C O N S E R V A T I O N 227

GOODWIN, H. A. & HOUOWAY, c. w. (eds) (1972): Red data book I : Mammalia. Morges: IUCN. (sheet revised 1976). KRUUK, H. (1972): The spotted hyaena. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press. LANG, B. M. (1958): Zur Haltung des Strandwolfes (Hyaena brunneu). Zoo1 Gart., Lpz. (N.F.) 24: 81-90. MCVITTIE. R. (in press) : Grouping by cheetahs in South West African ranchlands. Carnivore I. MILLS, G . (1973): The brown hyaena. Afr. Wildl. 27: 150-153. MILLS, G . (in press) : Comparative socio-ecology of the Hyaenidae. Carnivore I. PIENAAR, U.DE v. (1969): Predator-prey relationships of the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 12: 108-176. RICHTER, w. VON (1972): Remarks on present distribu- tion and abundance of some South African carnivores. 1. Sn Af. Wildl. Mgmt. Arsoc. 2(1): 9-16.

RUDNAI, J. A. (1973) : The social l$ ofthe lion. Washington Square East: Wallingford, Pa. SCHALLBR, G. (1972): The Serengeti lion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. SCHULTZ, w. c. (1966): Breeding and hand-rearing brown hyaenas Hyaena brunnea at Okahandja Zoopark. Int. Zoo Yb. 6: 173-176. SMITHBRS, R. H. N. (1966): The mammals of Rhodesia, Zambia and Malawi. London: Collins. SMITHBRS, R. H. N. (1968) : A checklist o j the mammals of Botswana. Salisbury: National Museum of Rhodesia. SMITHBRS, R. H. N. (1971): Mammals ofBotswana. Mem. natn Mus. Rhodesia No. 4. VIL.JOEN, s. &DAVIS, P. H. s. (1973): Notes on the stomach content analysis of various carnivores in southern Africa. Ann. Transvaal Mus. 28(16): 353-363.

Manuscript submitted 23 May 1977

First report on the Snow leopard studbook

and 1976 World register Panthera uncia

LEIF BLOMQVIST Directorial Assistant and Studbook Keeper, Snow Leopards, Helsinki Zoo, SF-00570, Helsinki 57, Finland

The preliminary studbook of Snow leopards Panthera uncia has now been prepared and copies have been distributed to all participating zoos. The World register showing the distribution of these animals at 31 December 1976 is given below.

When work first began on this studbook, it was intended that the records for North America would be kept by the Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago and the remainder by Helsinki Zoo. In the autumn of 1976, however, it was agreed between the two zoos that Helsirlki would undertake responsibility for the complete studbook.

Questionnaires had been sent to European and Asian zoos from Helsdu in 1974-75 and again in 1976. Later, with the help of information already collated by Lincoln Park Zoo, the same format was used for American zoos. Information requested included: number of Snow leopards; house names; date of birth and parents or place and date of capture, with details of when the animals had arrivcd at the respective zoo ; date and cause of dcath; information on animals

transferred to other collections. Each zoo was also asked for a list of all the animals which had ever been in its possession, including those which had subsequently been transferred or had died. In many cases animal dealers were also asked to help.

Replies have not yet been received from all zoos but it is believed that registration is almost complete and the first complete studbook will be published by the end of 1978. Owners of animals which are not included in the World Register below are asked to contact the studbook keeper. We plan also to publish in the studbook relevant articles and photographs and it is hoped that a new volume will be produced biennially. The proceedings of the International Snow Leopard Conference to be held in Helsinki in March 1978 will also be included in the first volume.

For the studbook to be fully effective, it is essential that the studbook keeper is kept in- formed of all new arrivals, both wild-caught and captive-born (including details of previous

CONSBRVATION 228

TOTAL TOTAL LOCATXON 1975 BIRTHS DEATHS TRANSFEFSWD TO TRANSPER- FROM 31.12.76

Alma-Ata USSR Arnhem Ne Bade Switz Bekesboume GB

Berlin E Ge Berlin W Ge Buffalo USA Calgary Can Center Hill USA* Chicago Br USA

(W Orange 1.0) Chicago LP USA

(St Louis 1.0) Cincinnati USA Cleveland USA Colorado USA

(Chicago LP)

Columbus USA* (Cincinnati 0.1)

Denver USA (Los Angeles 0. I)

Detroit USA Duisburg Ge Dushanbe USSR* Dvur Kralove Cz Edmonton Can Hanover Ge Helsinki Fin

Houston USA Kaunas USSR Krefeld Ge Leipzig Ge Leningrad USSR Los Angeles USA

Milwaukee USA Moscow USSR Munich Ge

NY Bronx USA

(San Francisco 1.0)

Nagoya J ~ P (Chicago LP 1.0) Cincinnati 1.0)

Novosibirsk USSR1 Oklahoma USA Omaha USA

Peking China Pittsburgh USA Portland USA Prague Cz Rochester USA Rostov USSR* Rotterdam Ne San Antonio USA

(Chicago LP 1.0)

1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1

1.3 1.1 1.1 - 1.1 2.2

4.4

1.1 - 4.4

1.1

1.1

1.2 0.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 5.11

1.1

4.2 1.1 1.2 - 1.1

4.1 1.1 1.1

0.1

3.2

2.3 3.5 3.3

1.2 1.0 - 0.1 - 0. I 1.2

1.4

0.1 0.0.2

I .o

2.0

3.1

1.1

1.1

0.3

2.0

1.1

0.0.2. I .o

1.1

2.0

0.1

1.1 1.1

1.0 (wild-caught) 2.3 1.1 0.1 1.1

1.0 Helsinki

1.0 Colorado

0.1 Colorado 1.0 Rochester 1.0 Calgary 0.1 Cleveland

1.1 Prague 1.0 Berlin E 0.1 Krefeld

1.0 Detroit

1.3

1.05

(Chicago LP)

1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1

3.2

4.4

1.1 0.1

2.3

1.1

1.1

1.0 Milwaukee (loan) 2.2 - 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 6.10

1.1

3.1 0.1 Helsinki I .2

1.2 1.1 (wild-caught) 1.1

1.1

4.2 1.1 (wild-caught) 2.2

1.1 0. I 2.2

2.3 5.5 2.3

1.0 (wild-caught) 2.2

2.0 Seattle (loan) 2.0 1.1 Helsinki I .2 1.0 Colorado I .o

0. I 0. I 1.1

0.1 Seattle (loan) 1.0 Seattle (loan) 3.4

1.0

C O N S E R V A T I O N 229

~ _ _ _ _ _ ~~

TOTAL TOTAL LOCATION 1975 BIRTHS DEATHS TRANSPERRBD TO TRANSPERRED PROM 31.12.76

San Diego USA (Cincinnati 2.0)

San Francisco USA Seattle USA

Tallin USSR Tashkent USSR* Winnipeg Can Ziirich

2.0 2.0

1.1 1.1

5.2 1.0 San Antonio (loan) 0.1 San Antonio (loan) 2.3 2.0 Portland (loan)

1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 0. I 1.2 1.2 0.2 0.1 1.3

TOTAL 72.84 11.11.2 8.9.2 8.4 12.6 (4.2 wild-caught) 79.88

* No reply to questionnaire These animals were known to be living at 31 December 1976 but are not as yet registered in the official studbooks because of lack of further information.

a Died December 1975 Owners and numbers of animals on loan are shown in parenthesis.

owner or date and place of capture); new births (including stillborn cubs and details of both parents); deaths (including date and cause).

A questionnaire will be sent to all owners annually and it is hoped that this will be com- pleted and returned promptly.

The animals currently included have been allotted studbook registration identification, including the name of the zoo at which they were born or first received after capture and a number indicating the order in which the animals were received at that zoo. All wild-caught animals are registered on arrival. Captive-born animals are registered only when they reach six months of age, although cubs dying before this date are noted in the studbook record of both parents.

Altogether 259 Snow leopards have been registered, of which 162 were alive at 31 Dec- ember 1976. The World register shows an additional five animals, which were known to be living at Novosibirsk Zoo at that date, but which are as yet unregistered because of lack of further information.

The earliest registered animal is one which was received at the Bronx Zoo in 1903. The oldest living Snow leopard is probably a 8 at Lincoln Park Zoo, ‘Walter’ LPZ 2. Although recorded as arriving at Lincoln Park only in 1963, Walter is probably the same animal as one captured in 1959 and sent to BrooMield Zoo. It was sold to a dealer in 1963 and two days later

Walter LPZ 2 was bought from the same dealer. However, as this information did not come to light until the registrations for both zoos were complete (and, although it is highly probable, there is no absolute proof that it is the same animal), the original identification number has been retained. Walter LPZ z was still living in 1977 and mated with one of the 99 at Lincoln Park as late as 1975.

The record for the oldest 9 is probably held by Kaunas Zoo, where ‘Ramune’ Kaunas I arrived in May 1959, after capture in Kirghizia the same year. She died of old age at Kaunas in April 1976. A number of Snow leopards which were caught in 1961 are still living today.

The first reported zoo-born Snow leopards were a 8 and 9 born at Copenhagen Zoo on 11 June 1956. The 9 cub died after 11 days, but the 6, ‘Tamerlan’ Copenhagen 3, lived for almost three years, dying in Copenhagen in March

Most of the 99 which have given birth have been at least four years old but there are some exceptions. ‘Valma’ Helsinki 20, born at Hds& in April 1974, gave birth to two cubs in May 1976 at Krefeld Zoo, to which she had been sent in April the previous year. Both cubs died but in April 1977 two more cubs were born and al- though the 6 died, the 9 ‘Irina’ is still alive and in good condition at time of writing (pers. comm. W. Encke). Another 9 from Helsinki, ‘Veda’ Helsinki 6 , born in April 1971, gave birth to her

1959-

230 CONSERVATION

WILD-CAUGHT % FROM WILD ZOO-BORN ZOO-BORN YEAR TOTAL

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

1967 1966

1968 I969 I970 I971 1972 I973 I974 I975 I976

I 9 21 20

23 30 33 41 5 0 59 70 74 90

I08

I37 IS1 162

I21

57'9 66.7 70.0 78.3 80.0 84.8 70.7 68.0 66.1 61 '4 62.2 61.1 57'4 53'7 46.7 41'7 38.9

8 (5.3) 7 (4.3) 6 (3.3) 5 (2.3) 6 (3.3) 5 (2.3)

12 (7.5)

20 (10.10) 27 (13.14)

46 (23.23) 56 (25.31)

16 (8.8)

28 (12.16) 35 (17.18)

73 (30-43) 88 (42.46) 99 (48.51)

42.1 33'3 30.0 21 '7 20'0 15'2 29.3 32.0 33'9 38.6 37'8 38.9 42.6 46.3 53 '3 58-3 61.1

Table I. Growth ofthe captive population of Snow leopards Pantherd uncia between 1960-1976. Onlyregistered animals are shown, the five (2.3) animals at Novosibirsk listed in the World register, but unregistered, are not included.

w i I d-caug h t I u zoo-born

76 Fig. I. Comparative trends in the wild-caught and zoo-born sectors of the world captive Snow leopard Panthera uncia population since 1960.

first litter in May 1974 (Koivisto, Wahlberg & Muuronen, 1977). Both cubs were mother- reared and are still in the collection at Helsinlu Zoo. A third 9 'Elektra' Oklahoma 14, born in Oklahoma City Zoo in May 1974, gave birth to 2.1 cubs on July 1977. Two of these were killed by the mother and tlie other 8 died in July 1977 (pers. comm. Linda Turner).

Table I and Fig. I show the growth of the Snow leopard zoo population between 1960-76. The percentage of zoo-born animals has in- creased, especially in the last few years, but at the same time the number of wild-caught animals has still been remarkably high. The author is firmly convinced that by using the material we already have in captivity today, all further importations

C O N S E R V A T I O N

from the wild of this extremely rare species could be avoided.

The growing trend of sending animals on breedmg loan, more common in the USA than in Europe and Asia, should be encouraged. However, this inter-zoo co-operation does demand good sanitary and health conditions in all zoos so that no diseases will spread from one collection to another.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S I should like to take the opportunity to thank the Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, especially Lester Fisher, Director,

and Mark Rosenthal, Curator, for sending me all the material and preliminary correspondence which they had collected from most of the zoos in the USA which keep Snow leopards. I would also like to thank all zoos and animal dealers whose co-operation made it possible to compile the studbook and this report.

REFERENCE

Breeding the Snow leopard Puntheru uncia at Helsinki Zoo 1967-1976. Int. Zoo Yb. 17: 39-44.

KOMSTO, I., WAHLBBRG, C. & MWRONEN, P. (1977):

Manuscript received 9 November 1977

Population trends in African rhinoceroses

living in zoos and safari parks Diceros bicornis and Ceratotkcrium simum

HEINZ-GEORG KLOS1 & REINHARD FRESE2 ‘Director, and aScientif;c Assistant, Zoobgischer Gartcn Berlin, I Berlin 30, West Germany

Since the last published reports on the stock of African rhinoceroses in captivity(Kl5s & Frzdrich, 1970, 1971), the number of animals registered in the two respective International Studbooks has increased more than twofold. This makes it a suitable point at which to review the consider- able body of new data since accumulated. It is a matter of regret that the co-operation of several zoos and safari parks, especially in Japan, the USSR and to some extent also in the USA, has proved difficult and at times impossible to obtain. As a result there are a number of captive individuals, particularly of the White rhinoceros, that still remain unregistered. Whlst somewhat diminishing the value of the present material, these omissions do not, however, obscure the trend of increase which the following analysis reveals.

B L A C K R H I N O C E R O S Diceros bicornis The stock of I28 (67.59 + 2) Black rhinoceroses kept in zoos and similar institutions in July 1969 has currently (31 January 1977) increased to 173 (76.97). As opposed to the approximately even sex ratio of the earlier count, the present ratio shows a marked shift in favour of 99. Of animals registered up to the end of October

1971, 31 (17.14) have now died, and in those registered since, there have been 36 (19.17) deaths. Forty-seven (25.22) of these deaths occurred in imported, and 20 (11.9) in zoo-born specimens.

The number of zoo-bred rhinos living in captivity has increased from 31 in 1969 to 5 3 (22.31), a clear preponderance of 9 births. Whereas in the 1960’s the average birth rate per year was only three, since 1969 this annual average has risen to five. Providmg that the rate continues at its present high level, one might confidently predict that imports from Africa will decrease even further. At the time of publication of the last complete Studbook in 1969, registered imports totaled I 16, as compared to the then total of 3 I surviving zoo-bred young. Since then, only 41 individuals have been taken from the wild and in the same period 25 surviving young have been born. The ratio of imports to births has thus fallen from 3*7:1 to the present 1*6:1.

The overall birth total is, however, consider- ably higher: 73 (33.40) since inception of the Studbook on 20 October 1967. The majority of the 20 (11.9) deaths in these zoo-born animals occurred before they had reached sexual maturity, at an average six years of age in 33 and three