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FIRST NATIONAL

LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT

CONFERENCE

11-13 February 1987 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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U C i f 9° C 9* C h, ? ft 'fc * *I N S T I T U T E O F A G R I C U L T U R A L R E S E A R C H

PROCEEDINGSOF

THE FIRST NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT CONFERENCE

in stitute of ^ c u l t u r a lR e s e a r c hlibrary

Addis Abeba

PROCEEDINGSOF

THE FIRST NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT CONFERENCE

11-13 February 1987 Addis A beba, Ethiopia

Published 1987Institute of Agricultural ResearchP.O.Box 2003Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

CONTENTS

Preface

I PLENARY SESSION

First tfatlonal Livestock .Improvement Conference:Welcoming Address- Sense D ebela

Policy and Strategy Options Towards Rapid Development of the Ethiopian Livestock Industry.

- GSzaw N egussie

Animal Resources Research In IAR; Present and Future- Seise D ebela

Livestock Development Programmes of the Ministry of Agriculture

- T efera Gabre K eskel

Livestock Development Programmes of the Relief and Rehabilitation Ccnuaiaslon

- Beruke Yemne

Ethiopian Livestock and Keat Corporation: LivestockDevelopment Programmes of the Kinistry of State FarmsDevelopment

- Gelana K ajela

Retrospects and Prospects of Livestock Research in the Alemaya University of Agriculture

- Tilahun J i f fn r

Improvement of. Livestock Production Systems through Better Use of Available Resources

- L.J. Laiabourne and D.A. L i t t l e

II LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Preliminary Result of Cattle Crossbreeding (European x Zebu) Study: I. Hilk Production Performance of Fi cows

- Sandros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, T esfaye Kumsa,Taye Bekure and Hailu Gebre liarian

Performa-nce of Dairy Cattle at Research and Dairy Co-operative Farms in the Arsi Region of Ethiopia

- Nohajmed Yusuf, Anders Qlsscn, Asfaw T olessa ,Tegene Aleisayehu and Tsehay B iadgilgn

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Physiological Reactions of Pure Boras end Boran Crossbred Cows 63- Alexnj Gebre Wold

Preliminary Results of Cattle Crossbreeding Studies: 73II. Growth Performance of European x Zebu Crossbred Calves

- Sendros Demeke, Bsyene Kebede, Taye Bekvre Xulugeta Kebede and Hailu Gebre fori an

Hote on Calf Kortallty Rate at Two 1AR Livestock Stations; 76Hoiatta and Adami Tulu

- Aleau Gebre Void and Teshome Yehualashet

Preliainary Report on Performance of Local and Crossbred Sheep 81at Asella Research Station, 1972-1985

- B. Br&un&ng, Xohamoed Kurtu and Dezdssie Ido

Studies on the Xeat Production Potential oi Some Local 65Strains of Chickens

- TeJcetel Forssido

' Draught Power and Smallholder Grain Production in the £8Ethiopian Highlands

- G. Gryseele, F.X, Anderson, J. V. Durkin and Getachew Aesazenew

Preliminary Results of Fishing Survey of Late Tana- Teefaye Vudnah

Livestock Xarket Survey Results of Animal Resources Marketing Department

- Zevdu Kebede and Sintayebu Gebre Xariam

Small-Scale Poultry Production- JJemr Sida

Apiculture: Its Constraints, and Research Vork beaded in Ethiopia 102Ayalew Kassaye

III AJIXAL HEALTH\Isolation of Mycobacterium bovls from Bovine Hilk and Tissue: 107Implications for Public Health and Animal Production

- Kenfa Getaneh and Es&etu Leona

Cattle Tick Resistance Against Acarlcldes at Bako 111- JesioiDe Yehualashet and Feseha Gebre Ab

Avian Pathology of Industrial Poultry Farms in Ethiopia 114- Jacques Alaaargot

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Studies cn the Effects of Vaccination and Anthelmintic Treatment of Ovine Lungworra Dl£iyG£JLiLLu& 111aria Infections in Sheep

- Getachew Tilahun, if. A bate, J. Corba and R. L& lic

Schistosomiasis in Domestic Ruminants in Bahir Dar- H aile Solomon

Effect of Sub-Clinical Parasitism on Milk Yield of Crossbred (Friesian x Arsi) Dairy Cattle in Co-operative Dairy Farms of Chilalo Awraja

- M illio n Mulugeta, Feseha Gebre Ab and Getachew Abebe

Efficacy of Toxaphene in the Treatment of Sarcoptic Hange of Dromedaries in Harerge

- Teshoise Me b a ts ion and Feseha Gebre Ab

Studies on the Toxicity of Tacazzea. yoiatacolla. to Ethiopian Rift Valley Goats

- Yebanev Xekonnen and B. Faye

The Stability of Serum Antibodies (Abstract only)- K enfe Getaneh

IV AHIHAL FEEDS AND NUTRITION

Th© Production of Animal Feed in the Ethiopian Highlands: Potentials and. Limitations

- S, J u tg i, 1, Hague and A bate Tedla

Feed Resources in Ethiopia- Alemayehu M engistu

Legumes in Forage Research Programmes for Small-Scale Livestock Producers

- John JR. L a z ier

Undersawing of Forage Crops in Cereals: Some Achievements- Lulseged. Gebre Hi wot, Gebi'e Kedhin Hagos and

Tadesse T ekle Tsadik

Nutritive Value of Coffee Pulp Silages for Sheep:Alone or with other Feed Resources

- Soloman Dcmeke

Animal Evaluation of Xrifolium tembense- M a rie tje van Eeghen, James Kaburanangei and

L. J, Lambourne

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A Saall-Scale Pepsin-Cellulase Kethod for Forage Digestibility Bstination

- L*J» Lambaurne and Zelleka Getahunw

Optinua Irrigation Frequency and Amount for Alfaifa/Rhodes grass Xixed Pasture in the Kiddle Awash Region

Aechalei* Tsegahvn, Gebre Xedhin Hagos and A. Kandiah

Improvement and Xanagenant of Hatural Grasslands- Daniel JC&ftasa

Grassland Composition of Hekemte Awraja- Aleniu Tadesse

Forage Development Strategies and Research Seeds of the Fourth Livestock Development Project CFLDP)

- Alesayehu Kengistu and Alan Robertson

Range Development and Research PropaGal- Glrsa Bisrat

Effect of Xinosine/Dihydroxypyridine-Ketabollsing Organises on the Growth Rate of Young Rams Fed Leucaeaq IfiuCCCfig iaJja. (Abstract only)

- C. Ebong, 2. A. l i t t l e , J.D. Feed and J.V, Durkin

Small-Scale Cattle Fattening (Abstract only)- Garry Smith

Resolutions of the First National Livastock Improvement Conference (HLIOList of Participants

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EEEEACE.

The First JTatjcn'xl Livs3toci: Improvement Conference OJLIC) was held at the Office of the *?&tic lal Coaraittee for Central Planning, on February 11-13, 1987. The Conference wcs opened by Coarade Gizaw Kegussle, Vice-Minister of Agriculture.The aia of thi^ Crnfsrer.ee is to create a forua where researchers and development wc^kere, teachers and extension advisers in the fields of animal production, nnir.al nutrition and health, poultry, fisheries, rangelands and econoaicc will neet annually. It will enable thea to exchange ideas, assess past and an aiivj rctivities and progress, discuss priorities and foraulate future rtrr.tc ici to develop effective national livestock research and C'SVGlo r.erjt p.-ofraanrs, Sy bringing together responsible people fron "Ov^m.isTtt a^noif.s, universities, research, developnent and extension organizations, the £XIC will aako a significant contribution to livestock policy, cddcation end re^nroh in Sthiopia.The proct.S'U^rs c:. tMr> Firct National Livestock Iaproveaent Conference it;lud3d policy it.sms, devcl-pmantal prograanes and technical research papers. Ovor 40 technical pipers, categorized into Livestock Production, Aniaal Health .•rd Aaiaal r-r.cds and . *«utrJ fci oa nsssiens, were presented at the conference.The First national Livestock Inprovement Conference was sponsored by the Inrtitut® of /•.•"r:*cultural Pe^esrch (1AE), and was organized by a coaaittee rsyresartinjj I/R the following institutions.

JI.'ai-;*ry of Aj^ricultura (KOA),Jliaiotry of S t z l * Farr:3 Developnent <KSFD),Addi-3 AbeLu University CAAU), and Alemaya University of ■ Agriculture (AUA).

Alemu Gebre Void, IAR ChairaanEXIC Organising Coniaittee

(X) ACKHQWLEDOEMEIfia

The First national Livestock Improvement Conference Committee wishes to express its appreciation and deep gratitude to those who helped in the initial preparation and financing of the conference; notably, the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR> for sponsoring this successful conference, Ministry of Agriculture <KQA) and Ethiopian Livestock and Heat Corporation (ELIKCOR) of the Ministry of State Farms Development (KSFD) for preparing folders and posters, respectively.

The organizing committee would also like to thank all the staff of the Publications Unit of IAK for their efforts in preparing the Proceedings.Special thanks are due to Mrs. Helen van Houten and Ato Ketasebia Her id for their editorial assistance and to V/t Felege Acgedom for typing the drafts on the word processor.

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Organizing Committee of the First HLIC

Dr. Alemi Gebre Void, Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) ChairmanAto Lulseged Gebre Hiwot, Institute of Agricultural Research SecretaryDr. Feseha Gebre Ab, Addis Abeba University (AAU-FVK) MemberDr. Beyene Chicbaibelu, Alemaya University of Agriculture (AUA) MemberDr. Teketel Forsido, AAU-Awasa Junior College of Agriculture MemberAto Tefera Gebre Meskel, Ministry of Agriculture (KOA) MemberAto Adane Feyisa, Ministry of State Farias Development (KSFD) MemberAto Belete Adinew Ministry of State Farits Development Member

PLENARY SESSION

WELCOMING ADDRESS

FIRST NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IMPHOVEKEHT CONFERENCE

Seme Debeia*

Comrade Gizaw Negussie Vice-MinisterAnimal Resources Development Main Department,

Comrades and C onference Participants,

It gives me great pleasure to welcome each and every one of you to this hall to participate in this First National Livestock Improvement Conference.

This is an important event to us. IAR has been in the business of livestock improvement research tor 21 years. Although there have bean some seminars and workshops in the past, this is the first conference of its kind in IAR to date. The organizing committee deserves congratulations for carrying out this splendid task.

As you may imagine, the basic objective of this conference is to bring together animal resources scientists from all national organizations for the purpose of reviewing current situations and indicating future areas of action. Naturally, such a large forum cannot be expected to deal with specific animal production and protection issues. It will, however, be expected to examine major issues that require attention by a spectrum of organizations dealing with research, extension, production and higher education.

It is an undeniable fact that animals constitute a huge potential wealth for the national economy. I say "potential" because we have as yet hardly tapped the wealth available in our animal resources sub-sector. There are many constraints impeding a better exploitation of the resource: appropriate policy instruments, appropriate technologies, extension services, and the like.

Bthiopia has inherently a great agricultural potential. This is quite an ironic contrast to the food shortages we have been going through for some years. The solution to this crisis lies in our ability to develop and exploit our rich agricultural potential. The development and exploitation of our large animal resource potential will have to be an integral part of the total strategy of the recently inaugurated national food self-sufficiency drive.

Agricultural research is an essential component of this national food self- sufficiency drive. Hence, the holding of this conference immediately after the announcement of this national drive gives the conference participants a unique opportunity to examine critical issues and to put forward bright ideas that help advance the aims of the national drive to achieve food self-sufficency in the shortest time possible.

* General Manager, Institute of Agricultural Research (IAS) P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

4 Seme Debela

I would like to tip conference participants on what is expected of you during the course of this conference. I an hoping that you will give us a general outline of the contents and directions of our future research programmes. Such broad directions will be used to develop detailed research programmes to meet defined challenges, Please be informed that, there are what are called Zonal Research - Extension Liaison Committees that further refine your proposals according to their respective zonal needs and priorities.Finally, I would like to call upon Comrade Gizaw Hegussie, Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Agriculture and responsible for animal resources development, to open this conference.

*Ve Shall Build the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia"

POLICY AND STRATEGY OPTIONS TOWARDS RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF THE ETHIOPIANLIVESTOCK INDUSTRY

Gizaw Negussie*

Participants, Invited Guests, and Comrades

I am pleased and feel honoured to address this First National Livestock Improvement Conference.

The first world conierence on food was held in Rome in October 1974, following the famine of the early seventies. At this conference, which more than 120 heads of states and governments attended, nations of the world vowed to wipe out hunger from the surface of the earth. Just about a decade later Africa faced an even more disastrous famine.

Total food production in Latin America and south-east Asia increased by 4% per year while Africa and south Asia remained far below meeting their requirements. Today, out of the 4.5 billion world population nearly half a billion exist in poverty, and an estimated 150 million in our continent are starving. During the first five years of the 1980s per caput food andagricultural production of Africa declined by nearly 2% per year. Consequently, daily per caput food supply calories dropped by 1.2% per year.

The fundamental structural changes effected through our popular revolution have created the necessary political, social and economic environment for thetransformation of the Ethiopian society. Land reform, the organization of peasants into associations and cooperatives, the resettlement programme and the villagization endeavours are all central to effectively realizing the ideals of our revolution.

However, Ethiopia's agriculture has been stagnant. Agricultural growth rate of 2.1% for the past decade lags behind annual population growth of 2.9%. In fact during 1984-85, as a result of the stress of drought, agricultural production fell by 16%.

Vith its growing population, Ethiopia's development needs are rising. The country's population, which currently is about 43 million, is expected to reach 72 million by the year 2000. To meet at least the basic food requirement ofthe country, agriculture will have to grow at 4.3% per year.

This calls for a substantial level of investment in agriculture and related sectors. Due to "donor fatigue", as they call it, trends over the past two and a half decades show that external resources have become increasingly scarce. Since Ethiopia is almost totally dependent upon agriculture, nearly all of the resources for investment to avert another threat of famine and develop the economy at large would have to be generated from within agriculture.

To improve the food supply situation, Ethiopia has recently launched on a three-year development strategy. The main thrust of this strategy is to

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'* Vice-Minister, Ministry of Agriculture <M0A) P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

6 Gizaw Jfegussie

concentrate our domestic resources, and external support in the high potential agricultural areas and to achieve self-sufficiency in selected food grains.

This could ba achieved by at least tripling the application of fertilisers and improved seeds. To generate the required foreign exchange for the purchase of these production inputs and other needs such as medicine and petroleum calls for an expansion of exports.

To finance the enormous development needs of the people, Ethiopia should expand livestock exports - one of its most abundant natural resources. It is worth noting here that, except for the massive relief aid in 1934/85 - 85/66, Ethiopia is among the lowest recipients of external aid - only US$6 per caput compared with the US$21 average for low-income Africa.

For the purpose of this report, Ethiopia's agriculture is broadly categorized into two farming systems - the highland mixed crop/livestock systan:, and the lowland pastoral livestock production system,

Although livestock are distributed throughout the country, the greatest concentration occurs in the highlands where over 90% of the people live. It is here, on the highlands, that drought caused the greatest damage too. The major single cause of the famine and human suffering inflicted upon the Ethiopian population twice within a span of a decade is environmental degradation - degradation of agricultural land.

Damage caused to the land by overgrazing has contribute to land degradation. The government mass immunization programme over the past two decades against major livestock diseases such as rinderpest and Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP) has curbed livestock mortality remarkably well. This in turn has caused overstocking, thus leading to overgrazing - virtually destroying the remaining vegetation cover and inducing more erosion and loss of fertile soil.

Vorld Production and Trad^i Before attempting to focus cn the ststus and prospects of the livestock sector in Ethiopia, I feel it is essential to set the global scene since it would clearly project the challenge ahead of us.

Developing countries outnumber the developed world in physical livestock resources. They possess 68% of the cattle and buffaloes, 65% of the sheep and goats and 58% of the pig resources of the world. However, the developed countries account for 66% of the beef, 50% of the mutton, 63% of the pork, 79% of the milk, and 74% of total world outputs. This disparity in the amount of production is explained by the low productivity level of livestock in the developing countries.

The gross value of livestock at the global level in 198 C was US$354 thousand million, out of which US$212 thousand million or 60% was shared by the developed countries, while the balance valued at ‘JSS142 thousand Billion wse accounted for by developing countries.

Import volumes of livestock products by developing countries r os-2 by 40%, while export volumes declined by 43% between 1968 and 1980, with a negative balance of trade of 394,000 tonnes in 1980.

Policy and Strategy Options 7

The decline in exports shared by developing countries has been exacerbated by the protectionist policies of the developed or industrialized nations. These protectionist measures include embargoes on certain commodities and/or from certain countries, minimum import prices, stringent health requirements, restrictive licensing and massive export subsidies on their own goGds.

Consequently, developing countries are faced with the crucial issue of harnessing their potential capacities to meet their growing demands at borne, while maintaining a positive balance in foreign trade. The attainment of these objectives depends on increasing the productivity of the livestock sector.

The status of the livestock sector of Ethiopia is not much different from that of other developing countries. The varied and expansive agro-ecologica] zones make the country suitable for a large number and many kinds of livestock. Ethiopia possesses about 17% of the cattle, 15% of the sheep and goat, and about 49% of the equine populations of Africa. Despite the huge livestock wealth and investment made over the years, livestock contribute only 15% to the total GDP. Total herd meat off-take is estimated at around 7% annually, which is perhaps one-third lower than the average lor tropical Africa..

Livestock provide a wide range of products such as food, power, energy, income and raw materials. Low productivity resulting from low nutritional standards, prevalence of contagious and killer diseases, poor genetic potential and lack of an adequate marketing system characterize this sector. The industry suffers from lack of adequate investment and appi'opriate policies and strategies. The export environment is not encouraging either.

Geographically, Ethiopia is ideally placed to export live animals to the enormous markets of the Middle East and the smaller but still substantial markets of north and west Africa. In 1985, these markets absorbed nearly 10 million sheep and goats and 0.2 million cattle. Of the total market o f birr 1.6 billion, Ethiopia's share was under 1%. During the same year the country exported 624 tonnes of chilled and frozen beef and mutton with a total value of birr 1.9 million. The dominant markets were the Yemen Arab Republic and Saudi Arabia.

Out of an annual off-take of 2.0 - 2.6 million head of cattle, 92% is consumed locally and only 8% is exported. This clearly demonstrates that this sector, despite its huge size, contributes very little to the nation's export earnings. Expanding livestock exports is a formidable task, and there does not seem to' be an easy solution to it. Export possibilities have been limited by many internal and external con stra in ts . I will deal with some o f them.

One major constraint is high transport cost. Although Ethiopia's location is logistically ideal for exporting to the Kiddle East and north Africa, internal transport has handicapped export trade. The cost ot transport by truck, the single major available transportation means, from Addis Abeba to Assab (not from the Ogaden or southern Sidamo) is USS153 - this is 200% higher than the average cost of transport from Assab to many European ports. To be competitive in the international market, possibilities of trekking livestock from major supply regions to rangelands close to the port and development of

8 Gizaw Negussie

pasture through low-cost water-spreading techniques to finish animals for the market deserve investigation.

Another factor that has constrained export growth has been the low level of investment in general and in the livestock sector in particular. Ethiopia's investment level has been among the lowest. The level of investment for our sub-region, eastern and southern Africa, which was 16% - 19% of GDP during the second half of the sixties, grew to 20% - 24% in the seventies, In the same period Ethiopia's investment level declined Iron 13% - 15% of GDP to 9% - 12%. In the early 1980s investment expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 15% for low-income Africa compared with 11.8% for Ethiopia,

Recognizing the importance of expanding investment to tap the massive livestock resource that the country is endowed with, the need to fully utilize the already existing capacities cannot be cverstressed. Currently, there is an export production capacity which has been underutilized. Production level of indigenous livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) is at least one-third less than could be achieved through improvements in health and nutrition. Seven stute- run meat plants currently operate, on the average, at 12% - 44% and tanneries at 60% of their total capacity. These demonstrate the fact that there are possibilities of expanding exports by increasing expenditures on inputs without necessarily incurring heavy investment.

Stringent international health requirements form a third constraint that limits export markets. Many countries which are free of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest dare not risk importing live animals from disease-prone countries.

The need to establish a disease-free zone to meet these health requirementshas become increasingly evident. This calls for new investment in infrastructure and diversion of existing animal health personnel and facilities to regions of livestock potential.

Investment in establishing a disease-free zone would be justified only if a long-term market could be guaranteed, commensurate with the investment to be infused.

The fourth bottleneck limiting exports is the high domestic demand for meat.The 'free-on-board1 (FOB) price of boneless meat at Assab Is US$2327 pertonne.

Illegal live animal trade across the borders poses a serious threat to livestock exports. Illegal export amounts to 225,000 head ot cattle, 750,000 head of sheep and goats and 100,000 camels annually. The causes of illegal trade are often associated with lack of adequate supply of ths basic domestic necessities, distance from internal market centres, which makes it more cost' effective to sell animals across the borders, and Import restriction on non- essentials which are therefore scarce and highly priced.

The constraints associated with livestock exports do not seem to have an easy solution. Constant dialogue among all institutions concerned would help to formulate possible options.

10 Gizaw Hegussie

Veterinary health services will be provided on the basis of prioritization, cost-effectiveness and cost recovery for disease treatment.

Range Improvement: The rangelands of Ethiopia cover about 60% of the total landmass. About 3 million pastoralists inhabit these areas with 20% of the cattle, 25% of the sheep, 75% of the goats, and all the camels in the country. Although the rangelands account for less than one-third of the livestock population in the country^ their potential contribution to export earning is significantly high. Currently, nearly all live animals exported and most animals supplied to industrial abattoirs originate in the lowlands.

The rangelands have been and will continue to be the major sources of meat and draft animals. Although there is a surplus of 9% - 10% above maintenance requirement, the feed situation in pastoral areas is not very different from that of the highlands.

Studies by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and others confirm that the rangelands of East Africa, of which the eastern and southern rangelands of Ethiopia constitute an important part, have deteriorated over the past two decades; the cause is substantially attributed to poor management. Grazing areas have declined due to expansion of cultivation. The livestock population increase resulting from improved health services, which is directly linked to increases in rural population, has caused overstocking leading to deterioration in the quality of the range.

The rangelands are totally under traditional management. Traditional pastoral systems favour livestock numbers as opposed to production per head. Production increase from traditional production system has either levelled off or is declining, and there seems to be an urgent need to increase production per head by limiting the number of grazing animals. Two priority options to achieve this goal are better health control and better feeding and management.

Where land is held communally and livestock owned individually, there is little incentive to improve rangelands. This equally applies to pasture land in the highlands.

The viability of large-scale development of planted pasture and forage is doubtful. Alternative schemes for the management of communally-used rangelands should be sought in order to overcome overgrazing problems, to improve livestock productivity^, and to conserve the natural environment.

Given the country's limited technical and financial means, major benefits would be achieved by adjusting livestock numbers to the level of production that could be sustained, through the introduction of modern "ranching" systems, in order to raise total production and productivity per animal. A study in Botswana, which I believe has some relevance to the Ethiopian rangelands, showed that livestock productivity under a ranch system was considerably higher than the traditional system. Calving and weaning under the ranch system were respectively 26.5 and 23.9 percentage points higher than in the traditional system. Weaning weights and weights at 18 months under the ranch system were found to be 47 kg and 105 kg higher respectively than in the traditional system.

Policy and Strategy Options 9

Xassive export subsidies and sscalated tariffs, along with the higher degree of processing by industrialized countries, put poorer countries in a weak position to export.

Development strategies at the production level are the keys to increasing the supply of livestock to meet both domestic and export requirements. I will try to throw some light on ways of improving our efforts in both highland end pastoral production systems.

Highland Livestock Improvement: In the highlands crap and livestockproduction are interdependent. Increases in the numbers and condition of stock means increased ability to cultivate more land, which again means sore crop residues to feed animals. Crop improvement programmes should, of necessity, be able to increase feed production. Crop and/or livestock production efforts in the highlands would have to be integrated with soil and water conservation. By and large, any improvemsnt of livestock and crop farming necessitates that the development takes a multifaceted approach.

The quickest and most effective way of developing agriculture should bethrough the direct involvement and participation of peasants in the identification, formulation and implementation processes. The llinistry of Agriculture (KOA) is presently developing and evaluating a planning system known as "Service Co-operative Consultative Planning", the c.im cf which is to exploit the unique co-operative structures in rural Ethiopia as a vehicle for accelerating livestock production and rural development. "Consultative Planning** is essentially local or "bottom up" planning: local people ere assisted and encouraged to draw up a development plan, identify contributions from different sources and to implement agreed-upon development plans. Such a system leads to more realistic, well-integrated and internally consistent plans.

Services to be provided to increase livestock production should aim at covering peasants' own food needs and supplying the ever-growing demand inurban centres. Inputs for high-yielding livestock, which used to be distributed on the basis of political expediency rather than technical and economicviability, would have to be carefully examined and their supply should be concentrated in stratified areas, especially around the major urban centres.

The majority of the country's livestock are owned by individual peasants. This necessitates that efforts be directed towards achieving changes in productivity at the farmers' level. Increased production at the peasant level often results in increased cash income for the farmer. Along with ourprogramme of co-operatives development, private farmers should be encouraged to pursue small-scale, back yard farming.

Ethiopia*s development needs are enormous, but her means are extremely limited. In this situation increased public participation in part- or full-financing cf the development cost becomes an essential element of future strategy.

Service co-operatives will be expected to share some of the responsibilities of government in primary animal health care. They will be responsible for the distribution of non-prescribable drugs and for the construction of basic veterinary structures like clinics, crushes, dips and the like.

Policy and Strategy Options 11

Management and health inputs also had important roles. Stocking rate was a significant factor that contributed to the difference in the level of productivity. Research and development organizations should collaborate on the implications which such research results could have towards improving Ethiopia's rangeland management system.

A programme of reducing livestock numbers is a difficult proposition for the producer to accept, though not totally impossible.

A well-integrated pilot range management system incorporating the needs cf the pastoralist such as water and social Infrastructure, better livestock marketing facilities, access to basic commodities, and improved animal health coverage could be developed for the utilization of ccmmunal pasture lands under different pastoral systems. The system should take into account measures to encourage the herdsmen to sell surplus animals.

Since such a scheme requires a drastic change in the outlook of the traditional pastoralist, advanced extension work should be intensified. For such a system to be successful* the involvement Gf local leaders and communities at both design and implementation stages is critical. It is not unreasonable to expect the producer to reduce his stock numbers as long as a technical package can be put forward to the producer which ensures that he at least maintains output of meat, milk, power, etc., through gains in productivity of his animals.

In conclusion, it is vital to note that technical and economic research geared toward the development needs of the sector is the KEX to progress,

Many African countries have such small economies that it is neither realistic nor necessary for each of them to develop elaborate research establishments.

The present level of livestock productivity in Africa differs enormously. Some countries have a strong research and extension base; Botswana in beef, and Zimbabwe in mutton and dsiry production could be classified with the developed countries.

Considering the similarities in the agro-ecological characteristics and social setting of these and other countries with respectable achievements, the scope for exchanging research materials and extension methodologies should be looked into closely in order to promote a more rapid development of the livestock sector.

I thank you all?

12ANIKAL RESOURCES RESEARCH IK IAR: PRESENT AND FUTURE

Seme Debela*

THE ANIKAL RESOURCE BASE AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO THE ECONOKY

Ethiopia's animal resources are quite large and varied. In terms of number, cattle, sheep and others are counted in Billions. Their worth in terras of money could be estimated in billions, if not in trillions of birr. The value of some of the animals - notably oxen - in terms of draught power could be truly staggering. In fact, one can say that Ethiopia’s farm production would have been in a truly bad shape had it not been for its draught oxen.

However, the exploitation of our aniraal resources is quite low - estimated at less than 10% of annual production. In addition to this, the productivity of our animal population, measured in terms of isilk or beef, is quite poor. Vorse still* the limited amount of available research data seem to indicate that the inherent genetic potential of most of our animal population is not exactly encouraging.

There is another dimension to this scenario - the management angle. The traditional management style of cur stock raisers, both sedentary and nomadic, leaves much to be desired. The issues of fesds and feeding are not given the attention they deserve. The animal health care system, although quite improved over past years, is far from being adequate.

Thus, we are in a dilemma - we are endowed with an enviable resource base and yet we are constrained by a myriad of natural and man-made problems that have seriously limited our ability to utilize this resource. Obviously, we cannot let this situation exist forever. One of the strategic starting- points for tacfcling this situation is research and development.

PRESENT LIVESTOCK RESEARCH IN THE IAR

Livestock research in the IAR is as old as the IAR itself, in fact a little older. Some of you may remember that the Holetta Research Centre, which is the oldest station in the IAR, was a government farm where the Ministry of Agriculture used to carry out experimental programmes on dairy cows.

•At present, livestock and related research programmes are carried out in four research centres: Roletta, Bako, Kelka Verer and Adami Tulu. Each of thesecentres represents a major agro-ecological zone. The animal science programmes deal with cattle, both dairy and beef, and sheep.

The IAR Animal Sciences Department comprises three research Divisions:

Aninal Production: This division covers breeding and animal husbandry.Ve had a total of 22 experiments in this division during the 1986/87 budget year.

* General Kanager, IAR, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Abeba

Animal Resources Research in IAR 13

Animal Health; Created as a new research division just last year* it will maintain its traditional service-giving role. This division is expected to coordinate its future research programmes in collaboration with those of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and other relevant national organizations. It had only 3 experiments in the 1986/87 budget year.

Animal Peeds and Nutrition: Issues related to pasture, forage, range management as well as various feed supplements are covered under this division. Duringthe 1986/87 budget year, this division haj an approved programme for a totalof 72 experiments in several research centres.

The IAR Animal Sciences Department has currently a staff complement of 54, 22 of whom hold a B,Sc. degree or above. Two of the senior staff are expatriates.

The department has a budget allocation of birr 3.1 million for the 1986/87 budget year. This does not include general administration and other support services costs. In terms of total financial allocations it is the second largest among the Institute's research departments.

For comparison, the total budget allocation for the Plant ResourcesDepartment covering five research divisions, was birr 10.5 million during the same budget year.

In terms of project funds, the department is not well supported; we have only one small source, the IDA loan for our pasture and forage and sheepprogrammes. Although we have submitted project proposals to ADB and IDRC, we still have not yet got tangible responses.

FUTURE PROSPECTS AND DIRECTIONS

On the basis of the above summary, it seems justifiable to conclude that the IAR animal resources research programme is not as strong as it should be. In some ways, this is only a reflection of the situation in the agricultural sub­sector. It is, therefore, necessary to look for explanations, not to seek excuses but rather to find solutions.

The first target for closer examination is the policy environment. For as long as I can remember it has always been accepted that crop production should be given a high priority in the national plan of action. Naturally, this is reflected in the research programmes, not only in the IAR but also in other national organizations. It is now time to realign our priorities so as to give the animal sciences area the attention it deserves. Fortunately, this is now being started,

The IAR is currently attempting to catch this mood by reorganizing its structure. I will attempt to summarize this as follows.

14 Serae Pebela

It has been decided recently by the IAR Board of Directors that there will be two types of research centres.. - ,

Commodity. Research Centres: These are centres that specialize in a given commodity and &r& responsible tor its overall improvement. They have a national nandate for that co&mcdity.

Zonal Fesearch Centres; These are multipurpose research centres designed to test and ad^pt agricultural technologies that- are considered necessary far a given agricultural development zone, as defined by the Ministry of Agriculture. The basic technologies for testing and adoption are to be developed and provided by the national commodity research centres. This statement should not be taken as excluding ths development of original location-specific technologies at zonal level,

The central point here is that the zonal centres are organized to deal with regional rather than national issues. Once again, such centres will have adequate resources to laeet their needs. There will be several sub-centrea and trial sites operating under each zonal centre.

Xgpsa^a&_CQar gdUliis.With respect to animal resources research there are five commodities considered: dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep/goats, poultry, and fish. Ve willhave to examine whether or not range management should be considered a "commodity” progranae.

E53n!A££££

Ve have now worJied out a tentative manpower requirement for the five commodity centres mentioned above in animal resources rfsearch. It is estimated that a total of 150 research workers are required, 70 with a B.Sc degree and above. Other resources requirements will be worked out in relation to commodity centre development plans.

Iiin&gsaJfctthanlfiga-

It is a sad fact that the linkage between research and user organizations has always been poor. This has inevita.bly resulted in research information not being made available to users, Ve are now attempting to bridge this gap by creating a new service and strengthening an existing research division.

The new service being organized is the Research - Extension Coordination Service^created in most zonal research centres. This service will have animal resources staff as and when needed. tfe expect all recommendations to be extended through this service. It will not only play an advisory role but will also help in organizing training programmes for extension agents and others.

Animal Resources Research in IAR 15

The Farming Systems Research <FSR) unit in the Socio-Jconomics Division is being strengthened to play two major roles: trouble-shooting problems and verifying new/improved technologies.I have tried to present, as briefly as possible, the effort being laade to keep IAR research programmes responsive to the needs and priorities of animal producers and other users. It is hoped that our plans will greatly facilitate the generation and transfer of appropriate technologies for the benefit of the animal resources sub-sector.

LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES OF THE RIHISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Tefera Gebre Keskei*

The Ministry of Agriculture <MQA>, apart from initiating policy guidelines for the country’s agriculture and preparing priority plans and strategies* is particularly entrusted with the responsibility cf overseeing the agricultural development of the peasant sector, conservation and proper utilization of soil, forestry, wild life, rangelands and fishery resources.

For this purpose the Kinistry is organized in 4 main departments: 29 technical and service-rendering departments; 12 enterprises, agencies, institutes and corporations; 7 zonal agricultural development offices; and 2 regional agricultural offices.

HAIH DEPARTMENTS

The four main departments each headed by a vice-minister, are

- Co-operatives Promotion and Agricultural Development- Natural Resources Conservation and Development- Animal and Fisheries Resources Development- Rural Infrastructure Development

These main departments have within them technical departments, parastatal corporations, agencies, institutions and self-contained projects through which they effect their responsibilities.

The main duties of almost all of these technical departments at headquarters level concentrate on evolving policy guidelines, project formulation, and monitoring overall field activities in thetr respective areas.

ZOEAL A1TC) REGIONAL OFFICES

The 7 zonal agricultural development offices and 2 regional offices are:

- Central Zone Agricultural Development Office <Shoa)- Eastern Zone Agricultural Development Office CHarargbe)- H or th-eastern. Zone Agricultural Development Office ttfollo and Assab)- Horth-western Zone Agricultural Development Off ice(Gojan) and Gender)- Southern Zone Agricultural Development Office CSidamo and Gama Gcfa>- South-eastern Zone Agricultural Development Office CArsi and Bale)- Western. Zone Agricultural Development Office (Keifa, Illubabor

and Velega)

- -Eritrea Regional Agricultural Development Office- Tigrai Regional Agricultural Development Office

Typically, a zonal office will have planning and programming, administration and finance, training, transport and maintenance, audit and legal services

16

* Animal and Fisheries Resources Development Main Department, Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

KOk Livestock Development Programmes 1?

from the non"-technical departments and 4 technical departments representing the 4 main departments structured at headquarters level. Technical departments within headquarters level are embodied as divisions at the .zonal level under each of the 4 departments. The zonal offices are the implementing bodies of agricultural development programmes, and are also designed to exercise some degree of decentralisation in technical assistance, planning and programming for their respective zones.

Regions under each zonal office maintain the- essential staff required to facilitate the work of provincial or awraja agricultural offices.

The provincial or awraja agricultural offices, staffed with teams of subject matter specialists, provide the main back up to the staff at the woreda level. The worada agricultural offices have a head and a co-ordinator or supervisor, co-operative workers* home agents, hides and skin technicians, and vaccinators. These are mostly diploma holders, Technicians in livestock production and others operate only in those woredas which have a heavy concentration of livestock activities.

At farm level, extension messages are taken to the farmer by an all-purpose development agent (DA) who is usually assigned to serve the farm families contained in one or more farmers* Service Co-operatives. This is the smallest administrative unit of the Ministry of Agriculture (ItCA) to date. According to this arrangement the ratio is about 1 extensionist to 2500 or 3000 farming families.

Other ratios are also being proposed for adoption. Under the training-and- vlsit approach being implemented in Ada and Lume and other selected woredas, a ratio of 1 extension worker to 800 farm families is practised. For the woredas identified recently as 'surplus grain producers' the planned ratio is 1 extension worker to a maximum of 1300 farm families. However, even under this arrangement, it is intended to gradually build up the capability of reaching the same ratio as that noted under the training-and-visit system.

All these are based on a management system that puts emphasis on the following points:

- Assigning exclusively professional agricultural extension agents* who devote all their time and efforts to the extension programme, with a direct line of command from zonal offices, through awraja and woreda offices, to the service cooperative-based DA

- Establishing a systematic training-and-visit programme to farmers and staff at all levels

- Establishing ^contact farmers* through whom other farmers would be able to learn

- Concentrating efforts in order to achieve a clearly visible impact

- Basing the extension service on a more effective utilization of farmers' available resources

- Providing seasonally-relevant recommendations based an the felt needs of farmers

- Strengthening linkages of extension and research sc as to cone out with results well-tuned to the needs of farmers

- Instituting a reliable supply of agricultural inputs and credit

The livestock extension programme under the Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP) of the Animal and Fisheries Resources ^Development Kain Department (AFSDKD) will implement a similar approach with considerable emphasis on mass media com is unicat ion s.

AFIKAL AI5D FISHES IBS RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT KAIH D5PARTKEST

The principal areas of operation of the Animal and Fisheries Resources Development Kain Department (AFRDHD) are livestock marketing, aniisal production and nutrition, animal health services, fisheries development end marketing, and rangelands development. The salient objectives of these operations are increased meat, is ilk, and honey production.

Fisheries

The Department of Fisheries Resource and the Fisheries Production and Karketing Corporation are the units in charge of the development, control and appropriate exploitation of Ethiopian marine and inland water fishery resources.

Estimated possible yearly harvest front Ethiopian water bodies is about 100,000 tonnes, of which about 65.000 - 70t000 tonnes is froia the Red Sea while 30,000- 35,000 tonnes is from the lakes. The potential harvest from rivers and other water bodies is not definitely known.

In the last 11 years different species of fingerling have been introduced into some 31 water bodies including ponds, dams, email lakes and rivers. Today, it is estimated that up to 2240 tonnes of fish could be harvested from these water bodies.

The factors that have restricted the development and exploitation of this resource have been mentioned on a number of occasions. They range from lack of an exhaustive study of the resource, shortage of aanpowsr, lack cf transport, finance and cold storage facilities, to shortages of fishing gfcar and boats.

In the last 11 years the Ministry has made considerable efforts towards improving this situation by way of stock assessment, organizing fishermen into co-operatives, creating a marketing organization, developing manpower

HOA Livestock Development Programmes 19

resources, establishing a fingerling production centre and establishing facilities for boat construction and fishing gear production.

From these efforts a notable outcome is the first phase of the Inland Water Fishery Development Project financed by the EEC. This project of birr 5.2 million was designed for the exploitation of the fish stock of lakes Zswai and Abaya in the Rift Valley, for an increased and improved supply of fish to consumers in Addis Abeba.

Through this project 2 ice-producing facilities and cold storages with capacities of 20 tonnes and 150 tonnes have been established in Zewai and Addis Abeba respectively- Ten newly-built shops equipped with cold storage facilities are operating in Addis Abeba. Two trucks, one refrigerated and the other an insulated van, are supplying fish from these lakes to the bulk storage centres in Addis. As a result of this project the supply of fish from the Rift Valley lakes has increased markedly.

The Kinistry has programmed a range of developmental activities and projects for the coming 3 to 5 years to strengthen the infrastructure which would enhance production of fish and related water body resources for both human consumption and ornamental purposes. These cover;

~ strengthening fishermens' Producers Cooperatives through a revised directive >

- building workshops and centres for rsaintenance and production of fishing gear and fishing boats. Haleb Wooden Boats Construction will produce per year up to 50 boats with cold storage and communication services, each of 5-tonr.e capacity. liassawa Ferro Cement Boat Construction Centre will produce up to 5 boats each of 7-tonne capacity. Assab Wooden Boats Construction produces about 10 boats, each of 7-tonne capacity. The Zewai facility is designed to producein future 50 - 60 boats, each with 4- to 5-tonne capacity and,later on, it is intended to have a centre at lake Tana with aproduction capacity of 30 boats per year,

- constructing cold storage plants, blast freezers and shops,

- establishing fish canning and milling centres,

- strengthening the exploitation of ornamental fishes and shells and handling and processing facilities for these,

- assessing resources and developing manpower.

These activities, besides saving ioreign exchange through the exploitaion of ornamental fish, shells and possible export of highly-valued crustaceans, will also increase the annual production of fish from 5,000 to 17,000 tc-nnes in the coming 3 to 5 years.

20 lefera Gebre Keskel

Rangelands

Responsibility for rangelands livestock development tails mainly under the Third Livestock Development Project,

Past programmes in rangeland development included the Regional Livestock Development Project in the southern rangelands covering 240.000 ha and supported by USAID in the mid-sixties, and the Abernosa Ranch scheme designed for Ethiopian Horan cattle improvement at about the same period-

The Third Livestock Development Project CTLDP) - funded by Vorld Bank, the African Development Bank and the Ethiopian Government - was aimed at developing 3 areas in the lowlands of Ethiopia and has been the major thrust in rangelands livestock development over the past decade.

The TLDP had several components, of which the following gave promising results.

Ratty eland Vater Development: Eighty-one ponds with a cumulative capacity of1,823,600 m3 have • been built. Seventy-six shallow and 4 deep wells have been dug and 7 "birkasB (cemented reservoirs) have been constructed.

Veterinary and Aniraal Health Programme: Direct and indirect losses due todiseases of economic importance snd internal and external parasites have been dramatically curbed through the programme in the 3 sub-project areas.

Co-operative .Ranch Development: From the planned establishment of 4 ranches,supposed to fatten 16,000 head annually, 3 have been established and their yearly output is 870 head>

Other Activities

- Active involvement of pastoralists* associations and co-operatives in the day-to-day management of the various infrastructures(water ponds, roads, ranches)

- Development of an effective monitoring and evaluation system

- Development of grain and fodder production where water resources are adequate

Apart from the areas to be covered under the southern and the south-eastern rangeland projects, the rangelands of Geleb and Karcerbako in Gama Goia region and an irrigation scheme for Galilage and Amibara grazing lands will all be taken into consideration in the next 5-year period.

Livestock Marketla&

The Animal Resources Karketing Department is responsible for regulating stock markets, market studies, establishing stock routes and staging points, and improving production and quality of hides and skins.

KGA Livestock Development Programmes 21

zte Development Project, which essentially had all of the/'nd was planned to be effected between 1973 and 1979, wassvelopment of primary and terminal livestock market centres,

/ gating yards, trucking, slaughter houses, and hides and skins ig> quantities and values of hides for export and local

6-e<*d to hit its targets and achieve its objectives for various r, its impact was significant in creating an awareness of the n marketing networks and a hides and skins improvement .

Karketing Project document prepared in 1984 contains, among.es, most of the components of the earlier Second Livestock•oject.

■€T Programme.' Annually 9500 young stocker animals were to be,<& the lowland and given to highlanders on credit as draught animals,

were later to be sold by them as fattened stock. To date what has been^xeved is a yearly distribution of 1342 head.

Road Construction: Over 3380 km of field roads have been constructed, out ofthe original target of 4127 km of road.

These result? and the shortfalls noted during the period have new given a firm basis for the future approach to rangeland and pastoralist developmentprogrammes. Botrt the extended, programme of southern rangelands development to be implemented under the Fourth Livestock Development Project and the South-east Rangelands Project prepared after the sub-sector review are based on this revised approach,

In the earlier programmes most responsibilities were shouldered by the government, which entailed, less participation of the pastoralists. The revisedapproach emphasizes cost-effective pastoral systems in which pastoralists havemore active participation in self-help activities; emphasis will also be given to food and feed-security strategy.

The approach stresses the following points:

- establishment of effective pastoral associations and service co-operatives for which revised documentation is now completed,

- increase in animal productivity through relevant production and health interventions,

- provision of infrastructure development services (trucking, water supplies, roads, etc.) for pastoralists' associations on payment basis.

22 Tefera Getrs J'sske!

The development programme in livestock marketing for the coxai based on:

- creating market centres with all the facilities required for 1*. marketing* This will involve the combining of dispersed market*, establishment of a grading system, and the licensing of markets,153 such market centres will be established along these lines;

- developing a livestock market iaformation service;- opening stock routes with resting points at distances of 25 - 30 tan to decrease the heavy losses during trekking, and establishing regulations for enforcing this scheme;

- curbing illegal trading, through the establishment of contraband control stations equipped with vehicles and the required aianpower.Some 6$ control stations will be established in the regions of Harerge and Sidamo where illegal livestock export is cost serious;

- encouraging service co-operatives (SC) to participate in hides and skins improvement: 308 slaughter slabs with water supply will be constructed during this period;

- constructing some 150 model slaughter houses; and- emphasising the development of a market structure in the lowlands.

Animal ..HealthAnimal health services are vested in the Kinistry of Agriculture.The Veterinary Cervices Department is responsible for the protection of animal health through its 5 units: Field Services, Laboratory Services, KeatInspection and Quarantine Services, Kational Veterinary Institute, and Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics Units*Although the eradication of diseases of economic importance from Ethiopia has a long way to go, efforts of the past two decades have reduced mortalities caused by rinderpest. Contagious Bovine Pleuro'Pneumonla (CBPP), anthrax, blackquarter and other diseases, During the last century the country lost a significant portion of its livestock due to epidemics of rinderpest and similar diseases. Widespread epidemics no longer occur, but sporadic outbreaks of some diseases still occur*The Field Services' main objective is prevention of epidemic and sporadic disease outbreaks. It also deals to some extent with production diseases by treating sick animals at various veterinary clinics.Over 15 types of vaccines are produced by the National Veterinary Institute <KVI){ this places the nation's animal health services on a much better footing

HOA Livestock Development Programmes 23

than ever before. In 1984, the total vaccine production of the institute was over 49 million doses.

In the are-* of Keat Inspection and Quarantine Services, the activities include inspection of live animals, raeat and i?eat products, hides and skins, abattoirs and slaughter houses. The effort toward stregthening this aspect of the animal health programme is also becoming a prominent feature of the Veterinary Department.

The short- and long-term health programmes both emphasize veter in a ry epidemiology, control of diseases through a cost recovery system, clinical treatments, and production of vaccines and other hiologicals. These are to be supported b.y manpower and infrastructural development.

Studies and investigations failing under the short-term programme are those carried out by the National Veterinary Institute (1?VI>. the National Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Investigation Centre, the existing 4 regional laboratories and the planned Central Disease Investigation Laboratory7 with special regard to rinderpest, Foot and South Disease <FMB>, Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia <CEFF), Contagious Caprine Pleura-Pneumonia CCCPP), tsetse fly and trypanosomiasis, rabies, tuberculosis, brucellosis and tick-borne diseases.

Ocher activities under the Rhort-term programme include vaccination programmes for state co-operatives and private livestock farms; strengthening clinical services; wuik drug importetion and distribution; establishment of clinics, crushes and dipping tanks as required by state co-opsratives and private farms; training and stationing of vaccinators and farmers’ animal health representatives; establishment of centres and branches of laboratories with different functions; and the development of manpower.

The long-term programme will further re-fine and strengthen the short-term programme in various aspects which »r^ too detailed to dwell on at this point, Disease-free zones are also conceived and intended to be promoted in the long term.

TL':3C; programmes are to be supported by major projects for which financing ag^nci?r> ha'a already bean identified. The Fan African Rinderpest Campaign (FAFIC) and the Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDF) are included in this.

Eemrsh .Li r.stog^-Jtoglopment Protect CFLDP)

The FLDP has 6 main components; 1? animal health development; 2) animal nutrition development; 3) research surveys and pilot activities among semi- nomadic pastcralists in the southern rangelands; 4) agricultural credit to suppo;c pecsant livestock development, Service Cooperative drug inventories and s-mail-ccale fattening; 5) IIOA institutional development including technical assistance and training; and &> a iive-aniraal export trade development study,

7L2 animal he.uth aid nutrition activities constitute a major share of the project.

24 Tefera Cebre J’Tseke.l

Livestock PraductlQu. aad .AaiB&I-SutriiIsaThis aspect of the Hinistry's responsibility falls under the Animal Breedingand Feed Eessource Department. The department provides advice in livestockimprovement and nutrition, distributes improved stock, operates multiplication centres and ranches, provides Artificial Iaseaination <AI> services, and introduces and promotes proper grazing management and the production of cultivated forages.

From the efforts of the past ther« are nc*:

- 114 Producer ana Service Co-operatives dairy farms,- 101 Producer and Service Co-operatives sheep farms,- 293 modern apiaries of Producer Co-operatives (PCs) and Service

Co-operatives (SCs), and- several group and individual cattle fattening programmes. i

The services and supply for co-operative and peasant association (PA) farming are rendered through:

“ Abernosa Cattle Ranch,- Gobs Cattle Ranch,- Debre Berhan Sheep Ranch,- Amed Ouya Sheep Ranch,- K&liti A.I. Centre,- Asela A.I. Centre,- Asmara A.I. Station,- Xosibolcka Fpultry Multiplication Centre>- Asmara Poultry Multiplication Centre, and- Hcletta Beekeeping and Training Centre.

Of the different co-operative and PA livestock farming interventions dairying is tbe cost widely accepted, followed by beekeeping.

Recently KQA has given more attention to cattle fattening programmes; theseshow a rapid adoption rate by fanner*?.

The development programmes of the coming 3 - 6 years will centre on dairying, sheep farming, poultry production, beekeeping,and cattle fattening.

DMrylng; Kilk production with eiflphasie on supplying milk to major urbancentres will be the thrust of the coming 5-year programme. About 17 townshave been identified, around which forage-based co-operative and smallholder dairy production will be established.

This programme will be supported by:

an increased supply of crossbred heifers (Friesian cross for urban market supply and Jersey cross for more Isolated areas) through the expansion and rehabilitation of existing ranches and establishment

KOA Livestock Development Programmes 25

of new ones - including the contract crossbreedlng arrangements envisaged within the Dairy Rehabilitation and Development Project <DJWP>t

establishment of up to 300 bull stations, strengthened artificial insemination services, forage improvement programmes, and improved marketing and recording system.

The Dairy Rehabilitation and Development Project (DF.DP) funded by the African Development Fund (ADF>, the Selale Peasant Development Pilot Project funded, by Pinnida to test dairy development strategies for individual smallholders, and Support to the National Artificial Insemination Service (SKAIS, also Finnida- funded) will all strengthen dairy development,

Cattle Fattening: Smallholder cattle fattening programmes involving PAs andfarmers* PCs, and based on feeds available In the locality, will be extended. The FLDP will also be encouraging both molasses urea/crop residue-based, and forage-based fattening programmes.

Pastoralists' ranching, under the rangeland development programme, is the other line of cattle fattening that KOA will oversee during this period. Indigenous cattle will continue tc be used in this programme.

Farming: Mutton and apparel wool production are the objectives of PAand PC sheep-rearing programmes.

The highlands5 barley and sheep farming area of the country will be getting more attention in the mutton/apparel-wool production model through the use of crossbred sheep; the Awasei, Corriedale and to some extent the Hampshire will be the foreign breeds used. This programme will have, as a major component, the training of weavers and will supply looms to further develop the small-scale apparel wool industry for local carpets and clothing, made from knitted wool and wool pelts.

Farm models for this may vary from small individual operations to medium- and .large-scale co-operative sheep farms \roedium~scale: 300 ewes; large-scale: up to 3000 ewes).

The mutton production model will largely be addressing the lowland area where the Adal and Black Head Ogaden sheep are located,. Through selection and the use of the Dorper sheep, an improvement programme for Black Head Ggaden sheep will be initiated.

These programmes will obtain improved rams and ewes from existing government sheep ranches and those under establishment.

Pqultrv Production: Co-operative-based Intensive poultry production aspractised, in the past has shown clear shortcomings due to inadequate feed supply and management.

2o Tei'era Georg tte&kel

Emphasis will be given to small-scale back yard poultry production where the birds will entirely depend for their living on what they can scratch from the ground and whatever grain the farmer can afford to provide. The other approach will be sen!-intensive management where half of what they require would be provided, with the balance for them to scratch irons the ground. A cockerel exchange programme will support the revised management approach.

Intensive production systems will be encouraged only in selected areas where a guaranteed feed supply exists,

The supply cf improved cockerels and pullets will be from the existing government poultry production centres and those that are under establishment.

Beekeeping: Honey production from the improved Langstroth type of hive willbe emphasized, so as to increase the supply of table honey. The type of frame hive widely used navi is the multi-chamber Zander hive. Vax production will be based on both traditional and improved hives.

Honey production by FCs will continue to be supported and individual producers will also be involved in the programme. Over 426 PC apiaries will be established and approximately 1300 tonnes of table honey are expected to be produced from improved beehives.Capacity for increased production of hives and ancillary equipment will be further pursued and the establishment of a Honey and Vax Marketing Authority will also be given attention.

LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES OF THE RSLIEF AID jkSHABILITATX02F CGKKSSSIC*

Beruks Terns n$ *

27

INTRODUCTION

The overall goals of the Belief and Rehabilitation Commission (RPC) are:

- To give relief and rehabilitation assistance to those who are affectedby man-made and natural disasters.

- In the field of rehabilitation the aim is to settle in agricultural production those sectors of the population which are

- affected by xaan-aada and natural disaster,- unemployed,- endeavouring to live in areas which are overpopulated,- nomadic/transhumsnt pastoralists in marginal rangelands.

THE SOLE 0? PRC IK AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

The basic role is to stimulate food production by a variety of seans.

1. Using animal traction - a low-cost method available to all

2. Using mechanical power - a high-cost approach, not applicable to emailfarmers but to peasant associations (PA), producer co-operatives (PC) ,state farms and particularly for:

- mechanized farming,- virgin land (difficult to plough with oxen), and- areas of tsetse fly infestation, wh«re- oxen cannot be kept in

good health and productivity.

3. Emphasizing the importance of agricultural diversification in both food and cash crop production:

- to fulfil the nutrient requirements of the population,- to generate additional income for cash needs - clothing, schooling,

housing, other goods and services,

- to build a better land-use pattern - different food and cashcrops have varied season and cultivation requirements and can serveas a rotation to maintain plant health and soil fertility, and

- to create additional labour demand and employment opportunities forthe increasing settler population.

:* Ethiopian Relief and Rehabilitation Comsaiesion <R5C) P,0. Box 6876, Addis Abeba

28 Beruke Yemane

LIVESTOCK ACTIVITIES UNDERTAKES BY THE KHC

1. In on-going settlements:

RRC is involved in encouraging better management oi:

- draught ezen, dairy cattle, beekeeping, sheep and goats, and also range improvement and veterinary services

2. In relief areas during and after the 1983 - 85 drought:

~ RRC encouraged destocking by promoting the use of slaughtered surplus animals as dried seat and

“ in the restocking phase KRC has purchased and distributed draught oxen, cows, in-calf heifers and sheep for breeding.

ACTIVITIES UKDBKTAKES BY THS HKC WITH CO-OPBRA713SG AGEBCIES

All activities are implemented in close collaboration with JCOA and donor agencies.

1. Large animals

~ dairy- beet- draught animals

(8 regions, and a total of 76,144 head)

2. Snail ruminants

~ sheep and goats<7 regions, a total of 51,158 sheep and goats)

3. BeekeepingC5 regions, 1429 modern <8 - 12 kgK 9551 traditional (1.5 - 3 kg) hives]

4. Fishery

(4 regions, value of over birr 9.2 million)

5. Kange management

<.5 regions, a total of 2933 ha of improved natural pastures and 430 ha of irrigated improved pasture.)

6. Veterinary services (under KOA)

RKC Ltv-estack Dfcveiopment Programmes 29

PROBLEMS

1. Seasonal undernutritionJ

- shortage of feedstuffs during the long dry seasons- lack of systematic use preservation) of agro-industrial by-products- poor utilization of existing pasture and forage crops

2. Animal diseases

- trypanosomiasis, particularly in new settlement areas, and in higher rainfall areas

- internal parasites- external parasites

- fallows and natural grasslands are overgrazed and this assists the spread of ail parasites

FUTURE PROGRAMMES

- Restocking with different•kinds of livestock better adapted to the different ecological zones and farming systems

- Improvement in animal production and range management

- Provision of improved extension services

- Training of farmers and technical staff

- Finalizing report, "Pastoralists' Rehabilitation Study”CNAOE 8 vol UNDP/KRC: Physical resources, Socio-anthropology, Economy and livestock, Findings and recommendation on settlement strategies)

CONCLUSION AND JRBCOXKBHDATI OHS

- Based on previous and current experiences, the livestock activitiesundertaken by the RRC <it> both the on-going settlement and reliefareas) have shown very promising results, which lead to the following . recommendations. There appears to be a real need for joint research in:

1. Nutrition

- Bfiicient utilization of pasture and forage crops- Systematic use cpreservation) of agro-industrial by-products- Introduction of dry season (drought-resistant) forages,

pastures and fodder crops

30 Beruke Yeaane

2. Animal health

- Detailed investigation for control and prevention measures against

- trypanosomiasis- internal parasites- external parasites

3. Production upgrading

- Selection, testing and introduction of more productive animals for particular environments snd production systems

4. Animal traction povrer

- Animals with better traction power capacity that could adapt and perform in different agro-ecclogical sones

- Harnessing equipment which will be suitable to the animal and soil type

- Improved agricultural, transport and other implements

5. "Early warning" system for the pastoral zones

- Warning when these are signs of impending drought- In bad years, warning farmers to deetocfc and to neve animals

- to highlands~ to government ranches- to dry season grazing reserves- to abattoirs for slaughter

- In good years, advising farmers

- to restocfc- to retain female animals for breeding

6. Establishing meat processing plants and abattoirs

- for IgcsI use- for preservation

LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAXXES 0? TKB XilU&XSY. OF STATE FARMS DEVELOPMENT

Gelana Kejela*

TKTRODUCTION

The Ethiopian Livestock and Heat Corporation <ELIKCCS> is the organization responsible for iaplsraenting- livestock development programmes of the Ministry of State Farms Development (MSFD). The Corporation was forced in August 1984, by the jnerger of the ex-Hthicpian Meat Corporation and ex-Aninal and Fisheries Development Corporation, The need to serge the two corporations emanated from the desire to avoid unnecessary competition in live animal procurement and in foreign markets,

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of ELIKCOR are to establish, expand and manage co/nsiercial- oriented livestock development enterpriser and related agro-industries, wherever feasible throughout the country, in order to:

- contribute towards the satisfaction of local denand with respect to its products and

- earn as much foreign currency as possible by competing in interna tier. 2 1 aarXets, and save foreign currency by substituting the 1 report of livestock products.

ORGAN IZAT IQSAL SET UP .

ELIXCOR i© directly responsible to the HSFD. The Corporation comprises the head office, 3 enterprises, 6 sseat factories and an abattoir. All of these ar~s directly responsible to the Corporation's head office.

DISTRIBUTION OF COMMERCIAL (PRODUCTIOB) UNITS OF ELIKCOR

The regional distribution cf the various coiaiaerciaT (production) units of ELIXCOR and their capacities is presented in Table 1 (next page),

ACTIVITIES, PRODUCTS AND PAST PERFORMANCE CF ELIKCQK

Activities

The main activities of the corporation are as follows.

1. Managing dairy, poultry and pig fares2. Managing neat, dairy and aninal feed processing plants3. Procuring, finishing (cattle only), and exporting live anijrsaia

tiaainly eheep/goats and cattle)

* Ethiopian Livestock and Meat Corporation (ELIKCOR) F,0. Bax 5579, Addis Abeba

Gelana

Keje

la

Table 1. Regional distribution of commercial (production) units ELIMCOR

Production and Commercial Units

Cattle,FarmsAdministrative -------------------- Peedlot “nd ^ocesslT'g plants ^ PurchaseRegion Dniry Poultry plg (cattle) j®n‘h®a/ m l k tolraal feed factories centres

Quarantine

esrn

Addis AbebaShewaBciLeArsiHarergeKef aAssabGenderTigraiSidanoEritreaVtello

Total

Capacity

11

15

2*650 96,500 7,500 21,000coun .layeru, hd/yr

l*8tirfl. pigs/yr chicks,364,000broilers

12*000ha

5.8 rail 1/yr

572,000tonnes/yr

U

13

41

slaughter 298,000 herds of cattle/yr

KSFD Livestock Development Programmes 33

4, Xarketing its products in local and foreign markets5, Planning, executing and expanding new livestock development projects.

The list of products of ELIKCOR destined both for local and foreign markets is as follows,

1. Dairy Products‘ - pasteurized milk- cheese- butter

2. Poultry Products- table eggs- live and dressed broilers- day-old chicks

3. Animal Feed- cattle feed (concentrate)- poultry feed- pig feed

4. Heat and Vegetable Products Keat and Vegetable Products- zighini wott - froaen beef- shiro vctt - frozen srjtton- vegetable soup - corned beef- tomato paste - boiled beef- hides and skins - roeat extract- pig products - bone and joeat meal

Ecjc~i<osaI Barkers.

- canned beqns5. Live Animals Live Aninals

steers - sheep and goats- steers and yearlingsPigs

EasL-Earioca&iiss.

The volume of production and export cf live animals over the fiscal yearB 1981/52 - 85/86 is presented in Table 2 .

34 Gsi

iiaa

Keje

l

Table 2, Physical production of: -various ccTmoditiea by year

Commodities

Year Pasteurized milk (in- mil. 1)

Table eggs (1000 da.)

Boilers(t)

Animalfee<I(t)

• Frozen meat <t) -

Cannedproducts

(t)• Cattle* (1000)

Sheep and goata** (1000)

1981 - 81 10.6 464 981 155 1018 23101 18.1 19.41982 - 83 9.7 1105 115 182 729 21348 17; 5 26.71983 - 84 10*7 1106 172 184 533 12399 14.0 47.51984 - 85 11.1 962. 113 176 648 7150 16.4 2091985 - 86 9.7 1235 133 203 344 6902 25.1 251

* “ Volume of local and foreign sales** « Volume o£ export

-a_-___

&SFD Livestock Development Programmes 3t>

EaiX4LJ lQPIftSM.._Srii£a:pr.isg.

All private dairy farms, except Kcietta. were nationalized. In most cases the ex-owners had «st£ibl£sh&d these farms as s id e lin e businesses? and hence did not rationalize their location in terms of future expansion possibilities. As a result, a number of these dairy farsa were found to be me economical in size a7x6. located in or around the larger urban centres. The fodder requirement of the farms, prior to nationalization, was met from adjacent lands possessed by the f&rner owners. At the time of nationalization these lands were taken over by peasant associations, creating a situation where hay has to be purchased, baled, and transported at high costs, As a result, of a government-'fixed selling price for silk the enterprise is facing accumulation oi lasses.

The outstanding problem that hampers the operation oi the enterprise with regard to poultry production is disease. Salmonella and Newcastle diseases occur oft«a sad cause a high rate of mortality, Importation of exotic breeds is usually curtailed because of this high disease risk.

Veterinary drugs and vitamin preaix are not available in the desired quantityand type.

AuXml FgesL .Sfitsrprisg

The various types of feeds produced by the enterprise are prepared different formulae. The ingredients that go into the mix are mainly low-grade and reject cereals, and by-products of flour and oil mills. The supply of by­products, especially from flour mills: is insufficient in relation to the high demand from both the private and state sectors. At times there is a complete stoppage of feed m ills due to this problem, Price of feed is high due to high price of inputs.

The enterprise procures the aforementioned and other ingredients from local markets with no adequate information on their nutritional status. This is sc because there is no quality standard from the supplier side, nor any laboratory facility on the buyer:s side. Subsequently, it has become impossible to set acceptable ieed ration formulae to ensure the nutritional status of the feed, or to trace various veterinary problems to low quality or even toxicity of the feed. In extreme case© the enterprise resorts to one or the other of the existing laboratories capable of undertaking the desired type ox analysis. However, t&« existing laboratories which can handle the analysis are few innumber and so loaded with enormous analytical tasks that they oiten fail torespond in time. Two of the 3 feed mixing plants presently managed by the enterprise have been in service for a long time, and thus the technology they employ is outdated.

3$ 0elana Ksjela

Llvfi Aaiaals. .Export. OperaUpaaprocnr&Efint apd Transportation? The Livestock Devalqpasst and Karksting Enterprise procures live animals (sheep, goats, cattle) from border regions of the* country, for the typtt of animals demanded la foreign markets ore available in largo quantity in these lowland areas. Contraband trade ie intensive across border regions. One of the national resources that Isconstantly drained by illegal trade is the live animal sector vMch is also highly demanded in Middle East countries. The act of Illicit tradere net only drives up the price cf cattle, sheep and goats, but also depletes th* national stock. The situation is worsened by the fact that there is no reliable livestock census and it is “therefore difficult to know hovr rsany ani&ala are smuggled across the borders in this way.Cattle purchased from remote local markets are driven on foot to holding grounds usually established near purchasing centres. They are kept there until transportation is made available or until ranches prepare adequate apace to accomodate additional animals. It is from holding grounds that live animals are transported to ranches and quarantine centres* From ranches, sheep and..- goats are transported directly to sea and air ports, while cattle are transported to feedlots fcr finishing. The moving of animals over a long distance is presently done mostly by hired ordinary trucks, In addition to their high per head transportation charges* due to small load capacity, these trucks are inconvenient for trucking live animals for they entail high physical damage and loss of weight.In order to attract the sellers, scarce basic commodities such as sugar are supplied at reasonable price* in fixed proportion to the number of stock they sell. Although this incentive has shown a positive result, the shortage of commodities and other impediments hinder its extensive application.Xi^ntenance and Fattening: As mentioned earlier, cattle, sheep and goats aremaintained on ranches until they complete their quarantine period, In somecases cattle are left on the ranches to recuperate and condition for the subsequent lot**finishing. It is realized that the cost of putting on body weight ia less on ranches than in feedlots, but the existing ranches are email and are not well equipped for sound ranching. The lands are also so limited in area that extensive grazing all year round is constrained.Foreign Markets: . Prevalent livestock diseases in the country menace its international livestock trade. Except to a few Kiddle Ea3t and Africancountries, ©sporting live animals to other parts of th« world is impossible. Even in the Kiddle East the demand is seasonal, reaching its peak.during the moelem festivities.Finance: The sheep/goat export operation is a losing venture. Th© governmentbeing cognizant of this fact provides the necessary financial support: hovever, thi3 is often released very late thereby creating shortages of operational funds.

Saa&JEas&ac£s&

The major raw material of meat factories is cattle. Because o i the reasons mentioned earlier &nd the consequence cf the recent drought the supply of cattle to markets is short oi demand. The imbalance between supply andg.fcjmanrt naiuraUv results In price escalation,

The various production components of some meat factories do not have uniform production capacities and tM s creates a bottleneck in the overall production process.

All the processing plants have rendered service for quite a long time. Their technology is outdated and cannot respond to the ever-increasing complaints cf buyers about production levels, hygienic standards and quality of products.

The above-mentioned veterinary problems in exporting live animals also get in the way cf exporting frozen and chilled beef.

European Economic Community <BBC> member countries which used to be importers of meat are now net exporters. Since they have a la.rge stockpile of dairy products additional milk production capacity is no longer encouraged. In fact, they have taken action tc destock their dairy herds. Keat sc obtained, is sold on the world market at a dumping price. This has contributed to a general decline in world market price of meat. This, coupled with paucity of market information and general lack of a well-equipped export marketing organization, has become a formidable problem.

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS

gairj ..DeyeiopffiiBxd

To alleviate the shortage of fodder land and also to create economically viable farms & thorough technical assessment of existing dairy farms including a proposal for future development strategy was undertaken in 1982. The recommendations in the study were approved by Office of the National Committee for Central Planning <02fCCP> and incorporated in the 10-year perspective plan. Accordingly, a. ’Dairy Farms Consolidation and Rehabilitation Project' is in its final detailed engineering design stage. It is planned to make dairy farms self-sufficient in forage production and thereby reduce production costs.

To increase the volume of milk collected from collection centres, a large number of new collection centres have been established recently.

To minimize quality deterioration of fresh milk, chilling centres and trucks with cooling facilities have been recently introduced.

To establish more dairy farms, a teasibility study is under way, and. cf course, Kcka and Ada Berga dairy farms are nearing completion.

H&?£> L iv e s to c k Envelopment Program m es 37

38 Golan* Kejela

Intensive measures are bein$ tekan to strictly observe routine health care. A1 though this could significantly minimize the recurrence of diseases, it is by no means completely reliable.

In order to expand th<3 scale of operation and offset the prevailing high fixed ov^r^ead cost per unit o i output an expansion project in aim os v cor pie tod at I'fcftiii, Rare ever, the construction of a new poultry farm/slaughter houee/feedmill complex will eoon be Btarted at Debra Zeit. A. feasibility study icr the establishment of a poultry and feed complex at Dir® Pawa is al#a underway.

IXsslM iaal. ,£x.port J^ratloa.The purchasing process of 20 specialized trucks ie already under way. The first consignment of these trucks is expected in July 1987.

Abeut 90,000 hectares of land at 6 different sites In the Ogades region has been given to the corporation recently, to be used as haldicg grounds. The nccessary constructions on 4 of the sites will be started soon.

Two ranches of about 4,000 hectares each are secured near tabellc and Segele. These will be ueed primarily for maintaining cattle purchased from the surrounding areas.

Regarding foreign marfcets, a livestock and meat export trade development study will:

- investigate the existing demand and also look into future market prospect?? oi meat, and

- propose market strategies for penetrating traditional Kidd Is East markets and undertake other important assessments,

A rehabilitation project for Dire Dawa, Kombolcha and Heigue Vondo iseat factories and, also, for Debre Zeit abattoir is expected to be implemented soon in order to;

- overcome capacity constraints in the various production lines,- increase production capacity,- improve production and hygienic standards, and- diversify the products of the corporation*

TSOSPBCTS ?auS pS C T S OF LIVESTOCK SB5EARCH IS THE ALEHAYA UHIVBRSIT? OF AGRICULTURE

Tilahun J if far*

The Department o i A nim al Science was established in i 9 6 0 in t h e fo r m e rAlemaya College of Agriculture to fulfil the following objectives.

1. Teaching: To produce qualified manpower equipped withscientific knowledge of animal husbandry practices

2. Research: To conduct research to alleviate problems encounteredin livestock production

3. Extension: To increase the awareness o i farmers in theutilization of better farming practices

leashing.

In the area of teaching the Department of Animal Sciences produces professionals through different levels of training. From 1960 to I960 the department has produced

1. 17 graduates with 3i.Sc. degree in Animal Production,2. 425 graduates with B.Sc, dogrea in Animal Sciences; and3. 221 graduates with Diploma in Animal Production.

At present, there are 225 students pursuing their education in the Departmentoi Animal Sciences towards these 3 levels of education.

Research. Actoi&iss.

The first documented research in livestock in the former Alemaya College cf Agriculture and Mechanical Arts dates from 1958.

Between 1 9 5 8 and 1975 staff members of the Department of Animal Sciences conducted about 36 research projects pertaining to the development o f livestock in different regions of the country. This research was mainly conducted by expatriate staff, with few Ethiopians involved.

Some titles of research projects conducted by staff members during this period 'are given below.

1. Estimation oi nutritive yield of the natural grassland at different seasons and at different levels of grazing at AlemayaBerhane Kiflewold

2. Preliminary observation on the mills production of Borena type cattle of Ethiopiaj.C, Glens et al<

* Department oi Animal Sciences* iuemaya University oi Agriculture P.O.Box 136. Dire Dawa

44 Tilahun J i f t a r

3. Supplementation of poultry litter to grazing Borena zebu bulls and Qgaden cattleFlachowsky et al.

4. Productive performance of Black Head Somali sheep at Alemaya College of AgricultureKano Ban.law

5. Gastrointestinal and external parasites.of cattle in two awrajas of HarargheK.Ji. Kigaye

6. The effect of trekking Kano Banjaw

Of these completed works, three have already been published while the others are in the process of publication.

The 13 on-going research projects being conducted by staff members are

1. Chemical and animal evaluation of poultry formula feeds Beyene Chichaibelu et al.

2. Laboratory evaluation and estimation of nutritive value of feeds produced in Harar AwrajaWoldu Debessai and Yalemshet W/Amanuel

3. Studv on the biomass production, species composition and nutritive value of natural grazing areas in JijigaBeyene Chichaibelu et al.

4. Carcass evaluation of indigenous sheep and goats Tesiaye Ayalew

5. Guinea fowl (Sumide meleagrls) breeding and management Kano Banjaw

6. Laboratory and animal evaluation ol brewers by-products and their supplementary relationship in poultry rationsBeyene Chichaibelu et al.

7. CultJvar testing, development and laboratory and animal evaluation of cassava meal as a grain replacer in poultry rationsBeyene Chichaibelu et al.

8. Study on the frequency oi watering of sheep and goats Beyene Chichaibelu et al.

9. Helminth and arthropod parasites of chickens in Hararghe Tilahun Jiffar and K.M. Kigaye

Livestock Research at AUA 45

10. Performance oi laying hens in different deep litter poultry houses Tsegaw Belay

11. Study on possible poultry concentrate ration supplements Beyene Chichaibelu et al.

12. Prevalence of external and internal parasites of cattle, sheep and goats in JijigaTilahun J if far and K.K. Kigaye

13. Meat and skin preservation (salvaging) of drought-affected cattle Kano Banjaw

Extension

It Is well recognized that research is not effective until it transforms the livelihood of people. In recognition of this fact Alemaya University has organized an integrated functional research and extension system. The Department of Animal Sciences has recruited 5 people as full-time workers in research and extension at selected sites in Hararghe Administrative Region to cater for livestock development. Another 5 people work part-time on research and extension at Alemaya and Debre Zeit research stations.

Vith the development of physical facilities and needed manpower, it is hoped that the Department of Animal Sciences will play a significant role in the development ol livestock in Hararghe in particular and in Ethiopia in general.

tKPROYEHEHT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEKS THROUGH BETTER USE OF AVAILABLE RESOURCES

L.J. Lsmbourne* and D.A. Little**

ABSTRACT

The h ig h p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l i v e s t o c k s y s te m s in ad va n c e d c o u n t r ie s i s a t t a in e d o n ly by generous feed log- o f a n i junis of .high g en e t i c m e r i t t h i s m eans fe e d in g la r g e am ounts o f g r a in s a n d p r o t e in s t o l i v e s t o c k s e le c te d f o r h ig h le v e l s o f s p e c ia l is e d (m ilk , m eat.) p r o d u c t io n u n d e r goo d m anagem ent and h e a lth c a r e . Few d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r ie s csn p r o v id e th e s e c o n d it io n s .

Im p ro v e d g r a s s / f o r a g e p ro d u c t io n s y s te m s in c e r t a in o v e rs e a s c o u n t r ie s a im a t m o re e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t io n , n o t h ig h e r p r o d u c t io n p e r le a d . T h is i s o b ta in e d b y g r e a t e r u se o f im p ro v e d p a s tu r e s a n d fo r a g e s , in c lu d in g le g u m e s , a n d by b e t t e r use o f b y -p r o d u c ts a n d c ro p r e s id u e s s o a s to re d u c e th e need f o r e x p e n s iv e c o n c e n tr a te s . E th io p ia s h o u ld t e s t such p r o d u c t io n s y s te m s and in t e g r a t e im p ro v e d fo r a g e p r o d u c t io n w ith c ro p p in g , s o a s to e x p lo i t and e x te n d th e p r e s e n t l i n k s betw een l i v e s t o c k an d c ro p p r o d u c t io n .

INTRODUCTION

In terms of output per unit c f land, labour and feed there are enoriaous disparities in livestock productivity between tha developed and the developingregions of the worli (Table i). But high productivity in the industrializedcountries has been achieved through extravagant use of the world's fossil fuels and the development of highly specialized, and highly capitalized agricultural and aninal production systems.

Table 1, Livestock productivity in developed and, "third world” countries

46

-BeYelQpad____________ Third Vorld

Population <103)K uw n 1.1 3.2Livestock (L.U.> 0.42 0.96

ij?at production (kg/yr)per pardon 32 6per L.U. 84 20per hectare 6.4 2.6

JTllk production (k^/yr)per person 330 26per L.U. 865 66per hectare 66 11

Preston arid Leng 1930. FAO data,

* Hjletta Research Centro, IAR, P.O. Bo* 2003, Addis Abeba International Livo^toc/: Centre for Africa (ILCA>P.O. Bsx £C?9, Addis Atefca

Improving Livestock Production Systems 47

The direct transfer of technology from developed to developing countries is not always successful : it has been likened to a 'Trojan Horse' which, once allowed to enter, creates a state of economic or technological dependence.

/In any case, the economic and industrial preconditions for the success of advanced agricultural technology do not exist in developing countries, and they would do better to seek inspiration from countries which have succeeded in improving- their agricultural and animal productivity through independent exploitation of their own resources and skills.

Ethiopia has large areas of natural pastures and fallows, and produces large amounts of cereal crop residues which could be used more efficiently. Someuseful lessons could be learnt from countries like New Zealand and Australia, which have created highly productive livestock industries based on pastures, forages and ley or fallow grazings.

PROBLEMS IS IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Any country which has the resources could copy modern methods. What isrequired includes:

- a substantial industrial base;- mechanical equipment and maintenance services of all types;- adequate energy resources: electric, hydraulic or oil;- fertilizers and chemicals for crop, harvest and animal protection;- transport, treatment and storage facilities;- education, extension and communication services; and- ability to import whatever it needs but does not produce.

Ethiopia, like most African countries, lacks the essential requirements for success in modern intensive agriculture. The predominance of smallholder and peasant subsistence farming using animal traction, and the lack of foreign exchange means that mechanization is impossible, except on co-operatives or stated-operated farms. Even there, lack of inputs will still limit productivity.

Livestock production is less dependent on external inputs, but is greatly limited by communal grazing practices which remove the incentive and the ability to improve pasture and forage quality. Reorganisation of the ruralpopulation may now make it possible to introduce some improved pasture usageand control of livestock, and to increase the yields of grain and straws on crop lands.

CONSTRAINTS TO ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Major constraints are generally believed to include:

1. low genetic potential of indigenous livestock,2. low productivity and nutritive value of natural pastures,3. poor quality and inefficient usage of crop residues,4. shortage of high-quality, or high-protein supplements, and5. inadequate extension, advisory, veterinary and research services.

48 L.J. Lambourne and D.A. Little

There are some 'appropriate' ways of tackling these.

Livestock Breeding.In many cases it is not the- genetic capacity of the animal that now limits its productivity* but the low level of animal nutrition and management including health care. Thus, "the essence of animal breeding is to match genotypes to environments with a view to optimizing the efficiency of production. In many tropical situations* what is required is efficient production from modest feed input, which naturally places constraints on the yield levels that can be achieved*, according to Turton (1985).

Under peasant or smallholder condition© the first, Fi , cross of suitable exotic with adapted indigenous breeds is the 'appropriate* target for initial breeding programmes. Some 'synthetic' breeds with more Boa tgurus blood have been created: the .Jamaica 'Hope* dairy cow has 80% - 85U exotic blood, and the newer'Australian Milking Zebu', (AMZ) has about 65%. Use of higher grades than Fiunder poor management leads to poor overall productive and reproductive performance, and to increased calf and adult mortality. Good indigenous breeds possess real advantages whioh aust not be overlooked (Hodges, 1985). Table 2 shows results of comparisons in a variety of grazing conditions between locally-adapted and exotic cattle.Table 2. Post-weaning gains of 3 breeds in 3 grazing regimes

Hutrition/parasltechallenge

Liveweight gains <kg/d)

Brahmans Ficross

Hereford/ Shorthorn cross

Kild 0.75 0.81 0.84Medium 0.29 0.37 0.27Severe 0.25 0 .2 1 0.11

Frisch and Vercoe (1979)

Under favourable environmental conditions the exotic purebreds grew faster than the crossbreds, which in turn grew faster than the 'indigenous' Brahmans. Under harsh conditions this was reversed, but the growth rate of the exotics fell to barely 1/8 while that of the adapted Brahmans remained at 1/3 of their respective maxima. In intermediate, and perhaps more typical, conditions the Fi outgrew both their exotic and their indigenous parent breeds.

Advantages of local animals include:

- they are well-adapted to local climatic, parasitic and nutritional challenges;

- local farmers know how to handle them - e.g. oxen for draft work;- they may have considerable capacity to respond to improved health care

and feeding if these can be provided;

Improving Livestock Production Systems 49

- zebu cattle show a capacity for increasing milk secretion in mid- and late-lactation in response to better nutrition* not seen in specialised dairy breeds.

In a recent publication, Preston and Leng (1986) made these comments:"There are strong reasons for arguing that the most economic way of meeting the increased demand for milk and meat in developing countries is through an improvement of existing livestock production systems based on multipurpose animals, rather than through development of specialized milk and meat production.11 .

Among reasons for this they listed the facts that;

- consumption patterns show a similar demand for meat and milk in non­vegetarian peoples;

- intensive milk production (more than 2000 1/cow) competes for suitable grain feeds with humans and with more efficient monogastric animals;

- use of draught animals is expanding, and there is an increasing need to produce draught animals from cows kept for milk;

- high milk production Is Impossible In the (humid) tropics because cows cannot get rid of the heat produced by digestion and metabolism of the large amounts of feed required for high levels of production; and

- in most countries there is a need for flexibility in production because of lack of transport, processing and marketing facilities.

Again, "Specialized dairy cows are biologically highly efficient. In contrast, specialized beef cows are inefficient, especially when the feed available will support more productive systems. This is because their productivity is governed by their reproductive rate, which is always less than one offspring per year and considerably inferior to that of other meat-producing species.."

Beef herds owned by pastoralists and small farmers are often a source of draught animals, and always some milk is taken for human consumption. In pastoral societies this milk makes a major contribution to the human diet. Analysis of results from Botswana (de Pidder and Vagefcaar, 1986) showed that although ranching gave better calving percentage, growth rate and weaning weight than traditional systems, the latter gave much higher total productivity per unit area farmed.

Preston and Leng (1986) suggested also that "a major advantage of combining milk and meat production in the same enterprise, especially when this incorporates restricted suckling of the calves, is that the milk given to the young animal throughout lactation acts as a 'catalytic' supplement so that the basal feed resource is used more efficiently. The Indigenous cattle in most tropical countries have a low genetic potential for milk and meat production, and although such cattle are usually well-matched with the available feed resources, some genetic improvement will be necessary if improved feeding (e.g. supplementation) is to be fully exploited. Creating new dual-purpose milk/beef breeds by selection within the indigenous population takes too long - a better solution 16 to improve local animals by crossing with dual-purpose exotic breeds which have large bodies and may therefore produce better draft animals...."

50 L.J. Lanbourne and D.A. Little

Broadly similar arguments apply to the ‘improvement* of sheep and goats. Existing breeds have evolved with little deliberate attempt by farmers and pastoralists to intervene in the normal process of natural selection of those fittest to survive in that environment. They are thus well-matched to their available resources, but deliberate selection or crossing may be necessary to obtain best results from them in improved feeding and management systems.

Low_Quallty of Pastures, Fallows and Crop Residues

Animal production from low quality diets is limited by their low digestibility and low protein content, which combine to restrict the amount that animals can or will eat. Quality and quantity of ruminant diets are closely related - the nutritional quality of plant tissues decreases as the plant grows, so that mature hays, grasses and cereal straws may contain only 30% - 40% of digestible material. The rest is indigestible fibre which contributes nothing, but requires considerable energy expenditure to chew, shallow, ren&sticate repeatedly to grind it finely, and, after extracting nutrients, pass the final indigestible residues down the tract.

Figure 1. Feed intake required to maintain body weight constant in relation to feed digestibility

Dry matter intake for maintenance

Dry matter digestibility X

Figure 1 shows that twice as nuch feed would be needed to maintain body weight on a poor-quality pasture or a cereal straw of 35% digestibility as is needed on a good pasture of 65% digestibility. However, ruminants cannot cat low quality feeds In such large amounts; mature, fibrous vegetation requires a longer time for physical and microbial breakdown and fermentation of carbohydrates to usable energy, and the supply of plant proteins and minerals is not adequate to support active microbial growth. The overall digestive functions illustrated in Figure 2 therefore proceed slowly; the supply of nutrients to the animal's body tissues is restricted, and the animal grows or secretes nilk at a greatly reduced rate, if at all.

Improving Livestock Production Systems 51

Figure 2, Fermentation in the rumen

Carbohydrate volatile fatty acids (VFA> methane

Ammonia ----------- & ------Amino-acids minerals (S,P..)

Figure 2 indicates the complexity of the processes that occur in the rumen. Most of these involve nitrogen, because of its essential role as a nutrient for rumen micro-organisms and its importance as a component of the amino-acids which are the precursors of animal protein in milk, meat and offspring.

Pastures: Except during the wet season of active growth, pasture plants bothperennial and annual, are of low and declining nutritive value, Because there is no way of regulating numbers of grazing animals, pasture growth cannot be controlled and soon becomes rank and unpalatable as plants begin to flower and seed. This abundant wet season growth yields a lot of material of poor quality for use in the dry season, and animals lose weight despite the large amount of standing 'feed' available. Experiments in the undeveloped north of Australia have shown a typical 'saw-tooth' growth pattern, in young cattle. Use of supplementary feed can reduce the dry season losses but the wr.vi.ght advantage of supplemented cattle quickly disappears in the next rains, when uur;upplemented cattle also regain weight rapidly. The use of expensive supplements is economical only if it prevents deaths, or enables a cow to conceive when she otherwise would not do so.

Improvement of grazing land is unlikely, because communal tenure removes any incentive to spend time or money on reseeding or clearing common land. Some improvement could be obtained by agreed control of grazing pressure so as to allow selected areas to self-seed while keeping others well-grazed and thus maintaining them in a leafier stage into the dry season. It is to be hoped that the Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP) will provide a degree of community interest sufficient to allow this to be done in Ethiopian rangelands and the benefits to be monitored.

Under some conditions pasture land can be improved by oversowing, fertilizing or other means: particularly in Australasia, pasture- and forage-based milk and meat production systems have reached a high productivity (Table 3>. This is because improved grasses and legumes give greater total herbage yield, of better nutritive value even in the dry season. The management of such high- producing swards is more complex, but output may be very high. Levels of 2000- 2500 kg milk per cow are readily obtained, but it is better then to increase stocking rate and to increase output per hectare rather than to seek higher production per cow (Table 4).

52 L.J. Lambourne and D.A. Little

Table 3, Quality and productivity of tropical and temperate pastures .

Eaximum

Pasture/diet

Digestibility(%)

Milk yield (kg/lactation)

Veight gains (kg/d)

Tropicalyoungolder

60-6550-55

1800-22001000-1400

0.7-0.9 0.4-0.5

Temperate 70-80 3300-3800 0.9-1.2

Concentrates ' 60-85 4400-4900 1.2-1.4

Stobbs and Thompson (1978)

Table 4. Milk production from fertilized tropical pastures

PastureStocking rate (cows/ha)

Milk production

(kg/cow/d> (kg/ha/yr)

Hyparrhenia rufa 1.9 10.7 4270and Brachiaria 2. 1 10.2 5000

decumbens 3.3 8.6 10430

Pennisetum 2.5 7.8 5350clandestinum 3.3 7.1 6230(kikuyu) 4.7 6.9 9000

Stobbs and Thompson <1978>

In most pasture- and forage-based oystems the main problem Is that grass growth is strongly seasonal, but livestock feed requirements are relatively uniform. This situation calls for either conservation of surplus growth, or use of a bought-in supplement during periods of deficit. Even well-run enterprises may find it necessary to use concentrates* at least during peak lactation with high-producing caws, but most will probably find that improved forage production can largely replace concentrates, with considerable savings inCDStS.

Crnp Rfrfildueat Crop residues and similar poor quality feeds need a much longer time for breakdown by chewing, followed by microbial digestion; this limits the amount of food that the ruminant can eat. Straws, may contain phenolic compounds (tannins) which affect digestion processes in the rumen.

Improving Livestock Production Systems 53

The content of phenolics is under genetic control, so some improvement in livestock production might result from breeding cereals for lower phenolic content or for other features related to nutritive value of the straws.

Studies of chemical composition of cereal crop residues show considerable variation within the plant, upper (younger) parts and leaf material having much better nutritive value than basal (older) parts or stem. This is shown clearly in Table 5.

Table 5. Chemical composition of crop residue parts

Crop Part N (%) P (%)

Sorghum Panicles 1. 25 0.24Leaves upper 1. 16 0. 15

lower 0. 53 0. 12sheath 0.23 0, 09

Stalk upper 0. 22 0. 10lower 0. 21 0. 09

Millet Panicles 2. 02 0.26Leaves upper 1.81 0. 26

lower 1.22 0. 15sheath 0. 32 0. 11

Stalk upper 0.38 0. 10lower 0. 40 0. 08

Groundnut Leaves 2.42 0. 26Stems 1. 07 0.21Roots 1. 15 0. 24

Powell (1986)

The upper parts are clearly preferred by animals and provide them with a relatively high nutritional plane for the first 1-2 months of stubble grazing. This improved nutrition is the stimulus for a secondary peak in calvings in northern Nigeria, and it suggests that control of crop residue grazing, to give breeding cows and heifers first access, might be a useful first step in making better use of this valuable feed resource.

Importance and Scarcity of Er..o3asiii-S.uppleaeats

Encouragement should be given, by means of price incentives if necessary, to growers of crops which yield valuable high-protein by-products. Noug, peanut and soya bean oilseed-meals are excellent supplements> and irrigated cotton gives a good yield of cotton-seed cake. Whole cotton-seed too is a valuable feed supplement if facilities are not available for oil extraction.

54 L.J. Lambourne and D.A. Little

The large numbers - of livestock killed for meat In Ethiopia should yield more neatmeal and bonemeal than the 2500 tonnes recorded in recent years. This night help to replace the fishmeal widely used overseas in animal feedstuffs, but not available in any quantity in Ethiopia.

Kole of .Supplements: Ruminants have evolved with the ability to live on avery wide range of plant materials - lichens, seaweeds, cactus - as well as the more usual grasses^ and clovers and crop residues. Whatever the feed source, certain nutrients are essential to enable ruminants to convert many unpromising raw materials into usable intermediate products.

These essentials are: - carbohydrate as a source of energy,- protein, or a degradable nitrogen compound,- minerals, and- water*

The overall reactions involved in ruminal fermentation were illustrated in Pigure 2 earlier; the key role of nitrogen in rumen function is summarized in Figure 3. The purpose of supplementation is to create a rumen environment in which these reactions may proceed more rapidly and more efficiently.

Figure 3. Functions involving nitrogen in the rumen

Feeding quite small amounts of high-protein supplements (leguminous forages) or by-products (oilseed cakes, meat- or fishmeal) or unconventional materials like urea/molasses or chicken litter provides easily degraded proteins which are deaminated to increase the ruWnal concentration of ammonia, essential for the gtowth of the micro-organisms which ferment fibrous carbohydrate to the usable volatile fatty acids and glucose. The growth of micro-organisms yields appreciable quantities of microbial cells and proteins which become available to the ruminant after they, in turn, are digested by proteolytic enzymes in the small intestine and absorbed into the blood stream.

Increasing the supply of minerals and protein to the rumen makes the whole process go faster: the animal digests the feed to a greater degree, thus obtaining more energy; and digests it faster, giving room to eat some more. Intake of the poor quality roughage increases and milk yield or weight gain increases accordingly. The high-value protein by-products may be increasingly used in human foods or for monogastrics and poultry which use them more efficiently than do ruminants.

Improving Livestock Production Systems 55

Use of Urea:In many cases ruminants can use urea, a non-protein nitrogen source, instead of preformed protein, to meet their nitrogen requirements for maintenance and a low level of production, but they do need some protein to support higher production. Fertilizer-grade urea is an excellent ingredient in molasses-based feeds, the ruminal digestion of which otherwise demands more nitrogen, as ammonia, than the feed contains. In the absence of a source of ammonia, molasses tends to depress intake and digestibility of roughages. Molasses is an important resource which has been too long neglected - transport costs make it attractive only in areas close to sugar-cane plantations, but its value in a drought survival ration has been well shown and growth rates o f up to 0.75 kg/d have been observed in fattening oxen. Wider availability is now possible through the use of urea/molassas blocks, which are easier to transport and which can readily be formulated to include anthelmintics, minerals or other ingredients.

Use o f Legume Forages : Instead of depending on relatively expensive protein cakes, it is possible for farmers to grow an equally valuable supplement on their own land. Ethiopia is fortunate in having a wide variety of well-adapted legumes, both herbaceous trifolium species in the cooler highlands and acacia and other shrub and tree species in warmer and drier areas. An active programme of introduction and research is being conducted by MQA, ILCA and IAR and is expected to give us many additional legumes for specific livestock zones.

Leguminous plants are generally much richer in nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrient elements than are cereals or grasses, and make good supplementary grazing or feeding material. The best grassland production systems overseas rely heavily on leguminous plants, and Table 6 shows some features of a range of browse legumes, a cheap way to grow good quality dry season supplements.

Table 6. Nitrogen content and rate of digestion of browses

Browse plant NZ Dry matter disappearance (% in 48h)

Gliricidia 3.9 66Leucaena 4.5 78Sesbania 5.3 87Calliandra 3.7 51Albizzia 3.6 49Centrosema 3.4 46Calopogonium 2.7 75Maesopsis 4.1 90

Mahyuddin, Little and Lowry, An. Feed Sci. Tech.-in press

The nitrogen content of these browses ranged from 3% to 4%, equivalent to a protein content of 18% - 25%, and most of them were broken down quickly in the rumen to yield fermentable carbohydrate, nitrogen and minerals to sustain active microbial growth and fibre digestion.

56 L.J. Larabourne and D.A. Little

This emphasis on growing leguminous plants will confer a second benefit - the symbiosis by which "root nodule” bacteria can "fix” atmospheric nitrogen far the legume means that the soil is enriched by quite large amounts of nitrogen after the decay of roots and uneaten herbage. Combined with the return of nutrients in dung and urine of grazing animals, a legume may contribute to the soil as much as 50 - 150 kg of nitrogen per hectare. This is a key component of the "crop- animal interaction", illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Crop/livestock interactions

Cattle

^ draft for cultivation

residues

Livestock feed

— ^manure v

Fertilizer Fuel

The importance of these transactions can scarcely be overstated - without cows to produce oxen for land cultivation there would be no crops in Ethiopia* and without crop residues and by-prodiists it would be difficult to keep cattle. The dung and urine of animals help to maintain soil fertility and structure, and it should be a matter for grave concern that so much dung is now being collected to use as cooking fuel. Methane production in 'biogas’ digestors offers one way to get the energy from dung without losing all its nitrogen and organic matter, and this process merits urgent research.

Inadequate. Livestock Services

This is perhaps the most serious shortcoming of all those that are now hindering development of agriculture in Ethiopia. These services are fundamental to any policy of improving livestock output, and Ethiopia needs to train many more people for this work. Additional resources must be devoted to advanced training in research, development and extension in overseas countries, where such essential infrastructures have reached a high level of organization and functioning. It is gratifying that development agencies are recognizing the need for more training in extension and related workf. Development and extension services are the main clients/users of national research results and there should be closer liaison among us all;

- development and extension need packages of improved technology from research organisations

- research needs feedback from development and extension, to tell it what to do next, or what was wrong with what it did last.

—>methane------- ^fuel

Ifertilizer

Improving Livestock Production 57

REFEREHCES

1. J)e Ridder, U. and K.T. Vagenaar. 1986. A comparison between theproductivity of traditional livestock systems and ranching, in eastern Botswana. In: Rangelands, a resource under siege. Proc, 2nd Int. Rangel. Congr. Adelaide, 1984 p.404 Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 1986,

2. Frisch, J.E. and J.E. Vercoe«1979. Adaptive and productive features ofcattle growth in the tropics: their relevance to buffalo production. Trop. Anim, Prod, 4:214

3. Hodges, J. 1985. Strategies for dairy cow improvement in developingcountries. In: Milk production in developing countries <Ed. A.J.Smith) Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh, 1985. p.198

4. Powell J,M. 1986. Crop-livestock interactions in the subhumid zone ofNigeria. In: Livestock systems research in Nigeria's subhumid zone.Proc, 2nd ILCA/MAPRI Symposium, Kaduna May 1984. ILCA^Addis Abeba 1986 p.264

5. Preston, T.R. and R.A. Leng.1986. Matching livestock production systemsto available resources. Pretesting (review) edition.ILCA, Addis Abeba 198S.

6. Stobbs, T.H. and F.A.C, Thompson. 1978, Milk production from tropicalpastures. FAO Animal Production and Health paper Ho.12.FA0» Rome. p.19.

7. Turton, J.D. 1985. Progress in the development and exploitation of newbreeds of dairy cattle: in the tropics. In: Milk production in developing countries (Ed. A.J .Smith) C.T.V.M. Edinburgh, 1985. p.218

ANIMAL PRODUCTION

PRELIMINARY RESULT OF CAT A LE CROSSBREEDING (.EUROPEAN x *EBU) STUDY

61

J. KILK PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE OP F, COWS

Sendros Demeke*, Beyene Kebede, Tesiaye Kurnsa Taye Bekure and Hailu Gebre Mariam

ABSTRACT

A c a t t l e ' crossbreed in g experim ent was proposed in 1972 with the o b je c t iv e o f finding out what combination ox zebu and e x o t ic breeds and what lev e l o f e x o t ic blood would b est su it d if fe r e n t environm ental and fanning s itu a tion s in Ethiopia. Three s i r e breeds \Friesian, J ersey and Simmental > were used on 3 dam breeds (Boran,Barks and Horro) a t 4 d ii fe r e n t environmental lo ca tio n s ; H oletta and Bako were taken as w etter s ta t io n s <VS> while Meika IVerer and Adami Tulu were taken as d r ie r s ta tio n s {DS>. Least squares means fo r m ilk y ie ld per annum (YA) and p er unit o f m etabolic body weight (YFMW), annual fa t -c o r r e c te d m ilk y ie ld (AFCM) and b u tteria i per cen t cBFP> were 1286 ± 38 and 1841 ± 53, 26.4 ± 0.6 and 27.6 ± 0.8, 2186 ± 46 and 2263 ± 65 kg and 5.29 ± 0.06 and 5.56 ± 0.127* f o r IVS and DS cows r e s p e c t iv e ly . S ire breed s ig n if ic a n t ly (F < 0.01) a ffe c te d YFKV and BFF in both VS and DS, and YA in DS alone. The ranking o i the 3 s i r e breeds in YA was Simmental, F riesian , and J ersey but th is was reversed when milk y ie ld was calcu lated on AFCM and YFMW basis with J ersey c r o s s e s then coming out on top.

INTRODUCTION

The Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) in its earlier breeding studyevaluated local animals for their inilk yield under improved management conditions. The results oi this worfc indicated that milk yields of localanimals were well below an economic production level for dairying (IAR, 1976).

In the light of this, a cattle crossbreeding experiment in 2 phases was started in 1974. The first phase was production and comparison among thefirst generation of exotic x zebu (Fi) crosses, and the second phase was production and contemporary comparisons among exotic x zebu (Fi), Fj * Ft (F-e) and 3/4 exotic-1/4 zebu.

The overall objective oi the study was to combine the high yield and gooddairy temperament of the European (£.cs. taurus) breeds with the characteristic hardiness and resistance to endemic diseases of the zebu (Bos. inlicus.> cattle and to find out what combination of exotic and indigenous breed would best suit different environmental and climatic conditions of the country.

The present work has been conducted to study the productive perlormance of Ft cows under various environmental conditions.

•* Holetta Research Centre, Institute of Agricultural Research vIAR) P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

62 Sendros Demeke et al.

MATERIALS AH I) METHODS

Data

The data for this study were part of the on-going cattle crossbreeding programme of the IAR, All location records of Fi cows for the period 1974 - 1985 were used.

Dam Breeds

The 3 zebu dam breeds used were Boran, Barka and Korro which originated from the southern, northern and western parts of Ethiopia respectively.

Sire Breeds

The sire breeds used were Friesian, Jersey and Sirauiental. Wiener <1972) in his proposal reported the reasons lor choosing these breeds as iollows. The Friesian was introduced to the country long ago and is the most widelyaccepted dairy breed. The Jersey, being a small breed, may have a relative advantage over the large breeds when nutrition is the limiting factor and,besides, may adapt better to warmer regions, The Simmental was chosen because it may be superior. tD the Friesian in growth rate and carcass characteristics, and the males are reputed to be satisfactory for draught purposes.

StatiDn

The 4 stations selected were Holetta, Bako, Adami Tulu and Kelka Werer which are considered to be representative of the different ecological zones of the country, Holetta has an elevation of 2400 m, with an annual rainfall of1060mm and mean maximum temperature range of 18.7 to 24‘’C; Bako has anelevation of 1650 m, with an annual rainfall of 1266 mm and mean maximumtemperature range of 23.9 to 31.9' C; Adami Tulu has an elevation of 1650 mwith an annual rainfall of 680 mm and a mean maximum temperature range of 25.0 tD 28.4-iC; and Kelka Werer has an elevation of 800 m, with an annual.rainfall of 650 mm and a mean maximum temperature range of 28.6 to 36.5* C.

All animals were grazed for approximately 8 hr per day on natural pastures except at Kelka Werer where established irrigated pastures were used. Supplementation at night was practised with either native pasture hay or other roughages, depending on their availability. Cows were also supplemented with concentrate feeds at all stations during lactation.

A total of 1018 lactation records were analysed. In this analysis Bako and Holetta, receiving relatively higher rainfall and having the Horro dam breed in common, are taken as wetter stations (VS). Adami Tulu and Kelka Verer, receiving lower rainfall and having the Barka dam breed in common, are taken as drier stations CDS).

Kilk Production oi Crossbred cows 63

Using Harvey's C1977)v4east squares method, yield per annum (YA), annual fat corrected milk (AFCK), yield per unit of metabolic body weight (YPKV) and butter fat per cent (BFP) were analyzed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The average annual milk yield is shown in Table 1. Station and dam breeds significantly affected YA o f b o th VS and DS cows, whereas sire breed significantly affected YA of only drier station cows.

Results reported here show that Friesian, Jersey and Simmental x Boran, Barka and Horro all produced about 3 times more milk than reported by IAR (1976) and Kiwuwa et al. (1983) for pure Scran, Barka, Horro and Arsi zebu breeds.

Table 1. Least squares means and standard errors (SE> for milk yield per annum (YA) and per unit of metabolic body weight (YPHV)

______Vfitter_Stations__________________ Drier__£i atlans--------Classification gp. YA * SB YPKW_±_£E__ JteL___ 3ULA..SE_______________

Overall mean 545 1826±38 26.4±0. 6 473 1841±53 27.6±0,8Station ** ** ** *»

Bako 313 1672±45- 24. 8±0. 7*“Holetta 232 1081±56*-J 28,0±0,6^Kelka Verer 176 1663±73“ 25. 4±1. 1JAdami Tulu 27 7 2019±58t' 29. 9±0. 9-

Sire breed NS I* ft *#Friesian 181 1846±55 25,2±0,8“ 181 1889±64L- 26. 2±1. 0*Jersey 209 1749±52 29. 3±0. 8tJ 167 1682±63“ 29. 4±0. 9'Simmental 155 1881187 24.6±0.8“ ■ 125 1953*76tj 27. 3±1, 1(

Dam breed *t * * «<Boran 276 1926±46Li 27.3±0.7^ 270 1768±59" 25.8±0,9Horro 269 1727±48* 25,4±0.7“Barka 203 1915±63u 29.5±1.0

af b - Column means with the same letter do not differ significantly(P > 0.05)

* = P v 0.05; #* = P < 0,01; Milk yield in kg.

Milk.. Yleld-^er.Unlt.. Q£,.ftetaboll£.B.ady.Jifeighi

Table 1 also shows the effect of station, sire breed and dam breed on YPKV of VS and DS cows. Holetta cows produced significantly (P<.0.05) more YPMV than those at Bako, and Adami Tulu cows produced signiticantly (P<0.05> more YPKV than those of Kelka Verer. Among the 3 sire breeds, Jersey crosses produced significantlv higher YPKV than Friesian and Simmental crosses. The higher yield of J e rs e y crosses shows their higher efficiency of milk production under low to moderate management systems. This is in agreement with the work of Kiwuwa et al. v'1963).

64 Sendros Deraeke et al.

Of the dam breeds, Boran crosses produced significantly higher YPKV than Horro crosses at VS and Barka crosses produced sign if leant Ly higher YPMV than Boran crosses at DS.

The least squares means shown in Table 1 indicate that station and dam breed significantly (P <. 0.05) affected AFCK oi both VS and DS cows. Aftercorrecting milk yield for butterfat content, the yield of Jersey crosses was similar to that of Friesian and Simmental in both environments. A similar result was reported by Kiwuwa et al.(1983) for F» Jersey * Arsi and Friesian x Arsi crosses;

Butterfat Per cent

The effects of station, sire breed and dam breed on BFP are shown in Table 2. Sire breed had a significant effect on BFP of both VS and DS cows, whereas station and dam breed had a significant effect only on BFP of VS cows. Crossing indigenous cattle with the Jersey breed maintained BFP levels similar to those of the indigenous breeds (Kiwuwa et al., 1963).

Table 2. Least squares means and standard errors (SE) for annualfat-corrected milk yield <AFCK> and butter fat per cent (BFP)

— .Dr-lfiC-Sta.1No. AFCK ± SE__ BFP ± SE____ -.AEC1L± SE BFP_ ±__SE

Overall wean 545 2186146 5.310.06 473 2263165 5.610.12Station tft It NS

Bako 313 1998155" 5.210.06“Holetta 232 2374±67Lj 5.410.07*Kelka Verer * 176 2042191* 5.510.14Adami Tulu 277 2463171*-' 5.610.11

Sire breed NS tft US IIFriesian lal 2109166 5.010.06 181 2167179 5.1±0.18'Jersey 209 2273163 5.910.0tfto 167 2273177 6.1±0.14Simmental 155 2177±67 4. 010. OtJ* 125 2349193 5.410. 19'

Dara breed ** *« tfSBoran 276 2312±56t- 5.210.07" 270 2126172* 5.410.12Horro 269 2060155* 5.410.07^Barca 203 2400178'=' 5.710.17

a, b = Column means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05)

* - P < 0.05; ** = P < 0.01; Kilk yield in kg

Nilk Production of Crossbred Cows 65

^ REFERENCES

Harvey, V.R. 1977. User’s guide tor least squares and maximum likelihood computer program, Ohio State University, Columbus.

IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research). 1976. Results of experiments in animal production U966/67 to 1975). Animal Production Report No. 1 Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Abeba.

Kiwuwa, G.H., J.C.K, Trail, M.Y. Kurtu, Cetachew tf,, F.K. Anderson and J.V, Durkin* 1983, Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. 1LCA Research Report No. 11. Arsi Rural Development Unit and International Livestock Centre tor Africa, Addis Abeba,

Viener, G. 1972, An investigational framework to assist livestock development in Ethiopia with special reference to breeding.Report to F 3, Rome.

\\»

66PERFORMANCE OF DAIRY CATTLE AT RESEARCH AHD

DAIRY CO-OPERATIVE FARMS IN THE ARSI REGION OF ETHIOPIA

Hohammed^ Yusuf*, Anders Olson, Asfaw Volessa,Tegene Alemayehu and Tsehay Biadgilgn

ABSTRACT

D a ta f r o m th e d a i r y r e s e a r c h f a r m i n A s e la , f r o m th e S c h o o l h e r d s a t A g a r fa a n d A r d i t a , a n d f r o m d a i r y c o - o p e r a t iv e s i n th e region w ere a n a ly s e d . L ik e m any o t h e r d a i r y c a t t l e r e s u l t s f r o m v a r io u s t r o p i c a l c o u n t r ie s , t h i s s t u d y c o n f ir m e d t h a t th e m anagem ent s ta n d a r d s i n E t h io p ia h a r d ly j u s t i f y e x o t i c b lo o d l e v e l s h ig h e r th a n 50%. E ven u n d e r r e s e a r c h fa r m c o n d i t io n s a t A s e la , a n n u a l m i l k y i e l d was o n ly s l i g h t l y in c r e a s e d a s th e b lo o d l e v e l was r a i s e d ir o m 50% t o 7 5 Z t a n d t h e r e was an a n n u a l y i e l d d ro p o f o v e r 1 6 0 k g w i th an e x o t i c b lo o d l e v e l in c r e a s t o 8 7 .5 % . U n d e r a l l c o n d i t io n s , c a l f m o r t a l i t y and c a l v i n g I n t e r v a l in c r e a s e d c o n s id e r a b ly w i t h in c r e a s i n g l e v e l o f e x o t i c g e n e s . The s e n s i t i v i t y o f im p ro v e d g e n e s t o b e t t e r m anagem ent p r a c t i c e s was further r e f l e c t e d i n t h e h ig h e r c a l f m o r t a l i t y a n d lo n g e r c a l v i n g i n t e r v a l o f th e 50% cows o f th e c o - o p e r a t iv e s co m p ared w i t h th o s e o f th e r e s e a r c h fa r m . C o m p a r is o n s o f b od y w e ig h t , s c o r e s f o r h e a l t h a p p e a r a n c e a n d b od y d e v e lo p m e n t a l l f a v o u r e d th e 50% m o re th a n h ig h e r g r a d e s . Thus th e n e e d f o r im p ro v e d e n v iro n m e n t f o r im p ro v e d g e n e s i s in d i s p u t a b l e .

INTRODUCTION

Upgrading local breeds of dairy cattle by crossbreeding with exotic genotypes has been practised in Ethiopia for many years, but little information on the results of upgrading has been published. This paper reports production records from dairy cows with various levels of exotic genotypes in 3 different management situations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lactation yields, calf mortalities, and calving intervals were recorded over 1092 lactations from 485 cows at the Dairy Research Farm at Asela, 209 lactations from 199 cows in the Agarfa and Ardita School herds, and 1076 lactations from 535 cows in dairy co-operatives in the region. Animals present in the herds in 1977 and 1978 were scored for health appearance and, body conformation, and body weights were either measured directly in the research farm herd or estimated from chest girth measurements in the school and co-operative herds.

* South-east Agricultural Development Unit CARDU) P.O. Box 7 Asela

Dairy Cattle Productivity in Arsi 07

EsssanduEaxjDFor all cows the average lactation yield was 219 kg, and the average 305-day yield was 1756 kg. Average annual yields (.calculated as lactation yield over calving interval x 365) were 1696, 175b and 159b kg tor 507,, >5% and 87.5% crossbreds respectively. Average calving intervals were 433, 536 and 626 days for 50%, 75% and 67.5% crossbreds respectively.

Still-births increased from 1.6% to 11.5%, and calf mortalities to 24 months oi age increased irom 7.0% to 18.6% as the level ol crossbreeding increased Irora 50% to 87.5%.

Agaria-anjL Ardita

The average lactation yield was 1686 kg, whereas the 305-day and annual yields were 1536 and 1.335 kg respectively- Lactation yield increased irom Fi to 75%. but difference in annual yield was reduced by the shorter calving interval of Fi cows (468 vs 598 days). As was the case at the Asela research iarm, milk yields were lower in 50% Fr> than in Fi cows.

The Agarfa herd also has Friesian x Boran cows from Abernossa. The results from these cows were analysed separately. Thirty-three cows averaged 2576 kg for 77 lactations. The calving interval was 444 days which gave an estimated annual yield oi 2118 kg. Age at first calving was 31.2 months for this group, compared with 49..1 months for Friesian x Arsi heifers coming irom Gabe.

The average lactation yield was 1282 kg,while the estimated annual yield was 923 kg. There was a drastic yield decrease irom Fi to 75%. The 75% cows were, however, younger on average than the Fi, which may over-estimate the decrease. Calving interval was longer (508 vs 437 days) and death rate was higher (15.0% vs 7.0%) for Fi here than at the research farm. There was a greater variation in results at the co-operatives, the lowest lactation yield being 614 kg and the highest 1909 kg.

The number of lactations from the higher grades at the co-operatives was low and the results are therefore uncertain. A follow-up study is under way, including also records from 1978.

In all herds, 50% crossbreds had higher average health scores (looked healthier) than the higher grades. The same was the case with body conformation scores. Measurements or estimates oi body weight were highest on the research iann, intermediate in the school herds, and lowest in the co­operatives. There was no evidence of increasing body weight with increasing level of crossbreeding, but this may have been because many ot the higher grade cows were younger and were not fully developed.

68PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS OF PURE BORAN AHD BORAN CROSSBRED COVS

Alemu Gebre Void*1

ABSTRACT

P h y s io lo g ic a l r e a c t io n s (r e s p i r a t io n r a t e , r e c t a l te m p e r a tu re , h a i r c o a t te m p e r a tu re and s w e a t s e c r e t io n r a t e ) o f p u re B oran an d Bdr&n c ro s s e d w ith e x o t ic d a i r y b re e d s ( F r ie s ia n , J e rs e y , and S im m e n ta l) w ere s tu d ie d u n d e r 4 d i f f e r e n t e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d i t io n s o f £ t h i o p i a .Each m onth 5 a n im a ls fro m each breed ty p e w ere s tu d ie d , A l l th e a n im a ls m a in ta in e d th e rm a l e q u i l ib r iu m , w ith r e c t e l te m p e ra tu re and r e s p i r a t io n r a t e a v e ra g in g 3 8 .3 a n d 2 3 .0 r e s p e c t iv e ly , b u t lo c a t io n s , g e n o ty p e s , m onth and t im e o f d a y h ad s i g n i f i c a n t iP < 0 .0 } > e f f e c t s on p h y s io lo g ic a l r e a c t io n s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r r e s p i r a t io n r a t e s an d r e c t a l te m p e ra tu re s w ere re c o rd e d f o r p u re B o ra n , fo llo w e d by J e rs e y c ro s s e s , S i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r r e s p i r a t io n r a t e s a n d r e c t a l te m p e ra tu re s w ere re c o rd e d f o r F r ie s ia n a n d S im m e n ta l c ro s s e s .

INTRODUCTION

The tropical environments are characterized by high temperature and oiten high humidity, high solar radiation, incidence of infections and parasitic diseases coupled with large seasonal variations in feed. These factors are. significantly associated with lower performance. In the tropics, for an animal to be an efficient producer it should have a highly efficient heat loss mechanism and high efiiciency of feed utilization and disease resistance. It is well documented that cattle in general and laCtating cattle in particular are sensitive to adverse thermal stress and that their physiological responses (respiration rate, rectal temperature, sweat secretion rate, and hair coat temperature) increase (Bianca 1959; Hafez 1967; McDowell 1972; Thatcher 1974). These physiological responses have been used as a measure of dairy cattle comfort and adaptability to adverse environments (Haiez 1968; Johnson 1970; McDowell 1972; Singh 1980).

To date there is a paucity Df information on physiological reactions of local and crossbred cattle under field conditions. In order to maximize production of crossbred animals an understanding of their physiological reactions is essential. To meet this need, this study was undertaken to provide basic data on the influence of biometeorological factors on physiological response, by comparing the physiological reactions of Boran and Boran crosses in 4- ecological zones of Ethiopia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The animals used in this study were taken irom the IAR crossbreedingprogramme. Each month 5 lactating pure Boran and Boran crosses (Friesian,Jersey, and Simmental) were studied. The study was carried out at 4 locationswith varied environmental conditions, shown in Table 1.

* Holetta Research Centre, Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR> P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

Physiological Reactions of Boran and Crosses 69

Table i. Environmental conditions of research stations

__ H Q le tU . .itefcp.16*501249

_-Adani_Lulu __ Jfel.k3Ltfex.ejr70053a

Altitude (ra) Rainfall Cmra) Temperature(°C)

24001083

1650669

KeanRange (18.9-23.9) (23.1-31.9)

2 2 . 0 27.7 26. a(25.0-28.4)

31.6 (31.1-37.0)

At all locations a eimilar type of herd management was followed; all animals grazed 8 hours per day and were supplemented witb roughage during the evening and with 2 kg oi concentrate during milkings.

In this study each month physiological responses (respiration rate, hair coat temperature, rectal temperature and sweat secretion rate) of each animal were measured. Before and after each physiological reaction, biorneteorological parameters were measured (dry bulb temperature, air velocity, and radiation intensity). The measurements were taken in the morning and in the afternoon, at 08.00 - 10.00 and 14.00 - 16.00 hrs respectively.

Respiration Rate

The overall mean respiration rate of Boran and Boran crosses was 23.0 + 0.L4, indicating the ability of all animals to maintain breathing frequency at a normal level. However, all the main effects (station, month, time of day and genotype) and most of the interactions contributed to the variation.

The breed oi sire significantly affected the frequency of breathing; purebred Boran had the luwest respiration rate, followed by Jersey crosses and then by the Simmental and Friesian crossbred cows. Both the latter had identical mean values (Table 2>.

This finding is in agreement with Allen (1962) for Zebu, Jersey and Zebu/Jersey crosses, and Amakiri and Funsho (1979) for Zebu, German Brown/ Friesian and German Brown/N'Dama crosses.

The mean rectal temperature of the entire population was 38.8‘C. This dignities the ability o f all the animals to maintain their body temperature at a normal level.

The breed oi sire significantly affected rectal temperature; pure-bred For an had the lowest rectal temperature, followed by Jersey crosses (Table 2>.

The results of rectal temperature appeared to indicate a differential level oi adaptability among the various genotypes. The indigenous breed in general exhibited a lower rectal temperature at all locations, and the crosses in general had higher rectal temperature. This finding is in accordance with

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

70 Alemu Gebre Void

McDowell (1958,1972>; Lee (1965); Blight and Lampkin U965); Findlay (1968);Steinbach et al. (1977) and Singh (1980), who all reported that local breeds (zebu) had lower rectal temperatures.

The ability of cattle to thrive in tropical regions may be better indicated by diurnal variation in body temperature than by actual body temperature. Brown et al. (1969) and Komal (1976) suggested that the rate of rectal temperature rise is definitely related to heat sensitivity and could be used as a heatsensitivity test., provided that there is less variability between individuals.

Therefore, it is important to consider the diurnal variation of rectaltemperature in assessing the adaptability of any breed.. in assessing breeds, the normal diurnal increase of approximately 0.5°c should be taken intoaccount when -evaluating the effects of heat loads.

Hair Coat Temperature

The overall mean value of the hair coat temperature of Boran and Boran crosses with Friesian, Jersey and Simmental was 31.7,;iC (Table 2 ) , The mean hair coat temperature at the 4 locations was 31.3 ± 0.01, 30.7 ± 0.1, 32.3 ± 0.1 and 32.6 ± 0.1 for Holetta, Bako, Adami Tulu and Kelka Werer, respectively. There was a significant difference in coat temperature among the 4 locations.

The breed of sire significantly (P < 0.01) affected the hair coat temperature. Friesian crosses differed significantly (P < 0.05) fram all others (Table 2>, but there was no difference among the rest.

The time of day significantly (P < 0.0JL) affected the hair coat temperature; significantly higher hair coat temperatures were recorded in the afternoon at all locations for all genotypes. The hair coat temperature increased by 3.8'"C, 2.6^, 3.2,:,C and 2.1‘-,C, at Bako, Adami Tulu, Holetta and Melka Vererrespectively.

Sweat Secretion -Rate

The overall mean of the sweat secretion rate (time in seconds) for Boran and Boran crosses was 41 ± 0.5, indicating the ability oi the different genotypes to maintain homeotherray.

Genotype effect on sweat secretion rate was significant *P < 0,01) (Table 2>.- Higher sweat secretion rate (shorter time) was recorded in Boran, followed by Jersey. There was no difference between Simmental and Friesian crosses,

The result of sweat secretion rate showed that breed differences existed in cutaneous evaporation. The local breed (Boran) had a higher sweat secretion rate than the crosses. This finding is in agreement with results obtained by Schleger and Turner <1965); Johnson (1970); Araakiri and Mordi (1975). The ability to sweat helps in maintaining homeotheriay, hence those animals with higher sweating ability will also tend to show higher adaptability in challenging environments by lower respiratory rate and rectal temperature.

Physiological Reactions oi Boran and Crosses 71

Table 2. Kean value ot physiological reaction parameters oi Boran and Boran crosses at 4 stations

Physiological parametersBoran

X •. Boran_

BoranX

Jersey

BoranX

Siismental

BoranX

Friesian

Respiration rate (f/min*) Rectal temperature(°C)Hair coat temperature <°C) Sweat secretion rate

(seconds)

21±0.01 38.1±1.0 31.6±0.13

39.1±0.5

23±0.10 38,6±0.04 31.6±0.13

40.5±0.5

24±0,10 38.9±0,14 31. 5±0.13

41.1±0.5

24±0.10 38.9±0.04 32.1±0.12

41,3±0.5

* f * frequency

REFERENCES.

1. Allen, J.E. 1962. Responses of Zebu, Jersey, and Zebu and Jerseycrossbred heifers to rising temperature, with particular reference to sweating. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 13:165.

2. Aaakiri, S.F. and O.H. Funsho. 1979. Studies ot rectal temperature,respiratory rate and heat tolerance in cattle in the humid tropics. Anim, Prod. 28:327.

3. Amakiri, S.F. and R. Kordi. 1975. The rate of cutaneous evaporationin some tropical and temperate breeds of cattle in Nigeria.Anim. Prod. 20:63.

4. Bianca, V. 1959, The effect of clipping the coat on various reactionsof calves to heat. J. Agric, Sci., Camb. 52:380.

5. Blight, J. and Cf.H. Lampkin* 1965, Comparison of the deep-bodytemperature of Hereford and zebu cows recorded continuously by radio-telemetry under similar conditions.J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 64:221.

6. Brown, V.H., M.D. Shanklin, G.L. Hahan, and H.D. Johnson, 1969. Rateof rectal temperature rise as an indicator of sensitivity.Trans. ASAE 12:225.

7. Findlay, J.D. J968. Cliraatologic data needed to specify climaticstress. In: Report of the second meeting oi FAO Expert Panel on Animal Breeding and Climatology. FAO, Rome.

8. Hafez, E.S.E. 1967. Bioclimatological aspects of animal productivity.Vld. Rev. Anim. Prod. Vol. Ill No. 14:22.

9. Hafez, E.S.E. 1968. Principles of animal adaptation. In: Adaptation ofdomestic animals* (Ed. E.S.E. Hst'ez) Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.

72 Alemu Gebre Void

10. Johnson, K.G. 1970. Sweating rate and the electrolyte content oi skinsecretions oi Boa taurus and £cs indicus crossbred cows.J. Agric. Sci., Camb.. 75:397.

11. Kamal, J.H. 1976, Indices for heat adaptability of domestic animals.In: Progress In biometeorology. Vol. 1 Part 1, Division B;Progress 'in animal bioroeteorology: lhe ellect of weather and . climate on animals.. (Ed. S.V. Tromp>. Swets and Zethinger B.V Amsterdam.

12. Lee, D.H.K. 1965. Climatic stress indices for domestic animals.Int. J. Biometeor. 9(1):29.

13. McDowell, R.E. 1958. Physiological approaches to animal climatology.J. Hered. 49:52.

14. McDowell, R.E. 1972. The improvement of livestock production in warmclimates. V.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

15. Schleger, A.V. and H.G. Turner* 1965. Sweating rates of cattlf in the ’field and their reactions to diurnal and seasonal changes..Aust. J. Agric. Res. 16:92.

16. Singh, K. 1980. Physiological responses of crossbred heifers underdifferent environments. Indian J, Anira. Sci. 50(Q):607.

17. Steinbach, J., E.A. Olaloku, and A.Y. Abolarin, 1977, FhysiologischeReaktionen bei deutschen Schwarzbunten und deutschen Braunvieh in ffigeria. In: Ergebnisse landwirtschaftlicher Forschuneen derJustusliebig-Universitat, in Agrarwissenschaften in Giessen,Heft XIV, 141.

18. Thatcher, V.V, 1974. Sweating in cattle. II. Cutaneous evaporative loss measured from limited areas and its relationship with skin, rectal and air temperatures. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 52:50.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF CATTLE CROSSBREEDIHG STUDIESII. GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF EUROPEAH x ZEBU CROSSBRED CALVES

Sendros Demeke*, Beyene Kebede, Taye Bekure, Mulugeta Kabed©and Hailu Gebre Mariam

ABSTRACT

L iv e w e ig h t c h an g es o f zebu an d d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f F r ie s ia n , J e rs e y and S im m e n ta l x zebu c ro s s e s w ere s tu d ie d fro m b i r t h t o 1 y e a r o f age. P ro g e n y o f F r ie s ia n an d S im m e n ta l s i r e s w ere s i m i l a r in w e ig h t, b u t bo th w ere h e a v ie r th a n th e p ro g e n y o f J e rs e y s i r e s . The meanw eigh t d i f f e r e n c e fro m p u re zebu o f F r ie s ia n , S im m e n ta l an d J e rs e y c ro s s b re d s w ere r e s p e c t iv e ly +24%, +23% and +3% a t b i r t h ; +10%, +6% and -4% at 90 d a y s ; +9%, +7% and +3% at w e a n in g a t ISO d a y s ; and +18%, +15% and +8% a t 365 d a y s . The mean w e ig h t d i f f e r e n c e s fi'om p u re b re d zeb u f o r F t , F a an d 3/4 e x o t ic c ro s s e s w ere r e s p e c t iv e ly +9%, +1.8% an d +21% a t b i r t h ; +5%, +1% and +4% a t 90 d a y s ; +12%, - 3% and +1% a t 180 d a y s ; and +21%, +6% and +10% a t 3 6 5 d a y s . E x c e p t a t b i r t h and 90 d a y s , F i c ro s s b re d c a lv e s w&re h e a v ie r th a n F a a n d 3 /4 c ro s s e s .

INTRODUCTION

Growth in the simplest sense means development, and it is a continuous process from the moment of conception until mature weight is reached. Growth is influenced by genetic and environmental factors which can exert their effects throughout the 3 phases of pre-natal, pre-weaning and post-weaning growth.This study reports preliminary results of the effects of sire breed and different levels of exotic genes on the growth of different crossbred calves.

KATBRIALS AND METHODS

Materials and methods have been detailed in the first paper of this series (Sendros et al. 1987). Briefly, the data come from the long-term cattle crossbreeding experiment of IAR, started in 1974. The experiment compares 3 exotic sire breeds (Friesian, Jersey and Simmental) crossed with 3 Ethiopian zebu dam breeds (Boran, Horro and Barka) in 4 different environments.

Traits studied in this paper are body weight at birth and at 90, 180 and 365 days of age. The data presented are main effects of the different sir© breeds and levels of crossbreeding, pooled across dam breeds, sex and environment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

SiEQ fiCflfldThe mean weight and per cent weight differences above or below the zebu breed are shown in Table 1, Calves sired by Friesians had the heaviest weight at all ages, though they did not differ significantly from the Simmental crosses.

73

* Holetta Research Centre. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

74 Sendros Demeke et al.

Jersey crosses were always significantly the lightest among the 3 exotic sire breeds (P < 0.05). These results agree with the earlier report by Kebede and Galal (1962) on the body weights of Fi crossbred calves from the same experiment. O'Donovan et al. (1978) also found In a fattening study that Friesian and Simmental crosses had higher dally gains, feed Intakes, and conversion efficiencies than Jersey crosses. In another study* Katp&tal <1970) reported higher dally gains up to 24 months of age for Friesian than for Jersey crosses with all Indian breeds.

LaYBLai-CrQBBea

Mean birth, 90, 180 and 365 days weights for different levels of crosses are shown in Table 2. At birth, 3/4 exotic crossbred calves were significantly heavier than zebu and Fi calves, but the difference between 3/4 and Fa calves was not significant.At 90, 180 and 365 days of age the Ft crossbred calves were the heaviest, the 3/4 crossbreds intermediate, and F* and zebU3 were the lightest.Llvewelght gain followed the same pattern as body weights; Fi crosses had the largest gain followed by 3/4 crosses, whilst the Fa crosses had the smallest gain. Pre-weoning gains (birth to 180 days of age) for the 3 levels ofcrosses were 94.1, 79,7 and 76.8 kg respectively * and post-weaning gains were 37.5, 35.5 and 33.4 kg respectively,Taneja and Bhat (1972) reported that infusions of European blood resulted In Improvement In birth weights and weights at all ages. However, a quadratic response was reported by Katpatal (1978); increase in weight with IncreasingEuropean Inheritance was maximum around the 50% level and declinedthereafter, especially at 1 year of age and above. A similar trend wasobserved in the present experiment.

Table 1. Kean weight and per cent weight difference from zebu, fordifferent sire breeds at birth, 90, 180 and 365 days of age.

Classification Zebu Friesian Jers«»v Siflmwntal*o. of calves 380 997 934 910Kean birth weight (kg) 21.6* 26.8to 22.3- 26.6*Percentage above or below zebu 0 +24 +3 +23Mean 90 days weight (kg) 66,2- 72. 7& 63.4- 70.1*Percentage above or below zebu 0 + 10 -4 +6Mean 180 days weight (kg) 105. 3** 114.5* 103.6* 112.2*Percentage above or below zebu 0 +9 +3 +7Kean 365 days weight (kg) 128.6- 151.9* 138.9fa 148.1*=Percentage above or below zebu 0 +18 +8 + 15

Row means with differing letters are significantly different: P < 0.05,

Growth Rate of Crossbred Calves 75

Table 2. Kean weight and per cant weight difference from zebu, fordifferent levels of crossbreeding, at birth, 90, 180 and 355 days of age.

Classification Zebu Fi -Fa- 3/4

Eo. of calves 380 1309 754 778Kean birth weight <kg> 21.6“ 23,5*> 25. 4« 20.2Percentage above or below zebu 0 +9 +18 +21Kean 90 days weight <kg> 66.2* 69.8^ 67.0* 69. lbPercentage above or below zebu 0 +5 +1 +4Kean 180 days weight <kg> 105.3* 117.7*'- 102.2* 105.9*Percentage above or beloW zebu 0 + 12 -3 +1Kean 365 days weight (kg) 128.6* 155.2C 136.1** 141.Cfc>Percentage above or below zebu 0 +21 +S + 10

Row jseans with, differing letters are significantly different: P < 0.05.

REFERENCES1. Beyene Kebede and E.S.E. Galal* 1992. A study of body weight frc;a birth to

to one year of age in European-Zebu crossbred cattle in Ethiopia.J, Anim. Prod. 34: 95 - 93.

2. Xatpatal, B.G. 1970. The fraction of Holstein breading in Holstein-dairy Zebu crosses resulting in maximum nilk production and growth in India, Ph.D. Thesis. Illinois State College,Illinois, U.S.A.

3. Katp&tal, B.G. 1978. Optimum levels of temperate blood in dairycattle in hot climate In: K.Jasiorowski and J.Eudzka (eds.)Froc. Syrap. on optimum method of cattle breeding for increasing seat and dairy production. Varsaw, Poland. 29 Kay - June 1978* Warsaw Agricultural University, p.203-235

4. Q'Donovan, P.B., Alemu Gebre Void, Beyene Kebede, and E.S.E. Galal,1978. Fattening studies with crossbred (European x Zebu) bullcI. Performance on diets of native hay and concentrate.J, Agric. Sci. Camb. 90: 425 - 429,

5. Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Tesfaye Kumsa, Taye Bekure andHa.ilu Gebre Marian, 1987. Preliminary result of cattle crossbreeding(European x Zebu) studies I, Milk Production Performance of Fi cc-;s.Froc. First ULIC Addis Abeba, 1987 p. 61-65.

6. Tanesa V.K. and P.K. Bhat# 1972. Genetic and non~£enetic factorsaffecting body weights in Sahiwal x Friesian crosses.J. Anim. Prod. 14: 295-298.

76NOTE OK CALF MORTALITY RATH AT TVO

IAR LIVESTOCK STATIONS: HOLETTA AND ADAMI TULU

Alemu Gebre Void and Teshome Yehualashet*

ABSTRACT

M o r t a l i t y d a ta w ere based on 9 5 8 and 9 64 c a lv e s born a l i v e ( lo c a l zebu a n d c r o s s b r e d ) d u r in g th e p e r io d 19Y4 - 1 9 8 5 in c lu s iv e a t H o le t t a and A dam i Tu lu s t a t io n s r e s p e c t iv e ly . A l l c a t t l e w ere m a in ta in e d f o r d a i r y p u rp o s e s . The o v e r a l l c a l l m o r t a l i t y r a t e sw ere 22.1% and 13.5% f o r H o le t t a a n d A dam i Tulu r e s p e c t iv e ly . C a l fm o r t a l i t y r a t e s w ere 5.3% a n d 10.4% fro m b i r t h to w ean ing a t 3m o n th s o i age , 1.0% a t b o th lo c a t io n s fro m 3 - 6 m onths o f a g e , and5.7% and 2.2% fro m 6 - 1 2 m o n th s o f a g e a t H o le t ta and A dam i Tu lu r e s p e c t i v e ly . F» c a lv e s fro m th e d i f f e r e n t sire breeds had lower m o r t a l i t y r a t e s th a n h ig h e r g ra d e s . A s th e le v e l o i e x o t ic b lo o d in c re a s e d m o r t a l i t y r a t e a ls o in c re a s e d .

INTRODUCTION

In general the rearing a t young animals from birth until the age when they can make satisfactory use of forage or coarser ieedstuffs is a major problem throughout the world. This problem is more acute in developing countries which use exotic dairy breeds or crossbreds lor dairy purposes. In developing countries call mortality rate between birth and 3 months of age has been estimated to range between 20% and 60% (JtcDowell 1972). In Ethiopia* the calf mortality rate on State dairy farms has been estimated to be 22% with a variation of b& - 45%. In nomadic herds calf mortality rate has beenestimated to be about 33% up to 1 year of age and 40% - 50% up to 2 years of age (A.A.C.K* 1985 k

Generally, a mortality rate over 5'/. is considered to be too high. The key to minimized calf mortality from birth up to 1 year of age is a sound programme of feeding and management oi calves.

This paper evaluates the mortality rate of 1922 calves born at Holetta and Adami Tulu stations over the period 1974 - 1985.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals

The study was based on calves that died between birth and 1 year of age in the crossbreeding programme at the 2 locations, The dam breeds used were Horro and Boran at Holetta, and Barka and Boran at Adami 'lulu. l'he exotic sire breeds were Jersey, Friesian and Simmental. Each sire breed was crossed with each dam breed and the pure local sires were used on local dams.

* Holetta Research Centre, Institute of Agricultural Research <IAR) P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

Calf Mortality Rate 77

- CALF KAHAGEHENT SYSTEMSEre-vsanlag

Over the years 2 caif-rearing systems were practised at both locations, Calves born between 1974 and 1977 were suckled by their dams (local cows) twice per day up to weaning age (6 months). During this period calves were kept indoors, receiving roughages lib, and up to 2 kg of concentrate. Calves born after 1977 were reared artificially (bucket-feeding), receiving 260 litres of whole milk over a period of 3 months, and were kept indoors and managed similarly to the above up to 6 months of age.

Fpstr.ygfliUflff •

At weaning, calves were put on natural pasture to graze for a period of 8 hr per day. During the evening calves received a hay supplement and, when possible, 1 kg of concentrate supplement.

RESULTS A5D DISCUSSION

The overall mean calf mortality rate from birth up to 1 year of age was 12.1% and 13.5% for Holetta and Adami Tulu respectively (Table 1). Calf mortality rates were highest during the first months and from 6-12 months of age. The mortality rates from 0-1 month were 4,4% and 7,2%: from 0-3 months 5.3% and 10.4%; from 3-6 months 1,0%; and from 6 -12 months 5.7% and 2.2% at Holetta and Adami Tulu respectively.

Sire breed and level of crosses affected calf mortality rate a t both stations. Calf mortality rates according to sire breed were 10.0%, 12.4% and 15,0% at Holetta, and 9.1%, 13.4% and 16,2% at Adami Tulu, for Friesian, Jersey and Simmental crosses respectively (Table 2), In general, Fi crosses of each sire breed had lower mortality rates than F=>, F=», 3/4 and 7 /8 crosses.

The overall calf mortality rates of 12.1% and 13.5% obtained in this study are high compared with the recommended value of 5%. Similar results have been obtained in the Arsi region (Olson et al. 1986). The new-born calf depends on antibodies it acquires from its dam via colostrum for 3-4 weeks. The 4,4% and 7.2% calf mortality rates from 0-1 month of age at bath locations could be due to deficiencies in calf immune systems. The relatively increased mortality rates from 6-12 months of age at Holetta were undoubtedly due to weaning problems (mainly poor nutrition and internal parasites). The results indicate that mortality rate increased as exotic blood level increased for the 3 sire breeds used. Similar results have been obtained at Arsi (Olsen et al. 2986). Good calf performance and health can be achieved within a wide range of rearing systems if the stockmanship is good.

78 Aleisu Gebre Void and Teshane ‘Yehualashet

Table 1, Calves barn and dying at Holetta and Adami Tulu, 1974-1935

. _____________________ Holeita________ _____________________Dead calves according to a^es % dying

Year ______ JBqiui_________ . (gQntlisi____________________ of thoseK F Total 0-1 1-3 3-6 6-12 Total born

1974 14 15 29 0 0 0 0 0 . 01975 31 ' 40 71 3 0 0 0 3 4.21976 a . 5 13 1 0 0 0 1 7. 71977 41 28 69 . 1 0 0 0 1 1.41978 39 45 84 1 0 0 0 1 1.21979 43 27 70 0 0 1 2 3 4.31980 46 64 110 2 0 0 1 3 2.71981 59 73 132 4 2 1 10 17 12.91982 60 80 140 5 1 0 4 10 7. 11983 45 44 89 8 2 3 17 - 30 33. 71984 31 35 66 13 4 5 18 40 60. 61985 51 34 85 4 0 0 3 7 6.2

Still--births (cre-natal death). ___14_____ 1.5Total 468 490 958 42 9 10 55 116

Mortality rate ___------------- __ 4*.4.___iLJ9__JLJL— __120____ -------— --------

Adami Tulu

1974 II'X 14 25 0 0 0 0 0 . 01975 36 23 59 1 0 0 0 1 1 . 61976 17 21 38 0 0 0 0 0 . 01977 33 35 68 1 0 0 1 2 2. 91978 26 30 56 3 0 1 0 4 7. 11979 47 37 84 1 1 0 4 6 7. 1I960 57 52 109 6 3 }. 0 10 9. 11981 58 48 106 8 4 2 0 14 i 3. 21982 ' 68 68 136 10 4 ji 2 18 i o . 21983 68 51 119 12 7 0 6 25 21.01984 46 37 83 14 6 3 6 29 34.91985 29 52 81 13 6 0 2 21 25. 9

Still-blrth t.pre-natal death)___ __ ___________________ 3_________ ______Total 496 468 964 69 31 9 21 130

Call Mortality Rate 79

Table 2. Call mortality rates according to exotic blood level

Holetta

Sirebreed

Friesian Jersey Simmental

Blood Born Dead Born Dead Born DeadlayjsJ - _ UiaJ__ <&}______ UiQ*.1 . . .SJIcuJl__<SA1___Fi 129 9 7.0 120 3 2.5 126 5 4.0F* 76 . 8 10.5 57 10 17.5 57 16 28. 0F* 10 4 40.0 . 14 1 7. 1 9 - -3/4 79 7 8.9 53 14 26.4 74 19 25.77/8 5 2 40. 0 7 3 42.9 7 1 14.3

Total 299 30 10. 0 251 31 12.4 273 41 15. 0

Breed Horro x Horro Boran x Boran

62 4 6.5 73 10 13.7.

Adami Tulu

F, 121 4 3.3 105 1 1.0 88 5 5. 7F* 88 15 17.0 84 19 22.6 81 14 17.3F& 11 2 Id. 2 7 - 6 1 16 73/4 75 4 5.3 71 12 16.9 58 U 24. 17/8 14 3 21.4 16 6 37.5 8 5 62.5Total 309 28 9. 1 283 38 13.4 241 39 16. 2

Baran x Boran Barka x Barka

* 54 5 9.3 77 13 16.9

Fi = Local x ExoticF* = Ft * FiFra = F* * Fi3/4 - Fi n Exotic7/8 = 3/4 x Exotic

80 Alemu Gebre Void and Teshome Yehualashet

REFERENCES

1. Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management tAACM), 1965.Project preparation report; Dairy Rehabilitation and Development Project, Annexes Volume 2. Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management Co. Ltd.

2. McDowell, R.E. 1972. The improvement of livestock production in warmclimates. V.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco,

3. Olson, A., Asfaw Tolessa, Tegene Alemayehu and l'sebay Biadgilgn, 1986.Performance of dairy cattle at research and dairy co-operative farms in Arsi region of Ethiopia, Swedish University oi Agricultural Science. International Rural Development Centre.

PRELIMINARY REPORT OK PERFORMANCE OF LOCAL AND CROSSBRED SHEEP AT A SELLA RESEARCH STATION, 1972 - 1965

81

E. Br&nnang, Mohammed Y. Kurtu and Demissie Ido*

ABSTRACT

A p r e l im in a r y sum m ary o f th e r e s u l t s o i cros-sb re e d in g lo c a l sh eep w ith H a m p s h ire /M e r in o , C o r r ie d a le a n d B leu de M a in e ra m s i s p re s e n te d . Lamb b i r t h w e ig h ts an d m ean in g w e ig h ts , an d m a tu re ewe b od y w e ig h ts a l l in c re a s e d w ith c ro s s b re e d in g up to th e 75% le v e l , b u t ewe n o n -p re g n a n c y r a t e s a ls o in c re a s e d w ith in c r e a s in g le v e l o f c ro s s b re e d in g . Maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y in te rm s o f t o t a l w e ig h t o f la m b weaned p e r ewe b re d was a c h ie v e d a t a b o u t th e 50% le v e l o f c ro s s b r e e d in g . The p ro p o s e d in t e r im b re e d in g p o l ic y i s to u p g ra d e t o a b o u t th e 50% le v e l w ith m o d e ra te ly s iz e d e x o t ic b re e d s h a v in g a tw in n in g r a t e e q u a l to o r b e t t e r th a n th a t o f lo c a l b re e d s .

INTRODUCTION

In 1971 a sheep ilock was established within the Cfcilalo Agricultural Development Unit <.CADU’> project to study purebreeding with local breeds and crossbreeding. The programme continued during • the Arsi Rural Development Unit (ARDU) period and is still on-going. So far, little intormation about the results has been available. Preparatory work for a comprehensive evaluation has been done in the last year. All data on pedigrees, ewe weights, ncn- pregnancy rates, lamb weights, lamb sex, twinning rates, still-births and lamb death rate have been entered on forms, for transfer to cards cr magnetic tape and computer analysis. This presentation is preliminary; it has not been possible to correct for fixed effects such as season of birth, age Gf ewe or disproportion between grades. The material is, however, extensive and also fairly well balanced over most of the years. This summary is presented as a guideline for breeding policy discussion until the final analyses are ready.

WATERIALS AND METHODS

The crossbreeding programme used Hampshire/Merino and Corriedale rams purchased within the country, and Bleu de Maine rams imparted from France. Local sheep were mainly of the Arsi breed. Small numbers cf Horro, Adal,Blackhead Somali, and Bonga ewes and rams were included during the earlystages of the investigation. Production from these breeds did not differ substantially from the Arsi sheep, and they have been included under the* general heading of ‘local* types.

There has been considerable variation between years, the production years 1978 and 1979 (G.C.) being particularly bad. Variation within years has alsoaffected performance: lambs born just before or at the beginning of the rains were heavier at weaning than lambs born after the rains. The number of exoticsires per year and breed has been low - in so»e cases cnlv 1 - and results tosome extent reflect the rams used rather than the breeds. Single group means per breeding group were first calculated, then unweighted means within years.

* South-east Agricultural Development Zone Office <ARDU>, P.O. Bqk 7, Asella

82 E. Brannang et al.

The final breed group means were then calculated as unweighted means of the within-year means. This eliminated, as iar as possible, the effects cf sires and years.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ewe productivity from 2 2 9 9 matings in 234 breeding groups is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. .Summary of ewe productivity

Breed group No.ewes

. Ko. groups

Ve i ght kg *

EwesNon-preg.

%. Twin rate

Lambs Deaths % birth 120 d

Vean«/e\

Local 1167 74 29.2 9.5 1. 17 1.7 6. 1 0.9825% exotic 134 19 36.4 14.8 1. 05 0.0 5. 0 0. 85FI H/M.C 345 34 38. 7 13. 0 1.10 0. 9 12. 8 0. 83FI BdH 283 33 42.4 17.3 1. 21 1.9 7 .2 0.9150% several 27 6 39.2 10.5 1.02 0.0 0. G 0.9175% H/K.C 108 17 42.3 19. 1 1.11 3.6 6.9 0. 8175% BdiM 93 17 43.3 34.7 1.38 3.7 5.8 0.8275% several 101 18 37.3 35.7 1. 07 0. 0 3.4 0.6687.5% several 41 14 41.5 59. 9 1. 10 3. 0 0. 0 0. 43

• liveweight usually after lambing

Bleu de Maine crosses were heavier than crosses with Hampshire/Merino or Corriedale, but in all cases ewe body weights increased with increasing degree of upgrading up to the 75% level. Non-pregnancy rate increased with upgradingin all crosses. The percentage of still-born lambs increased with upgrading,but death-rates among the lambs showed no clear change.

Bleu de Maine crosses had the highest twinning rate, followed by the local ewes. The Hampshire/Kerino and Corriedale crosses and the 'nixed' groups had the lowest twinning rates. These mixed groups were partly inter crosses,- and a loss of heterosis may have contributed to their lower twinning rate.

The number oi lambs weaned per dam put to breeding war, estimated from parturition rate * twinning rate x rate born alive x survival rate to 120 days.Local dams had the highest number of lambs because of their high pregnancyrate and moderately high twinning rate.

The production from a total of 2350 lambs in relation to both dam and larob breed and degree of upgrading is summarized in Table 2.

Performance at Crossbred Sheep t43

Table 2. Production results by daia and lamb breed/grade

Breed/grade oi x Ewes LaDbs_ _ _ ______________ K. P _________________Ewes Lambs t%) No.

borri— Jgying___Birth 120d Eirth 120d 120d/dam

\

Local Local 8.2 668 4. 1 8. 1 2. 8 13.5 13.2Local 25% 3. a 149 0.3 4.4 3. 1 15. 7 16.8Local Fl-H/K, C 9.7 290 1. 0 5.5 3.3 16.6 15.9Local Fl-BdK 12.9 260 1. 0 4.3 3.6 16. 1 16.5Fl-H/K, C 25% 15.2 120 0.2 7. 2 3. 5 17.8 16.5Fl-BdK 25% 17. 1 69 0, 0 3. 7 4.0 18. 6 16.325% * 02.57, 14. 1 123 1.9 6. 1 3.7 18.4 15.5Fl-H/K,C 75%-H/K, C 6. 1 144 3.2 1.7 4. 0 20. 7 19. 7Fl-BdX 75%-BdK 17.4 132 3.7 12. 0 4.2 19. 0 16. 650% * 75% 17.2 128 Q.2 0.4 4.4 20. 1 17.975% * 75% 25. 4 36 1*6 7.5 4.0 19. 0 15.375%-H/K,C 87.5%-H/H, C 12. 1 80 3.7 8.0 4. 1 21. 0 17. 775%-BdK 07.5%-Edtt 54. 4 27 4. 1 6.3 3. 9 16. 0 9. 075% t 87.5% 21.4 82 0. 0 3.5 4.0 19.3 16. 087.5% « 93.75% 49.4 20 0. 0 3.8 4.3 21. 1 10.9

HP = Not pregnantH/K - Hampshire/XerinoC = CorriedaleBdM = Bleu de Maine

* Several crosses

Ewe pregnancy rates were influenced not only by degree of upgrading, as already discussed, but also by the sire. This may not be an effect of sire breed psr. £S» however, since some sires were given very big breeding groups and others (particularly the Bleu de Kaine) continued to be used until they were very old. These factors can be accounted for in the final analysis since most ewes were bred to several different ran types during the investigation-

purebred local lambs had the lowest birth weight. Vithin the crosses, maternal effects on birth weight were evident from the fact that 25% (local * F » ) lambs weighed as much as Fi lambs, and were heavier than 25% <.Fi * local) lambs. Birth weights were higher in 75% than in Fi lambs, but shewed no further increase above the 75% level,

As with birth weight, purebred local lambs had the lowest weaning weight. Veaning weight tended to increase with.increasing level of upgrading, thaugb there was no clear difference between the 25% and the 50% levels, and no indication of a further weight increase beyond the 75% level. Low weaning weights in 87.5% Bleu de Maine lambs were associated with a high twinning rate, and type of birth obviously wiil need to be taken into rto.nunt in the final analysis. <

84 E. Brannany, et al.

The average stiil-birth rate was only 1.77*. There was a tendency towards a lower stil1-birth rate in 25% and 50% lassbs than in purebred local lambs. Still-births increased somewhat in the higher grades, but did not exceed those in the local iambs. There was no clear association between death-rate up to 120 days and degree of crossbreeding.

The number of lambs weaned per dan put to breeding was multiplied by average individual weaning weight to estimate the total weight of lamb weaned per dam. Weight of lamb weaned per dam was about 3 kg higher for 257. and Fi than for local lambs. ihe 75% Hampshire/Merino-Corrietiale, 75% 'mixed', and 87.5ft Hampshire/Xerino-Corriedale lambs showed a further increase, but other higher grades were similar or inferior to 25% and Fi .

Both ewe and laab production data showed a clear advantage from crossbreeding up to the 50% level. Further upgrading gives higher weaning weights up to the 75% level, but the high non-pregnancy rate when these animals are used as dams makes it very doubtful that upgrading should be allowed to proceed to this level, except perhaps for the production of breeding rams. These results are basically the same as for cattle, where it has been shown that the higher grades are not better than the lower ones. Thus a breeding policy should be adopted“ which uses moderately sized exotic breeds and stabilizes upgrading around the 507* <25%-62.57«) level. Twinning rate should also be considered in selection of breeds, ana no breed with a twinning rate lower than that of the local sheep should be accepted<

A safe way of upgrading is to use Fi rams in the first step and then continue with Fi rams, Vith the rather short generation interval in sheep, this system will soon bring the population up to the 50% level. For an efficient programme there is an obvious need for breeding flocks which can produce the necessary number of crossbred rams. Artificial insemination with deep-frozen semen may be used to avoid imports of exotic rams.

STUDIES ON THE HEAT PRODUCTION FOTEflriAL OF SOJfE LOCAL STVA1SS OF CHICKENS

65

Teketel Forssido*

ABSTRACT

S tu d ie s , on 5 d i f f e r e n t lo c a l s t r a in s o f c h ic k e n , (T ik u r , A n g e taM e la ta , K e i, G e h s ijra and I f e tc h > a n d th e e x o t ic b reed o i w h ite Legh o rn in d ic a t e d t h a t th e mean m a tu re bodv w e ig h t 01 th e lo c a l e c o ty p e s co m b in ed was 1 .3 8 k g , e q u a l to 35% o i th e LeghOi~n$ ' w e ig h t*The d a i l y g ro w th r a t e s o f th e p ro g e n y up to 6 m o n th s o f a g e w ere K e i 5 .0 4 g , O ehsim a 5 .1 1 g , T ik u r 5 .2 6 g , A n g e ta M e la ta 5.36 g , S e tc h 6 .3 8 g and Legh o rn 3 .9 8 g . The g ro w th r a t e s o f th e lo c a l e c o ty p e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y (F < 0 .0 1 ) lo w e r th a n th e L eg h o rn g ro w th r a t e .The K e tc h a n d A n g e te M e la ta s t r a in s w ere th e la s t e s t g ro w in g am ong th e lo c a l g ro u p s .

imoDucTiojy:

Poultry in many countries of the world * is considered the chiei source ofcheaper proteins of animal origin <Hascn 1964). Chicken meat, is very important from the standpoint ot nutritional vaius and is considered to be the most palatable oi all meats. It is also readily digested and contains all the essential amino acids required for good human nutrition cKtk 1952, Vladyka and Dawson Demby and Cunningham 1980).

The nutritional condition ot many people in all the underdeveloped parts of the world is poor. Ethiopia, is no exception, and thus it is considered important to improve and produce animals like chickens which provide superior food elements Through relatively cheap means of production.

The objective of this study was to find out the meat production potential ofthe local birds under improved levels of management. Many strains areavailable in Ethiopia, but no work has been carried out to improve them. Thus tbeir productivity remains extremely poor, and bath eggs and poultry meat are scarce and expensive. It is therefore important that the inherent potential cf these locally available ecotypes be Investigated.

MATERIALS APD KETHODS

About 100 femal*? birds from the predominant ecotypes TiJcur, Angeta Melata, Kei, Gebsima and Retch were collected from the adjoining localities oi Awasa. The birds were then brought to Av/asa Junior Agricultural College and were kept for 1 month before the experiment began in order to adapt them to the new management conditions. At the end oi the adaptation period* h2 henb from each strain were randomly selected and were assigned to 5 * 2 in pens. As a control population. b2 White Leghorn pullets irom the College's poultry faras were used and assigned to a similar pen.

* Awasa Junior College ot Agriculture, Addis Abeba University (AAU), P.O. Box 5, Awa.-sa

86 Teketel Farssido

Feed and water were provided ad libitum- Feed consumption, egg weights, and body weight changes were recorded, Bggs were incubated at the end of each month ever a 12-month period, and thus growth rates oi the baby chicks to theage o f 6 months were recorded for each strain. Physical and chemicalcomposition oi the tissues of the animals at ages of 3, 4, 5 and 6 months werealso recorded. Far both physical and chemical tissue composition examination*2 chickens from each strain were slaughtered at each age. For physical com position, gizzard, heart, intestines, kidneys, liver, lung and pancreas, and meat, bone and skin were weighed and recorded. For chemical analysis* the meat with the skin was ground, weighed and oven-dried, Then the dried sample was ground and proximate analysis for ash, fat and protein was carried out.

KAJQR FINDINGS

1. The mean isature body weight of the local ecotypes was 1.38 Kg, while that of the Leghorn was 1.62 kg. Individual strain mature weights were Gebsiraa 1.30 kg, Tikur 1.35 kg, Kei 1.36 kg, Netch 1.54 kg, Melata 1,48 kg, and Leghorn 1.62 kg. Effects oi climatic changes on nature body weights were Dot significant.

2. The local ecotypes maintained egg production rates until the end of their second year* while the Leghorns were almost out of production at the sane age. Increasing environmental temperature depressed egg production mere in the exotic birds than it did in the local types,

3. Indigenous chicken eggs contained relatively more yolk than those of theLeghorn.' *

4. The fertility oi eggs in the local groups (.567#) was better than in the Leghorns (46%).

5. The daily growth rate oi the local ecotypes combined was 5.41 g and was significantly lower than that of Leghorns, which was 8,96 g. The Hetch and Kelata strains among the local ecotypes seemed the fastest growers.

6. In their body weights at 3 months and 6 mGnths, the local birds averaged• 65% and 61% of the Leghorn levels, respectively,

7. The dressing percentages iar the various genotypes at 6 months oi age were Ketch 51.5, Leghorn 52.0, Gebsima 53.8, Melata 56,0, Tikur 56.4, and Kei 57.8, The local ecotypes, pooled, had a 6% higher dressing percentage relative to their body sizes than the Leghorns.

Keat Potential of Local Chickens fi?

CONCLUSIONS . .

The results of the study indicate that local strains reached 61% and B5% cf Leghorn body sizes at 6 months and at maturity, respectively. If they were adapted to the modern system of confined management and improved through selection, it would be possible to attain higher body weighte ;than are presently recorded.

The comparison in egg production characters between the local and the Leghorn showed that the local ecotypes had the capacity tor sustained, egg production and were better at times of increased environmental temperatures than the exotic birds. It is, however, indisputable that the Leghorns and other improved breeds of chickens have higher levels of productivity under optimum environmental conditions. However, as long a& adequate husbandry conditions to match the higher productive requirements of the improved exotic stocks are not achieved in the rural areas or elsewhere, it might be of considerable advantage to plan and support poultry production programmes using the local ecotypes that can be selected for improved productivity within the genetic variability indicated.

REFERENCES

1, Demby, J.H. and F.L. Cunningham* 1980. Factors affecting composition ofchicken meat. V.P. Sc. J. 36: 25-67.

2, Kik, K.C. 1962. nutritive value of chicken meat and its value insupplementing rice protein. J. Agric. Food Cbera. 5:1059.

3. Mason, I.L. 1984. Domestic fowl. In: Bvolutian of domestic animals.Longman Inc., New York.

4. Vladyka, E.J. and L.E. Dawson 1968. Essential amino acid composition ofchicken meat and drip after 30 and 90 days of frozen storage.J. Food Sc, 33:453

88DRAUGHT POWER AND SMALLHOLDER GRAIN PRODUCTION

IN THE ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS

G. Gryseels, F.K. Anderson, J.V.Durkin and Get.achew Assaraenew*

ABSTRACT

The im p a c t o i d ra u g h t pow er a v a i l a b i l i t y on c e r e a l p ro d u c t io n ons m a l lh o ld e r i a r jos. was in v e s t ig a t e d in £ areas o f th e c e n t r a l E th io p ia n h ig h la n d s . A t D e b re B e rh a n, 13r iv e rs w ith 2 oxen p ro d u c e d on a v e ra g e <53% m ore g r a in th a n t a m e r s w ith no o xen , and 19% m ore th a n fa r m e r s w ith 1 o x . B oth th e a re a c u l t i v a t e d and th e g r a in y ie l d p e r h e c ta r e in c re a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith in c r e a s in g oxen o w n e rs h ip . In 2 d i f f e r e n t in v e s t ig a t io n p e r io d s a t f is b re Z e l t ,fa r m e r s w ith 2 o r m ore oxen p ro d u ced 81% and 118% m o re g r a in th a n fa r m e r s w ith 1 o r no c x , due l a r g e l y to d i f f e r e n c e s in a re a c u l t i v a t e d . A lth o u g h th e 2 s tu d y a r e a s fo rm e d a c o n t r a s t in te rm s o f e c o lo g y an d th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d ra u g h t a n im a ls , th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t fa r m e r s o w n in g m ore oxen p ro d u c e d m ore g r a in h o ld s f o r b o th a re a s .

INTRODUCTION

Throughout most oi the Ethiopian highlands land is tilled usin^ a pair ofindigenous zebu oxen which pull a locally made traditional plough, roaresha..The majority oi smallholder tanners own either 1 or no ox and use rental,exchange or loan arrangements to obtain the animals necessary, tor timely cultivation. Details oi these arrangements are given in Gryseels et al. (1984) and Gryseels and Jutzi (1986). Nationally, around 29% cf Ethiopian fannershave no oxen, 34% have 1, 29% have 2, and only 6% have 3 or more oxen (Ministry at Agriculture, 1980).

This paper investigates the impact of the availability of draught power on crop production on smallholder farms in 2 areas oi the central Ethiopian highlands.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data used in this analysis were collected in farm management surveys undertaken by JLCA around Debre Berhan, 120 km north-east ot Addis Abeba atan altitude ol <2000 m, and around Debre Zeit, 50 km south of Addis Abeba at analtitude of 1850 m.

The Debre Eerhan data were collected from 3979 to 1964 far a total ot 237 tarraer-vears from farmers who were members oi 4 peasants* associations t.PAs). The data set includes only those farmers tor whom data were available for a Minimum of 3 years. The survey covered approximately 40 farmers each*year, or about 5% of the farmer population of each PA concerned.

The Debre Zeit data were collected in 2 survey periods, iron 1978 to 1980 for a total of 125 farroer-years, and 1983 to 1985 for a total ol 64 farmer-years. The farmers belonged, to 'J. ditierent PAs. The tirst survey covered a 10% sample, and the second a 5£ sample ot the local farmer population.

* International Livestock Centre tor Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689. Addis Abeba

Draught Power and Grain Production 69

Farm data were collected through direct measurement, observation and weekly formal interviews. They were analysed by least squares procedures <Harvey 1977). Combined analyses were made with the following parameters as dependent variables: area cultivated, seed use, and yields per hectar.e and per farm. The analyses were done, separately for cereal and pulse production because they have different labour requirements and gross margins, as well as different food values, Cereal straws, more than pulse straws, also account for an important fraction of livestock feed supplies.

The statistical model included the random effect of farmer within PAs and the fixed effects of PA, year of planting, number ■ of oxen owned at time of planting, fertilizer used, and interaction terms for year by ox ownership and PA- by year of planting. Household size (expressed as adult equivalents) and livestock holding excluding oxen (expressed as tropical livestock units) were used as covarfates.

A general description of the study areas is given in Gryseels and Andefson (1983). Although both areas have a slmiLar farming system (smallholder rainfed agriculture producing cereals, pulses and livestock), they form a narked contrast. Debre Berhan is representative of the higher altitude zone of the country. Frost, hail and shorter growing season, in addition to low soil fertility, severely limit agricultural poduction. The main crop is barley, but wheat, oat, horse beans, field peas and lentils are also important. The average farm size is around 3 ha, of which 2.3 ha is cultivated and the rest left fallow. Around 50% of farmers have only 1 ox or none at all (Gryseels and Getachew, 1985).

The more productive area around Debre Zeit is intensively cultivated, with virtually no arable land kept fallow. It is representative ot the country's large middle-altitude cropping zone, Tef is the principal cereal grown, the other important crops being wheat, maize, sorghum, horse beans, chick peas and field peas. The average farm size is around 2 ha. Only 21% of farmers have fewer than 2 oxen, while 79% have 2 or more (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983). Thus availability pi oxen differs markedly between the 2 study areas.

The impact oi the availability of draught power on smallholder grain production can be appraised using 3 parameters: area cultivated, yields, and effects on cropping pattern. For the sake of brevity this paper reports only .the results obtained for the production of cereals, since these are the main objects of land 3nd labour uses in both the study areas.

In both the study sites, the number of oxen owned had a significant (P < 0.01) effect on the area cultivated. The mean area cultivated with cereals was 1.76 ha at Debre Berhan, and 1.41 ha at Debre Zeit. At Debre Berhan, tarmers owning 2 or more oxen cultivated 32% more land than those owning none. At Debre Zeit, data limitations necessitated the grouping of data, but farmers with 2 or more oxen cultivated 59% more than those with fewer oxen. The impact of ox holding on area cultivated is summarized in Table 1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

90 G. Gryseels et^al.

Analysis ot the relation between total cereal area per farm at Debre Berhan and the 3 levels of ox ownership, showed that the effect on cereal areacropped of owning a pair as opposed to no oxen was greatest in 1979, whenfarmers with a pair sowed, 77% more land than those without oxen. Thedifferences were also substantial in 1960 (+26%), 1982 (+26%), and 1984(+65% >. '

Table 1. Impact of ox holding on area cultivated (ha/farm)-

Ho.of Debreoxen Berhanowned <1979-84 >

1.09fc> not available 1.09C;* 1.161.74 1.67

* Statistical estimates from least squares analysis

Data limitations meant farmers with 1 or no ox had to be treated as a single group in the analysis.

The years with the largest differences, 1979 and 1984, both followed a year when there was a short main growing season. In 1978 the area recorded the lowest rainfall lor 20 years, andtalthough there was good rainfall in January and February ot the lollowing year (1979), farmers with 2 oxen used their pair to maximize their cropping area, so as to make up for the shortfall ol 1978/79. Again in 1984, farmers were suffering from the failure of the 1983 season and the region had no short rains, so that those with no oxen were again penalized.

Thus 2 main factors affect the availability of draught power at Debre Berhan in any 1 year: the outcome of the previous cropping year and the duration of the short rains. In years with effective short rains>frora February to Kay, the soil is more easily ploughed, and farmers can do the early and more demanding cultivations well beiore June, allowing time to overcome individual power shortages.

Such rains also produce better pasture growth, so oxen are fitter for work. This ’early rain' iactur explains why all farmers were1 able to cultivate approximately t?qual areas irrespective oi ox ownership during 1981 and 1983.

Despite the diiferent character ol the farming system at Debre Zeit, the magnitude of the eifect of draught power on the cereal area was similar. In the 1978-80 survey period farmers with 2 or more oxen cultivated 60% more area to cereals than larmers not owning a pair. The corresponding difference in 1983-85 was 447-,

. JJone 1. 501 1.792 1.98

Debre DebreZeit Zeit

(1978-80? (1983-85)

Draught Fower and Grain Production 91

Impact .aaJtifildLThe availability at draught power may affect yield per unit area through better and more timely cultivation, and total yield through the combined ettect with area cultivated. The overall least squares estimate ot net cereal yield (after deducting seed input) was 516 kg/ha at Debre Berhan. At Debre Zett it was 856 kg/ha (1979-80) and 743 kg/ha (19(53-65,*. Jlet cereal production estimates per farm tor the 2 study areas are given 1n Table 2 .

Table 2. Impact oi ox holding on net farm cereal production (kg/farm)*

Wo. of Debre Debre De breoxen Berhan Zei t Zeitowned (1979-64) (1979-60) (1983-85)

Hone 722 6771. not available1 989 877'-* 636

2 ormore 1175 1597 1390

“■t: Footnotes as tor Table 1

In both areas thsre was a highly significant effect ol year oi cultivation, PA and farmer on yield per ha. At Debre Zeit, there was no significant ditlerence in yields per ha on the basis of ox ownership. At Debre Berhan, farmers with2 or more oxen had net cereal vie Ids per hectare over 48% greater on average than farmers owning no oxen. Farmers with no ox had net yields averaging 414 kg/ha, those with 1 ox 520 kg/hatand those with 2 or more oxen 613 kg/ha.

When the eileets of draught power on yield per ha and on area cultivated are combined, Debre Berhan farmers with 2 oxen are shown to produce on average 63% more grain than farmers with no oxen, and 19% more than farmers with 1 ox. However, there are substantial year-to-year differences. Overall, farmers with 1 ox had an estimated total net farm cereal production 267 kg higher than farmers with no oxen, while the margin due to the second ox was a lurther 186 kg.

The effect ol draught power on farm production at Debre Zett was also substantial, with farmers owning 2 or more oxen producing 6Jvi and 116% more than farmers with 1 or no ox during the 1978-60 and 1963-65 periods respectively. This marked increase occurred mainly through the effect on area cultivated, Statistical analysis showed the effects of draught power to behighly significant (P < 0.01).

This paper illustrates the positive effects on farm grain production ofowning oxen, reflected In area cultivated and, at least for the Debre Berhan area, yield per unit area. Although the 2 study areas form a contrast in terms of ecology and the availability of draught animals, the conclusion that farmers owning more oxon produce more grain holds true tor bath areas.

92 G. Gryseels et al.

The importance ot owning at least 1 ox has been highlighted. Credit schemes should be directed lirst towards those without oxen.

ACKHOVLEPGEMEHTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the invaluable help oi the numerous field staff of ILCA’s Highlands Programme responsible for data collection. Particular thanks are due to Abebe Misgina, Berhanu V. Kidane, Araya Selassie Bekele and Vagnew Ayelneh.

REFERENCES

1; Gryseels, G., Abiye Astatke, Getachew Assamenew, and F.M. Anderson*1984. The use of single oxen for crop cultivation in Ethiopia.ILCA Bulletin 18: pp. 20-25. ILCA, Addis Abeba.

2. Gryseels, G. and F.fl. Anderson* 1963. Research on farm and livestockproductivity in the central Ethiopian highlands: Iuitialresults, 1977-1980. Research Report Wo. 4, ILCA, Addis Abeba.

3. Gryseels, G. and Getachew Assamenew. 1985. Links between livestockand crop production in the Ethiopian highlands. ILCA Newsletter 4 C2>: pp. 5-6. ILCA, Addis Abeba.

4. Gryseels, G. and S. Jutzi 1986. Regenerating farming systems afterdrought: ILCA's ox/seed project. ILCA Newsletter 5 U): pp. 1-3.

5. Harvey, V.R. 1977. User's guide to least squares and maximumlikelihood computer program. Ohio State University, Columbus.

6. ITAD/AID Bank (Information Technology and Agricultural Development/Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank Ethiopia). 1986.Draft oxen evaluation study report. Addis Abeba.

7. Kinistry of Agriculture (Ethiopia). 1980, Distribution of land andfarm inputs among the farmers of Ethiopia, with special reference to the distribution of traction power. Addis Abeba.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF FISHING SURVEY OF LAKE TANA

Tesfaye Vudneh*

ABSTRACT

A d a t t e m p t is m ade to f in d th e r e l a t i v e ab un d an ce o f i i s h s p e c ie s , p re p a re & f i s h d is t r ib u t io n n a p and d e p th c h a r t o t L a k e Tana, and recom m end th e p ro p e r ty p e o f f i s h i n g g e a r f o r th e v e n o u s f i s h s p e c ie s o i th e la k e . P r e l im in a r y r e s u l t s p a v e r e l a t i v e a b u n d an ce o l th e f i s h s to c k a s 75% Bozhus. s p e c ie s , £larJ.8.Sr 3 .8 ZJfarlQ D i'h inus . a n d 1 .5 2 Q rz o c t ir& B is n i l a t l c u s . Over 50% o f th ee x p lo it -a b le f i s h p o p u la t io n i s in th e t o t a l le n g th ra n g e o l 4 1 - 6 5 cm f o r B a rb u s s p e c ie s , 5 6 - 7 0 cm C la r i a s s p e c ie s , 3 1 - 4 0 cm Vt reS-C, and 2 1 - 3 0 cm flj. n i l o t i c u s . G i l l n e t s o f s t r e tc h e d mesh 9 0 -1 1 0 m a and 1 5 0 mm a r e fo u n d to be m o st e f f i c i e n t f o r & n j l o t l cus in th e 2 - 4 m d e p th a re a and f o r C l a r i s a n d B a r b s p e c i e s i n th e deeper waterr e s p e c t i v e ly . Good f i s h i n g g ro u n d s f o r R attens s p e c ie s a n d CLn i l o t i c u s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a ro u n d K o r a ta , B e it K en zo and G erim a a re a s .

INTRODUCTION

Lake Tana, situated in north-western Ethiopia, 12IJ,N, 37° 22fE, has an altitude of 1630 m and a surface area of 3600 km-*. It is by far the largest fresh­water lake, covering over 50% of the total lake area in the country. The lakehas a volume of 28.4 km'J, with a maximum depth of 14 a and mean depth of 9 m(Beadle 1981). The formation af the lake by volcanic blockage Is said to berecent though the Tana basin is thought to be much older, from the plioceneperiod (Morandini, quoted in Beadle 1981). There are 3 important inflowing rivers, namely, Gilgel Abay, Rib and Gumera. The Abay River, or Blue Kile, is the only major outflowing river, leaving at the southernmost part. The lake has a rather circular shape, except the slight stretch on the south which forms the southern bay. It has a maximum length of 60 km and a maximumwidth of 64 km. Despite its large size and important fish resource potential, roughly estirjated at 20,000-30,000 tonne per year yield (Ben Yami 1964>, not much scientific research has been done on the lake. Hence, literature on lironological or fishery studies of the lake is very scarce.

The first limnological study of the lake was done in the 1930s by Italianscientists and published in 1940 (Beadle 1981). This early study recorded 31 species ana sub-species of fish represented by only 3 families - Cyprinidae, Claridae and Cichlidae. There is only 1 cichlid (QreociitaHUfe uilaii£us> and 3 clarids, of which only Clariss Isauensis is endemic to the lake (Beadle 1981).

Since the Lake Tana fishery is the least developed and least known„ the aim of the present fishing survey is to:

a. study the fish composition, distribution and relative abundance,b. make a depth chart and indicate the bottom profile of the lake,c. select and recommend the proper type and size of lishin.t'; nets

for the different fish species.

93

* Ministry of Agriculture (MQA)P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

94 Tesfaye Vudneh

This paper presents the preliminary results oi the survey. Lack ol water,plankton and benthos sampling equipment, laboratory facilities and equipment for analysis has very much limited the work, and the studv is by no means comprehensive. However, it is believed th.at results will provide a good background data base tor a more comprehensive resource study programme in the future.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A research boat 7 in overall length fitted with, a 26 h.p. diesel engine, acompass, an echo-sounder, a speed log and a chart table were used. Gillnets ol90 to 170 ram stretched mesh with a standard hanging length of 45 m were set each day and collected the following morning.

The catch ’ was sorted into species groups and weighed separately. Sub-sampleswere taken for total length (TL> measurement. The depth of the lake wasobserved from the screen display of the echo-sounder and recorded on the map as the boat steamed to and from the fishing sites and also following transect lines for depth survey. Catch samples from different areas were taken and the catch per effort (CPE> data compared to determine spatial distribution of fish populations and identify good fishing grounds. Ten gill nets were taken as astandard fishing unit to determine the CPE,

KESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data from 59 fishing trials with a total of 1306 gillnets of 90-170 mm stretched mesh, covering the southern bay <300 km*r> of Lake Tana, are •considered here.

A total of 6214 fish weighing 9645 kg were collected, with Barbus spp. constituting 71.6% and Clarias spp. 26.5% of the exploited fish biomass (Table 1).

Table 1. Species, number, weight and catch compositionaf gill-net catches

Fish species No. % Vt. <kg) %

71.6 26.5 1.4 0.4

AThe results ol the size <TL) frequency distribution indicate that nver 50% of the exploitable fish population lies in the size ranges of 41-65 cm for Barbus species, 56-70 cm for Clarias spp., and 30-40 cm for yL veso <Fig. 1). Three different size groups of 21-23 cm, 25-27 cm and 30-31 cm TL were observed in CL nl lnticus. These apparently constituted 3 different age groups, but no attempt was made to determine the age of the ftsh species.

Barbus spp.ClarJLas spp. Varlcorhlmis Oreochrorals niloticus

4663 75 69071221 19.6 2580235 3.8 13995 1.5 39

Fishing Survey of Lake Tana 95

Figure 1. Size composition of cample of catch fron Lake Tana, by species

n140-120-

10080-60-40-20 -

- I t

Barbus spp.

n25 -35 45 55 65 75 85

Total length <TL> cm

VaricprhinuB ygSQ

TL cmClarias. spp. CL_ nlloticus

Total length CTL) cm TL ca

Coaparison of catch per effort (CPE) between the different fishing sites showed the Beit 'Kenzo and Korata areas to be good fishing grounds with high CPE value for Barbus spp. using the 150 urn mesh gillnetj and the Geriaa area for (L. nlloticus, (Table 2).Table 2. Comparison of CPE in different parts of the lake surveyed,

using 150 sun and 90-110 cm jaash gillnetsArea offishing

Depthrange(lB>

Total Ho. of nets used

Barbus spp. Clarias spp. veso. Q. nil.

Kobit 3.5 - 6 202 59 17 2 10Abi Sas 2.5 - 5 117 40 \ 7 5 2Belt Kenzo 3.5 -11 142 96 8 4 2Korata 4.5 - 5 33 97 7 12 3Infraz 3 - 4.5 110 61 8 13 4Bahir Dar* 3 - 5 36 15 27 10 62Gerinat 2.5 - 4 101 10 31 7 130t Only nets of 90-110 nra mesh used.

REFERENCES

1. Beadle, L.C. 19451. The Inland waters of tropical Africa. 2nd ed.Longman Group Ltd. London, TJew York. pp.190-193.

2. Ben Vaml, M. 1964. Report on the fisheries of Ethiopia. State ofIsrael, Kin. oi For, Afi. Dept, oi Internat. Co-op.

96 Tesfaye Vudneh

LIVESTOCK MARKET SURVEY RESULTS Of* ANIMAL RESOURCES MARKETING DEPARTMENT

97

Zewdu fCebede and Sintayehu Gebre Mariam*

ABSTRACT

T h is p a p e r p re s e n ts th e r e s u l t s o t s u rv e y s c o n d u c te d d u r in g 2 s e p a r a te y e a rs b u t th e sam e m onths a t 3 l iv e s t o c k m a r k e ts . The r e s u l t s show ed t h a t c a t t l e p r ic e s in c re a s e d w ith in c r e a s e d body w e ig h t , P r ic e s w ere g e n e r a l ly lo w e r in 1 9 8 6 th a n in 1 9 84 , b u t th e p r o f i t m a rg in s betw een th e te r m in a l m arket, an d th e o th e r m a rk e ts w ere h ig h e r in 1 9 8 6 . P r ic e s in c re a s e d d u r in g h o l id a y s , e s p e c ia l ly f o r h e a v ie r and b e t t e r - f i n i s h e d a n im a ls . T ra d e rs w ere g e n e r a l ly m ore in v o lv e d in th e m a r k e t in g c h a in th a n a n y o th e r c a te g o r y o f b u y e rs and s e l l e r s , an d th e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t io n o f t r a d e r s in th e s y s te m in c re a s e d betw een 1 9 6 4 and 1 9 8 6 .

The system oi livestock marketing in Ethiopia is one of the least developed of the livestock sub-sector. It is characterized by a large number of highly- dispersed markets which generally lack basic infrastructural taoilities like perimeter fencing, cattle pens, weighing scales, water, feed, latrine, and a wnirket information system. The distance between production and consumption

eas is large; there are no resting places between the markets and therefore animals lose considerable weight en route tD market.

The livestock markets studied were Addis Abeba t representing terminal/large consumer markets; Guder (137 km west of Addis Abeba), representing secondary /medium intermediate markets/ and Koka( about 90 km south o l Add is Abeba)i representing primary/small producer markets. Although none provides complete facilities, all 3 have weighing scales.

The study was conducted during the months of February to K^v of the years 19S4 and 1986. The animals were identified by type and sex as they arrived; 10£ of each type of animal sold were selected and weighed; and the seller, buyer and the weights of the animals were registered. Animals that would be trekked to Addis Abeba were marked for weight loss study.

INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Price/Veight Relationship

Price and weight ranges are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.

* Ministry ot Agriculture,P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

✓Table 1. Price ranges, in 3 markets during 2 study periods

_____19&4._____ ___!££&______ ..

___ _______________JUju______ Wax-_____ Jiiii,_____flax.______

Addis Abeba 0.90 1.90 0.96 2.04Guder J.34 J.54 0.62 1,16-Koka 1.46 1.96 0.66 1,16

98 Zewdu Kebede and Sintayehu Gebre Mariam

Prices in birr/kg liveweight.

Table 2. ■ Veight ranges in -3 markets during 2 study periods

— ” — " I T l i b E Z Z .

Min. Kax, Min. Hax.Addis Abeba 176 370 138 472Guder 226 . 266 110 366Koka 226 276 120 355

^Veights in kg.

There was a general trend oi rising prices with increase in weight. Prices at Koka were generally too high lor a producer market, The price differential of Addis Abeba over bath the others, and especially over Guder, ottered sellers a good profit margin, This was more pronounced at the Intermediate heavy weights of 300-360 kg. The 1984 prices were higher than those of 1986. Heavier and better-conditioned animals were offered and sold in Addis Abeba.

Ericfi-^arlatiflnsEven though prices rose with weight increases, they declined from 400-460 kg upwards. This Indicates loss of condition at the higher v/eights usuallyachieved with older age and higher total value. There was also variation dueto holidays, shown by price falls before Easter in most weight groups. Easter prices were higher than bet ore Easter for animals weighing. 242-310 leg. Animals less than 242 kg fetched the lowest price at Easter and animalsgreater than 310 kg were the most expensive at taster. People showed apreference far heavier and better-conditioned animals during holidays. Alter Easter} prices were highest for light and medium weight (iecs than 310 kg) animals. The highest prices registered for the 3 periods w^re birr 2.02 lor 366 animals at Easter and birr 1.46 for 230 animals after Easter.

r^_aM_^ellsrs

Livestock Market Survey Results 99

The degree ol i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f b u y e r s and s e l l e r s i s su m m a r ized in T a b le 3 .

T a b l e 3 . T y p e s a n d i n v o l v e m e n t o i b u y e r s and s e l l e r s

.. . E u y e x s /5 £ U L e r s _ _. .. (%>. 198.4 (%) 1986

A d d i s A b eb a • b u t c h e r s / t r a d e r s 8 2 / 8 6 5 7 / 9 8• o t h e r s / o t h e r s 1 0 / 1 3 4 1 / 1

G u der t r a d e r s / t r a d e r s 8 7 / 4 7 8 4 / 9 3b u t c h e r s / t r a d e r s 1 3 / 5 0 1 2 / 7

Koka f a r m e r s / f a r m e r s 5 8 / 5 5 2 8 / 7 5t r a d e r s / t r a d e r s 3 3 / 8 6 2 / 2 4

/ b u t c h e r s / 2 3/ o t h e r s / 1 4

In A d d is A beba , b u y e r s w e re g e n e r a l l y b u t c h e r s and s e l l e r s w e re t r a d e r s , a s s h o u ld b e e x p e c t e d i n a t e r m i n a l m a rk e t . S i m i l a r l y in G u der , w h ic h i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e m a r k e t , t r a d e r s ou tn u m b ered o t h e r b u y e r s and s e l l e r s . Koka, w h ich I s ta k e n t o r e p r e s e n t a p r o d u c e r m a r k e t , was a t t e n d e d m o s t l y by f a r m e r s , a s b u y e r s a s w e l l a s s e l l e r s . The f a c t t h a t t h e r e w as m ore i n v o l v e m e n t o f t r a d e r s a s b u y e r s ( i n 1 9 6 6 ) and a s s e l l e r s ( in 1 9 8 4 ) i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t Koka I s n o t a t y p i c a l p r o d u c e r s ' m a rk e t .

Vaigiit .Loss, Study- Results

A w e i g h t - l o s s s t u d y b e tw e e n Guder an d A d d is A beba , a d i s t a n c e o f 137 km, w as c o n d u c t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . R e s u l t s sh o w e d t h a t t h e r e w as c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n i n w e i g h t l o s s , r a n g i n g f r o m no l o s s (both* y e a r s ) up t o l o s s e s o f 20% ( 1 9 8 4 ) an d 24% ( 1 9 8 6 ) . The r e s u l t s d i d n o t i n d i c a t e t h a t h e a v i e r a n im a l s l o s t m ore w e i g h t o r v i c e v e r s a .

100SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Aierau Sida*

ABSTRACT

T h is p a p e r b n e z l y t r e a t s and o v e rv ie w s th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o i p o u l t r y p ro d u c t io n , p a r t i c u l a r l y c h ic k e n p ro d u c t io n , in b th io p ia .M o s t o i th e p r e s e n ta t io n d e a ls w i t h th e a p p ro a c h e s so f a r wade to d e v e lo p s m a l l - s c a le p o u l t r y p ro d u c t io n in th e r u r a l p a rts , o i th e c o u n tr y and th e c o n s t r a in t s e n c o u n te re d . . S m a l l -s c a le p o u l t r y p ro d u c t io n p r o je c t p ro p o s a ls and future d e v e lo p m e n t and re s e a rc h s t r a t e g ie s a r e a l s o p o in te d o u t.

INTRODUCTION►

Kany nutritionists agree that a large proportion ot world population today has an insufficient amount oi high-quality protein in its diet, and this is particularly true tov a large segment of the population in Ethiopia. One ol the best and fastest, ways ol providing such an input to human diet is through increased availability of poultry products at aiiordable prices*

Their ability to adapt to most areas, their rapid growth rate, and shortgeneration tine make poultry an idea) starting point for beginning animal agriculture and a rich source ot animal nutrients for human food. Besides, it has been estimated that chicken appeals as a source oi meat, in the diet ofmore people throughout the world than auv other animal. In addition to

/"positive nutritional efiects, poultry enterprises also provide employment, excellent fertilizer, and effective use ot farm by-products.

Thus an attempt is made in this paper to review the characteristics of poultry production in Ethiopia, approaches to development of snail-scale poultry production, future development strategies and the need lor reseat ch support to develop small-scale poultry production.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POULTRY PRODUCTION LN ETHIOPIA -

Chickens are the most common domestic animals in Ethiopia , and it is atradition of the rural people, in mast parts ot the country, to keep a tew. A general feature of poultry production in Ethiopia is that nearly all the population is lound in a large number ot srall indigenous tlocks with various combinations oi plumage colours, comb types, and with much broodlness.

The productivity ot the local chickens is low partly because of unimproved environmental tactnrs and also, partly because oi their genetic traits. However, they ai e well adapted to the harsh environment and lonu an extensive gene pool tor breeders to exploit. Different improved exotic breeds of chickens have also been introduced into the country, though there is no recorded information to indicate when and by whom they wore iirst brought in.

’ Ministry of Agriculture,P.O. Box 6234V, Addis Abeb.ri

Small-scale Poultry Production 101

D i f f e r e n t e s t i m a t e s at the c h i c k e n p o p u l a t i o n in E t h i o p i a a r e cm t e d , th ou g h th e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d f i g u r e i s 53 m i l l i o n . Ih e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o i c h i c k e n s i s in t h e r e g i o n s o l Shew a, G o n d e r , W elo, Go/jam and T i g r a y . Gamo G o fa , B a le and i l u b a b o r r e g i o n s have t h e l o w e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n .V'; •

APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The p r o m o t i o n o f s m a l l - s c a l e p o u l t r y p r o d u c t i o n w i th im p r o v e d b r e e d s a n d t h e u p g r a d in g o i i n d i g e n o u s c h i c k e n s by c r o s s i n g w i th im p r o v e d e x o t i c m a le s a r e t h e 2 a p p r o a c h e s f o l l o w e d by t h i s p rog ra m m e. The pi ograrame w as i i r s t im p le m e n te d in 1969 ^ E th io p ia n c a l e n d a r ) b y i n d i v i d u a l farmers, but tallowing t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p r o d u c e r c o - o p e r a t i v e s , d i r e c t i v e s w ere i s s u e d t h a t p r i o r i t y s h o u ld b e ' g i v e n t o t h e l a t t e r . From 1969 t o t h e end o i 1 9 7 8 , o v e r 6 0 ,0 0 0 p u l l e t s and a b o u t t h e sam e num ber o f c o c k e r e l s w e re d i s t r i b u t e d t o b o t h c o ­o p e r a t i v e s a n d i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r s .

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES

To o v e r c o m e som e o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s and a c c e l e r a t e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s m a l l - s c a l e p o u l t r y p r o d u c t i o n among t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e M i n i s t r y o i A g r i c u l t u r e (M0A> h a s a p la n t o e s t a b l i s h 8 p o u l t r y m u l t i p l i c a t i o n c e n t r e s in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o t t h e c o u n t r y d u r in g t h e 10 y e a r s c o v e r e d by i t s p e r s p e c t i v e d e v e lo p m e n t p la n . Each c e n t r e w o u ld be a s o u r c e o l f e r t i l e e g g s , d a y - o l d c h i c k s , 3 - m o n t h - o l d p u l l e t s and c o c k e r e l s , and b a la n c e d p o u l t r y i e e d s f o r t h e f a r m e r s o f th e a r e a . A n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y t o s t r e n g t h e n r u r a l p o u l t r y p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e s c h e m e p r o p o s e d by th e A u s t r a l i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l C o n s u l t i n g Company w h ich e m p h a s i z e s s u p p le m e n t i n g th e d i e t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b i r d s a t n i g h t w i th l o w - c o s t f e e d .

In o r d e r t o s u p p o r t p r e s e n t e f f o r t s and t h e r e b y e x p a n d b o th c o m m e r c ia l and s m a l l - s c a l e p o u l t r y p r o d u c t i o n , a p p r o p r i a t e i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d on b r e e d i n g , n u t r i t i o n , d i s e a s e c o n t r o l , h o u s in g , and e q u ip m e n t . R e s e a r c h h a s t o f o c u s on s p e c i f i c and r e l e v a n t t o p i c s in b r o a d a r e a s .

102APICULTURE: ITS CONSTRAINTS,

AND RESEARCH VORK HEEDED IH ETHIOPIA

Ayalew Kassave*

ABSTRACT

T h is p r e s e n ta t io n p ro v id e s d e s c r ip t iv e in io r m a r .lo n on a p ic u l t u r e in E th io p ia , o u t l in e s th e m a jo r c o n s t r a in t s o l d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d p u ts e m p h a s is on th e need l o r g lo b a l s t r a t e g y m r e s e a r c h w ork on n a t iv e b e e s .

INTRODUCTION

The Apiculture Unit in the Ministry of Agriculture <M0A.» was first established in 1976 With the aim oi supporting extension services in rural Ethiopia by introducing improved hives and modern' equipment.

In Ethiopia, traditional beekeeping has been practised for more than 3000 years with hives made from locally available materials. The country has very rich resources lor the production of honey and beeswax as its climate, altitude* rainfall and natural plant habitats make an excellent home for bees. An estimated figure indicates that over 4.2 million traditional .hives, with aore than 60% occupied by bees, exist in Ethiopia. Moreover, it appears that among African countries, Ethiopia has the largest bee population, estimated at more than 5 million colonies.

The annual honey and beeswax production was estimated at 3300 and 3500 tonnes respectively. This makes Ethiopia 1 of the 8 highest-producing countries of the world. More than 90% of the honey produced is utilized within the country, and over 500 tonnes of beeswax has been exported to 7 large world markets over recent years. The total national income troro honey and beeswax is estimated at birr 120-150 million per annum, of which earnings from the export of processed beeswax account for about birr 5 million in foreign currency.

DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF BEEKEEPIHG

The Minstry of Agriculture (MOA) for the last 12 years has tried to distribute hiVes and equipment in all regions ot the country and, as the result, 293 producers’ co-operatives have established their apiaries and about 6270 Improved hives are in use by peasant farmers.

There are 6 demonstration and beekeeping training centres under1 the MOA which provide extension and training services. Other organizations such as the Ministry of State Farms Development CMSFD) and the Reliet and Rehabilitation Commission CRRC> also have a share in expanding beekeeping activities in various parts of the country.

11 Ministry ot Agriculture <.WUA>P.O. Box 62347. Addis Abeba

Apiculture iii Ethiopia 1.03

Many j o i n t - v e n t u r e p r o j e c t s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l a r e u n d er way t o b r i n g a b o u t a r a p i d c h a n g e in a p i c u l t u r e . Among th e c o n s t r a i n t s t o t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o l th e d e s i r e d c h a n g e s in t h e c o u n t r y a r e :

1. in a d e q u a t e a t t e n t i o n by d e v e lo p m e n t a g e n c i e s andl a c k o l a p p r o p r i a t e f i n a n c e ,

2. l a c k o t s k i l l e d m anpow er,3 . l a c k o t a p p r o p r i a t e h i v e s an d e q u ip m e n t ,4 . p o i s o n i n g o f b e e s , and5 . l a c k o i r e s e a r c h p r o i e c t s .

RESEARCH OK APICULTURE

T r o p i c a l A f r i c a n h on ey b e e s h a v e been th e s u b j e c t o i much l e s s s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y th a n h a v e E uropean o r A s ia n b e e s , th o u g h much r e s e a r c h h a s been d o n e in E g y p t , K enya, Tanzania and A l g e r i a , m a in ly on n a t i v e b e e s and p o l l i n a t i o n .

An a t t e m p t i s b e in g made a t t h e H o l e t t a b e e k e e p in g c e n t r e t o d e t e r m i n e th e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o i h o n e y u s in g a r e f r a c t o m e t e r , and t o i d e n t i f y h on ey p l a n t s o f H o l e t t a u s in g th e r e v i s e d m eth od o l m e l i s s o p a l y n o l o g y . M o r e o v e r , o v e r 2 0 0 p l a n t s p e c i e s h a v e been c o l l e c t e d w h ic h w i l l h e l p p r e p a r e r e f e r e n c e s l i d e s t o s t u d y and i d e n t i t y th e p r e d o m in a n t an d d o m in a n t h o n e y p l a n t s .

CHE NEED FOR GLOBAL STRATEGY IN RESEARCH WORK

D i v e r s i t i e s in c l i m a t e , b e e s , h i v e s , b e e k e e p e r s , m anagem ent t e c h n i q u e s and v e g e t a t i o n make m o s t o f th e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n fr o m E urope and A s iai r r e l e v a n t t o b e e k e e p in g in E t h i o p i a .

The n eed i o r a g l o b a l s t r a t e g y a r i s e s f r o m t h e t a c t t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n andk n o w le d g e m ust be c o - o r d i n a t e d and made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e b e e k e e p e r s o f t h e w o r l d s o a s t o p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n e f i t t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g E t h i o p i a ,w h ere b o t h t h e d a n g e r and t h e p o t e n t i a l s a r e f a r l e s s r e c o g n i z e d . The needf o r r e s e a r c h w ork on a p i c u l t u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t h e r e in t h e c o u n t r ys i n c e t h e c a u s e s t h a t h a v e h in d e r e d i t s d e v e lo p m e n t a r e l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d .

A r e a s o f r e s e a r c h w ork w h ich r e q u i r e im m e d ia te a t t e n t i o n a r e :

1. s t u d y and im provem ent, o f w o r k in g e q u ip m e n t u s in g l o c a l l y - a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s ,

2 . d r a w in g b o t a n i c a l m aps s h o w i n g p o t e n t i a l a r e a s o f g o o d b e e k e e p in g ,3 . s t u d y an d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f b e h a v io u r o i b e e s ,4 . p r e p a r a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s t h a t o l i e r q u i c k

s o l u t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s .

Ill ANIMAL HEALTH

ISOLATION UP MYCU3ACTERIUK BOVIS FROM BOVINE MILK AND I ISSUE: IMPLICATIONS bOK PUBLIC HEALTH AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION

K en ie G eta n eh and E sh etu Lemma4

ABSTRACT

From 100 milk sam ples c o l le c te d from tu b ercu lin -p o s itiv e cows, 5 m ycobacterial is o la te s were recovered . Oi these, i' s tr a in s were s p e c i f i c a l ly id en tified as Ky.tQ.Q.QQigrMini &QYJ& and the other 3 were found to be pigmented fa s t-g row in g m ycobacterial sp e c ie s belonging to Runyon Group TV. Among th e tis su e samples cultured from 40 tu b ercu lin -p o s itiv e slaughtered animals, 17 were p o s i t iv e fo r m ycobacteria and a ll the is o la te s were id en tified as Mycobacterium b o x is - ■

INTRODUCE ION

O ver 95% o f t u b e r c u l o s i s i s c a u s e d b y 2 s p e c i e s o t m y c o b a c t e r i a ( S t a n f o r d 1 9 8 1 ) , C l i n i c a l l y t h e m o s t important s p e c ie s a r e tyJ^CCUJLosls.(human t y p e ) and H,y2flbsc.fceriiim b Q y is ( b o v i n e t y p e ) . I n i e c t i o n b y KL t u b e r c u l o s i s i s f r o m man t o man w h i l e i n f e c t i o n by bQVi.s. i s u s u a l l y f r o m c a t t l e t o man. The co m m o n e s t m ode o f i n f e c t i o n by b o v i n e - t y p e t u b e r c u l o s i s i s e n c o u n t e r e d when raw m i lk o f a t u b e r c u l o u s cow i s co n su m e d . I t h as been s a i d t h a t VbDyjLn.^..JL£..^au©ls_-CMid_XB, > and c a s e s o i bon e an d j o i n t t u b e r c u l o s i s a s w e l l a s I n f e c t i o n o i th e c e r v i c a l a n d / o r m e s e n t e r i c lym ph g l a n d s a r e o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t u b e r c l e b a c i l l i o f b o v i n e o r i g i n .

In E t h i o p i a , t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f Hjl b o v i s a s c o n f i r m e d by b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s h a s n o t b een r e p o r t e d , n e i t h e r in t h e h o s t a n im a l n o r in th e human p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s s t u d y rep orts th e p r e s e n c e o f b o v i n e t u b e r c l e b a c i l l i in m i lk and t i s s u e s o f t u b e r c u l i n - p o s i t i v e c o w s .

M ATERIALS AND METHODS

C a t t l e J J sssLJton. . Study.

T h i s s t u d y w as c o n d u c t e d on h e r d s f r o m i n t e n s i v e l y - m a n a g e d and e n c l o s e d d a i r y f a r m s in a n d a ro u n d A d d is Abeba.

Milk ..CultureOne h u n d red m i lk s a m p l e s o f 5 0 ml e a ch w ere c o l l e c t e d from d i f f e r e n t c o w s w h ich w e re s u s p e c t e d t o be p o s i t i v e f o r t u b e r c u l o s i s bv t h e s i n g l e c o m p a r a t i v e i n t r a d e r m a l t u b e r c u l i n t e s t . The m i lk s a m p l e s w ere t r a n s p o r t e d f r e s h t o t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e o i H e a lth a n d o e n t r i i u p e d , and 5 ml o f e a c h s e d i m e n t w as t r e a t e d w i t h an e q u a l v o lu m e o f 4% NAOH. The d e c o n t a m i n a t e d s p e c im e n w as th e n a g a in c e n t r i f u g e d an d t h e s e d im e n t n e u t r a l i s e d an d i n o c u l a t e d i n t o a p p r o p r i a t e m ed ia . The c u l t u r i n g w as d o n e by t h e s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e o f H ea lth a s d e s c r i b e d b e lo w .

107

41 Veterinary Laboratory and Epidemiological Unit, MQA P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

IDS Kenie Getaneh and Eshetu Lemma

Forty tuberculin-positive animals were slaughtered and infected lymph nodes and other tissues' were brought- to the laboratory under sterile and cold conditions. In the laboratory, the tissues were macerated and homogenized in sterile distilled water. The ' specimens were then decontaminated, centrifuged, neutralized and inoculated on appropriate culture media.

Media Used

Two Lowenstein-Jensen media with glycerol were used and another 2 media oi the same type but containing 0,5% sodium pyruvate instead of glycerol to enhance the isolation of 1L boitis (.Jenkins et al. 1982).

lacufratlBQ.All the Inoculated culture media were incubated at 37,;,C, and examined for growth of mycobacterial colonies every week for a period of 12 weeks.

Identification Scheme ior M. bovls

Slow-growing dysgonic mycobacterial colonies with no pigmentation were tested for the following selected in vitU3 tests. Colonies which were niacin-, nitrate-*, catalase-negative after 20 min. at ew^C, Tween-hydrolysis <5 days) negative and sensitive to tyophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide were taken to be 1L baitls- The tests explained above were carried out usiug methods and procedures explained in Vestal U978).

RESULTS AKD BISCUSSIOS

From 100 milk eamples collected from tuberculin-positive cows, 5 mycobacterial isolates were recovered. Out of these, 2 strains, were specliically identified as IL bflils. and the other 3 were found to be pigmented fast-growing mycobacterial species belonging to Runyon Group JV.

Among the tissues cultured irom 40 tuberculin-positive slaughtered animals, 17of the samples were found to be positive for mycobacteria and all the isolateswere identified as ft* bovls.,\

The demonstration of fcL. bavls in 2 milk samples out of 1.U0 is Importantbecause of the risk of widespread development ot tuberculosis in the human as well as in the bovine population unless necessary measures are taken to check the condition at this, early stage. It is considered that 1 cow can excrete asmany as 5 million tubercle bacilli per ml of milk (Kaplan, 1962) and it isbelieved that an individual cow could excrete enough viable tubercle bacilli tocontaminate the miik oi 100 cows during bulk handling and bulk transportation of milk (Kleeberg 1982).

The mycobacteria other than JL bQYis isolated from the milk ^nraples belonged to Runyon group,IV and were probably contaminants trom the environment. These vue considered be saprophytic, as are laoct. strains oi these pinups.

Kycobact&rimn bovix in Milk 109

Fran the tissue specimens, all strains isolated were R. bc!y_i£. lhis together with the railh result has tailed to detect any presence ot tuberculosis in cattle. The hunt an - type 6 i tuberculosis could be isolated from animals as the result of the h»ndlin£ of the animals by tuberculous persons or contamination of the milk and meat by* such. persons. £L. tuberculosis. was predominantly isolated frcm milk in a study in Nigeria Cldrisu and Schnurrenberger 1977).

It should be noted that, until now, r.u strain of Hi taxis has ever been isolated from clinical spacirsns received in this country.

This is trua both lor pulmonary tissue and for specimens in which ML. boviswas suspected, i.e. pus, urine, spinal fluids etc.' Lhe absence of bovinetuborculDsis f:i man was also shewn in a study done in Kenya cSula 1960).That study showed that all 41 mycobacteria isolated from 57 cervical lymphglands were 11 tub£*:ciilc£is* Vo bovine or any other strain was isolated.

The absence of bovine TE in nan ' whila prevalent In animals in Ethiopia, acountry with widespread habitual cor sumption of raw milk and meat, looks paradoxical. One possible c::r!-?nation is that bovine IB is not important in the local animals kepi in ppan c>2n frc:"! v;hich the greater part of the milk and meat for the consumer is G':.t.'ini:l, A recent survey of tuberculin test results showed u higher ;*rc:ldaucc ot tu jorculin-pusitive animals in theonclcced dairy herds ti:an a.crng tl\cce left on the ranch (personalcommunication). Incidence of t-Jbcrculc ic? am or 2 animals in dairy farms has increased froia an avara^e r: 0/3‘A tub-sreu 11 n-positive 12 years a^o (Royal Vet. Coll. 1971) to .-,'47* at present.

• Based on this study it is scund to su^gsst that the upward tendency in dairydevelopment in Ethiopia at present should fca accompanied by efficient control measures for tuberculosis in th:» anim Is.

XJi ETlILM Ci.C

1. Idrisu, A. and P. Schnurronbergor* 1977. Public health significance ofBovine Lubercuiosi;; in four northern states of Ki^eria:A m ycc b a a t e r i c l c - ^ i c s t u d y T i g e r . Hed. J . , 7 :304 -3117 .

2. • Jenkinr., I .A., S.K Patty’' and F. Fort-roles, Diagnostic bacteriology.In: Biology c f /cobacteria (lids. C. Ratledge and J. Stanford)Acac.?rjic Freas, London, UK. p. 441-470.

3. Kaplan, U.U., !'.0. Abduscalan ana Bijlen^a, 1962. Diseases transmittedtl.i'OL h milk. In: IIIlk Kyftlen**. World Health Organization,Gon.iva, p. 11-67.

4. Kl&cb^rj, ’I.ji., J9b2. Bavin?, tubcrculcsis in relation to pubHc health. Tubjrcul^is Pas. Inct.. Institute fcr Pathology, oouth Pansberg private ba , X 3£5, Pretoria 001, South Africa, p. 7-b.

> Fro^ ii.tcrnation £&Uitr€.d at the :,ation<;l tl-r 'arch Institute ui Health, Mjcobactcriu::. Labor at'-.'y .y.-rtic::.

110 Kenie Getaneh and. Eshetu Lemma

5. Royal Veterinary College and Ethiopian research team, 1971. Veterinary.survey of cattle in the Addis Abeba dairy project. Vol. II. p. iOa-131,

6. Stantord, J.L. 1961. Mycobacteria: An Overview. In: Immunolagical aspectsal leprosy, tuberculosis and leishmaniasis t£d. D.i\ Humbert Amsterdam, Oxford Princeton, p. 39-45.

7. Sula, L., H. Stott, M. Kubln, and J. Kiaer, I960.' A study of mycobacteriaisolated from cervical lymph glands ot Alrican patients in Kenya. Bull. VHO, 1*3:613-834.

a. Vestal, A.L, 1978. Procedures lor the Isolation and Identification ofmycobacteria. HEKL Fubileation No. iCDC) 78-6230. p. 65-90.

CATTLE TICK RESISTANCE AGAINST ACARICIDES AT BAKO

Teshoroe Yehualashet* and Fesaha G e b re A b**

ABSTRACT

Is t h i s w o rk an a t te m p t h a s been made to s tu d y a pancroma o f t i c k s p e c ie s an d t i c k r e s is t a n c e t o a c a r ic id e s , w h ich v>as pinpointed a s a m a jo r p ro b le m a t th e I n s t i t u t e o f A g r ic u l t u r a l Research at B ako, In the t i c k fa u n a s tu d y th e fo l lo w in g w ere fo u n d to be p re d o m in a n t:MGophilug dtiGQlQOitLig, Shipii2sph&lu& sll szsctsl, AM&lmstm x&rizgA&mand Am blyossma cQfcaer e n s . FAO a c a r ic id e - r e s is t a n c e t e s t s re v e a le d a re m a rk a b le r e s is t a n c e o f B o o p h llu s d z c Q lo r& tu s a g a in s t to x a p h e n e and l in d a n e . I r r a t i o n a l use o f a c a r ic id e s and c o m p le te d epen d en ce on c h e m ic a ls w ere th e m ain re a s o n s f o r such an outcom e.

INTRODUCTION

It has been estimated that about 80% o f t h e present w o r l d c a t t l e population of 1 billion is exposed to th© risk c f i n f e s t a t i o n b y c a t t l e t i c k s (Shaw 1970). Cattle ticks are a serious threat t o t h e livestock i n d u s t r y ; t h e y d am age hides, reduce viability, longevity and productivity o f c a t t l e b o t h directly by their haematophagous activity, and indirectly b y t r a n s m i t t i n g d i s e a s e .

In Ethiopia there is no factual evidence, in terms of m o n e ta r y l o s s , on result© of tick infestation, but it is rightly accepted that losses to the livestock industry are considerable. At a conservative estimate, birr I million is lost annually through rejection or down-grading o f hides and s k i n s (Radley 1979).

The generally accepted and effective way of c o n t r o l l i n g t i c k s is by using acaricides. However, this is meeting a great . c h a l l e n g e b e c a u s e ticks c a n build up resistance to acaricides within a relatively s h o r t t i m e . Resistance of ticks is known to occur in a l m o s t a l l areas w h ere c a t t l e h a v e been t r e a t e d with acaricides to control tick i n f e s t a t i o n (W harton 1 9 7 5 ; Drummond 1977; Baker 1977; Nolan and Roulstan 1979).

MATERIALS AND KETHODS

This study was conducted at Bako, 2 5 5 km w e s t of A d d i s A beba in V e le g a Administrative Region. It lies at 9 ° 9 ' N latitude a n d 3 7 ° 5 ' E longitude.The altitude is 1650 metres above sea level. The t e m p e r a t u r e ranges f r o m 13.5°C to 27.9°C with an average relative humidity of 03 .1% .

The l a r v a l packet test which was used in this t r i a l w as d e s c r i b e d b y Stone and Haydock (1962), and later adopted b y FAO (Anon. 1971). I t w a s u s e d o v e r many years b y the Australian CSIRO with B o p p h i l u s yjAsroglus..

Ill

* Institute of Agricultural Research, P.O. Box 2003, A d d i s Abeba** Faculty of Veterinary M e d ic in e , A d d i s A b eb a U n i v e r s i t y

P.O. Box 34, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

112 Teshoae Yehualashet and Feseha Gebre Ab

The engorged female ticks were brought to Shola Disease Investigation Laboratory and Incubated at 27°C and 85%-90% relative humidity for oviposition. The eggs were separated from the spent female by gentle brushing.Finally 7- to 21-days-old larvae were challenged using the acaricide- iapregnated papers. If the larval nortality in the group ranged from 5% to 10%, Abbott's formula was used.Table 1. Acaricides and concentrations used

Acaricide Concentrations (% w/v)

Dieldrin 0.1, 0,2, 0,4, 0.8, 1.6Coumaphcs 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 1.6Dioxathion 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2

AsariTick species involved in the trial were:

BQQphllufl dscploratus Ehipissphalys. a* exscfcsl Anblymsaa yarieg^tus

EESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe laboratory test of larval susceptibility was done twice; in December 1984 and January 1985. In both cases EL decaloratua was found to be resistant to toxaphene and lindane. During the first test, larval, mortality of JL decoloratus was 6% and 54% in 0.1% and 1.6% concentration oi the cheaical® respectively. In the second trial, the mortality rate was 10% and 33% at 0.1% and 1.6% concentrations respectively. The observation also indicates an increase in resistance,The other najor tick species found in the survey QL eu everts!f A* vftrlegatua and A* cohaarsna) were relatively susceptible to all the chemicals. The ease tick species are found in the region as at the research centre. There eeess to be a siailar level of resistance in JL decoloratus in the surrounding area.In Ethiopia there is no practical alternative to a policy of 'living with' ticks and tick-borne diseases! elimination of ticks is inposaible once they becose resistant to the available acaricides and a satisfactory kill of the parasitic stages on treated animals can no longer be obtained. When a control failure is reported, the first reaction must be to check whether the acaricide was applied properly and at a correct concentration.

Acaricide Resistance of Cattle Ticks 113

Resiatance-testlng worte at Shola Disease Investigation Laboratory show® that organochlorine~resistance is sow a well-established fact at Bako, There is no possibility of returning to the use of the original acaricides at a later stage. Unless integrated tick control techniques can be introduces?. e resistance to other acaricides will soon develop.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. Kinfe Getansh, Dr. George A, Boiakchian and technical staff of Shola Disease Investigation Laboratory for valuable technical support in various aspect© of the experiments.

I a a indebted to Dr. K.W. Sutherst, CSIHO (Australia) Division of Entomology, for his excellent contribution of relevant publications.

REFEKBICES

1. Anon. 19?1. RscoR&ended method® for the detection and iaeasuresent ofresistance of agricultural pesste to pesticid&s. Tentative sethod for larvae of c&ttl© tick ©pp. FAC) mathcd lo. 7. FAO PlantProtection Bulletin 19 p< 15.

2. Baker, J.A.F,, G.E. Thompson and J.O. IIlee* 1977, Hesistanc^ to toxaphene bythe Bont tick Aablyosisa hefcraeu® (Kucfe).J. South Afr. V®t. Had. Ass. 48,

3. Drmamond, 8.0. 1977. Resistance in ticfce and insects of veterinaryimportance. In: Pesticide management and insecticide resistance.Academic press, London, lew York, Saa Francisco, p,303-319.

4. Kolan, J. and ¥.J. Roulston, 1979. Acaricide resistance as & factor inthe ss&nagement of acari of a«dical end veterinary importance.In: Recent advances in Acarology Vol. 2. Acadeaic Presst £ew p. 3-13.

5. Hadley, D.E. 1979. Development of veterinary field and laboratory service.Heport of consultancy, FAO, Soiae.

6. Shaw, H.D., J.A. Thorburn and K.G. Wallace, 1970. Cattle tick control.St. Martins Press, London, p. 65.

7. Stone, B.F. and R.F. Eaydock, 1962. A method for measuring the acaricidesusceptibility of the cattle tick Boophilus niercplus.Bulletin of Entomological Bes starch, 53 £>63-578.

8. Wharton, R.H. 1976. Tick-borne livestock diseasesand their vectors,resistance and alternative siethcds of tick control.World Aniiaal Heview, FAO, 5o< 20 p. 5-15.

AVIAB PATHOLOGY 0* IHDUSTRIAL POULTRY PARKS IS ETHIOPIA114

Jacques AInaargot*ABSTRACT

Only 1 per cent o f the 55,5 million chickens in Ethiopia are raised under industrial management, yet these are the chickens thatrepresent the future o f poultry breeding in the country. Theexamination of 193 sick birds in 1983~84 and 213 in 1985-86 showedparasitic, bacterial, viral, nutritional and other diseases. The most important diseases were coccidiosis, the incidence of which is declining because o f cheso-prophylaxis; chronic respiratory disease, still causing heavy Josses; JNewcastle disease, now under controlt JTareJt's * disease; calcium and vitamin E deficiencies; andsurprisingly, water deficiency and starvation, A control programme is proposed for each o f these main problems.

I5TR0DUCTI0EFAO estimates in 1985 indicated that there were 55.5 million chickens in Ethiopia, an average of 5 birds per 4 inhabitants. They represent a considerable wealth of the nation. One per cent are found in large modern farms under industrial management; the other 99 % of the flock are raised under traditional or 'back yard* conditions that are difficult to monitor.One of the main factors that impairs poultry production is pathology. The current mortality from egg to adult because of disease can be estimated at between 20% and 50%. During some spectacular epidemics, mortalities as high as 80% have been recorded. To this burden must be added the loss of production of the sick birds that survive.Despite its importance, the pathology of poultry is not known in Ethiopia. This Is due to the lack of interest by back yard owners of chickens since the birds cost nothing and losses are considered as normal. It is also due to the lack of veterinarians in Ethiopia (only 70, according to FAO 1985) and a scarcity of specialists in poultry diseases. Therefore, locally adapted measures cannot yet be undertaken to efficiently control diseases.The aim of this research was to identify the existing diseases and to determine the prevalence of each of them in order tD establish a) a University* course in avian pathology fully adapted to the current Ethiopian conditions, and b> a sound control programme with recognized priorities,The pathology in industrial poultry farms has been selected because the main farms of Ethiopia are located in the vicinity of the Faculty of Veterinary Kedicine. They are managed by co-operative administrative and technical staff, and above all, they have the promise of large development programmes.

* Faculty of Veterinary Kedicine, Addis Abeba University P.O. Box 34, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Avian Pathology 115

EATB5IALS AHD KETHODSSelected sick birds, taken from the state faros of Dembi or Lealem (Debre Zeit), Shola (AddiB Abeba) or the university farm of Eabogaya (Debre Zeit), were examined following classical and comprehensive ante-mortem and post­mortem techniques. They numbered 198 in 1983-84 and 213 in 1985-66.Diagnosis was dons after considering the usual epidemiological, clinical, and necropsy observations, to which were often added histological, bacteriological and immunological tests.Evaluation of the incidence and in pact of each disease was based on morbidity, daily mortality, end egg production rates which were routinely registered in the farms concerned.

RESULTS AED DISCUSSIOHDiseases wore classified according to their aetiology. The incidence was noted in percentage of birds affected during the course of the disease in a house or a whole fans. They are schematically grouped into 2 classes j 1) diseases usually inducing loses of production and mortality (their names are underlined), and 2) disease© usually inducing loss of production but little mortality (their names are not underlined). Details are given in Tables 1 and 2,Parasitic,. bacterial and viral diseases

The main parasitic disease wa3 coccidiosis: caeca1 coccidicsis where Bimerielenelln and intestinal ccccidiosis where Eigeriq. necatrix have been identified. Probably other parasitic Eimeria species also exist. In 1983-84 coccidiiniis was the most important disease economically on the farms. The incidence was lower in 1985-56 thanks to the Improvement of sanitation and preventive administration of coecidioetat drugs. Complete control is possible and would b© of high value. It Bust include a systematic incorporation of coccidiostats in the feed and not sporadic administration in water as at present ; the improvement of management, especially the reduction of water leakage from roofs and vraterers; and limitation of the concentration of birds.Tha main bacterial disease was chronic respiratory disease (CRD). The economic Ices due to this disease is considerable, but no noticeable" improvement was observed between the years 1983 and 1986. The aetiology of this disease is complex: stress factor + Eycopla«?ran galllgapticim infection + SscfcerlcM^ cali* Infection can be controlled by 1 > eliminating the parents positive to Eycaplssaia serological tests, since the disease is egg-transmitted;2) reinforcing the disinfection of all eggs, breeding equipment and houses;3) reinforcing the isolation of the flocks from the environment; 4) reducing stress factors such as food inadequacy in quality and quantity, duet, overcrowding, and mining birds of different ages.

116 Jacques Alanargot

Table 1. Incidence of parasitic, bacterial and viral diseases

Disease 1Q53 - 1934_XfiarR...

1285 - 1986J 2 1 ___________________ i Z l

Parasitic

Ascaridiesis less than ,01 n. c«£Q££iiUSSi& 10 - 60 0 1 ro o

Bacterial

Chronic RespiratoryDisease (CKD) 10 - SO 10 - SO

SalEanallC&ifl. 0 - 05 0 - 20Easisi^Ussis. 0 - 01 0 - 0 1Infectious coryza n< c 0 - 50

Viral

ggycastl* disease 0 - 80 n.cFowl pox 0 - 20 0 - 100Earefc* s disseise 0 - 30 0 - 3 0iWioiiafiucflaia 0 - 01 0 - Cl

* n.c. - n o case

SalisanellosiB jsust always be controlled by tts elimination of sere leg icslly positive birds, Pasteursllosis bad low incidence, but since it can develop in outbrea&s it reust be controlled by not rising birds of different age groups or introducing birds bred on other farrcs,

The nain viral disease, JUewcastle disease, is now under control, The severe losses of the 1QS3 outbreak have been stopped thanfes to strict isolation and a vaccination progrsrase. In order to avoid such catastrophic outbreaks the vaccinatiOD program# should be followed strictly, even if the- danger of outbreak is remote. The H itchier vaccine, produced in Ethiopia, ie beingused and seesas to be effective.

Fowlpc^ can and sust be controlled by vaccinating all pullets. A regular vaccination programme is difficult to follow because ef the irregularity of the supply of vaccine, which is net produced locally.

Karek's disease has a reduced incidence but sust be controlled by at least £ systematic vaccination of day-old chicKe since the disease reduces the defense ability of the animals and therefore favours the spread of other diseases suck as coccidiosie and CKD. The vaccine is not produced in Ethiopia.

Avian Pathology 117

Table 2. Incidence cf nutritlocal and Eiecellttneous diseasesYeare

Diseases 1953 - 1954 1965 - 1956

KutritionalCalciua deficiency 10 - 50 10 50Vitaj&in D 0 - 05 0 - 05Vitamin A n, c * 0 - 05Vltasin E n. c * 0 - 05Vat <sr 10 - 40 0 - 40Ferosie 0 - 10 0 - 10Starvation 0 - 100 0 - 100

KiBcellaneousCannibalise 10 - 20 10 - 20Chilling 0 - 05 0 - 05Hftesorrbagic syndroms n. c, 0 - 50Others Cegg retention.

fracture, etc.) 03 - 10 0 — 10$ n.c =» no csss

It is earpriBirjg tc hsve such a h*£h incidence cf calciurj deficiency since thia elesest is present in limestone available in large quantity in Ethiopia. A Rodifi«d fe^d fomuls isust bs given to birds according to their age and production, Vitftain E deficiency appeared in 1965-66, due to aa excess ofrancid noug cake, Eaacid fate destroy the vitamin 2 of the ration, eo proper stor&ga of feed and euppleseataticTi with vitaain E ®ugt b® used to avoid severe outbreaks.

Vat«r deficiency and chilling are easy to control, yet induce high losses. The' control of caterers, pipes, water tan&s and other appliances suet bs given mcr-z fttt«ssticn,

Starvation \*&s due to'lack cf delivery of fe$d according to need. Thus better arrangements raust be mad© with fssd plants for regular delivery of feed, in order tc avoid this costly failure,

Iscidsacs of cannibalies was high. It aust be reduced by the classical secures,

Kaesjorrfcagic syndroa-a is nav?Iy Identified and will be difficult to control until the precise aetiology is determined. Research must be carried out to tac&ls this prowlers.

STUDIES 05 THE EFPECTS OF VACCIKATIOJ? AJfD A5THHLKI3TIC TREATHEHT OF 071*2 LUIGVOHH DipTYQCAtJLPS E I U E U

IEPECTIOIS IB SHE5?Getachew Tilahun*, Abebe, J. Corba and R. Lalic

ABSTRACT

The effects w&re examined o f vaccination with irradiated infective stages o f JMotjrasaulus 3HXz£JL& and anth sijsin tic treatises t on ovfn« cfict/ocauiiaijfs, Gae group o f 20 lanbs v ss vzcclnzted with 2 do&e& o f irradiated Isrvse o f XL XtZatiS at 1 5 -day intervale; a second group vfis sizsiJ&rly vsccix-ated and treated with 2 doses o f Fanstcur orally 10 days after vaccination; a third group received only anthelsintic treatment* and a fourth group served <r>s the im treated and unvaccinated control. Kartsd protection was observed, evid-jzezd in the fir s t and second ezperijsestal groups by significant reduction in faecal egg counts, in kcsts burdens in th? lungs and in clinical signs. The average neight gains relative to the control group v-sre 1 .4 6 &g in the fir s t group, in the second and 2 .1 2 kg in thet h i r d g ro u p .

IKTE0DUCTIC3Ovina lungworn Infections of Dictyocaulua fjlaria constitute ft significant veterinary problem in the highland areas of Hthiopia, and the epidemiology and prevalence of the parasite in eos® areas of the country br*ve been described <Be&ele et al» 1981; Benti 1979). Although effectivs drugs are now available, control o i dictyocculiaeis by chenather&py has? 2 major disadvantages: it d.o«s net bring about early clinical improvement fead, sine® ths parasites mature in about 2 7 days, it nirnt be repeated at freqesnt intervale (Orqukart 13(54). la view of theB« consideratione an attempt was Bade to assess the potential cf an lnaunelogical approach to the control of tha diesatse through the use of a vaccin* consisting of irradiated larvae.

KATES IALS A0D KBTHOBS

ExpgriBgntal AnliwlaA total of 80 male and fenale local Ethiopian highland/Hampshire crossbred lanbs of about 3 souths of age were used for this study.

Xacdaa

First-stag® U*. filaria larvae were obtalt&d fros fsecal eesples taken directly fron the rectua of laboratory-inf e-cted sheep using the IS'SP technique (Jovanovic 1973).

118

* Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Abeba iJaivsrsity CAAU) P.O. Box 117G, Addis Abeba

Treatment of Lungworia in Sheep 119

AatfcsIisinjtJtc.Fanacur" fcoli for oral administration containing 250 mg fenbend&zole per bolus were used.1Szperjgental DaslgnThe lamba were divided into 4 groups each consisting of 20 animals. Those in Group I were esch dosed orally with 1000 irradiated larvae, followed, 15 days later, by a second dose consisting of 2000 irradiated larvae. Animals in GroupII received the ease schedule of vaccinations as the first group end also 2 doses of Fanacur 7.5 ag/£g per lamb at 10-day intervals after vaccination. The third group received only anthelnintic treatnent in the saise doses ns in the second, while Group IV forced an untreated and unvaccinatsd control, All lambq, were put to graze on infected pasture.

Body, YedghlThe animals were weighed every 2 weeks and the body weight and body weight gains were recorded.

RESULTS

Cllsfefll glgmClinical signs highly suggestive of dictyocauliasis were observed in individuals within all 4 group?? of experimental animals, with the highest prevalence in Group IV and least in the vaccinated groups I and II .Saall numbers of IL t%XzzA& larvae vere excreted by Groups I and II 1 aonth after vaccination, whereas a strong build up of infection was observed in Grcup IT/, reaching peafc at the ead of the long r a i n y season.

Adult JLuag&sniis.Kore adult EL filaria worrss were recovered frost the lungs of lambe in GroupsIII and IV than from laabs in Groups I and II.

The necropsy results indicated the presence of Faeracmchus contartus.Xrlciigatr.cngylus. coiiihxilpxziJ-s.. IrlcJhuria oiis., cclmaMasus.,and spp. In 5 of the necropsied animals, cysts of Gy£t£i£3£CiJ3.tenuj,cQl^ were found in the esrosae of the abdominal cavity, with nin^r liver damage.

1 PanacurR is a trade n&rea used by Moechst, V. Germany

120 Getachew Tilahun et al.

KgrtaUtfrOther than 20 lambs killed for necropsy examination for lusgwcrms and fcr gastrointestinal and liver parasites,'4 lambs died, 2 from Croup H end 2 frers Group III; 2 of these animals were necropsied. In the 2 lambs not necropsied there were clinical signs highly suggestive of CogRurv-g cerel-rails.

BfldS-EfliShtS.Body weights and body weight gains showed that the average weight gains relative to the control group were 1.46 £g in Group I, 4.14 Kg in Group II and 2«12 in Group III.

DISCUSS 103

The results obtained in this experiment and assessed by tfcs total nuaber of lungweras recovered, body weight gains, gross pathological lesions and nuaber of larvae per gran of faeces showed significant protection in vaccinated lambs compared with unvaccin&ted lambs in field conditions. The levels Gf protection obtained in the local Ethiopian highland/Hampshire crossbred vaccinated lambs were 74% and 79% for Groups I and II respectively.The combination cf vaccination and anthelmintic treatment (Group ID, whilst influencing the protection affordsd fcy irradiated ^ iilscia* significantly iaproved the body weight gains, no doubt due to tfce elimination of gastrointestinal nesatodas. In Group III, which was treated with anthelmintic only, the weight gain was also significantly higher than that of the control group where necropsy findings indicated an average burden cf 612 per lamb. A nuaber of authors have sho^n the efficacy cf fenbendazole and slim in at ion of gastrointestinal nesatcdoq in lanbs has been shown to cause an increase in body weight and wool growth <Dakak et al. 1979; Duwel 1980; Getaneh 1Q8C). An interesting obsarvatiou in this experiment vras that faecal larval counts of XL fllaria in all 4 groups reached a peak during tha rainy season <Jun e-September) and droppsd significantly during the dry seasons cf the year. It seems that a large nuaber of she-ep are able to reduce theirparasite burden during the dry Boason.The considerable incidence of cerebral coenuriasis end Cysticerc_us tenuicslig- is because of the presence of doge fcspt or. the farm. These dogs never had anthelmintic treatment and were often fed Gffal, including dead sheep, thus maintaining Ccsnyrua. carahrsJla-Ina^ln. sauitlsrga and CysSigercuB tsauifiolia- Taenia hydati^ena cycles.

ACE5QVLEDGKEKTSI appreciate the ■ enthusiastic help of the Animal Breeding and Improvement Section of the Kinietry of Agriculture and thani the district administrative officials fcr their overall collaboration assistance in providing the far* facilities by which this experiment v?as performed. The financial and material support of Eoechst Ethiopia Ltd. is gratefully acknowledged.

Treatment cf Lungwons in Sheep 121

FBFERBITCES

1. Beicale, K., Feeseha G.Ab, Shibru, T. 1981. Observations on Dictyocgiulusfilarla (Budolph, 1509) in'sheep of Vollo and Aral Administrative Ecgions of Ethiopia. Bth. J. Agri. Sci. 3<2):75-Q0.

2. Bsnti, B. 1979. Survey of facciola end lungwors in sheep in Arsi.Thesis, Addis Abeba University.

3.. Dafeai, A., J. Cabaret, H. Quhelli, 1979. Coaparative efficacy cffenbendazole and tetraaizole against sheep helminths in Morocco.I Protostrongyles and H,. filar ia. Ksd. Vet^rinaire 155<Q):7G3-711.

4. Duwel, D. 1960. Panacur*; Summary and evaluation cf theworldwide published investigations.Information brochure of Hoechst Aktiengesellschai't.

5. Getaneh, K. 1980. Fenbendazole*; Anthelainthic efficacy innaturally-infected local sheep with gastrointestinal neisatodee and lungworn. Eth. Vet. Eull. 4:44-45.

6. Jovanovic, K. 1973. A einple Eethod (I2TBP laethod) for finding IL fiiz».rialarvae (unpublished data).

7. Urquhart, O.K. 1964. Develop3ent of Irradiated vaccines against helnintMcdiseases. Technical Reports Series, Ko. 30» IAEA, Vienna.

122SCHISTOSQHIASIS 15 DOMESTIC RUHIHAKTS IS BAH IF PAR

Kaile Solomon*ABSTRACT

A survey on schistosomiasis in domestic ruminants was made in the town cf Bahir Par and its surrounding3 to neasure the prevalence and SCJ3& clinical signs indicative of the disease and to identify tJte snail intermediate hosts. Clinics2 studies were dene on cattle presented to the clinic and haassiDlogicai. valves were measured, Faecal samples fros randomly-chosen animals w&re collected and processed by the sedimentation technique. ■ Snails were collected fron cattle watering areas, checked for the presence of cercariae and identified, The collected cercariae were given to &icz percutaneov&ly, A &&an prevalmc® rate of 34% in cattle and 15% in small rvminants m.s observed with higher prevalence in calves le than 2 years of age. The important clinical signs deduced were presence of haeisorrhagic diarrhoea, bleed and isucus in faecesf emaciation, inappetencs, anaemia and loss in j$SI£ production. Birtlnus. nXrlcmua and BxXXaaa tmsaius were identified and were found to harbour the cercarixe of FchistoBonA Jteis. Both snail species were found to be intermediate hosts of the dismse in both Lake Tana and the A bay Fiver.

BTTEOBUCTIOK

Schistosomiasis Is a chronic debilitating disease cf both animals and man which causes decreased production, decreased working ability, and death.This diBss.8B is caused by a trematada warm cf the genus ScMatcsQg*^ which resides in the assenteric and portal veins causing various pathologies, a a inly an acuta intestinal syndrome and a chronic hepatic syndrome,Until recently schistosomiasis in domestic animals was considered a sinor disease. But in ths last decades it has been found to be endemic in various countries including north-eastern, central and southern Africa, following great rivers and lakes.In Ethiopia, bovine schistosomiasis has been recorded from 7 provinces (I<a and Lemma 1973). Despite euch an encouraging start no further studies have been done on the subject. This present study was done in ths vicinity of Bahir Dar town with major objectives to;

- measure the prevalence,- identify the snail intermediate hosts,- identify eoma indicative- clinical eigne and identify which waters were responsible for harbouring the hosts,

* Faculty of Veterinary Kedicins, Addis Abebs University (AAU) P.O. Box 34, Debra Zeit

Schistosomiasis in Eoaestic Kura inants 123

-KATERIALS AFD KBTIIQD3Clinical atudias and haejnatological examinations were dons on cattle presentedto the Sahlr Dsr Veterinary Clinic, Faecal saisplee were collected in the chosengrazing areas froffi cattle, sheep and goats, A total of 432 cattle, 270 goats and 106 sheep were examined. Strictly livestock watering areas were chosen in Lais Tana and Abay Elver, and snails collected by hand-*picking were identified by chromosome count in the Institute of Fathobiology and screened for infection rates. • Hice were Infected with cercarise collected fros the snails and examined after about 50 days for infection, to supplement the snail survey. Kethods for cercarioscopy and experimental infection were adapted fro® Yabbe and Ja3ss (19715,

RESULTSThe following clinical signs were observed:

- severe ejaaciatioa, dehydration and reduced appetite in all aniis&ls,- bloody diarrhoea in 20% >~ blood-nlxed faeces In 63%,- blood and jaucua In faeces in 65%,- aost animals were anaemic, with the following aean haeaatqloglcal

values: RBC 4,4 alll/ian3,PCV 21.5%,Hb 6.5 g/dl,HCV 51.6 fl,KCHC 25.6 g/dl, and KCB 14.6 pg.

The mean prevalence for the whole area was 34% in cattle and 15% in sheep and goata. Eerds watering in Lake Tana had higher rates (cattle 50%, sheep 20% and goats 30%) than in Abay Hlvsr (cattle 16%,, sheop 3% and goat© 4%).Prevalence was higher in cattle Isse than 2 years of age <49%) than in those older than 2 years (22%).Eulinua africsm^ and Eulinus truncates were Identified harbouring Schistosoma carca ri,&e. confirmed by the expe-rinestal infection of zaiee with these cercariae, Other snails identified fcr interest included Eipraphalaria pfeiff^ri and E&lfilBnsl3>E^linua species were Identified at all sites. A higher infection rate was observed in snails collected from Lake Tana, whose population and infection rate decreased markedly after the jsonth of February.

124 Haile Solcann

DISCUSSION

It io concluded frar* thi© study a M frara ih$ Eieilar finding© reported by Kajid at al. <1930> that the» disease, is important clinically in this area, causing bloody diarrhoea, asaenia, d'screae^d product icm* and e&acistion.The aga-dapsndent prevalence is e well-established finding as determined exp«rinentslly by BunJb.ara st al. (.1963/. beeatme cattle acquir© resistance with increase in ag&.Tha higher prevalence rats and higher infection rate of snails in Late Tana was attributed to tha prs?3Qnce of abundant stagnant water and hsrfeaga near the banks of ths lake. Kale& (19$9> is* Sudan observed that infactios rstssand trans«issicn of th© disaaee psafc d ^fter tto® raiey s33303 %?hsn snail habitat was undisturbed by heavy r$in aad when there wsst abundant stagnant water.The «pscic3 of ©nail r^possibla for tea tr&nsmtselcm of echistoecEslasia found to ba HuXirna afidsaaua toisca&ya. Frc?2 ths espsriuezitalinfection studies, both wsra fcu?,d to fsarpour o^rcarics of gchigtcpc^.a fesvia, and both vr«re identified is Lai:* Tana and tfca Abay Riv^r; h*aca both water® are believed to ba responsible for the transmission of livestockschistosoa issis.

BIBLIQGEAPaT1. Busbar a, R.QM H.F. Hussain, A. $irla&t A. A. Kajid, B.H. &usa# and

K,G .Taylor, 1983, G'^ssrvation os cattle schistcsosiasie in tha Sudan. Am. J. Trop. Hed. Hyg, 35:1065-1070,

2. Lo, C.T. and Lassa. A. 1973. A study on echistoaoaiiasis in Bthicpia.Ann. Trop. Had. Par, 69C3>;375~362.

3. Kalak, E.A. 19C9, A study cn bovine schietosQsiagia in the Sudan.Ann. Trop, Ksd. Far. S3:501“513.

4. Kajid, A,A. et al. 1980. Observation os cattle ecMetcsosiasis inthe Sudan. Asu J. Trop. Ksd. Eyg. 29 <3>i435~441.

5. Vebba, Q, and C. Jsses, 1971, Importation and saintsnancs of©chistosoisia^ls of husa& &&d veterinary iispcrtanca,Synpoeia cf the British Society for Parasitology, Vol. 9, p.77-107.

EFFECT OF S0BCLIBICAL PABASITISM GN It ILK YIELD OF CRQSSBEED (FRIES I AH X AES I) DAIRY CATTLE IN THE CO-OPERATIVE

DkTRY FAHSCS OF CHILALO AWRAJA

lillion Mulugeta, F&saha G©bre Abt Get&chev* Abebe*

ABSTRACT

The e f f e c t o f natural ga&trotn ie&tinal and r e sp ir a to ry tract h elm in th iasis on m ilk production has been studied an 42 2acta tin g cows. P&mizole Super &#s given to h a lf o f th e cows fo r 20 weeks a t in te rv a ls o f 30 days, Helminths id en tified by cop ro log ica l exs& instiozi ware, in ord er o f th e ir occurrence, S&ss&iHG&uSt

jassi, mzmpMstsmsL and Easajolo. species, We&s-tode, and. to some e x te n t fa s c i o l s 4 in fec tio n was under con tro l.The ovor&il resp on se o f trea ted cows in m ilk y ie ld wqs 0.60 kg p er cow p e r day o r 90 kg/cow in 5 months (F < 0.1), &t curren t p r ic e s an average n et return o f b ir r 26 per- cow could be obtained in 5 month® from F&mizole trm t& es t o f In sta tin g cost*.

IETBODUCTIOI

The complete picture of. livestock disease and the economic loss entailed in Chilsio Cl cf the 3 awrajas o i Aral) is lackiag; however, the threat cf diseases, particularly parasitic diseases, has bean reported-. Hailemariaa C1979) put the incidence cf liver fXu&a in Ar&i at close to 100% in large and siaall ruainants. The Arsi Rural Development Unit (AHDU) Animal Health and Breeding Department <1984) algo reported that 44% of 2330 faecal samples collected from cattle wera positive for I or sore type© of helminths. This problem should not be put aside, particularly in the co-operative dairy farsaa where cattl® with 50%, 75% and mors erotic blood are owned. Studies dealing specifically with the affect of subclinical parasitism on dairy cattle productivity in the northern United States reported an increase in silk production of about 300 kg after fenbendazole treatment (Hyers, 1979>, and a field trial demonstrated more than 200 kg/lactation increase in milk production after treating dairy cows which were passing fewer than 10 eggs per gram of faeces (cited by Soulsby 19§5>, A study was therefore conducted fro® 10 Becs&bsr 1984 to 5 &ay 1935, covering both the dry and the short rainy season© on the effect of subclinical parasitism.

MATERIALS AID METHODS

Four dairy fars&s were chosen as sites for the experiment viz., Tulukache, Lezu Chemsri, Aefcibeka and Etheya Sfca&i co-operative dairy farias, Animals used were 50% FriesianXArsi crossbreds which were in the declining stage cf lactation. Hone of the .farms had dewcraed their cattle for at least 3 months before the experiment began.

125

* Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Abeba University P.O. Bose 34, Debra Zeit

126 Million Hulugeta et al.

The laethod adopted was based on that cf Bliss <1982): a total of 42 lactating cows were selected and allocated to 2 groups (treated or control), some on each fara. Half were treated against helainth® with Paisizole Super boll at the recoainended dose rate. Treatment vas given just after the first faecal stapling and every 30 days thereafter. The daily nilk records for 4 weeks before and 20 wee&s after the start of the trial ware tafcen tD compare productivity of cows with respect to isilfc yield. Faecal samples, collected every 30 days, were given a routine caprological examination.

Tbs data were exanined by analysis of variance (Steal and Torrie, I960).

J?3S0LTS

The helwinth parasites identified, in order of their occurrence were E3&E£ffi£&UA5pp., cssi, epp. and E&ecisJa. epp, Ths averageegg count in all fares decreased, Direct Bisear examination, however, showed sense parasite eggs even in the treated group.

The railk yield in all tha faras decreased during the exp^riasnt&l period. The sean difference of silk yield before and after the experiissnt was 0-63 fcg/cow/day for the treated cowg and 1.23 bg/cow/day for tie controls, an overall response to treatment of 0.60 £g per cow per day.

Table 1. Daily railk yield of treated and control groups

FarrsEo. Group

’fiald/cnvf/djiY (litres)

before triaI sifter trial v/itfcln group between groups

1. Treated 4. 00 2.44 1.50 0.62Control 4. 02 1.90 2.12

2, Treated 2.00 1.89 0.11 0,88Control 2.86 1.67 0.99

3, Treated 2,69 2, 02 0.67 0,40Control 2.72 1.65 1.07

4, Treated 2. 76 2,50 0.24 0.49Control 2.82 2.09 0,73

SiibcXisicsl Parasitism and H11& Yield 127

Table 2. Pooled analysis oi variance of nilSs yields

Sourca ofFinal yield, adjusted for in it ia l yield

Variation ___ d,£. Susa o f srjfmres „. d. f . ____ F.......

Eat. treatissst® if&TvzZ) 3 1.2334 2 0.61S7 2.39

Vi thin treats®nt S3 7.6164 37 0.2058

Totnl 41 . ___ ..._________________ ’ • • .

P < 0.1 <d,f. £ and 37)

■ DISCUSSION

ffgg ong&us spp, ©nd Xj. !2S3i wsrs prominently found throughout the ©xperisent while g&rea^Metpauaa was salniy g cs during the dry season. Fascia la was rarely encountered in ©ojb« cf tfcs farns. This is related to the local anviromaant and dyaasics of parasite populations. The general decrease in egg oount doas not noces warily 'mm total ©lira ia&t ion of the parasites; however. it ahow& the @f£ect of the tre$tbant» It is known that feecal egg count has liaitad value is zreaeurifig parasite population in cattle, and the economic Isip^rt&nce of parasitise is not necessarily associated with the excretion ot a particular aumfe&r of wora eggs CFisfinbach, 1981).

Information concerning the oconosic impact o« parasitic challenge in milk cow© in Ethiopia is? lacking. Th«? prssaat w©r&, indicating a possible increase of abnut 20 fcg;/cow in 5 Eosthe, highlights the importance of the problem, The difference is milk yield that develops batween treated and control herds eppsar® to bo related to tho level of larval challenge and stage of lactation rather than to th-s nusbor cf established worms or the presence of clin ical dioe&ces (. Bliso 19 2)-. Thus the impact of larval challenge in the farms studied would have feess greater if the animal* had bean at an earlier stage of lactation, because tfe* output oi' energy tends to peak at about the 4th week of lactation.

At current prices an average net return of birr 26 per cow could be obtained evsr § souths fros Fsslzola treatment of lactating cows. The ovarall results of thie «tudy are in accord with tisoaa of Bliss (1982).

129 Killion Kulugsta ct si.

CQKCLUSIQEThe introduction of erotic dairy genes and distribution of croasbreds in Aral is premising, however* it should be clear that just tD have crossbred animals cannot be regarded as a panacea for all nilfc production probleas. The - improvement of all facets cif milfc production is necessary and can step up yield substantially. Subclinical parasitism is on© such facet; not to treat lactating cows for cubclinical parasitica is self-defeating. Furthermore, the results of ths present study show ths importance of developing a cost- effective parasite control programme. The fact that jailfc yield is variable and detection of small differences necessitate® the carrying out of • trials of this' type on tuabara of animals its. different geographical locations andmanagement condition is also emph&eiziwi by this work,

ACKE0VLEDG2HHSTSThanks are dua to Dr. Gsbre Ab and Dr. Cstachew Abebe for their adviceand critical review of tfco manuscript. Hy ttanfca are due also to the staff of Anfmal Health and Brc-cUrj Department of AEDV* especially to Dr. Tafeaae Hesfin and Dr. Ali Hohaiased for their advice, and to Prof. S. BrHnnSng and Ato Teafaye for their fcslp in statistical analysis of the data. Ky appreciation goes to th'i e&ilful veterinary laboratory tsebnicianes and staff cf Kulusea Eeaearch. Station of A?.DU,

m ?ZZB ZQ E S

1. ASEU, 1994. Aninal Hsalth and Breading Department Annual Report*

2. Bliss, D.Ii, 10o2. Yet. Pxsc. ilO<7>H41-1443. Eailemariati, S. 1079, An Inal health review in Ethiopia <1972-79),

4. Ilyers, G.H, 1070. The effect of subclinical parasitise on dairycattle productivity (Abstract) Bluo BoqJs 1951 ?ol. 30.

5. Soulsby* B.J.L. ISoS. Textbook of veterinary clinical p&raaitology, I.Vol. 1.

0. Stsal, E.G.D. and J.X Torrio, 1960. Principles and procedures ofstatistics with spscial reference to tha biological science®. ItcGrav;-Kill, Inc.

7. Tiefinbach, H. 1361. Economic aspects of anthelmintic treatment with Panaci*r, A review. Blue Do ok, 1981 Vol. 30.

EFFICACY OF TOXAPHBSB IB THS THBATXBST OF SASCOPTIC XABGS OF DR03CBI>A£XBS

18 gAHBBGB

Teabose ftebatsicn and Fe^sba G«hre Afe#

ABSTBACT

Tr&st&mt against th& id e n tifie d sizrcaptic rait& v«s carriedout in 6 GR&els, Th&y spray&d 3 tim es &i a» in terv a l o f 1w&&k with Tox8phe$& ?5% SC s t a con cen tra tion o f 0.2$% c f thea c t iv e ingr& iien t. Tb$ trsat&d war* fr-&£ f r o s &&nge m ite onth e Zitst day & fter ih® beginning o f ih& treatment^

irrsopocTioH

Mange* tb® jsost coma on a nd widespread disease that effects cnasls, is bigbly contagious, being transmitted by direct or indirect contact of antnals, It affects c&BQle cf e 11 ages and both $«xest and frs&qu^ntly occurs in flocks Siept undsr poor husbandry conditions,

Ths site burrows into tbs afein of the in£ect&d caxael causing intense pruritus. Attempts by tfc$ easel to raiieve the itchin&ea ea& rapidly la&d to abrasions, bsir loss, excoriations, and often drs&stic losses in productivity and general ns-sltfc Qfuiasa-Sugar *rs 1981).

Tb© causal agent, S8Z&S5&8& CA$&U. <s)m. S&csbi&ss. d££s®slftU* S&ccsg&gg. gsa&isl var. Q&&&U. and Aoarua caas&L) was £ir&t obaervad in & Dn®~hujsp<2d easel by aPaolo Garvarias as long ago as 5.841.

The TiOisadlc people in Hararg© ussually overlook tb_e initial stages of the infection and seek veterinary assistance only when tbs skin lesions becosae pronounced and defy initial attempts at treatment.

Tbie is the firs t atteapt to study tbs problem of c&rsI isaage in Ethiopia, wber® under practical conditions there &ra no control measures against the aites. The necessity of devising a proper control procedure for caise! mange initiated this work} the ssain objectives* vers;

• ~ to study the importance of 3sanga -site in easels?,- to evaluate ths currsntly used acericid«5S end s«tfcods of

application in tbs treat-sent of cancel sang*, and

- to devise suitable control a«asur«$ v?ith the us-s of acaricides.

* Faculty cf Veterinary Jfedicins, Addia Abeba UniversityPX5. Box 34, Debra Seit. Ethiopia

129

130 Tesnoae Ksbataion sad F&asba Gfcbre Ab

K&TBEIAU3 h m KETHQDSSelection of test «olaals fcr stapling dspendsd o« th« degree of visible skin lesions, Samples ware obtained froa slightly, aoderately and severely infssted anlsala< Six caaals which wsre found to ba carrying live sites were selected and the treataent started era 14 February 1965*Yhile eaapling, the ownsr ti«d up a foreleg in the flexed position and kftpt & fira bold on the easel's ear or lip. Adsquata sasplss wore collected froa the periphery of the active lesion frea at lejuat 2 sites by scraping dssply with a scalpel until blood coaed fresly. A separate ecalpal blade wss used for each a&iaal saapled*The fresh staples ware teat d fcr Uvq aitsa by exaaisisg under aetersoaicrcecope on & black background. The infestation leva I was evaluated by t&e number of Idsntifisd sites. Then the entire scraping was placed in a boiling tuba with 10% KQH and boiled for SO sin in a water bath, Aft f coolings the tub® was centrifuged at £000 rpst for 2 sia to deposit thfc aitea for subsequent flotation with 505 sugar solution. Tbs degress of infestation was evaluatad froa both tsot sethoda. First sampling tcoi placa on ths day before the treatment (day 0)* second ©sapling on tbs day before the eeoond tre taant (day 6), third es&pling on the day before the third treatsest (day 13) and fourth saapliag l weak aftsr tha third treatment (day 21 > (Table 1).All the easels» even tbs en&s without syaptoaais were included, because every a&lsal in the herd can t*s r*$&rdsd so a carrier of sites.Toxaphsne in th* fora of 7B% EC was used for tbs tre&tse&t, 7h® preparation was diluted in water <10 al Tesaphens liquid 7B£ EC in 3 litres of water) to a concentration of 0.25% of the activc ingredient, Tfc$ easels were sprayed 3 tlaes at intervals of 7 days.The quantity needsd per enimal was 4 litres, as alnost all were saall ift eisa or young (1-2 years of ege>> Trsataent was by spraying the satire body surface of the enis&l until it was thoroughly soared, end haad-dressisg end reaoval of crusts in order to facilitate penetration cf t&e preparation. The treatment was carried out in a strict sequence frca hesd to tail. Hidden parts of tha body wsre trs&tsd esparately (under ths tail, thigh folds, ears, etc.). Knapsack sprayers holding 16 litres were uecd.

E2SULTS

On first examination of the hsrds, in approximately one-third of the sniaals clearly evident skin lesions with lo&s? of hair and thic&eniag of the ekin were found on the necfc, ha&d, and on ths shoulder regions. Before the first spraying. Id out of a total cf 60 examined easels froa various owners and fiocis were found to have livs a its** in their efeiu scrapings, Howevert only 6 of thea w®re selected and nursed with lumbers 1 to © on the shoulder region,In all cases the identified aitea wsre found to be SsrCGptm seabiei var. CSZSli'

Tosaphene for &arcoptic Mange VSi.

In ths sample© obtained aftsr the seco&d treattesnt Con the 13th day) live isites wetf'S no longer demonstrable. However* in the staples treated with KOH Eite «?sgs were s t i l l identified. Thus, .3 third treatment with Toxaphene was carried out with the rasuli that on th% 2iet d&y neither live mites nor sgge were found (Table l >. -■ During the tr^ataeat no side effects of any kind occurred. Toxaphene wbp very well tolerated.

DISCUSSION

The result of the study shows that sarcoptlc saange of camels can be effectively controlled by triple treatment cf Tox&phene 75% EC at 1-week interval , using % concentration of ths active ingredient of 0.25%, This is in agreement with previous work by Liebisch et al. \1930) that triple treatment is necessary sines the highly effective acaricides currently used for the traatsent Gf sangs jaitss are not ovioidal.

Th© ncsaadic people in HRrsrge usually ®pray tbsilr easels only once when ths skin lesions becaai# very pronounced. &ft<sr th« firs t tre&taer.t, however, th© eggs of the sarcoptic Elites on the caafcl develop into a new generation, which reach sexual maturity and in turn deposit Just before this date thesecond and third treat»$iit suet bo gives* to fell! a ll the Kites that have hatched by tfcea.

Table 1. Effect of To?:aphen<5 on earcoptic ssa&ge aitee

Day no. Observations Cs»al number __

1 iV& SSitSS + + + + ++ +flotation t 3St ++ +t*r +++ ++ + + + ++

first treatx&snt

liv© aitss +flotation test ++

4.++

+ +++

? second treatsasnt

13 live jsitesflotation test

14 third treatjsstxt

21 live saitesflotation test

ffuiaber of Kites: none: + 1-10: ++ 11-20: +++ over 21.

132 Tesbcme Keb*taion and Feseha Gebre Ab

In earcoptic Bangs thickening of the skin nay possibly prevent the drug from penetrating through to ths cites. Thus every treatment should be accompanied by hasd-dre©3ing and reuoval of crusts. In general, although healthy canals nay becasa infected with mange, poor condition whether it be through disease,exertion or nalnutrition, is undoubtedly a predisposing cause, Thus the nomadmust protect all his camels by regular treatment with the best acaricide available U,cdha 19C6>.

ACKHOVLBDGEHBSTS

Ve wish to axpre~s our desp gratitude to the Ministry of Agriculture, BarergeBranch, for generous help and ccroperation throughout the test period.

EEFEHEECES

1, Liebiech, A., K.S. Rahissn, and A. Awsdhaeean* I960, Vet. Ked, Rev. 1;3-1G

2. Lodha> K. S. 1966. Vet. fcec. 79; 41-43.

3. Xukaea-Kugerwa, E. 1961, The caaael(C&galug dromedariuK? A bibliographical review, Internatiossl Livestock Centre for Africa, Addia Abeba.

STUDIES 0.W THS TOXICITY OF I££AZ£2A XQIQIAQOI^A TO BTHIQPIAS RIFT VALLEY GOATS

133

Yehenaw Kefconnen, B. Faye*s*

ABSTRACT

Two experixsec&? trere conducted an 16 g m i s with dried , ground X m f o f Z§£$£%m y&batagollA isixvd. with Hater, sdEinist&r&d p er os. In th e f i r s t experim ent, groups I, II, and II I o f 2 goa ts each ver® given X $/&&, 0.6 gSkg asd 0.4 g/'&g liv& weight r e s p e c t iv e ly , fi&iis&ls in groups I snd IX died *fith is 48 hr. Those in group I I I showed sign® o f i l l hbgLlth but survived . la the* second &'xper£j&4mit 5 go$t& fc'&rar giver: su b clin ica l doeef? o f ths &&±%ri&l s t the ra te o f to o &g/tg d a ily and 5 w&re dcssii &v&ry 2 d&ys m th water only. A il treated g o a ts sho<r~d gradual lo s s o f condition and 1 died on each o f the 26th $rsd $7th days o f in to x ica tio n . The 5 con tro l goa io showed no sign o f i l l h&alth. Ch& rxci& ristic values o f pu lse, tem perature and resp ira tion are g iven . G ross and m icroscop ic p o s t- jg c r ie x fin d in gs c f both exp& risen ts presen ted .

X^TEODUCTIQS

The problaa of poisoning of domestic livestock with toxicants Isas a great significance all ever the world. The causes can b® naturally occurring or Ean-jsade hasards. Poisoning due to toxic plants is sxscng these. This paper deals with this problsa with particular r^feraser to Tac&g^'ss spp. The Afar® dais* that Ta^-zsea is poisonous. It is -present in the middle Awash valley and the surrounding aresss. Xt is a ciisbing plant and is perennial with seads which are carried by the wind and s3Q aid its distribution. This enables the plant to spread faster, invade a considerable part of the pasture land and thus increases the incidence of poisoning.

The incidence o i poisoning scsias to be higher during- dry seasons wbvn there is scarcity oi pasture. Ingestion can be due to scarcity ox pasture or by aista&e.. Camels and goats are s-rsid to b© aore liable to poisoning, maybe because of their browsing habits.

Although auch is ^r.own about African plants with phzarrsacologic effects (V&tt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962) no information is available on ths toxic properties c f this plant; this pap^r therefore cannot refer to any existing literature. The objectives cf this work in which 2 experiments were conducted were;

- to provt* whether Tacsgzes is poisonous or not,- to determine th*s approximate lethal dose, and- to present clinical manifestations and identify organs affected

and the pathological changes is theat.

* Faculty of Veterinary M«dicine, Addis Abeba University P,0. Box 34, Debre Zeit

134 Yefcsas*? Ke&ons5?i end £. Faye

HATESXAtS AHD KSTRODS

X&t ClBljSLJ£ss4.

A total e£ 10 goats bought fron ths ars* veers tmed, all shout 10 jaofttha old.4 * All vere treated against'internal par^sitiss 10 day© before uas, atid all were apparently ucn&al. &*av«a at I&sascea YJcrrt drimi snd prepared in pQwdor fcria to fc*s nis^d wttii \*».tsr and given orally by dretvcbiisg.

te£2&jx&gjgperi^siit, 1 ?. SI* goats were divided Iftto 5 groups of 2 aad given the sateriBl of study et a rate of 1 g/&£* fi»6 3 /k$ and 0.1 g/kg livovfeight fcr groups I, XI and HI respectively, Piusa» teiap mature» resplr&tiea and otbar clinical hssifcitations ware recorded feefer© afld after treatment. Autopey was dono 15 scssss ergsas fif concern atid pathological changes in thea, AndB&splee ot tissue wsres takea lor histopathologic exaalnatiOTi.

E pgrinaEt-'. 2? Tha regainlag 10 sestet wort? equally divided into 2 groups (group 1 control, group II tntosieAt<sd>. Anisals in Crcup 11 were given identification auiafr-drR i => U, sy&d & t?vboiSniC£l dcse cf tha ja»>t«rial of etudy was gives at tbfc rato of too ng/feg llV3*?6ijjht to e$ch of the 5 goats daily for 3 wee&s. Co&trolra t-sc-k en {sqval quantity of distilled wat^r ior the san© period, Fulse, rs^trrvticn* tejspsratura nsd othar clinical asnifeQtatioae wsre recorded. ev$ry day for 5 dsyr' «v<ary % dsya till the end. Finally all were sl&ugbtersd and examined for grcsiS r,nd tsitroacopic pathological chssges bystandard procedures <31ood et al. 3.07D),

SttSCLTS

Bareey^ar^t 1 ? Coves in &roup I and II 6i§d vfithin 454 hours after intoxication. Group III ehowcti of paiccvaing tut eurvivad, The clinicalxaanifgstaticr.s; Ker« that several minutes after tha 4 goats stopped eating/ they becatto nerved * preferred to lift dcnti Mid fr&ejtfeiitly urinated anddefalcated. Tto f?llc:vsd rcctlQCtiresfc, lateral recutsbsr.cy, south breathing, opisthotcsus, gac^isg &ad death. ?ute& rate was initially i?icr©a$ed and-eventually arrhythsde. Esispinvtiofc vrcst slightly affected.gspgE’teag-rt 2.t The intcxicatGi group showed gradual loss of bodily condition, a preference to lie* down la the r f.ds for* longer periods during the day than ths ccfctrcls, ar^ a relxctancn to feed ttfcd ueve, Goats \ 3 diad on the1*3th and the? 17th d^y«; they diarrhotie. Three gca.ts survived and wareJtillsd st the &r.d oi th^ ©xperi^^nt. In g«n5>rAl* dopr«g^^d r^piration and increased pulso rate *.**?-* found fci^nifi^ant <? < 0.01). Pulee ratft neari valuta were 75 iir;s£ per «isut© fcr contrail tiaes per isiiiute for theintoxicutcd group. Jteftpirstary r .ta ras»o' vdluea wer^ 29 ti^ee per »inute for controls and 23 ti;r -a per nitut^ for t.ntcxic&tQd a^icals. significantvariation ir r^C/ ts ftf'ravr.ra chaetvf'd.

Toxissity of T'&£&&&& yatOtsdt’IJa 135

Experiment 1; The gross po$t-mortem pathological changes observed w&re cyanosis of visible laueous &«&Kbra*m$, scmgafiitsm Sf subcutsnisou^ titrate abdominal organ©, right heart dilation and l<3ft heart contraction, congestion, emphysema and fc*w>3}0rrh9-f£$ in the lungs.

Microscopically, alveolar destruction, intcrstltal haemorrhage and osdeiaa in lunge, haemorrhage in ksart. kidneys, adrenals and I iv«tr andcongestion in kidneys brain, livs-r and asall inte»tln<? were observed.

2£p&ci&£&L_Jl«> Tha gross? pathological changes were hepatization. hsezsorrh&gQ and emphyaejaa in lungs, frothy contort %\\ bronchi and bronchioles, right heart failure, left heart1* hypertrophy, hydro pericardium epicpardi&l hasmorrh&ge fend coronary f&t degsm«if atioa, ftal&rgemcr.t, friability* necrosis snd fibrinous inflammation in liver, &$& QQ'sgsestioa of ahdo&Xnal organs and mesenteric fat degeneration.

Kicroscopically, acidophiila, congestion, hemorrhage, alveolar destruction, oedema and thickening of the intsrstiiiuss in lungs, and degeneration,infiltration o f lyisphoid esdls: and necrosis ifc the liver were observed.

DISCUSS IQS

The results obtained have proved conclusively that s& is a poisonousplant, at least for goats?. According to tfc« result© of experiment I , u&dar field conditions 3,7 g of l<i»f freeh sat^ri&l p^r £g live^eight could kill goats acutely. Had ths extfmotion of the active ingredient<s> been ssade the minimum lethal dose would have fce«sn much smaller in view of it© hightoxicity.

Clinical and post-mortem observations of experiment 1 showed that the primary organ® affected ware the iufsg«S, heart and, to § Ios?ser extent, the liver. This? seems tc indicate that capillary damage produced by the poisonous factor(s) might be responsible fcr haeiscrrhage end condition of lungs; ths? lungs possess a highly ahaetomossd capillary bed. Emphysema seemed to &£ compensatory, as though over distention of the residual lung caused alveolar dilation and later destruction.

The right heart was overburdened by pr©es-ure in the lungs and th«*n by thegeneral congsstics.. Reduetien in the vital capacity of the lung® impaired oxygenation and further decreased rat© o i blood flovr through the pwlaon&ry vascular bed. Finally anoxia was responsible f c r death,

Sesulta of experiment 3 illustrate that the toxin say have a cumulative effect, and regular ifttafes of as little as 330 mg cf fresh materiel per kg Xivewsigbt daily may have & deleterious effect. Pathological findings, particularly in the lungs, might indicate that the cause of death of the 2 goats w&® anoxia. Liver cell degeneration and dt t-h sou Id be attributed to the direct effect of th?, poison, while connective tissue proliferation is s response to tissue damage, and yellowish discolouration to impaired bile pigsaent metabolism.

136 Yehenew and B.Faya

In understanding tfca pathophysiology cf p^lsailing with l£&££££2, it Wald be ue*£ul ta detersive whether capillary daa&g* ip* ths lungs or right heart failure ic prissry.At prcc«ct no identification of active ingredient <s> hs« fc®«a aade and specific effects on different organs have cot yst b*^n investigated, 3«ses«rcfc As also required into the t^Xacta of X&e&zzss. on diiisrtt'z species of dosssstic nniEals tc identify which p&rts cf the plant contain the higfcc&t concentration of toxin<s>, &ad to find possible cntldctss for serious ceees cf into'Slc&ticrn.

CQFCLVSIOSB-5caus9 Tqcaggga is undoubtedly poisonous its spread e&otild be controlled - Kov/dvar, sines the plnnt could have asdical or ecological beforecentral measures crs launched further studies end O.culd fceasda *s suggested ^bovc.

ACSSOViBBGgHBSfTS

Our tbanks go to all the mcjstwre of IT0UAD2P, specially Kr, Hciso kafcaane for his cordial financial end material asaiata^oe. Ve are isdsbted to Xs. ABSlaworS: lysdo fnr ter technical assistance in histologies! procea^ieg cf tissues.

SHPBKSrCSS

1* Blood, D.C., J,A. Ksnderson and O.K. EsdosiitS* 1979. Veteriairy Ktfdicino 5th ed- BstiHi&r* Tindall* Londcs.

2. Vatt, J.H. and &.G. Breyer-Erandvfijk* 1C02* The jsedlcinal er.d poisonous plants cf southern and eastern Africa, E, and E. Livingston ltd.

THE STABILITY OF SERUM AHTIBODIES137

Kenfe Getaneb*

ABSTRACT

This paper r e p o r ts the e f f e c t o f tem perature on the s ta b i l i t y o f serum a n tib od ies k ep t in various tem peratures and sto ra g e con d ition s in a labora tory . Brucella antibody was taken as a model and the serum agglutination t e s t was used t o determ ine the antibody l e v e l. The brucella serum antibody was ra ised from 4 Hew Zealand White ra b b its in jected with k ille d brucella bacteria suspension. The antigen f o r the t e s t was standardized against the in tern ation al standard a n ti -Brucel 1st &h&c£us. serum. By using the standardized antigen and a r e fe r en ce serum o f known antibody con ten t (the 2nd Veybridge working standard serum) i t was p o s s ib le to determ ine the antibody con ten t o f o th er sera in term s o f in tern ation al units.

For brucella a n tibod ies ra ised in th is way and using the serum agglu tination t e s t , a s ig n ific a n t d eter io ra tion o f antibody occurred in sera kep t a t room tem perature and in sera su b jected to fr eez in g and thawing. The drop in t i t r e in sera s to red at + 4 ^ and a t ~20c,C was n o n s ig n if ic a n t during the 10-week period . These fin d in gs have con sid erable re levan ce to the problem o f c o l le c tin g , d e liv er in g and s to r in g serum fo r ep idem iologica l in v es tig a tio n s under f i e ld con d ition s in trop ica l and su b -tro p ica l cou n tries .

* Veterinary Laboratory and Bpidejaiological UnitMinistry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

J

IV ANIMAL FEEDS AND

!

THE PRODUCTION OF ANBCAL FEED IB THE ETHIOPIA!!HIGHLANDS: POTENTIALS AND LIMITATIONS

S.Jutzi, I. Haque and Abate Tadla*

ABSTRACT

This paper r e p o r ts 3 yea rs o f research on improved animal feed production f o r sm a ll-s ca le farming in the Ethiopian highlands by the In ternational L iv esto ck Centre f o r A frica (ILCA). R esu lts o f the experim ental work with n a tive pastu re and fod d er production on arable land fo r sp ec ia lized animal feed in g are reported .

141

Hftturai-Ias&urs-The scope for decisive improvements both in quantity and quality of native pasture appears limited. Natural grasslands in the Ethiopian highlands are generally confined to degraded, shallow upland soils, to fallowed crop land, and to soils which cannot be successfully cropped because of physical constraints such as flooding and waterlogging. Thus natural grassland occurs in conditions presently considered adverse for cropping. In addition, very rigid traditional native grassland management systems such as over-grazing and late hay harvest constrain pasture productivity and the impact of any intervention. Reference is often made to the heavy overstocking of many highland areas; the consequent over-grazing has negative effects on the overall pasture yield. The extent of these effects was estimated in simulation experiments which showed that an offtake which is too frequent (over-grazing) drastically reduces total dry matter production to about half that observed at a more reasonable offtake interval. Secondly, these experiments showed that fertilizer inputs cannot be converted into higher biomass production by the pastures if they are too heavily exploited.

The results indicated that the dry matter yields of heavily grazed grassland probably do not exceed 1500 kg /ha (half of that recorded under protected conditions) in the highlands above 2500 m.a.s.l. and will not exceed about 2500 kg/ha below this altitude.

A rough estimate gives rise to the conclusion that native pasture land in the Ethiopian highlands is providing approximately half of all animal feed, the remainder being crop residues.

Eaddex-Cropg.Viable solutions for animal feed production can be offered to specialist farmers marketing meat and fluid milk. These solutions basically refer to legume-based pastures of short or long duration which are grown on arable land of average quality with adequate management. However, at present, such specialized fodder production is limited in its applicability to a small number of farmers around the large consumption centres.

* International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) P.O. Box 5689, Addis Abeba

142 S. Jutzi et al.

The majority of farmers in the Ethiopian highlands keep cattle principally as a source of draught power, neat "being of much lesser importance. Feed requirements of draught animals tend to be energy- rather than quality- orientated, Hative pasture and crop residues appear, therefore, to be acre adequate feed sources for such feeding systems than expensive, high-quality specialized fodder production on arable land.Crop Residues

The naln source of animal feed in highland smallholder fans lug systems is crop residues. The importance of crop residues as animal feed is continuously increasing along with the expansion of crop land and the increase of human population. Considerable potential exists to increase the quantities produced and to upgrade then in quality terns. Crop residues can be effectively upgraded to productive animal feed diets by the addition of home-grown legume hay or browse for which valuable indigenous material is available (Trifollim 6pp., Sesbanla EflSfcaa etc.).

Fead Production dp YertisolaVery impressive possibilities for quantitative production increases of crop residues exist on the large areas of deep black clay soils CVertisols1) which cover'23% of all crop land in Ethiopia <1.93 million ha) and 7,6 million ha in total in the Ethiopian highlands. Vertlsols are - In high rainfall areas such as the Ethiopian highlands - the soils with the largest gap between actual and potential production. Technological Interventions have been developed and tested which allow very substantial increments in crop outputs. These interventions are essentially based on improved surface drainage. Waterlogging during the main rains Imposes severe restrictions on the traditional agricultural use of these generally fertile soils. In those deep black clay soil areas in the Ethiopian highlands, which have an annual rainfall above about 700 mm, much of the cropped land is left fallow and subject to erosion during the main part of the heavy rains, Crops are sown only as the rains diminish and then mature on residual moisture stored in the soil, Many Vertlsols are left uncropped because of this excess surface water during the rains.There is evidence for dramatic increases in crop yields on these Vertlsols if excess surface soil water is drained off and if appropriate cropping practices are used. Both grain and straw yields of conventional Vertlsol crops could be more than doubled. Research on improved surface drainage with the help of an animal-powered implement Cbroad-bed-maker') and on other elements of improved Vertlsol agriculture such as nutrient management, legume technology for the generation of nitrogen for both plant and animal nutrition, crop residue management, dry planting techniques, alternative cropping systems, and field verification Is in progress within a collaborative inter-institutional project. This joint operation, on which formal agreements have been reached involves ILCA, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for th© Seal-Arid Tropics), IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research), AUA (Alemaya University of Agriculture) and the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture with its extension services.

143FEED RESOURCES IK ETHIOPIA

Alemayehu Kengistu*A

ABSTRACT

Undernutrition i s a major fa c to r involved in the low p ro d u ctiv ity o f Ethiopian liv e s to c k . Both quantity and qu ality o f feed must be increased to support the p re s en t number o f c a t t le , sheep, goa ts , equines and camels, and to enable p rod u ctiv ity to in crea se th ro u g h h igher growth r a te s and increased m ilk and f e r t i l i t y . The m a jo r feed resou rces in Ethiopia a re natural pastu re gr&zing/browsin g , c ro p resid u es and a g ro -in d u str ia l by-products, and to a le s s e r ex ten t improved pa stu re and fo ra g e crop s, Feed resou rces b ase, con stra in ts , and s tr a te g y f o r fe ed developm ent are Id en tified .

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Highland Livestock: Animals are part of a mixed subsistence farming complex.They provide inputs (draught, transport, manure) to other parts of the farm system and generate consumable or saleable outputs (milk, manure, meat, hides and skins, wool, hair and eggs).

Lowland Livestock: Animals kept "by p&storaiists do not provide inputs intocrop production but are the very backbone of life for their owners, providing all of the consumable and saleable outputs listed above, and in addition representing a living bank account and a form of insurance against adversity.

Parastatal_and Commercial livestock: These animals are held by state farms,co-operatives and some private individuals and produce mainly milk and eggs for local sale and meat for export. They constitute only a very small proportion of Ethiopia's animal®.

FEED RESOURCE AID STATUS

HatoiraX

The amount and quality of native pastures available to livestock vary with altitude* rainfall, soil type and cropping intensity. The total area of grazing and browsing is 62,280 million hectares, of which 12% is in the farming areas (more than 600 mm rainfall) and the rest distributed over the very large pastoral areas (Tables 1 and 2).

Productivity studies indicate that in the lowland areas native pastures yield only 1 tonne/ha DM or less; at mid- and high-altitudes on freely-drained soils yields are 3 t/ha DM, and on seasonally waterlogged fertile areas pasture yields are about 4-6 t/ha DS.

* Animal and Fisheries Resources Development Main Department Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

144 Alemayehu Kengistu

Table 1. Feed resources available to livestock in highland areas, Availability.

Area Total DXFeed source (million ha) t DM/ha <* million t)

Grazing 7.28 4.5 32,760 •Annual cropping cereals 4.607crop residues 1.40 6.500aftermath grazing 0.40 1.843pulses residues 0.608 0.5 0.404by-products 0.150

Total 12,695 41,507

Source: KOA 1984

Table 2. Feed resources available to livestock In pastoral areas

Availability, ___Balnfall zone Area Total DX

<H2D> (million ha) ■ t DK/ha (xmillion t)

500-700 9.90 1.0 10.007300-500 8.10 0.64 5.153300 22.50 0.35 7.970thornbush areas 14.50 0.53 7.685Total 55. 00 30.615

Source: KOA, 1984

Ccgp Jtesidues asd, A gro-Indus trial. Jy.-product a

Cereals _and Pulses; Cereal straws of tef, barley and wheat fora the largest conserved component of the livestock diet. These are stacked after threshing and fed to animals during the dry eeason, as are pulse crop residues (horse beans, chick peas, haricot beans, field peas and lentils). In the lower altitude highland areas maize, sorghum and millet stovers occur to a greater extent than at higher altitudes.

Feed Resources in Ethiopia 145

ByTp£QSi»c.tS- r:oia... Sugar ' The sugar industry in Ethiopia has factories at 3 sites (Wonji, Shoa and Metahara). The present area of cane is 13,000 ha and th© estimated yield of cane tops is 6 t DK/ha or 79,000 t DM per year. Production of molasses in 1981/32 was 51,100 t of which 29,000 t was exported. At present, a aolaases/urea fixture is used for ssall-scale fattening and draught relief feeding in a co-operative pilot scheae involving the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of State Faras, and ILCA,

Oilseed Cakes; • Oilseed cakes are an excellent concentrate feed for ruminant livestock, Ethiopia grows most of the teaperate and subtropical oil seed plants such as linseed, groundnut, rapeseed, sesase, sunflower and cotton.

Kiliing. fly-productff: Wheat is the main source of locally-available milling by­products and these are utilized as livestock feed by state faras, city dairy producers and, to a lesser extent, some dairy producer co-operatives.

Slfiltghlfar -.Products i While large numbers of livestock are slaughtered every year, only a small proportion are slaughtered in abattoirs with processing facilities. The Addis Abeba Kunicipality> which is responsible for aoet abattoirs, produces bon© meal and blood meal. At present aost of the bone aeal is exported.

Brewery By-products; Brewers grains are traditionally used for cows because of their palatability and beneficial effect on ailk production^These grains are available from commercial beer production at 2 breweries in Addis Abeba, 1 in Asmara and 1 in Harar, and in the countryside from small-scale home brewing.

Cultivated Pasture .and. Forage. Crops

Cultivated pasture and forage crops, with the exception of alfalfa and Rhodes grass, have not been used on significant areas outside government stations, state farms and farmer demonstration plots. Fodder crops commonly grown for feeding dairy cattle are oats and vetch mixtures, alfalfa, Rhodes grass and fodder beet. Introduced fodder trees (Leucaona and Sesbsnia spp.) have been used only within the soil erosion control programme and around farmer residential areas. In general, because of land scarcity and a crop-dominated faraing system, there has not been any significant introduction of cultivated species into traditional grazing areas.

146 Aleaayehu Kenglstu

STRATEGY FOR FEBD DEVELOPMENT The current strategy for feed development and improvement in corporates

- reduction of livestock numbers,- Improvement of feed availability and quality, and- improvement in the efficiency with which feed supplies are used,

Measures to improve the availablity and quality of feed include establishment of grass/legume-based permanent pasture, fodder crops, forage Intercropping, oversowing, undersowing, use of fodder trees and seed production.Strategies to improve the efficiency with which feed supplies are used include disease control so that animals can realize the benefits of improved nutrition, and improved feeding management techniques such as rotational grazing, fodder conservation, feeding fresh forage using the cut-and~carry method and regulating the intake by different categories of stock. The introduction of seasonal calving and lambing would help to synchronize animal demand with fluctuations in feed supply. Dry season supplementation with protein-rich feed would help reduce seasonal losses. Improved use of crop residues and agro­industrial by-products would also be useful. Mixing cereal residues with legumes would be the preferred method of Improving the efficiency of utilization of the residues rather than chemical treatments which would be difficult to apply in Ethiopia.

LEGUKES IB FORAGE RESEARCH FSQGRAHKBS FOB SKALL-SCALB LIVESTOCK PRODUCERS

147

John R. Lazier*

ABSTRACT

Although fora ge research tra d itio n a lly em phasizes the oversow ing o f legumes in natural grassla n d s and planted grass-legu m e pastu res, th e emphasis in research f o r sm a ll-s ea ls l iv e s to c k producers should be on f i t t i n g legumes in to the e x is t in g farm ing system s by means o f such techniques as in tercroppin g , undersowing, hedging, a lley cropping, cu t-a n d -ca rry and reserved grazing. M ulti-purpose legumes warrant p a rticu la r a tten tion . Genera o f p o ten tia l value f o r use in s& sll farm s ava ilab le from ILCA fo r te s tin g are presen ted , with in form ation on th e ir environm ental adaptation.

LEGUKE nraODtfCTIQH INTO FAR&IHG SYSTBKS

Small-scale farmers most likely to respond to the introduction of legumes as fodder are those who are restricted in land area for grazing and farming, are dependent on milk and butter for food and cash, use cut-and-earry fodder, and have good markets for animal products.

There are a number of ways that legumes can be effectively introduced into small-scale farming systems. The moat effective method or methods will be, dependent on the individual farmer, the farming system, the adapted legumes, and the germ piasss screened. Some of the more important introduction methods are described briefly and some legumes are listed which have been identified by ILCA as being of potential value fo r these methods, A summary of promising genera is presented in Table i.

1. Batura 1 Legume Resources

There are frequently natural leguminous resources available to the farmer which can be developed. In some environmental zones such resources have been critical elements in the farming systems, Natural acacia woodlands, for example, are used as grazing lands in drier environments, The acacia enhances gras© growth in the wet season, and prolongs its growth into the dry season. The acacia leaves and pods provide significant amounts of high quality dry season fodder and thus animals are maintained in reasonable condition through the dry season.

Herbaceous legumes also can be an important natural legume resource. In the Volayts region of Ethiopia, an area of high papulation density with little available grazing land, cut-and-carry feeding of cattle is commonly practised. Hative herbaceous legumes Sl^Isss^lhes.< DsssMluia. S^Daolflaia etc.)are hand-collected and fed to animals to increase milk yields and to improve butter quality.

* Forage Legume Agronomy Group (FLAG), International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Abeba

14B John R. Lazier

2. Traditional Lgguae Craps■Faralng systems may already be utilizing leguminous crops as animal feed. Itis a common practice for residues of pulse crop© to be fed to animals in thedry season. In some cases the crop nay be planted solely as animal feed, forexample Vlgna ungulculata <oowpea> in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Vest Africa. Erytftrina species are commonly planted in the middle-altitude regions of Ethiopia for fencing and dry season fodder. This plant is apparently unpalatable In the wet season, but quite palatable In the dry season,

3. , Snail Plat a, for. Cut-andrCacr-y FeedingSmall forage production plots of perennial legumes for cut-and-carry feeding of eelacted classes of stock are particularly appropriate for small-scale farmers. Xost legume species are suitable for this system. Potential species for cut-and-carry belong to the genera Cantroaena, Xigna. Phaseolus and Rhynchosia.

4. Beaeryed Grazing.Areas of pure or mixed grass-legume swarda can be reserved for feeding selected productive classes of animals year-round or during the dry season. These ‘fodder banks' or 'protein banks' are normally grazed for brief periods daily. Useful species and genera for reserved grazing include Puerarla phasaoloides* Stylosanthes, KacrcptUto atropurpureun, and Zornia.5. Undersowlng In Perennial Gash Crops

There may be opportunities for the sowing of a leguminous ground cover under perennial tree or shrub crops* In the Volayta region, for example, the weeds growing beneath coffee and 'enset1 (false banana - a carbohydrate food crop) are cut and fed to livestock. Desaodlms intnrtun has proven to be well adapted to growing under these crops, and farmers are now starting to plant it to provide better quality fodder as well as providing nitrogen for the cash crop.

6. .Intercropping in Annual Crops.

Legumes can be sown between rows of annual crops. They can be sown at the sane time as the crop if they will not compete too strongly with its growth; or alternatively they may be planted 2 to 4 weeks after the cash crop.ILCA has had success in intercropping StyloQanthe^ guiar.esals cv Cook, Xacrotyloaa axUIara and Lablab purpureus in Ethiopia at 1650 re and hamata cv Verano in Higeria near Kaduna. The annual vine Vlgna unguiculata (cowpoa) is widely and traditionally intercropped in ths Sudan zone.

Legumes Forage Research Programmes 149

7. Catch., CropsLegumes which have a short life cycle may have a place as a crop in seasons with unreliable rainfall, or may be planted during or after the maturity of the main growing season crops to take advantage of residual soil moisture and late rains. Short-lived annuals adapted to dry conditions which could be useful as* catch crops are Kaoroptiliua unlflarua and Ehaseolus acutifnliua.8. Hsdgfl.Planting2

Browse species may play an important role in small farms for they can provide natural fencing, fuel, construction material, food and fodder. They may be planted about fields and house compounds, in rows or broadcast in pastures, or in rows in cropped land <alley farming) where the leaves can be used as a fertilizer or mulch, cut and carried as feed and grazed situ during fallow periods. teucaea&> Caj&EUs* Gllrlcvila, SssfcaidA and Erytfcrlaa are among the . more commonly planted species.9. Qa Xow.,foteatialJ reaaVhile small farmers vftll usually not have control of extensive areas of rough land or eroded infertile areas, even small areas may provide significantadditional fodder for legumes are commonly good pioneer plants. The appropriate legume may be exotic or native and should have a weedy, hardy character. Townsville stylo <2* huaills) is a well-known Australian example of an exotic which naturalized and spread on infertile and degraded ©oils which were unsuitable for cropping, In Ethiopia the native legume 5* fruticosa is often the major component of vegetation on eroded areas in certainenvironmental zones.

10. Multipurpose Cr.QgaAs has already been mentioned, browse species commonly have multiple uses and there is as well a broad range of herbaceous annual legumes whose seeds ere used for human food, while ths stovers are used for fodder. The genusFhaseolus contains many of these and within vulgaris there is a tremendous .range of growth forms, £*. vulgaris is qi American origin and this species is traditionally intercropped with maize. The larger bushy or climbing forms not only produce more fodder, but give more seed as well. Other species of actual or potential value for Africa Include caw pea v unguiculata), lablab, pigecn- pea (Cajaaus. eaten.), wing bean tfiirasmolabua), and peanut(Axachis hyppgea).

190 John R» Lazier

Table 1, Genera of potential forage legumes for enall-scale farming

Perennials Annuals Browse

Alyslcarpus Alyslcarpus Ca janusCalopogonlun Arachls CodarlacalyxCanavalla Cassia PesaanthusCentroseaa Glycine DesaodluaClltorla Kacrotylom ErythrlnaDesaodlua Phaseolus GllrlcldlaLablab Plsua LeucaenaLotononis Stylosanthee He dleagoLotus Tephrosla ProsopisXacroptIlium Trlfollua SesbanlaHacrotyloaa VlclaXedlbago Vlgnaleonotonla ZornlaRhynehosta Stylosanthee Trlfollua Terannus Vlgna Zornla

UNDERSOWING OF FORAGE CROPS IN CEREALS: SOME ACHIEVEMENTS151

Lulseged Gebre Kiwot, Gebre Kedhin Hagos, Tadesse Tekle Tsadik*

ABSTRACT

The paper summarizes r e s u lts o f undersowing experim ents carried out In d if fe r e n t s o i l and c l l isa tic con d ition s. The establishm ent o f fora ge crop s by undersowing in c e r ea ls could be an a ttr a c t iv e p ra c tic e in that I t req u ires minimum inputs. R esu lts o f experim ents g en era lly in d ica te that undersaving could be su ccess fu l f o r a w id e range o f fo ra g e crop s and c e r ea ls provided that th ere i s adequate ra in fa ll and p rop er weed con tro l p r a c t ic e s are follow ed . For a given environm ent the r ig h t ch o ice o f both food and fora g e crop s and the r ig h t tim e o f p lan tin g are a lso im portant fa c t o r s.

INTRODUCTION

Undersowing is a fora of Inter crapping where food and forage crops simultaneously grow in the same field. Intercropping as such is not a new concept to Ethiopian farmers. It is also practised in many African countries by subsistence farmers (Andrews and Kassam 1976). Some of the conspicuous advantages o f intercropping are to get a v a rie ty o f returns from land and labour, to increase efficiency of resource use, and to reduce risks which may be caused by bad weather, diseases or pests.

Though intercropping of various food crops is common, the simultaneous production of food and forage crops on the same land is relatively uncommon. Establishing forages by undersowing in cereals provides an opportunity to produce feed with a minimus cost, it is believed that undersowing is of very great practical importance in areas where feed shortage is a serious problem. Despite its advantages, undersowing is not always successful. Important considerations in undersowing are proper choice of food and forage crop species, duration of cropping season, time of planting, and weed control practices. The objective of this study was to identify forage species suitable for undersowing and to find how to establish these species without too much penalizing of the grain yield.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at Holetta, Ginchi, Awasa and Adami Tulu, which represent different soil types, rainfall and temperature. Crop species selected for Holetta and Ginchi were wheat and various temperate grasses and legumes, Kaize and various tropical grass and legume species were selected for Awasa and Adami Tulu. In the highlands the wheat and forage crops were sown at the same time; at Awasa and Adami Tulu the forage crops were undersown during the second weeding, i.e. ,35 to 40 days after planting.

* Holetta Agricultural Research Centre, Institute of Agricultural Research P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

152 Lulseged Gebre Hiwot et al.

RESULTS A5D DISCUSSIONS

Six grass species were successfully established at Holetta (Table 1). In the year cf establishment the lolius cultivars gave reasonably high dry matter yields, but in ths third year the loliums died out. On the other hand* phalaris, tall fescue and setaria were more productive in the second and third than in the first year. Under sowing did not significantly affect the grain yield of the wheat. Grain yield of the wheat , for the control plot was slightly lower than the undersown treatments because of lodging. Mean grain yield was about 30 q/ha.

Table 1. Forage species undersown In wheat, Holetta 1982/83

Undersown Vheat grain DM forage yield (t/h)forage yield(q/ha) 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85

Vheat only (control) 20.4 - - -talaris 'Sirocco' 26,3 3.1 13.6 8.6Loliun 'Kangaroo Valley' 34.1 3.5 7.3 -LoLiun 'Ht Alma' 23.3 6,5 3.1 -Lolium 'VeBterwaldicun' 27.6 4.0 5.7 -Tall fescue 31,0 1.3 9.5 3.4Setarln 25.6 1.9 13.6 5.6

Kean 29.6 3.4 8.8 5.9C,V.% 18 15 25 -LSD (0.05) 0.8 t/ha 3.3 t/ha -

Another experiment (data not presented) conducted in 1985/86 showed that undersowing of phalaris in wheat reduced the yield by about 25%. At Ginchi 4 grasses and 3 legumes were undersown in wheat. All forage species successfully established without significant yield reduction of the wheat. On the average, yield reduction due to undersowing was only 5%. The forage legumes, barrel and snail medic* seemed particularly suitable for undersowing in Ginchi area (Table 2).At Awasa and Adami Tulu 3 grass and 3 legume species were undersown in maize. The forage species did not affect the grain yield of the maize which averaged 59 q/ha (Table 3). In the first year the forage species did not make much growth except the legumes, whereas in the following years desmodiun and all the grass species gave substantial dry natter yields. Alfalfa did not seem to be suitable for undersowing.A similar trial was carried out at Adami Tulu which is characterized by low and erratic rainfall. In this environment under sowing had very little success.

tfndersowing Forages In Cereals 153

Table 2. Forage crops undersown in wheat, Ginchi 1980/61

Treatment Vheat yield ___________ Forage________(q/ha) . Establishment yield

_________ _______ __ ;_________ .... .«b5.)___________ (t/ha)Sole crop (control) 29.3 - -Alfalfa 28.5 2 0.7Barrel nedlc 30.9 4 3.2Snail sedlc 28.4 3 2.1FMlaris 30.6 2 0.2Lollun 19.6 5 2.6Tall fescue 29.0 2 0.7Sftiarin. 27.9 2 0.4

C,V.% 19LSD (0.05) 5S

Table 3. Forage crops undersown In oaize. Awasa 1981

Treatments Grain yield Forage DX yield (t/ha>(q/ha)

____________________________ 1981 1982...1983 .m i

Sole crop (control) 60.0 * -Alfalfa 56.4 . - -XacroptlUuB

59.7 2.2 -Eaai cun, caul nun 58.5 - 2.8 4.0 4.7Rhodes grass 59.2 - 5.4 5. 1 5.5Cfi2chr.ua 58.-4 - 5. 0 5.7 3.8ESSIBaliUfl 62.7 1.7 7.9 9.0 4.7

C.V.% 14LSD (0.05) BS

In Ethiopia both crop and livestock production are important enterprises. Undersown forage crops, particularly leguaes, could play a key role in linking crop and livestock production (Cocks 1986) by increasing the amount and quality of forage grown, without requiring any nore land or cultivation. Results of these experiments clearly indicate the potential for integrating crop and livestock production in this way.

154 Lulseged Gebre Hiwot et al.

HEFEREHCES1. Andrews, D.J. and A.H. Kassam. 1976. The importance of multiple

cropping in Increasing world food supplies. Ins Multiple Cropping. ASA Special Publication no. 27. Xadison,Wisconsin pp 1-9.

2. Cocks, P.S. 1986. Integrating of cereal-livestock production inthe farming systems of Horth Syria. In: Haque, I.t S. Jutzi andPJv ffeate <eds.> Potentials of Forage Legumes in Farming Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held at

■ ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, 16-19 September 1985. pp 162-185.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF C-OFFBE PULP SILAGES FOR SHEEP:ALONE OR VITH OTHER FEED RESOURCES

Solomon Deaseke*

ABSTRACT

Four s i la g e s were prepared by en s ilin g coffee pulp alone CT1), Inoculated c o f f e e pulp (T2), equal p a r ts of inoculated c o f f e e pulp and sugar-cane stem s (T3), and equal p a r ts o f inoculated c o f f e e pulp and sugar-cane top s (T4). A feed in g tr ia l was conducted with 32 growing sh eep . S ilage chem ical a n a lysis, voluntary feed in take and l i v e weight gain o f the sheep were used as c r i t e r ia o f n u tr it iv e value, The appearance and co lou r o f the 4 s i la g e s werech a r a c te r is t ic o f an adequate anaerobic ferm entation . The sheep fed T4 had s ig n if ic a n tly h igher voluntary feed in take than a ll the o th er s (P < 0.05). A ll gi'oups decreased in liveweight during the f i r s t 2 -3 weeks o f th e 60-day feed in g period but began to gain weight as th e ir feed in take increased . The weight d ecrease o f the group fed T4 was s ig n if ic a n tly l e s s than th e o th ers (P < 0 .05).

INTRODUCTION

In Ethiopia, one of the greatest constraints to the development of animal production is inadequate animal nutrition. Animals are fed almost entirely on natural pasture , the quantity and quality of which are subject to seasonal variations. One possibility of improving this lies in the efficient utilization of agricultural and agro-industrial by-products.

Coffee pulp is a by-product of great importance in coffee-growing areas. According to the available statistics on coffee, on average 65,900 quintals of coffee is wet-processed at 21 stations and 25,200 quintals is dry-processed at 29 stations by producer co-operatives in Jimma each year; 52,700 quintals of wet and 18,600 quintals of dry pulp are estimated to be generated from these stations. Currently only a small proportion of this by-product is used, asfertilizer and fuel.

Vet-processed pulp was expected to be laore nutritious than dry-processed. However, it is high in moisture content and does not store well. Ensiling with

■some other feed material appeared to be the best method for preservation and improvement of nutritive value. The main objective of this study was* therefore, to establish the nutritive value of wet coffee pulp ensiled alone and with sugar-cane by-products.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Inoculant consisting of 2 kg of chopped sugar-cane stem, 0.3 kg urea, 7.5 kg cow-dung and 7,5 kg water was prepared 48 hours before ensiling. Vet pulp was sun-dried for 8 hours and both sugar-cane tops and stems were chopped.

155

* Alemaya University of AgricultureP.O. Box 138, Dire Dawa

156 'Solomon Den eke

The 4 feeds were offered £d. life, to 8 groups of 4 sheep each (aean 20.7 kg) in completely randomized design with 2 replicates, for 60 days. All sheep were also offered 125 g/d of hay and 25 g noug cake; salt lick and water were always available,

RESULTS AFD DISCUSSIONThe silage characteristics, voluntary feed intake and body weight change of the sheep are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Silage characteristics, voluntary feed intake and live weight change of sheep fed 4 silages for 60 days

SilageIngredients

DM content Voluntary feed intake Grg/Aav)

Weight (kg) _<%> pH

Jnitial Final Gain

T1 Coffee pulp 17.9 4.1 0.56 22.1 19.9 -2.2T2 Inoculated

coffee pulp 15.9 4,7 0.84 21.8 19.8 -2.0

T3 Inoculated pulp and cane stems 15.6 3.8 1.05 20.7 19.0 -1.7

T4 Inoculated pulp and cane tops 18.1 4.8 1,40 20.8 20.6 -0.2

The appearance and colour of all 4 silagee were characteristic of silages where adequate anaerobic fermentation had taken place. However« the silages containing coffee pulp alone and inoculated pulp changed in colour from deep blood-red to dark-brownish upon contact with the air.The pH of the 4 silages ranged from 3.8 to 4.6. The pH values of the silagescontaining pulp alone and pulp plus sugar-cane stem were lower than isconsidered appropriate for good silages (4.2). The lowest dry matter contentand pH value was observed in T3 silage containing pulp plus sugar-cane stems,which may be due to the batter utilization of the materials by fermentingorganisms. The higher pH values of the T2 and T4 silages might be duo to thelow carbohydrate content of the materials. All animals were reluctant to eatthe silages at the beginning, but feed intake improved gradually (Figure 1).It was noted that feed intake improved when the silages were supplemented with small amounts of wheat bran during the preliminary adjustment period.

Coffee Pulp Silages 157

Figure 1, Fesd intake o£ sbe^p fed ccffse p-’lp silagesIntake kg/waek

14 h

12 -

10 -

8 -

6 -

4 - 2 -

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Veeks of feeding

Legend:---- T1 coffes pulp alone----- T2 inoculated pulp T3 inoculated pulp/cana ctcns'««-•* 14 inoculated pulp/ccna tope

The groups fed T4, containing pulp plus su^ar-cane tops, had significantlyhigher feed intake CTable 1 cr.d Figure 1) than the others (P < 0.05). Thegroups fed pulp alone and inoculated pulp silages <T1 and T2) had significantly lower fe^d intake than the other 2 groups (P < 0.05).Figure 2. Liveweight changes of steep fed coffee pulp silages

Liveweight kg23 -22 -

21

20 -

19 -18 -171

Ljgcind as f.zr T igcre 1.

6 7 8 9Veeks of feeding

158 Solomon Demefce

All Bheep lost weight, particularly the groups fed T1 and T2 silages containing high proportions of coffee pulp (Figure 2). The decrease in weight of the T4 group, fed pulp plus sugar-catfe top silage, was significantly lower than that of the others <P < 0.05).

Emaciation and abnormal hair structure were seen in animals in all silage groups, and deaths occurred in groups T1 and T2, with evidence Df bloating.

AIIXAL BVALUATION OF XBIEQUIUL TMBBTfiB15Q

Marietje van Eeghen*, James Kahurananga** and L.J. Lambourne*^*

ABSTRACT

Ethiopia has a wide v a r ie ty o f indigenous Trifcliurs s p e c ie s well adapted to con d ition s in the te s p era te Highlands and with fora ge y ie ld s o f up to 6 -7 tonnes/ha. The growth m orphology o f £*. tem bense. one o f th ese prom ising c lo v e rs , has been studied and reLatetd to th e p rote in con ten t and th e In v i t r o dry m atter d ig e s t ib i l i t y o f l& a f and stem fra c tio n s , Feeding t r ia ls have been carried out with s h eep , to record th e ir in take o f l&af and stem m aterial, and with dairy cow s, t o record th e ir m ilk production, and th e ir in t a k e o f h a y con tain ing 25 - 30% JL. tembense cospared with a good g ra ss hay.

ISTRODUCTIOK

Trifolium tembenae is one of several annual trifolium species endemic to Ethiopia with considerable agronomic promise (Dougall, 1962). It is widespread in natural pastures and fallows on the vertisol bottomlands of the central plateau as a prostrate autogamous herb, with small purple flowers grouped into heads of 3 to 15. In the voget&tiva phase f it is difficult to distinguish from the related species Xt decorum and X*. rueppeilianum. The growing season is closely related to the rains; it germinates at the start of the rains (Kay/June) and dies after flowering whan the soil dries at the end of the rains, in September/October. Yields of 6 tonnes/ha dry matter were recorded by X&hurananga and Tsehay <1984). Akundabweni (1985) studied effects of phosphate fertilizer and sowing date, and Jutzi and Haque (1984) reported responses to F and N fertilizers in terms of plant growth and morphology.X*. tenbense grows well on seasonally-waterlogged black cotton soils, and is an important component of the late-cut meadow hay which is widely used to feed milking cows and plough oxen in the dry season. A study was made by van Eeghen (1984) of growth, chemical composition and utilization by cattle and sheep of H tenbense hay. This paper summarizes some aspects of that work.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

X*. tflabansa: Seed was sown at ILCA Headquarters Shola farm on the outskirts of Addis Ababa, and harvests were made at various stages of growth for analysis and test feed in g to sheep. Satural pastures on 5 soil types were sampled at 2 dates, September 1981 during the late rains, and October 1981 after the rains when Xj. teanbensfl was flowering, to assess its total yield and proportion. A further area of natural pasture at the Sheep Breeding Station of the Ministry of Agriculture, Debre Berhan, 120 km north of Addis Abeba, was mown in October 1981 for hay which was fed to milking cowe.

Feeding Procedurals Four Fi Friesian x highland Zebu cows in the last months of their first lactation were fed libitum <at least 20% refusals).They received 3 feeds per day for a 14-day preliminary period and for an

* Agricultural University, Wagsningen, Netherlands.** ILCA, Addis Abeba.

ILCA; now IAR Holetta, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Abeb’a.

160 Marlet je van Eeghen et al.

initial 8-day measurement period on the standard feed, a good quality grass hay, then for two 8-day periods on trifolium/grass hay, and for a final 8-day control period again on the standard grass hay.

Other Qbsar vat ions \ Digestibility was' estimated from daily dry natter CDK)Intakes and faecal collections from the cattle pen floors. Trifoliun feed and feed residues from sheep were separated into leaf and stem fractions.

Samples were analysed for 5 (KJeldahl/Markhac),. for DK solubility <DXS) by a double-enzyme method (Lambourne and Getahun 1987) and for NDF by a standard detergent procedure.

Statistical Analysis: Because of the form of lactation curves, simplecomparison of daily milk production was not satisfactory; milk yield in the final control period was elevated by the cow©’ response to trifolium hay feeding in the preceding experimental periods. Comparison was therefore based on the rate of decrease of milk yield, as the linear coefficient of regression of yield on day number.

RESULTS AHD DISCUSSXOK

Chemical Analysis: Hitrogen content of leaf material was always much higherthan that of stem, the former declining from about 5.5% H (34% protein) at 8 weeks to about 3.5% If (22% protein) in the 16-week leaf. Stem tissue declined similarly from 2.7% H (17% protein) to 1,4% N (9% protein).

Dry matter solubility (DHS), expressed as estimated digestibility, was high, and stem gave slightly higher values than leaf in early stages of growth. Digestibility of the whole plant declined from 77% - 78% at 8 weeks to about 70% at 16 weeks.

Harvest yields of X*. tembensa in mixed pastures on 5 soils ranged from 2000 to 6000 kg DX/ha in October, trifolium comprising 23% to 85% of total yield.

The mixed trifolium/grass pasture cut for hay at Debre Berhan contained about 30% I* t&mbenea: analysis gave 1.6% B and observed in. vivo digestibility was about 64%. The meadow hay used as the standard feed contained 1.1% N and was about 67% digestible.

Voluntary Intake by Sheep: Because of the high proportion of stem, commonly40% to 55% In nature trifoliuia growing in a tall grass sward, it was desirable to find whether this fact nade the forage less palatable. Vhen samples of feed offered and refused were separated by hand into leaf and stem, it was found that 10 sheep out of 12 had selected a diet containing a slightly higher proportion of stem than had been offered, Total DK intake was 100g/kg3y,<*, an intake permitting appreciable weight gains.

Voluntary Intake _bv Cowst Intake recorded during the four 8-day periods is shown in Table 1, per unit metabolic weight. All cows behaved similarly; their intake averaged 92 g DX/kg3'* in the initial and final control periods on standard grass hay, and 116 g DX/kg3'* in the 2 experimental periods on trifolium hay, a highly significant increase.

Evaluation of Trifolium teabense 161

Table 1 Feed intake of 4 crossbred cows.during four 8-day periods

Cow no. Perlodjao, .And dally .Intakefe.DK/kga^

1 2 . 3 4c o n t r o l trifoliun trifoliuia control

4 87.5 127.7 llO.S 87.05 82.9 108.1 97,7 79.46 96.5 121.6 115.5 100.0.7 105.1 125.4 125.4 98.1

mean all 93.0 120.7 112.2 91.1

Kilk Yield? All cows responded to the higher feed intake during the trifoliuia feeding periods, but resumed their faster rate of decline during the final control feeding period. Table 2 summarizes the data: the ©lower decline in milk yield during trifoliun feeding was highly significant.

Table 2 Decline in nllk yield as regression of yield on days

Cow no. Period no. and regression coefficlentfkg/d )

1 2 3 4

4 -0.0430 0.0569 0.0430 -0,00835 0.0014 0.0060 0.0170 -0.01616 0.0026 0.0219 0.0430 -0.00317 -0.0767 -0.0051 p.0210 -0.0538

mean all -0.0289 0.0199 0.0310 -0.0203

The successive harvests of pure trifolium herbage showed it to be of very high nutritive value .throughout growth, and its high proportion in a range*of mixed pastures indicates its adaptability and ability to compete with tall-growing grasses. The fact that it then became very etemxny did not seen to reduce its acceptability to eheep or cattle, unlike better-known legumes and grasses. Poppi et al. (1981) and Thornton and Hinson (1973) found that higher intake of legumes than of grasses and of leaf than of stem was associated with faster breakdown in the rumen, and often, but not always, with higher digestibility and nitrogen content. In this present case, the stem fraction of the trifolium fed to sheep was of lower nitrogen content but was at least equal in digestibility to the leaf, and was slightly preferred by sheep.

102 Xarietje van Eeghen et al.

The nixed trifollua/grass hay was a little lower In digestibility but, because of Its 30% trifoliun content, was appreciably higher In nitrogen content than the grass hay used as a control feed, and was eaten in greater quantity.

REFERENCES

1. Akundabweni, L.K.S, 1905. Ph.D. thesis, South Dakota State University.

2. Dougall, H.V. 1962, The chemical composition of some species andvarieties of Trifoliun. E. Afr, Agric. For, J, 27:142

3. Jutzi, S. and I. Haque, 1984. Some effects of P and ff/P fertilization onthree African clovers on a P-deficlent vertisol.ILCA newsletter Vol.l Ho,4, p.5.

4. Kahurananga> J, and Teehay A. 1984, Preliminary assessment of some annualBthiopian Trifolium species for hay production, Trop, Grassl, 18:215.

5. Lambourne, L,J. and Zelleka Getahun* 1987. A small-scale pepsin-cellulassmethod for forage digestibility estimation. Froc. 1st N.L.I.C, 1987I.A.R. Addis Abeba, p.163-166.

6. Poppi, D.P,, D,J, Kinson and J,H, Ternouth* 1981, Studies of cattleeating leaf and stem fractions of grasses. I, The voluntary intake, digestibility and retention time in the reticulo-rumen.Aust. J. Agrlc. Res. 32:99

7. Thornton, R.F., and D.J. Kinson. 1973. The relation between apparentretention time in the rumen, voluntary intake and apparent digestibility of legume and grass diets In sheep,Aust. J. Agric. Res, 24:809

8. Van Beghen, Xarletje, 1984. Degree dissertation, Agricultural University,Vageningen, Vetherlands.

A SKALL-SCALB PEPSIB-CBLLULASE METHOD FOR FORAGE DIGESTIBILITY ESTIMATIOK

163

L.J. Lambourne* and Zelleka Getahun5*6*1

ABSTRACT

The p ep s in -c e llu la se method fo r estim ating In v i t r o the d r y m a t t e r s o lu b i l i ty (DMS) o f fo ra g es has been re-exam ined using sam ples o f 50 to 300 mg, severa l tem perature and con cen tra tion com binations, a n d using in i t ia l neutral o r acid d etergen t ex tra ction instead o f p e p s in . A sm a ll-s ca le method i s proposed, incubating 1 0 0 - 1 2 0 mg ground forage, a t 4 0 to 4 2 cC with su c ces s iv e 1 0 ml volumes o f rea gen ts i n 15 m l t e s t tubes. Thirty tem perate and trop ica l fo ra g es o f known in v iv o d r y m atter d ig e s t ib i l i t y (DMD> gave a co rre la tio n o f DMS with DMD o f 0 .9 4 ; th e equation re la tin g DMD p er cen t to DMS p e r c e n t was

DMD% “ 0 .7 4 DMS% + 1 4 .9 6 ± 2 .8 3

IJTTRODUCTIOH

Jones and Hayward (1975) and McQueen and Van Soest (1975) showed that results similar to those given by 2-stage rumen liquor/pepsin digestion could be obtained by treating samples first with acid pepsin, and then with a cellulolytic enzyme. This was studied further by Goto and Minson (1977) using a broader-spectrum cellulase enzymej they concluded that the pepein/cellulase method was almost as precise as, and much more convenient than, the Tilley and Terry (1963) procedure. Advantages include the facts that:

1. no insoluble material is introduced with the enzyme (zero blank),

2. the enzyme is non-odorous and is uniform from assay to assay,

3. it is not necessary to maintain anaerobic conditions during the preparatory and incubation periods, and

4. it is not necessary to maintain fistulated donor animals.

The need of African research workers for such a method justified further study, aimed at simplifying the procedure even further without appreciable loss of accuracy. Allison and Borzucki (1978) had shown that an increase in the acid concentration in the pepsin stage and a higher incubation temperature would raise the in vitro solubility values to the slightly higher levels given by the rumen fluid/pepsin ‘in. vitro digestibility' method. Clark et al. (1982) found that the amount of enzyme used could be reduced, and some laboratory operations could be simplified, without causing appreciable increases in error.

* ILCA, P.O. Box 5689; now IAB, P. 0. Box 2003, Addis Abeba** ILCA; now at Vermont University, USA.

164 L.J .Lambourae and ZeUeia Getahun

MATERIALS A5D KETHODS

Ijnzynes; Pepsin <lil0,000) was obtainedfroa BDH. Two cellulases were tested: a Trlchoderma virid^ preparation from BDH, and Onozuka 3S from Yakult Biocheaicals, Japan.Pepsin was tested at 0 JZ% and 0.4% In 0.1 H HClj cellulase at 2%t 3% and 4% in a pH 4.5 buffer (sodiun acetate/acetic acid) with 100 mg/1 chloramphenicol.

Forages: A set of 30 temperate and tropical grass and legume samples of known la vivo digestibility was kindly provided by Dr. D.J. Hinson, CSIXQ Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, Brisbane, for Initial calibration. Local samples were UBed as- Internal standards, ranging In DKSX from 39% to 75%.

procedures: The method used by Goto and Hinson (1977) was adopted as the basis for comparison, using 100 rtl tubes, 0.5 g sample ground to pass a I an screen, and successive 50 al quantities of each enzyme solution Incubated at 39-4 0°C. Samples centrifuged down at 3500 rpm were resuspsndad once after pepsin and twice after cellulase with 50 al distilled water, before oven-drying at 100’aC.

The scaled-down nsthod used tub*s of noainal 15 al capacity. Volume of each enzyna' Eolution i;aa 10 nl, dispensed by 'tilt* measure or automatic pipette; tubes were incuhatcd in plastic-coated wire racks In a thermostatically- controlled water bath at 40-42«'C. Samples were resuspended twice daily using a standard laboratory ’vortex* mixer.

EFSULTS AflD DISCUSSIOH

Comparison of F t n n tn r d e\mL Sra^ll-scale Kethods; Four forages were analyzed for speciflc comparisont covering a wide range of DHS*. There were negligible differences in meen DMS%, but the standard deviation was somewhat greater in analyses by the scaled-down method (Table 1). All later tests of laboratory procedures were carried out by this nethod.

Table 1. Corparison of scaled-down with full-scale DKS method

Forage sample M S %n

nornalEean

methodSD

DXS%n

scaled-r»an

downSD

Shola grass hay 7 55.32 1.60 4 56.66 1.98Forage DZ/126 3 75.14 0.82 8 75.76 1.57

DZ/95 7 64.55 1.07 8 65. 16 1.90D2/572 6 46, 03 1.38 8 46.59 1.62

Small-scale Pepsin-Cellulase Method 165

Sample Size and Bn2vme._Ccmcentra.tiQP,: Four samples of each of 3 forages were analysed at 2 pepsin and 3 cellulase concentrations. Instead of replicating samples, weights ranging from 0.05 to 0.25 g were taken. There was no difference in results from the 2 pepsin levels and a non-significant effect of cellulase concentration only in the poorest of the 3 feeds. There was a significant decrease in DMS% in samples weighing more than 0.2 g.

This was confirmed in a further run, using 4 forages and sample weights from0.05 to 0.30 g, at 0.2% pepsin and 2.5% cellulase. Thereafter sample size was set at 0.10 - 0.12 g for routine analyses.

Neutral Detergent _(ND) Extraction; Results were disappointingly variable; in some forages lte hr HP pretreatment was enough to give total DMS% greater than the value given by the routine method; in other forages even 6 hr ND extraction gave values still several units too low.

Acid Detergent (AD) Extraction; DMS values close to expected were obtained after pretreatment with 0.3BT AD for 90 min, with 0.5S AD fo r 60 min. or with0.7H AD solution for 30 - 60 rain, at 90°C. Lower times and temperatures gave progressively lower values. This experiment was repeated; IK AD solution for 90 - 120 min* or 0.7N for 120 - 150 min. gave reasonable DMS values with 30 forages of known in vivo digestibility.

Although these were the combinations which gave DMS values nearest to in. vivo digestibility in actual value, closer correlations between DMS and DMD resulted from 90 min treatment with 0.7N acid detergent.

Source of Cellulase: Three 'standard' forages were analyzed by the scaled-down method, using 0.2% pepsin and 2.5% solutions of each of 2 cellulases; results showed no difference between them.

v iva £lgea.tl frUlty? Thirty forages of known digestibility were analyzed in triplicate; regression of in y_lvo digestibility, determined by standard procedures, on DMS% is shown in Figure 1. Tropical species are shown in open symbols and temperates in solid symbols.

DMS% was slightly lower than in vivo digestibility in forages of low digestibility and slightly higher for some of high digestibility - mainly' temperate species. There was no indication that grasses and legumes, or tropical and temperate species, conformed to different regressions, and the residual standard deviation from the 'general' regression was 2.83 units.This scaled-down method has been in use for several years and has proved to be reliable and economical in routine forage evaluation. For use with feeds, containing appreciable amounts of starch, a preliminary treatment with the enzyme amyloglucosidase is necessary (Alderman 1985), since starch is not fully removed in the pepsin-cellulase extractions.

106 LJ.Lam bourne and Zelleka Getahun

Figure 1. Estimation of iji vivq DM digestibility froa DHS% in vivo digestibility %

Fapsin-caUulaee colublllty, DXB%RBFBEHJCES

1. Alderaan, G. 1085. Prediction of the energy value of compound feeds.In: Recent advances in aniaal nutrition, 1985 (Bds. V. Hare«lgn andD.J.A. Cole) Butterworths. p. 3 * 52

2. Million, X. and R. Borzucki* 1076. Cellulase aethods for the efficientdigestion of grasses and brassicas. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 20*293

3. Clark, T., P.C, Flynn, and A.A. McGowan, 1062. Low-coet pepain-cellulaseassays for prediction of digestibility ol herbage *Grass and Forage Science 37:147

4. Goto I# and D.J. Xineon, 1977. Prediction of the dry natter digestibility oftropical grasses using a pepsin-cellulase assay.Anin, Feed Sci. Tech. 2:247

5. Jones» D.I»H, and K.V. Hayward* 1075, The effect of pepsin pretreatnent ofherbage on the prediction of dry natter digestibility froa solubility in fungal cellulase solutions. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 26:711

0. McQueen, R. and P.J. Van Soest# 1075. Fungal cellulase and hemicellulaseprediction of forage digestibility. J, Dairy Sci. 58:1482

7. Tilleyv J.K.A. and R.A. Terry. 1963* A two-stage technique for Invitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Graeel. Soc. 13:104

OPTIMUM IRRIGATION FREQUENCY AND AMOUNT FOR ALFALFA/RHODES GRASS MIXED PASTURE

IN THE MIDDLE AVASH REGION

Aschalew Tsegahun*, Gebre Nedhin Kagos and A. Kandiah

ABSTRACT

A m ounts o f 5 , 1 0 a n d 1 5 cm water w ere a p p l ie d a t i n t e r v a l s o f 1 , 2 , and 3 w eeks o v e r a t o t a l p e r io d o f 2 6 m o n th s , and fo r a g e was h a r v e s te d e v e ry 4 5 - 5 0 d a y s . H ig h e s t t o t a l y i e l d (7 6 to n n e s /h a )was g iv e n by a p p l ic a t io n o f 1 0 cm each w eek, an d th e n e x t h ig h e s t<70 to n n e s /h a ) by 1 5 cm each week. G r e a te s t e f f i c ie n c y o f w a te r use, h o w e v e r, r e s u lt e d fro m th e a p p l ic a t io n o f 5 cm p e r week, o r 1 0 cm e v e r y 2 w eeks, w h ich bo th g a v e a b o u t 0 .8 6 k g DM p e r c u b ic m e tre <1000 1 ) w a te r a p p l ie d .

INTRODUCTION

A pasture made up of grasses and legumes can provide nore balanced feed thana single species. Under irrigated conditions, highest yields can be obtainedfrom pure stands of grasses when they are heavily fertilized with nitrogen. However, the use of fertiliser in an intensive animal production system based on grasses alone is not profitable. For wider use, grass-legume mixtures are likely to give lower but more profitable yields.

Several researchers have indicated that alfalfa and Rhodes grass (Ghlorls gay ana) grow successfully and give good yields in both pure and mixed stand* under irrigation (Balaney and Criddle 1962j Kepins and Figin 1978; Veb6ter and Vilson 1960). This experiment was aimed at determining the optimum frequency and amount of irrigation water for a mixed Rhodes/alfalfa pasture under Melka Verer conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was started in October 1979 on alluvial soil at the IAR Melka Verer Research Station. Treatments were: 4 intervals <7, 14, 21 and 28 daya) and 3 amounts (5, 10 and 15 cm per irrigation). Design was split plot with frequency (interval) as main treatment and amount as sub-treatment, with 4 replications,

Varieties used were Hairy Peruvian alfalfa and Massaba Rhodes grass, sown as a mixture of 8 kg and 10 kg/ha, respectively. All plots received 2 comaon irrigations of 10 cm before experimental treatments began. First cut was made 100 days after establishment and subsequent cuttings were at a mean interval of 46 days.

167

* IAR, Melka Verer Agricultural Research Centre,P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

168 Aschalew Tsegahun et al.

RESULTS AHD DISCUSSI05In mixture with alfalfa the relative percentage of grasses Is usually Increased by early or frequent cutting* because the alfalfa growth and stand Is reduced and offers less competition. Generally, both alfalfa and Rhodes grass are reduced In yield by frequent cutting.As indicated In Table 1, a weekly frequency was. significafctly superior to 2-» 3- and 4-weekly frequencies, while 2-weekly was superior to both 3 and 4 (P <0.01). There was no significant difference between 3* and 4-weekly. In terms of amounts applied, 10- and 15-cm applications gave significantly higher yields than ‘ 5~cm applications, but the difference between 10- and 15-cn applications was not significant.

Table 1. Yield of dry matter froa 16 cuts over 26 months

Amount(cm)

Frequency and yield (DK t/ha>1 week 2 week 3 week 4 week mean yield

5 55.09 40,57 31.35 17.50 36.1310 75.95 54*32 32.99 33.21 49.1215 69.74 56.83 35.88 28.98 47.86

mean 66.93 50,57 33.41 • 26.56 44.37

Table 2. Irrigation water application and water use efficiencyHumber of Total water DM yield Efficiency

Frequency Amount irrigations applied<cm) Ct/ha) (kg DK/m3)

1 week 5 126 630 55.09 0.8710 126 1260 75.95 . 0.6015 126. 1890 69.74 0.37

2 week 5 63 315 40.57 -10 63 630 54.32 0.8615 63 945 56.83 0. 60

3 week 5 42 210 31.35 -10 42 420 32.99 -15 42 680 35.88 —

4 week 5 32 160 17.50 -10 32 320 33.21 -15 32 480 28.98 -

Bote: efficiency shown only for treatments exceeding mean (44.4 t/ha)

Optimum Irrigation of Forages 169

Calculation of the efficiency of water use, as kg DK per cubic metre of water, (Table 2> shows that 5 cm each week and 10 cm every 2 weeks gave higher efficiencies than other treatment combinations which exceeded the overall mean of 44.4 t/ha dry matter yield. If labour requirement, efficiency of water use and management problems are taken into consideration, it is Justifiable to recommend irrigation with 10 cm water every 2 weeks for mixed pastures of alfalfa/Rhodes grass under Kelka Verer climatic conditions.

REFERENCES

1. Balaney, H.F. and V.D. Criddle* 1962. Determining irrigation waterrequirement. USD A Tech. Bull. No. 1975 Washington D.C.

2. Kipins A.T. and A. Figin, 1978. Effect of irrigation frequency andnitrogen fertilisation on the yield of Rhodes grass. Irrigation and Drainage Abstracts (4>.Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux U.K.

3. Webster, C.C. and P.N Wilson* 1980. Tropical grassland husbandry.

*

170IMPROVEMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL GRASSLANDS

Daniel Keftasa*ABSTRACT

This paper summarizes results o f field experiments an Improvement and jsanagement of natural grasslands in the highland <2000-3000 a> part o f Chilalo Awraja. From these studies different improvement and aanageaent systems are suggested which suit d ifferen t ecological zones.

. INTRODUCTIONNatural grasslands are the major source of feed for growth and development of livestock and its maintenance in Ethiopia. In most parts of Chilalo Awraja grazing on marginal lands unsuitable for crop production is the main livestock feeding system. Few areas can supply sufficient good quality natural herbage for existing livestock for the whole yea^ owing to the marked seasonality of rainfall distribution and high stocking rates. During the dry season the production and nutritive value of the herbage falls to a minimum and regularly grazed lands become progressively overgrazed. To overcome these problems emphasis has been given to improving the productivity and nutritive value (quality) of natural grasslands in the highland parts (2000-3000 m> of Chilalo Awraja.

CLIMATIC AND SOIL CONDITIONS OF CHILALO HIGHLANDS

The climatic conditions of tha Chilalo highlands are mainly Influenced by monsoon rains, as in other highland areas of Ethiopia. In general, there are 3 seasons in the year: (a) the dry season (October - January), (b) the emailrains (February - Kay), and (c) the big rainy season (June -September).The soils of the Chilalo highlands are clay in texture and have low phosphorus content. Their potassium content is high in general. They have fairly high organic matter content and are slightly acidic.

GRASSLAND SURVEYSAs the results of extensive surveys undertaken from 1967-74 indicate (Carlson 1972; Thulln 1972; Froman and Persson 1974; Froman 1975a) there are 3 major grassland types in Chilalo Awraja: derived, permanent and temporarygrasslands, in which native species of Andropogon. Fennisetum, Hvparrhenla and Trlfpllum are dominant.

* Arsi Rural Development Unit (ARDU) P.O. Box 7, Asela

Improvement of Natural Grasslands 171

IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Several fertilizer experiments were conducted to determine the effect of phosphorus and nitrogen applications on natural grasslands of the highland area of Chilalo Awraja.

These studies indicated that yields of the natural grasslands increased with increasing levels of fertilizer application. More weight gains were obtained from fertilized paddocks than from unfertilized ones. Fertilizer applied in the beginning of the growing season during both the small and the big rainy seasons gave better results. It was also observed that more frequent cuttings in one growing season resulted in declining overall production, compared with less frequent cuttings, in both fertilized and unfertilized plots.

It was also evident that fertilizer not only increased yields but also had aclear influence on botanical composition of the sward. Application of P aloneincreased percentage of legumes, while heavy N application encouraged grasses and suppressed legumes.

Introduction of. Better. CiraLsaes-oiid.. Legumes.

Trials to establish oversown improved forages in natural grasslands afterburning did not succeed. Observations Indicated that the grasses Chloris gayana and Panicum coloratura could be established in natural pastures fromroot splits when planted in holes made with small spades.

Pennisatum schimperi is the dominant weed in the natural grasslands of high- and mid-altitude areas of Chilalo Awraja. Weed control trials (Froman 1975b) yielded the following recommendations.

Ploughing: Ejl schlmpef 1 can easily be eradicated and replaced by other grasses if grasslands are cultivated for some years.

Cutting> flowing- or ..Slashing'• The grass recovers slowly and is overtaken by other grasses if it is cut close to ground level.

Burning: When schimperl grows in association with other grasses, burningdecreases its percentage in the grassland.

Herbicides: Selective control of Eo. sc him peri with herbicides has not beenfound possible.

Other common weeds in natural grasslands of high- and medium-altitude areas are Eulalia polvneura. which is dominant in waterlogged grasslands, and Echlnops ellenbechl, which is common in high-altitude grasslands, Eulalia polyneura can be easily controlled by burning, and Echlnops ellenbechl with herbicides MCPA 2,4-D ester and MON 2189 in water and stem-base treatment.

172 Daniel Keftasa

XANAGEXEXT SYSTEXThe following management systems for natural grasslands in medium and high altitudes are summarized from Froman <1975b>.

Eaaflgenent Syatea IVith this system of management half Df the area is grazed during the peak growth period and the rest is left for hay. The whole area will be cut every second year. The system works for grasslands in high- and medium-altitude areas with high precipitation during the small rains.

Haaftgeaeflt Systea, IIIn this case some areas are protected from grazing during the peak growth and left to be grazed as standing hay during the dry season. This systen is more suitable for ranching over extensive areas of grazing land.

Xanagaaeat Systen IIIThis management system keeps the sward short by burning or mowing. the system works particularly for waterlogged grasslands at high and medium altitudes where the dominant flora are coarse grasses like Eulalia, polyneura. Setaria aterata and Pennlsetua glabrua. If these grasses ere kept short they are more palatable and are readily grazed by cattle.In extensive areas At high and medium altitudes where the predominant grasses are of low productivity, the shortage of fodder has to be net by growing cultivated forage crops.In the management systems suggested above, the 2 main methods of grazing during the rainy season are continuous grazing and rotational grazing. The choice of the system depends on the intensity of the production on the faria.

REFERENCES1. Carlson, J. 1972. Inventory of indigenous ecotypes of some grass

species in the Chilalo Awraja, Ethiopia.2. Froman, B. and S. Perssoni 1974. An illustrated guide to grasses of

Ethiopia* Asela,3. Froman, B. 1975a. An illustrated guide to pasture legumes of Ethiopiap

Uppsala, Sweden.4. Froman, B. 1975b. Pasture management in Ethiopia with special

reference to conditions in Chilalo Awraja.5. Thulin, H. 1972. Identification of indigenous pasture legumes.

Asela, Ethiopia

GRASSLAND COMPOSITION OF NEKEMTE AWRAJA173

Alemu Tadesse*

ABSTRACT

This study r e p o r ts the g r a s s la n d c o m p o s it io n o f 19 r e p r e s e n t a t iv es i t e s in Nekemte Awraja ranging in a l t i t u d e fro m 1200 t o 3000 m.

INTRODUCTION

In a country like Ethiopia where 90% of the livestock feed comes from natural pastures, it is important to have basic knowledge about the botanicalcomposition of the natural grasslands of the different ecological zones. This knowledge will help identify the most useful indigenous forage species for any particular area.

The objective oi this study was to get basic information on the botanical composition of natural grasslands of the different ecological zones of Nekemte Awraja in western Ethiopia, and to identify useful indigenous ecotypes of grasses and legumes for the region.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To determine the grassland composition, 19 representative sites ranging inaltitude from 1200 to 3000 m were selected and samples were taken by cutting at each study site using 0.25 x 4 m quadrats. The collected samples were separated and classified into different plant groups and their fresh weights were recorded. Composite sub-samples from each plant group (by species) were weighed and oven-dried for dry matter yield determination. Based on the DK weights obtained, per cent contribution of each species to the yield of the natural grasslands of each study site was computed.

During the survey local names of the dominant trees and shrubs around the sampling areas were recorded for each site, and their scientific names were determined. In addition to plant samples, soil samples also were collected and analysed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the distribution of mainly grass species, Nekemte Awraja can be' divided into 3 major ecological zones, namely:

1. Highland (Degga) 2000-3000 m2. Medium highland (Voinadegga) 1500-2000 m3. Lowland (Kolia) 1200-1500 ra

* Bako Research Centre, Institute of Agricultural Research,P.O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba

174 Alemu Tadesse

Highland .Zone

Thick forests of different species ore found around river banks and noun tala tops in this zone. Dominant trees in these forests are: Alblzzia gumnlfara,

Eygfiun africamm, Bstebsrgia rupppslllflaa, Pittoflporua abysgittisa, Appdfofis. dinidlata, Bflgfinia abygsinica and This is in close agreement with the findings of Hailu

Myrlcarlpjcolum Embella schlmperi. (1963).

The following grasses are dominant in highland zones: Dlgltarla aby*glnica»Digit aria tsrnnta. Eragmstia paaicilpnaig. Erasccsiis. tenuifoiia. Exatheca abysainica, .Eeatucft pbyssinlca, Hyparrhenia tnbsrcuiata and Snowdenia pplyatachya.Soils of the zone were found to bo strongly to moderately acidic. They ranged from silty-clay to clay in texture. They had high to very high total nitrogen and low to very low available phosphorus.

gidrfllghlancL-Zpne

This investigation revealed that trees such as Garden1* lutea. Fictin nvata. Grew la Mills, Sler-fisapemur. tamthiarus, Etos. vasta. Lanea schimperi, Ficus frrachyppda. Ccabretua nolla, Ac *cir. afryssinica. Ccrdir, africana. Syzvgiu-a gulneense and Croton mteTBStsSiljS. grew widely in this zone.

SporobQlus SetariA phragTBitoldga, . ArisUda adoensie and angi'w ga are doninant gra^sss in this zone. Other ccmnonly-

occurring grasses are: AndropPgSJl abySBinlcn. Bennlsetma cdcfflttsa, Pennlaetunschiaperif Erachiarla ssnlunriulatn, Hypirrfcania. tirfca and pgnnisetun ramosun.Soils are strongly to moderately ecidic and clay-loon to clay in texture. They are high to very high in total nitrogen content and low to very low in available phosphorus.Lowland Zone

Trees which are dominant in the mid-highland zone are also commonly found in the lowland zone. Hyparrhenia species are the dominant grasses. Other commonly-occurring grasses are: Penn iso tun polystachyon. Digitaria velutinaTLegrsia heacandra, Andcopfl&Pii canaliculate, Xfllinta mgichrochaeta. Rhynchelytrum repena> Ef?CkerQpSiS uaisetft, Cynodon dactylon. Rrachiarla brizantha and faspalun coaaerapnii.In this zone soils are found to be strongly to moderately acidic, and sandy- clay loam to clay in texture. Thair total nitrogen content is high to very high and available phosphorus is low.

Sekemte Grassland Composition 175

REFERENCES

1. Hailu Volde Aznar.uel* 1963. The geographic characteristics of western Ethiopia, eastern Velega. Eth. Geogr. J. 31:43.

FORAGE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES AST) RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE FOURTH LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (FLDP)

Alemayehu Kenglstu and Alan Robertson*ABSTRACT

The Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP) will be promoting a range of forage development strategies, namely t establishment of forage strips f including bund-planted forages and tree legumes in alley cropping systems; backyard forage development; improvement of stock exclusion areas through the introduction of legumes; the use of forage legumes in undersowlng/relay cropping systems; oversowing of grazing areas; and establishment of perennial mixed pastures and annual fodder crops.. The paper details the strategies, ranks them in terms of the potential impact within the project area, and outlines the perceived priority research programmes required to support these strategies. The approach to establishing a large forage seed production capacity, and the research needs to support * this programme are discussed. The various strategies described have vastly different labour requirements, and the monitoring of labour * inputs will be a significant part of the applied research programme.

Factors Considered in Determining the StrategiesLong—tern sustainable production of livestock and cropping is dependent on dramatic changes in livestock management systems. The key components of these changes are a shift towards more intensive feeding systems, with nore emphasis on cut-and-carry feeding, and a gradual shift away from uncontrolled grazing, particularly on sloping areas.The strategies will be integrated closely with crapping practices, and in almost all cases will avoid displacement of arable crops, Strong links will be maintained with soil conservation, animal health, fattening and dairy programmes. Legumes will be heavily emphasized, because of their dual roles In both animal nutrition and soli fertility improvement.The Strategies

a. Strip establishment of foragesb. Backyard foragesc. Improved forages in stock exclusion areasd. Legumes undersown in cropse. Legumes oversown on grazing areasf. Perennial mixed grass/legume pasturesg. Annual fodder crops

176

* Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP), MOA P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

FLDP Forage Development Strategies 177

These strategies will generally be associated with an extension programme to improve the utilization of the forage.

Improved grazing management would be extremely difficult to incorporate into common practice and would generally require substantial reduction in stock numbers to be effective; it will therefore play only a minor role in the development programme. Table 1 indicates the perceived significance of the various strategies.

Table 1. FLDP Forage development strategies

Potential . Strategy economic

Impact*

Technical possibilities Low High alt. alt.

Farmeracceptance

Researchneeds Comments

Forage Strips (bunds, alleys etc)

5 Good Good Variable Species,Mgrat.Labor

Stock Control, Erosion Control

Backyard 3 Good Good Good LaborSupple­mentat­i o n

Undersownlegumes

2-4 Good 7 Variable Species,Timing

Maize/Sorghum

Oversownlegumes

0-1 Fair Low Good Species To 2000m nocontrol

ExclusionAreaImprovement

4 Good Good Species Cut & carry, fattening link

Conventionalpastures

<1 Good Good Low Dairyonly

FodderCrops

<1 Good Good Fair"

Dairy,Fattening

Grazingmanagement

2? Good Good V. low

Reducednumbers(currentsystems).

5?? V. low

* 5 = maximum impact? 0 = no impact

178 Alemayehu KengiBtu and Alan Robertson

Seed Production

The seed production programme outlined for the project Is on & large-scale. By year 4, tie project will'need to produce more than 150 tonnes of herbaceous legume eeed annually; also,, the programme encompasses a much wider range of species than Is usual within a single project.The great bulk of the seed must be produced under contract arrangements with service and producer co-operatives and individual farmers, if the overall programme is to be successful. Contract systems, wherein producers are paid contract rates by quantity of clean seed produced, will result in much greater amounts of seed at significantly lower cost per kg, higher production per unit area, much greater efficiency of production and, after the first couple of years, quite reasonable predictability of total seed output.

PLDP Research iTsedaGeneral: Pasture/forage research programmes require substantial modificationto adequately meet the demands of FLDP and similar projects. In particular* less emphasis should be given to evaluating species for conventional pasture development, and more emphasis given to species and establishment requirements for specific strategies, and to some of the more difficult but very important systems^ including stock exclusion. The continued analysis of nutritive values of introduced commercial cultivars and of other materials already comprehensively analysed elsewhere, represents a serious misal location of research resources.Species Screening*. There is Btill inadequate information on the agro- ecologlcal range of the species which will be used Initially within the project; in particular, knowledge on the altitude limits is imprecise. The project will adopt the approach of using the most promising species/cultivars in tha development programmes, with continuous monitoring and refinement; additionally, new material will be continually introduced for rapid screening.Thera is a particular need to define a wider range of tree legumes suited to intensive cut-and-carry management, in particular for use in higher-altitude areas where there is a relative lack of such species.Site Assessment; It is crucial that field extension staff be in a position to categorize sites according to suitability for various species and strategies. During the first 2 years of implementation, some 150 -200 service co-operatives will be incorporated, covering a very wide agro-ecological range. By the end of that period, rapid assessment formulae should have been developed, utilizing the key determinants of production including altitude, rainfall, and soil factors such as drainage, depth, pH, and phosphate status.

FLDP Forage Development Strategies 179

inoculation: Inoculation requirements for the key species demand urgentattention, and the most convenient media for local use should be assessed. Substantial quantities of inoculants will be required for at least 5-10 species and it must be determined whether a local production capacity is justifiable.

Seed__Production: It is crucial to collect information on production,harvesting, and post-harvest handling of commercial quantities of seed. This will be done by close monitoring of the project's seed production activities, rather than in specific research programmes. It is particularly important to determine likely yields and labour inputs, and to define optimal prices for the contract seed production programmes.

Propagation of. Tree Legumes: The development programmes are heavily dependenton the use of tree legumes, particularly for the more intensive cut-and-carry systems. Current propagation techniques within nurseries are excessively expensive, and there is an urgent need to define systems appropriate for the use of:

a. direct seeding,b. cuttings, andc. bare root/bare stem seedlings, permitting the use of small backyard

nursery plots.

fiCPnoiaiC—Aspects: There is an urgent need to undertake economic evaluation of.the use of fertilizers within various production systems. After the first couple of years of the project, there will be sufficient data for a comprehensive economic analysis of the various strategies. This is particularly important in the case of those strategies with high labour inputs, such as back-yard forage and alley cropping. Also, it is crucial to assess the economics of back-yard fattening and dairying using various feed inputs. Studies should be undertaken immediately on the feasibility of inducing a shift away from grazing and towards more intensive cut-and-carry systems Involving total stock control in the context of peasant asociations, producer co­operatives, service co-operatives, and larger administrative units.

180RANGE DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Girma Blsrat*ABSTRACT

The rangel&nds of Ethiopia cover roughly 61Z of the total landjtass. ■ This extensive area has immense grazing potential. For sustainable utilisation of this resource without entailing degradation, careful understanding of the ecosystem is of paramount importance. Development programmes launched in the past were not strongly backed by scientific research findings; this constitutes a glaring gap, which must be filled in future development undertakings. Therefore, future range development activities will have to be strongly linked with research. To strengthen this approach a variety of research projects and trials are suggested for consideration. The selection of these proposals is based on their immediate use in development programmes for the pastoral areas.

INTRODUCTIONThe rangelands of Ethiopia cover a total land area of 760,000 kma. They have harsh climatic conditions characterized by high temperature and law and. unreliable bimodal ralnlal], The rangelands have sparse vegetation cover, mainly consisting of grasses, bushes and scrub. The human population density is low. The areas aro Bore suited to livestock production than to any other system of agriculture.

RA5GELAMDS DEVELOPMENTThe Third Livestock Development Project was .started according to the experience gained from the first Rangelands Development Pilot Project carried out in southern Ethiopia by the Ministry of Agriculture in the raid-1960s. The main task of this development project was to develop 3 range areas in the southern, north-eastern and eastern lowlands of the country. Thus 3 distinct sub-projects,namely, Southern Rangelands Development Unit (SORDU); Horth-East Rangelands Development Unit (ITERDU) and Jljiga Rangelands Development Unit (JIRDU), were established with the major objectives of increasing productivity of the livestock by improving range condition and thus increasing foreign exchange earnings through increased exports of live animals and animal products.Current Actlvltles_of the Projects

- Establishing comprehensive range-use control systems- Providing basic veterinary and livestock extension services- Constructing ponds and shallow wells for harvesting permanent and

surface waterCorstructing roads

* Rangeland Development Unit, Kinistry of Agriculture (M0A),P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba

Rangelands Research and Development 181

Developing fattening ranches and smallholder fattening schemes

- Conducting trials for the improvement of the rangelands

Training project staff, livestock owners and tribal leaders for better output.

Achievements (July 1 Q 1 G -J u ly 1 9 3 3 1

SORDU JIRDU BERDU

Water development- stock ponds- shallow wells- cisterns

95 26773

Range management- grazing reserves

identification- formation of grazer

associations

2

74

8000 km*

Veterinary services- vaccination treatment 11,977,000 9,239,000 1,897, 000

Road construction- admin./trade road- access track- maintenance

1137 km 1829 km 323 km

1004 km 515 km

86 km

55 km 311 km

Ranch programme- establishment- steers purchased

sold

360714550

Smallholder fattening programme - cattle purchased 3804

distributed 370651974956

Training and information- senior staff- veterinary scouts- range guards

Irrigation- irrigation- water spreading

Trials and studies- trials- weather stations

67650

in progress 10

213454

12060

1380 ha 620 ha

in progress 9

in progress 6

182 Girma Blsrat

Kajor Coaatraintg- Security problems- Shortage of qualified staff willing and able to work under adverse

climatic and unfamiliar conditions- Irregular financial disbursement- Shortage of materials and recurrence of drought in the area

In spite of these problems, project activities have beenprogressing with promising results except for HBRDU which still has security problems.

RESEARCH PROPOSALS FOR THE RAHGELAHDS- Testing drought-resistant forage species- Conducting ecological studies to obtain basic information about the

botanical composition of rangelands vegetation- Conducting stocking rate trials to determine the carrying capacity

of the rangelands- Evaluating the nutritive value of the major grass and shrub =

species at different growth stages- Conducting trials to assess water-spreading and harvesting

techniques- Assessing water development impact on the rangeland eco-systems

1 - Conducting sociological studies like assessing the possibilitiesof transforming pastoralists into agro-pastoralists and making anthropological studies of different ethnic groups

- Conducting socio-economic studies in order to have information that could lead to the development of co-operatives

EFFECT OF MIMOSIffE/DIHYDRQXYPYRIDIHE-METABOLISING ORGAHISMS ON THE GROWTH RATS OF YOUNG RAMS

FED LEUGAEM LEUCQCBPHALA

183

C.Ebong, D.A. Little, J.D. Reed and J.V. Durkin*

ABSTRACT o n ly

LeuQ &m a leuG O G ephala i s a v a lu a b le p r o t e in fe e d s o u rc e f o r ru m in a n ts in m any t r o p ic a l c o u n t r ie s , but i s n o t y e t w id e s p re a d in A f r ic a . C on su m p tio n o f le u c a e n a may be a s s o c ia te d w ith t o x ic s ig n s , fro m th e a m in o -a c id m im o s in e w h ich i t c o n ta in s , and fro m th e 'd ih y d r o x y p y r ld in e ' (DHP) p ro d u c e d fro m m im o s in e b o th by a u t o ly s is in th e h a r v e s te d p la n t a n d b y m ic r o b ia l a c t i v i t y in th e ru m en . R u m in a n ts n e w ly exp osed t o le u c a e n a d e v e lo p q u i t e r a p i d l y th e a b i l i t y to m e ta b o liz e m im o s in e t o DHP, b u t n o t th e a b i l i t y to d e g ra d e DHP f u r t h e r . R u m in a l m ic ro -o rg a n is m s c a p a b le o f m e ta b o liz in g DHP h a v e been is o la t e d by w o rk e rs in CSIRO, A u s t r a l i a , and w ere r e c e n t ly in tr o d u c e d fro m CSIRO in t o 10 sh eep and g o a ts a t ILCA S h o la R e s e arc h C e n tre , n e a r A d d is A beba. An e x p e r im e n t h a s r e c e n t ly been co n d u c te d t o t e s t th e e f f e c t s o f th e s e o rg a n is m s on fe e d in t a k e and g ro w th r a t e o f sh eep fe d on le u c a e n a .

B ig h t g ro u p s o f 6 yo un g E th io p ia n h ig h la n d ra m s w ere a l l o t t e d to 4 d ie t s , and w ere o f fe r e d d a i l y 1 0 0 f 2 0 0 , 4 0 0 o r 6 0 0 g o f d r ie d le u c a e n a le a f , w ith o r w ith o u t an in o c u la t io n o f rum en f l u i d (1 0 m l) fro m a n im a ls in w h ich th e D H P -o rg a n is m s h a d been e s ta b l is h e d . A n in th g ro u p , n o t fe d le u c a e n a , s e rv e d a s a c o n t r o l ; a l l sh eep w ere k e p t in In d iv id u a l m e ta b o lis m c a g e s , fe d g r a s s h a y l ib i t u m and had f r e e a c c e s s to w a te r an d a m in e r a l b lo c k . A l l sheep e x c e p t c o n t r o ls w ere g iv e n 10 0 g d r ie d le u c a e n a l e a f p e r d a y f o r 2 w eeks b e fo re in o c u la t io n t o e n s u re th e p re s e n c e o f s u f f i c i e n t s u b s t r a te f o r th e o rg a n is m s to become e s t a b l is h e d . The e x p e r im e n t ra n f o r 13 w eeks, d u r in g w h ich th e sh eep w ere w e ig h ed w e e k ly b e fo re fe e d in g , and r a t e s o f l iv e v /e ig h t ch an g e w ere c a lc u la te d by a re g r e s s io n p ro c e d u re u s in g H a rv e y 's le a s t s q u a re s m etho d . D a l ly in t a k e o f h a y and le u c a e n a was re c o rd e d f o r each sh eep .

The c o n t r o l g ro u p , fe d h a y o n ly , l o s t w e ig h t a t th e r a t e o f 9 g /d d u r in g th e 1 3 -w e e k e x p e r im e n t , w h i le s u p p le m e n ta ry le u c a e n a a t 1 0 0 , 2 0 0 , 4 0 0 and 6 0 0 g /d gax?e mean g a in s o f 1 5 , 3 7 , 5 3 an d 6 5 g /d r e s p e c t iv e ly . In o c u la t io n w ith th e DHP o rg a n is m s had no e f f e c t on w e ig h t g a in s a t th e 3 lo w e s t le v e ls o f le u c a e n a fe e d in g , b u t a t 6 0 0 g /d th e in o c u la te d g ro u p g a in e d 79 g /d , co m p ared w ith 5 0 g /d f o r th e c o rre s p o n d in g n o n - in o c u la te d g ro u p <P < 0 .0 0 1 ) . The proportion o f le u c a e n a in th e t o t a l d i e t a v e ra g e d 15%, 27%, 45% and 59%r e s p e c t iv e ly f o r th e 4 le v e l s o f le u c a e n a g iv e n . The s i g n i f i c a n t re s p o n s e to th e in t r o d u c t io n o f th e D H P -m e ta b o liz in g m ic ro ­o rg a n is m s o c c u rre d o n ly at th e h ig h e s t (59% ) p r o p o r t io n in th e d ie t .

* International Livestock Centre far Africa (ILCA) P.O. Box 5689, Addis Abeba.

184SXALL-SCALE CATTLE FATTERI5G

Carry Smith*ABSTRACT only

Small-scale cattle fattening is emerging as a profitable, low-risk, and low-input livestock enterprise for Ethiopian farmers. Non- institutional livestock market forces place a high premium on well" finished cattle. Credit packages are now available which provide funds over medium-term periods (2 years) . and enable farmers to fatten up to 3 batches of cattle per year.

Meight gains of 0.5-0.6 kg per day are achieved, using rations based on molecsses/urea mixtures, oilseed cake and straw, and allowing finishing periods of 100 to 120 days. Cattle can be trought to an equivalent finish on pasture or under cut-and-carry feeding systems within 160-180 days. 412 these feeding syeteae show net profits in excess of birr 100 per head.

* Fourth Livestock Developoent Project (FLDP),Kinistry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 62347, Addis Abeba.

185

RESOLUTIONS OF TKE FIRST NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT CONFERENCE

The participants at the First National Livestock Improvement Conference express their satisfaction in having the opportunity to exchange scientific experiences and information through this important forum.

It is the feeling of all participants that this type of meeting is in fact long overdue. They have recalled the National Livestock Research Committee that was established some 10 years ago under the umbrella of the Kinistry of Agriculture and have regretfully noted that • the implementation of its programme has not been initiated so far. On the other hand, the participants are aware that the National Crop Improvement Conference has made and is making a considerable impact on the country's research and development programmes in its sphere of interest. With this background the participants make the following resolutions.

1. That the National Livestock Improvement Conference be held every year during the month of February.

2. That the IAR should sponsor the confarence and the Ministry of Agriculture, Kinistry of State Farms Development, Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Addis Abeba University, and Asmara Universityact as associate sponsors.

The aims and objectives of the NLIC include:

1. promoting national research efforts by providing a forum for the exchange of scientific findings and information,

2. influencing the shaping of policies regarding livestock development towards increased contribution of this sector to the national economy,

3. indicating principal guidelines for research undertakings,

4. reviewing progress of research activities, and

5. establishing and promoting international relations for the purpose of information exchange and facilitation of collaborative research.

Qbsfinva.tlnas ..and EgcQfflaencLatipas

During the 3-aay conference, participants have heard reports from the Institute of Agricultural Research, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of State Farms, and the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission. Discussion groups have reviewed technical and scientific papers, and through plenary sessions the following general observations »and recommendations have been noted and documented for the attention of all concerned.

186 Resolutions of the ELIC

1. Despite the very substantial contribution of livestock tothe country's development in general and its complementarityto crop agriculture in particular, the attention given to the animal sector is, paradoxically, far from adequate.

2. Enabling the peasant sector and parastatals, whose levels ofhusbandry practices are comparatively very low, to benefit from development efforts, the Conference recommends that future research aims more at improving management standards at all levels of operation.

3. Being fully aware of the absence of accurate data andinformation, the Conference recommends that building up baseline data with regard to available resources, total production and productivity of the country's livestock be given highest priority.

4. Realizing the economic importance to the country's developmentof draught and pack power at present and in the forseeable future, noting the neglect and consequent deterioration of the rangelands and appreciating their role in livestock production and taking into aocount the future of apiculture and wildlife in supplementing food requirements and promoting foreign currency receipts, the Conference recommends that draught power, pack animal production, rangeland management, apiculture and wildlife conservation and development be included in the commodity research programmes of the Institute of Agricultural Research.

5. Recognizing the need to establish research and extension on acomplementary footing, closer ties, consultations, and joint exercises between research organizations, teaching institutions and development agencies should be developed and institutionalized.

6. Developing manpower for undertaking research in the animal sciences should be greatly intensified and the appropriate means and incentives be provided,

• 7. Considering the role of research in laying the groundwork for planning, applied research should be a component of the activities of all developmental agencies* and encouragement should be given to research at all levels.

8. Realizing that research in livestock marketing and processing has hitherto been missing from development efforts, due attention should be given to this sphere to fill the gap.

Resolutions of the NLIC 187

Mandats

The participants of this conference mandate the Institute of AgriculturalResearch to:

1. finalize and publish the Proceedings of the conference within 6 months irom this date.

2. co-ordinate and convene the second NLIC at the stipulated date.3. prepare and forward to the second conference, status and by-laws

to govern and administer the HLIC.ACKHQVLEDGEKENT

The participants of the First NLIC record their deep gratitude to the IAR for sponsoring this successful conference.

13 February 1987 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

188LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

IISTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH <IAR>1. Abrehet Habtemarlam 32. Laabourna, L.J.2. Abubeker Xussa 33. Lemma Blru3. Alexou G/Void 34. Lena Glzachew4. Alemu Tadesse 35. Lulseged G/Hiwot5. Adugna Halle 36. Margie Taye6. Aschalew Tseftabun 37. Mulugeta Xekurla7. Asefa Deressa 38. Xulugeta Kebede8. Asnakew Voldeab • 39. Hesru Hussein9. Aster Yohannes 40. Raya Abagodu10. Bedada Glrna 41. Sebslble Denesle11. Bentl Tolessa 42. Seme Debela12. Bereke Tsehai Tuku 43. Sendros Deneke13. Demlssle Tlyo 44. Slssay Lena14. Denbeshu Debeko 45. Solomon Abegaz15. Ephrem Getachew 46. Solomon Glzaw16. Felegeselan Yohannes 47. Tadesse Bekele17. Franzel, S. 48. Tadesse G/Xedhln18. Gebreiuedhin Kagos 49. Tadesse T/t6adik19. Getachew Kassaye 50. Takele Gemeda20. Getahun Demlssle 51. Taye Bekure21. Get1net Gebeyehu 52. Taye Teega22. Glzaw Kebede 53. Tesfaye Alexou23. Hallu Beyene 54. Testaye Xekonen24. Hallu G/Xarlam 55. Teshame Yehualashet25. Hallu G/Xarlaia 56. Tllahun Alesu26. Haehlm Gelete 57. Yibrah Yacob27. Hlruy Belayneh 58. Yohannes GoJam28. Kassabun Awglchew 59. Zlnash Seleshl29. Kassahun V/Gebrlel30.31.

Kelea Kena Kldane G/Xeskel

I5TERNATI0SAL LIVESTOCK CEHTRE FOR AFRICA (ILCA)1. Abate Tedla 10. Haque, 1.2. Abdullah IT. Said 11- Jutzl, Samuel3. Allge Artathl 12. Kabalja* E.4. Asres Teehay 13. Kovalko Esko5. Durkin, J. V 14. Landemon, F.6. Elizabeth Xekonnen 15. Negusse Akalework7. Getachew Asaraenew 16. Sandford, S.G.8. Goe, M.R. 17. Tekllye Bekele9. Guido Gryseels 18. Tothill, J.C

List of Participants 189

ALEMAYA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE <AUA>1. Abebe Hailu 9. Kesfin Abebe2. Adugna Zerehun 10. Michalak, B. V3, All Beker 11. tfegussie Bussa4. Bekele Sissay 12, Teehome Shenkoru5, Beyene Chichaibelu 13. Tilahun Jiffar6. Desta Abare 14, Voldu Debessai7. Getachew Gebru 15. Zerihun Ales8. G03hu Kekonnen

AVASA JUNIOR COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE1. Adugna Tolera 3. Tsige Yohannes Habte2. Peter Viessnanin 4, Teketel Foresido

JIKA JUNIOR COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE1. Abegaz Beyene2. Solonon Deneke

AMBO JUNIOR COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE1. Solomon Xogus2. Stefan Rensing

FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE <FVK>1. Aberra Ayana 6. Million Mulugeta2. Feseha Gebreab 7. Tesfu Kassa3. Getachew Abebe 8. Teshome Kebatsion4, Haile Solomon 9. Yehenew Kekonnen5. Jacques Alamargot 10. Yilma Jobre

COMMISSION FOR HIGHER EDUCATION (CHE)1.. Fisseha Tareke

ADDIS ABEBA UNIVERSITY <AAU>1. Getachew Tilahun

190 List of Participants

KINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE <XDA>

1. Abaye Tedla 36. Kaeea Teferl2. Abebe Teseema 37. Kenfe Getaneh3. Abe be Vondimu 38. Xldane V/Yohannle4. Abun, E.F. 39. Xebratu G/Yeeus5. Alemayehu Xenglstu 40. Xelaku Tegene6. Alemu Sida 41. Xengiste Zewge7. All Moharpmed 42. Xeselech Eyasu6. Amare Beyene 43. Michael, L9. Antonio Diaarla 44. Xohammed Ha seen10* Arqimedes Depaz 45. Xohammed Yosuf11. Asaefa Adane 46. Nigist Shlferaw12. Ayalaw Kaseaye 47. Pierre Puglleae13. Benanldes Chaos 46. Robb, T.S.P.14. Berhanu Sblferaw 49. Seifu Xekonnen15. Daniel Keftasa 50. Slntayehu G/Karlam16. Debela Dlnka 51. Smith, Garry17. Dejene Abesha 52. Solomon H/Xarlaa18. Desalegn Lidetu 53. Solomon Xelaku19. Diza Garcia R. 54. Sora Adi20. Did Llben 55. Tadeese H/Xarlam21. Fesseha Xeketa 56. Teffera G/Xeskel22. Fikre Endalew 57. Tefera Vegderesegn23, Fikr« Joseph 58. Tegene Alemayehu24. F. Thiaucourt 59. Tekle Lenecha25. Ganechu Hernia 60. Tesfaye Hailu26. Getachew Feleke 61. Tesfaye Vudneh27. Getachew Vorku 62. Tessema Adawo28. Getaneh Hailu 63. Teega Alemayehu29. Glnia Bierat 64. Tsehay Seda30. Girina kebede 65. Yemwedew Semagn31. Gizaw legussie 66. Yonas Kunera32. Hassen All 67. Yonas Taressa33. Hesclng L. 68. Zeleke Denatchew34. Hzklas Ketema 69. Zewdu Kebede35. Kassa Bayou• ETHIOPIAN SCIENCE AID TECHNOLOGY COXKISSION (BSTC)

1. Afework Tentine 5. Tesfaye Bekele2. Bekele Shlferaw 6. Salomon Xekonnen3. Lakew Berke 7. Soressa Ergena4. Techane Gezahegn

RELIEF AND REHABILITATION COMXISSION <RRC)

1. Blruk Yei&ane2. Dagnew Eehete3. Tesfaye V/Xlchael

List at Participants 191

OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR CENTRAL PLACING (05CCP)1. Getachew T/Kedbin 3. Vas&ie Berhanu2. Liesanework G/Meskel 4. Yohannes Kebede

SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA REGIOHAL PLANNING OFFICE

1. Getachew EsheteMINISTRY OF STATE FARMS DEVELOPMENT <MSFD>

1. Teisan Ababulgu2. Tesfaye Tenagne

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT ENTERPRISE

1. Belachew Kurrissa2. Volde Beyene

MEAT DEVELOPKENT AND MARKETING ENTERPRISE1. Gelana Kejela 3, Paulas V/Senbet2. Hiwot Menfcere 4, Zerihun Dejene

POULTRY DEVELOPMENT ENTERPRISE1. Afewark A/Michael 3. Genete Bisnu2. Araya Bekele

VILDLIFB CONSERVATION ORGANIZATION1. Sanuel Atnafu

FRENCH VETERINARY MISSION

1. Vigier, MauriceAGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (AID) BANK

1. Mekonnen FantawTROPICAL SCIEHCB CENTRE, GIESSEN, V.GERMANY

1. Steinbach, JorySOVIET PHYTOPATHOLOGY LABORATORY (SPL), AKBO

1. Taye TeferedegnETHIO-LIBYAN AGRICULTURAL CO.

1, Yaicab Likke