First Postlab

Jassy Mary S. LazarteDepartment of Biology

College of Arts and SciencesUP Manila

Parts of the MicroscopeMechanical Parts

BasePillarInclination jointArmStageBody TubeDraw TubeNosepieceDust ShieldCoarse Adjustment knobFine Adjustment knobCondenser Adjustment knobIris Diaphragm Lever

Optical Parts•Mirror•Substage

-Iris Diaphragm -Condenser•Objectives -LPO -HPO -OIO•Eyepiece/ Ocular•Mirror

Proper Usage of Microscope…Clean the mirrors and lenses with lens paper and 30% EtOH.Bring the objectives as far away from the stage as possible and place

the slide on the stage, centering the object on focus over the hole.Adjust the mirror so that the entire field is illuminated.Focus the object into view.

►Start by bringing the objectives as close as possible to the slide. ►Look into the eyepiece and slowly move the object away from the slide until the image comes into focus►To further magnify the object rotate the nosepiece so that the next objective is in position.

► To maximize the capacity of the microscope, use OIO.

0.01 mm

Ocular

Stage

Calculations…Calibration

Constant Stage x 0.01 mm Ocular osp 1 x 0.01 mm 4 osp = 0.0025 mm

Actual Size of the Object

Ocular size of the object x calibration constant 14 osp x 0.0025 mm = 0.035 mm

● Magnification of Illustration size of the drawing actual size of the object 30 mm or 3 cm 0.035 mm = 857.14 x

● Linear Magnification Magnification of eyepiece

XMagnification of objectives

Old vs New Compound Microscopes…

Criteria Old Microscope New Microscope

Coarse & Fine Adjustment Knob

Separated Combined

Condenser Without knob With knob

Stage Immovable and tilted

Movable and parallel with ground

Coarse Adjustment knob

Moves the body tube

Moves the stage

Inclination Joint Present Absent

Body Tube Present Absent

Range of Magnification

100-970 x 100-1500 x

Criteria Compound Stereoscope

Magnification 100-1000x 40x

Position of Object Inverted Upright

Movement of Object Across the Field

Opposite Parallel

Image Produced 2-D 3-D

Points to consider in microscopy

Numerical aperture ∞ magnifying power(objective)

Numerical aperture (objective) ∞ resolving power

Working distance 1/∞ magnifying power


College of Arts & SciencesUP Manila

Cheek Cell Fat Cell

SquamousCells are stacked in single

layerNucleus is centrally located

GlobularLipids are seen as reddish

sphere Nucleus is located near

plasma membrane since fat droplets push the nucleus

RBC WBCSmall in sizeBiconcave diskLacks organelles and

nucleusTransports oxygen and

carbon dioxide and other materials

LargeSphericalHas nucleusPossess lysosomes and

ribosomesRemove foreign

substances and produce antibodies

Frog RBC Human RBCLarger in sizeOval in shapePossess nucleus and

organellesPicks up oxygen and

transport important materials

Smaller in sizeBiconcave disk in shapeLacks organelles and nucleusPicks up oxygen and

transport important materials

Smooth Muscle Cell Columnar Cells

Spindle shapeWith single centrally

located nucleusArranged closely to form

sheets

Rectangular in shapeWith nucleus located in

the lower part of the cellUsually arranged in single

layersPossess microvilli which

serves to increase surface area for absorption

Liver Cells Sperm Cells

Cuboidal in shapeTightly packedWith nucleus located at

the center

With head, midpiece and tail

Has hairlike structure for movement

Acrosome and flagellum are its primary modification which functions for movement and penetration of the outer layer surrounding the egg

Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp

No particular direction A change in position is

observed once they meet an obstruction

Exhibits amoeboid movement

These movement is also seen in WBC

Cilia is seen covering the body

Cilia is essential for locomotion, filtration and protection

Exhibits ciliary movementThis movement is evident

in respiratory passagesHas 2 nuclei: macronucleus

and micronucleus

Shape of Cells Sources Functions

Spherical Spherical Blood vessel Transport of substances

Stellate Star-like, branching

brain, spinal cord, nerves

Transmission of electric signals

Squamous Flattened Lungs, kidneys, lining of the heart

Protection and regulation

Columnar Rectangular Intestine Absorption

Pyramidal Pyramidal Cerebral cortex transmission

Fusiform Spindle shaped Walls of hallow organ

Movement

Cuboidal Cube shaped Kidneys Secretion, absorption

Polygonal Closed figure Fats Storage, insulation

Amorphous Irregular Amoeba Amoeboid movement

Criteria Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall Absent Present

Plastids Absent Present

Vacuoles Present Present

Centrioles Present Absent

Lysosomes Present Present

Cilia Present Present

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Cell wall Present Absent in animals but present in plants

Nuclear membrane Absent Present

Chromosomes Single, circular Multiple

Mitochondria Absent Present

Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present

Golgi complex absent Present

Plastids Absent but present in some

Absent in animals but present in plants

Ribosomes Present Present

Vacuoles Present Present

Centrioles Absent Present in animals but absent in plants

Lysosomes Absent Present


CAS UP Manila

What is Interphase?Period of DNA replication and

synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid components essential to growth

Gap 1 (G1)- important preparatory stage for the replication of DNA. Mark by the synthesis of tRNA, mRNA and several enzymes

Synthesis (S)- replication of DNAGap 2 (G2)- synthesis of spindle

and aster proteins essential for chromosome separation

What is Mitosis?Nuclear division in which there is an equal

qualitative and quantitative division of the chromosomal material between the 2 resulting nuclei.

2 processes involved:KaryokinesisCytokinesis

Phases of MitosisProphase- centrosomes and

centromeres replicate and the 2 centrosomes migrate to opposite sides of the nucleus

- microtubules appear between the two centrosomes to form a foot ball shaped spindle and asters

- nuclear chromatin condenses to form chromosomes and nuclear envelop dissappears

Metaphase- condensed chromatins move to the middle of the nuclear region to form the metaphase plate

astral

kinetochoreChromati

n

centrosome

Anaphase- splitting of the centromere the holds the two chromatids leading to formation of 2 independent chromosome each with its own centromere

- chromosomes move toward their respective poles pulled by kinetochore fibers

Telophase- characterized by the disappearance of spindle fibers, chromosomes revert to the diffuse chromatin network and nuclear membrane appears around the 2 daughter nuclei

Criteria Animal Plant

Centrioles Present Absent

Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow

Cell plate

Astral fibers Present Absent

Location of division

Periphery Center

Source of spindle fibers

Centriole Microtubule

Interphase

TelophaseAnaphase

MetaphaseProphase


College of Arts and SciencesUP Manila

Epithelial TissuesClosely packed polyhedral cells Contain very little extracellular substanceLine all external and internal surfaces of the bodyFunctions:

Covering and lining of surfacesAbsorptionSensationSecretioncontractility

Simple Squamous epithelium

-single layer of tightly packed -flattened cell -disk-shaped central nucleus -air sacs of lungs, glomeruli, linings of heart, lymphatic and blood vessels - allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration

Simple Cuboidal epithelium

-single layer of tightly packed -cube-shaped cells-Usually located in kidney tubules, ducts and small glands and surface of ovary-functions for secretion and absorption

Simple Columnar epithelium

-single layer of elongated cells-in the linings of digestive tract, gall bladder, and excretory ducts of some glands- functions for absorption and enzyme secretion

Stratified Squamous

-Consist of 2 or more layers of squamous cells-unkeratinized variety are usually found in the linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina while the keratinized variety lines the surface of the skin-function to protect underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion-frog skin

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

-A tuft of cilia tops each columnar cell-located in the linings of bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus-function to propel mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary action.-trachea

Connective TissueComposed of cells, fibers and ground

substancesMajor constituent is the ‘extracellular matrix’Functions:

Provide and maintain form in the bodyProvide matrix that connects and binds the

cells and organsGives support to the body

Loose/AreolarSupports structures that are normally under

pressure and low frictionFound in:

papillary layer of dermis serosal linings of peritoneal and pleural

cavities, glands and the wet membranes that line the hollow organs

Loose/ Areolar Connective Tissue

-Contains numerous fibroblast that produce collagenous and elastic fibers-widely distributed under the epithelia-function to wrap and cushions organs

Dense RegularCollagen fibers are arranged

in a definite patternlocated at the dermis of the

skin, submucosa of the digestive tract and fibrous capsules of organs and joints

provide structural strength Ex. tendon

Dense IrregularCollagen fibers are in

bundles without a definite orientation

Provide resistance to stress from all directions

Ex. Frog’s dermis

Modified LooseAdipose

Largest repository of energyFills spaces between other tissues

and helps to keep some organs in place

Reticular Compose of reticular fibersProvides architectural framework

that creates a special microenvironment for hematopoietic and lymphoid organs

SpecializedBoneBlood

Red Blood CellsWhite Blood Cells

Granulocyte (Neutrophil, Acidophil, Basophil)Agranulocyte (lymphocyte, monocyte)

CartilageHyalineFibrocartilageElastic

CartilageContains extracellular matrix enrich with GAGs and

proteoglycans that interact with collagen and elastic fibers

Bears mechanical stress without distortionSupport soft tissuesChondrocytes

secrete the fibers and ground substance that make up the cartilage matrix)

space in the matrix occupied by a chondrocyte is called a lacuna three types of cartilage differ in the composition of their matrix.

Hyaline CartilageMost common in embryonic skeletonCells are located in lacunae surrounded by intercellular

material containing fine collagenous fibersAppear bluish white to translucent under the

microscopeEssential for support and reinforcementFound in:

Walls of respiratory passages(nose, larynx, trachea & bronchi)Ventral ends of ribsArticular surfaces of the movable jointsLongitudinal growth of bones

FibrocartilageTissues that are intermediate between dense and

hyaline cartilageContains many large collagenous fibers in the

intercellular materialusually absorbs compression shockFound in:

Intervertebral disksPubic symphisisDisk of knee joints

Elastic CartilageContains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic fibers in

its intercellular materialserve to maintain a structure’s shape while allowing great

flexibilityFound in:

Auricle of the earWalls of external auditory canalsAuditory (Eustachian) tubesEpiglottisCuneiform cartilage of the larynx

BoneHighly vascularized, metabolically activeReservoir of Calcium and other essential ionsProvides structural framework for the bodyParts to look for:

matrixCanaliculi-thin cylindrical spaces that perforate the

matrixHaversian canal- houses blood vessels and nervesLamellae- concentric layers of the matrixLacunae- allow the passage of interstitial fluid

between the central canal and the lacunae housing osteocytes

Spongy Bonenetwork of irregularly-shaped sheets and spikes of

bone (trabeculae)spaces between the trabeculae contain red or yellow

marrow, depending on a person's age and on which bone it is

there are no blood vessels within the matrix of spongy bone, but blood vessels are nearby in the marrow spaces

exchange of nutrients, gases, etc. occurs between capillaries in the marrow and the interstitial fluid of the marrow

BloodConsists of the cells and fluid that flow in a

unidirectional movement within a circulatory systemTransports oxygen and nutrients around the bodyChief defense mechanism against infection Made up of two parts:

Formed elements (blood cells)ErythrocytesPlateletsleukocytes

Plasma

Blood

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Neutrophil Eosinophil

Basophil

Lymphocyte

Monocyte

Muscular TissueComposed of differentiated cells containing contractile

proteinsSuch proteins generate the forces necessary for

cellular contractionParts to look for:

NucleusSarcolemma-cell membraneSarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of the muscleSarcoplasmic reticulum-smooth endoplasmic

reticulumfibers

Skeletal MuscleConsist of bundles of a very long, cylindrical

cellsMultinucleated, seen in the peripheryExhibit cross striationsQuick contractionUsually under voluntary controllocated in skeletal muscles attached to boneuseful for voluntary movement and

locomotion

Smooth MuscleConsists of collection of fusiform/spindle-

shaped cellsWith single, central nucleusNo cross striationsSlow contractionNot subject to voluntary movementFound in:

found in walls of hollow organs and they move substances or objects (foodstuff, urine, baby) along internal passageway

Cardiac Muscle

Composed of elongated, branched individual cells that lie parallel to each other

With 1 or 2 nucleiExhibit cross striationIntercalated disks (exclusive)Vigorous and rhythmic contractionInvoluntary movement

Nervous TissueNerve cell consists of three parts:

Dendrites-multiple elongated processes specialized in RECEIVING stimuli from the environment, sensory epithelial cells or other neurons

Cell body/perikaryon- TROPHIC CENTER for the whole nerve cell, also receptive to stimuli

Axon- a single process specialized in GENERATING or conducting nerve impulses to other cells

Parts to look out for:Longitudinal section:

Neurilemma- membrane covering the fiberAxis cylinder- the central region of the nerve

fiberMedullary sheath- thick sheath covering the

fiber between the neurilemma and the axis cylinder

Nodes of Ranvier-constrictions in the medullary sheath

Cross section:Epineurium-external fibrous coat of dense

connective tissue, also fills the space between the bundles(fascicule) of nerve fibers

Perineurium- surrounds each bundle, protects the nerve fiber from aggression

Endoneurium-the membrane covering each nerve fiber

Nervous Tissue

cb = neuron cell bodyn = nucleus of neurong = nucleus of glial cell

n = node of Ranviera = axonMost of the purple nuclei are Schwann cell nuclei.

GOD BLESS ON YOU 1ST DEPEX(“,)

-ma’am jassy

First Postlab

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