-most the entire continent: from the Andean Highlands to theAtlantic and from the Venezuelan plains to the Argentine Pampas.

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110 RODRIGUEZ

2. Integration with the highway network

The fluvial interconnection obtains its full significance and itsmaximum advantages by integrating with the other transportationmeans particularly the highway network.

2.1. Linkage of the three basins by highways. At the presenttime the basins of the Orinoco, Amazon and La Plata are linked byhighway: from Caracas through the eastern part of Venezuela andcrossing the state of Bolivar until Manaos at the junction of theRio Negro and the Amazon River.

From Manaos, the highway crosses the Amazon jungle untilCuiaba, within the basin of the Paraguay river. From Cuiaba it ispossible to connect with the highway network of La Plata region.

The present state of the highway Caracas-Cuiaba is described bythe following table:

TABLE 15 Connecting Highway Between the Basins of the Orinoco River,Amazon and La Plata River

Section

Caracas-Ciudad BolivarCiudad Bolivar-Santa HelenaSanta Helena-ManaosManaos-Cuiaba

Length(km.)

599707978

2,349

4,633

Paved(km.)

599448

17913

1,977 (43%;

Without Paving TransitableAll Year Long (km.)

961961

1,435

1 2,656 (57%)

As shown between Caracas and Cuiaba there are 4,633 kms. ofpermanently transitable highways of which 42.7% are paved.

2.2. The jungle marginal highway The jungle marginal high-way that physically links the Andean piedmont between Maracaibo(Venezuela) and Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) with a length of6,755 kms. that runs at the periphery of the Amazon jungles iswithout doubt one of the most important roads of the PanamericanHighway system for its economic relevance and for its integratingmeaning in the international context.

Along its length it becomes an axis of physical linkage betweenNorth and South, describing an arch parallel to the Andean rangeof mountains on the Western section of the fluvial interconnection

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FLUVIAL INTERCONNECTION 111

of the Orinoco, Amazon and La Plata rivers. The state of progressof the jungle marginal highway is different in each country: in thePeruvian territory 1140 kms. are still to be built; in the Colombianterritory 832 kms. are yet to be built; in the Bolivian territory re-main 764 kms.; and 215 kms. in Colombia. The total sum of thesections to be built amounts to 2951 kms. that represent 44% of thetotal length.

The sections already built add up to 3804 kms. equivalent to 56%of the total length. Of these 1061 kms. are paved (16%); 2520 kms.are permanently transitable although not paved (37%); and 223kms. are transitable only during the dry season.

The following table summarizes the present state of the junglemarginal highway undertaken by Brazil in its development alongthe different countries, the connection with the ports on the Pacificocean at the other side of the range, with the jungle marginalhighway and from it, with the fluvial ports of the interconnectedsystem and the trans-Amazonic system.

TABLE 16 Jungle Marginal Highway: Maracaibo (Venezuela) to Santa Cruz dela Sierra (Bolivia)

Countries

VenezuelaColumbiaEcuadorPeruBolivia

Total:

Length

6601,4271,0912,4931,084

6,755

Paved

66070

—176155

1,061 (16%)

Not Paved,Transitable

All YearLong

525720

1,17798

2,520 (37%)

Not Paved,TransitableOnly DuringDry Season

_

—156—67

223 (3%)

NotBuilt

832215

1,140764

2,951 (44%)

2.3. Cross connections with the jungle marginal highway. Theconstruction of the set of cross connections is less advanced. Out ofthe total 6,164 kms. more than half of them, 3,558, are not built.236 kms. (3.8%) have been paved, 1,212 kms. (19.7%) are perma-nently transitable although without paving and finally 1,158 kms.(18.8%) are transitable only during the dry season. Table 17 sum-marizes the present state of the connections.

If the highway network is observed on a map with its connec-

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TABLE 17 Connections Between the Jungle Marginal Highway andthe Amazonic Systems

Section Length Paved

WithoutPaving

Transi tableAll Year

Long, Kms.

TransitableDuring Dry Not

Season, Kms. Built

774

287

Villavicencio (Colombia)Puerto Paez (Venezuela) 859 85 —Villavicencio (Colombia)Yavarati (Colombia) 993 — —Puerto Asis (Colombia)Yavarati (Colombia) 896 30 39Tingo Maria (Peru)Esperanza (Brasil) 414 104 180Puerto Salinas (Bolivia)Guayara Mirim (Brasil) 610 — 90Santa Cruz (Bolivia)Puerto Suarez (Bolivia) 660 — —Yaguarati (Brasil)Manaos (Brasil) 1,732 17 903Total: 6,164 236 1,212

4% 20%

97

1,15819%

993

540

130

520

563

8123,558

tions with the waterway system and the trans-Amazonic system, thecoverage and physical linkage possible can be perceived.

Evidently the real possibility of establishing and complementingthe different means with an integrated transportation and com-munication policy would give the needed infrastructure to incor-porate the inner regions into the development process and wouldallow an optimization of costs and transportation effectiveness atcontinental level.

The interconnection of the jungle marginal highway and itsbranches with the waterway system, constitute a catalytic elementfor the populating process of the empty spaces of the continent.

3. Geopolitical aspects

The development of the fluvial navigation axis of the Orinoco-Amazon-La Plata rivers will bring along, without doubt, somechanges in the physical structure of the American sub-continentwhich in turn will generate essential modifications in the interrela-

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tion of men and space. The analysis of these possible changes andthe geopolitical aspects can not be neglected when performing feasi-bility studies of a project of such dimensions, particulaly not in thecase of Latin America, where the interrelation between politics,men and geography has been so important. Proof of it, is the inter-est shown in the European geopolitical theories at the beginning ofthe century by the thinkers and strategists of some Latin Americancountries that have been able to develop their own geopoliticaltheories, adapting them to the specific economic, political and so-cial realities of the continent.

Based on the previously explained points it seems essential tostudy the geopolitical aspects in any multinational project to bedeveloped in South America. Supposedly before accepting theproposal, the countries involved in the project will analyze theeconomic, political, social and environmental effects that the exe-cution of it would produce on its own structures.

Globally the studies will have to be aimed towards the knowl-edge and analysis of the implications of the following aspects,among others:

a) Social The population shifts will have to be studied indepth, including the integration of different groups and migratoryflows.

b) Economic Basically the expansion of national markets willhave to be studied, as well as the perspectives of new relations withthe rest of the world, the increase in imports and exports, and theparticipation of the agreements of integration within the tradingpatterns.

c) Political The possibility of changes or alterations of the ex-isting relations of power will have to be studied as well as the pos-sibility of new structures and their implications. At the interna-tional level, the impact of the project on the development ofmultilateral and bilateral agreements signed by the riverside coun-tries must be analyzed.

d) Environmental The consideration of this aspect is of utmostimportance; the effects that the project will produce on the equili-brium of the ecosystem will have to be analyzed.

3.1 Institutional strategy Achieving the consensus of the coun-tries and the unification of criteria with respect to this project

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might be a difficult task if all these elements and the contributionof each one of the concerned countries were not taken into account.

In general, the international practice has shown that one of themost effective ways to consolidate and complete the execution ofthis type of multinational project is by the cooperation of special-ized international organizations.

This compels the thought that the best approach would be thecreation of a supranational institute linked to a regional organiza-tion with experience in the coordination and execution of regionaldevelopment projects in this matter. This institute would be man-aged by an executive council, made up by the representatives ofeach one of the countries associated to the project, that would su-pervise the work of the technical committees functioning in eachcountry. Among the main objectives of this International Organi-zation could be mentioned:

• Assistance to the local and national offices in charge of the co-ordination and study of the project at national level.

• Compilation and analysis of basic data.• Evaluation of alternatives and setting of priorities.• Encouragement of the exchange of experiences, knowledge

and information among the participant countries.• Provision of the basis to improve the understanding and rela-

tions among the different interested parties.

CONCLUSIONS

1. South America presents a model of population distributionand economic activity characterized by concentration along the peri-phery of the continent and enormous "empty" spaces in the innerregions of the continent. At the same time, the economic, socialand political disintegration of the South American national statesis characteristic. It is necessary to orient the development processtowards the incorporation of the inner "empty" spaces and towardsthe physical, economic, social and cultural integration of the SouthAmerican states.

2. Compared to the depletion, deterioration or scarcity of vitalresources in the continental periphery due to over-population andover-exploitation of the land, the inner regions of the continent

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present themselves as enormous reservoirs of natural resourcespractically without present utilization.

3. The incorporation of the inner "empty" regions into the de-velopment process will be facilitated by the implementation of in-tegral policies for centers of development associated with multiplenatural resources, inexpensive energy resources, transportation,and communications.

4. The immense hydroenergetic potential of the inner SouthAmerican spaces will provide inexpensive, clean, and inexhaustibleenergy sources that will make economically viable the incorpora-tion and integration of the inner "empty" spaces.

5. Concurrently, fluvial transportation is bound to become afundamental component of the transportation and communicationpolicy that will provide a physical linkage for the present disinte-grated spaces and will be a catalytic element for the industrial andurban processes of the inner regions of the continent.

6. The South American waterways network exceeds 50,000 kms.in length and is 95% navigable at the present. The required work toguarantee its entire navigation is justified and made viable whenassociated with hydroenergetic utilization and when providing thecontinent with an effective means of physical integration that willstimulate economic activity integrated at the continental level.

7. The navigation axis of the Orinoco-Amazon-La Plata riverswith more than 10,000 kms. of length links from North to Souththe continental spaces and will play an important role in the proc-ess of Latin American integration.

8. The South American fluvial network integrates with the roadsystem guaranteeing the total coverage by transportation of thecontinent.

9. It is important that the South American countries, havingtaken into consideration the need for continental integration, maketheir own the great project of fluvial interconnection and speed upthe technical studies that will allow the proposal to become a real-ity. It is appropriate that the proposal of South American fluvialinterconnection be sponsored by a supranational organizationwhich coordinates the initiatives of each country in relation withthe technical analysis of the proposal and the creation of efficientmechanisms for its execution.

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Bibliography

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2. P. Singer, "Campo y Ciudad en el contexto historico latino-mericano," Unikely Necochea (comp.). Desarrollo Urbano y Regional en America Latina: Proble-mas y politicas (Fondo de Cultura Economica, Mexico, 1975).

3. A. Aguilar, La dialectica de la economia mexicana (Nuestro Tiempo, Mexico,1968).

4. T.H. Donghi, Historia contemporanea de America Latina (Alianza, Madrid,1969).

5. E.R. Melchior, "Integracion del espacio latinoamericano." J. Hardoy y G.Geisse, (eds.) Politicas de desarrollo urbano y regional en America Latina (SIAP,Buenos Aires, 1972).

6. W. Stohr, y P. Pederson, "Intergracion espacial multinacional", Cuadernos dela Sociedad Venezolana de Planificacion. 60-61, (March 1969).

7. R. De Leon, y Diaz A. Rodriguez, El Orinoco Aprovechado y Recorrido (C.V.G.,Caracas, 1976).

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