Fire, Smoke, and H

azeT

he ASE

AN

Response Strategy

Fire, Smoke, and HazeThe ASEAN Response Strategy

Fire, Smoke, and HazeThe ASEAN Response Strategy

Edited by S. Tahir Qadri

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

This publication was prepared by staff and consultants of the Asian Development Bank. Theanalyses and assessments contained herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the AsianDevelopment Bank, or its Board of Directors or the governments they represent, or the

Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or its Member Countries.

The Asian Development Bank and the Association of Southeast Asian Nationsdo not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and

accept no responsibility for any consequences for their use.

In this publication, the term “Country” does not imply on the part of theAsian Development Bank or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations any judgment

as to the legal or other status of any territorial entity.

© Asian Development Bank 2001

ISBN No. 971-561-338-1Stock No. 121300

Published by the Asian Development BankP.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines

Printed in the Philippines

For more information on ADB, visit http://www.adb.org

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ContentsList of Boxes iv

List of Figures iv

List of Tables v

List of Photographs v

Message vi

Foreword vii

Acknowledgements ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms x

Executive Summary xiii

The Premise 1

1 Understanding Forest Fires—The Global Fire Scene 2

2 Forest Fires and Haze in the ASEAN Region 30

3 Responses to Fires and Haze in the Region 58

The Program 77

4 The Asian Development Bank’s Technical Assistance 78

5 Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan 88

6 The Way Ahead 188

Appendixes 199

Bibliography 232

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Appendixes1 Glossary—Local and Technical Terms 200

2 Regional Haze Action Plan 207

3 Procedure for Formulating and Implementing Fire Suppression

Mobilization Plans 212

4 Fire Danger Rating Systems 215

5 Donor and Partnership Activities 219

6 Outline of the Haze Action Online and Some Aspects of the

Design Standards 225

List of Boxes1 Walker Circulation 12

2 The Air Quality Standards for PM10 Set by International Agencies 17

3 Pollution and Mortality 18

4 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 24

5 Wildfire ’97—Principles and Needs 25

6 Land Conversion and Economic Development 31

7 Tropical Peatlands 46

8 Air Pollution and Health Effects 49

9 The Toll of Haze 50

10 Effects of Haze on World’s Climate 51

11 Achievements of ADB’s Regional Technical Assistance Project 85

12 Firebreaks and Fuelbreaks 98

13 Fire Suppression—Minimum Requirements of Personnel and Equipment 128

14 Institutions Responsible for the ORHAP 171

15 Some Important Fire and Haze Web Sites 183

List of Figures1 Visitations of El Niño 12

2 The Walker Effect 13

3 Generalized Spatial Gradient of Tropical Ecosystems 14

4 Conceptual Diagram of Losses and Benefits of Forest Fires in Indonesia 15

5 Flow Chart of Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System 216

6 Site Structure 230

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List of Tables1 ASEAN Region; Country Information 32

2 Spatial Distribution of Areas Affected by 1994 Fires in Indonesia 45

3 Spatial Distribution of Areas Affected by 1997-1998 Fires in Indonesia 45

4 Losses Resulting from Forest Fires in East Kalimantan, 1982-1983 54

5 Summary of Costs of the 1997-1998 Fires in Indonesia 55

6 Design Options 227

List of PhotographsForest fires extending to the roadsides, Indonesia, 1997 2

Smoke emanating from plantation sites, as seen through satellite imaging,

Indonesia, 1997 30

The aftermath of a forest fire, Indonesia, 1998 58

Training of Indonesian firefighters in the use of spray chemicals, 1997 78

Training of Indonesian firefighters, 1997 88

Smoke from the 1997 conflagration in Indonesia 188

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Message

1997 and 1998 were crisis years for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The financialturmoil that hit ASEAN countries’ economies during this period was compounded by the haze thatenveloped a good part of the region. The pernicious practice of burning forests to clear land for commercialpurposes and the unusually dry weather that caused even the earth to catch fire combined to produce a pallof catastrophic proportions. The loss in terms of agricultural production, transportation, tourism, andother economic endeavors has been estimated at more than $9 billion. The cost to human health, loss ofbiodiversity, destruction of forests, and general environmental degradation is immeasurable.

ASEAN’s response was swift. ASEAN Ministers met frequently to draw up measures to deal with theproblem. They adopted a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP), with corresponding national action plansand implementation measures, prescribing urgent action on three fronts—monitoring, prevention, andmitigation. Resources were mobilized and action undertaken to carry out these plans.

The ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre in Singapore has been strengthened to more effectivelydetect hot spots, predict the weather, and provide early warning of fires. Firefighting mechanisms havebeen organized in fire-prone areas and operational exercises have been carried out. Meetings with plantationowners and forest concessionaires have been organized to impress upon them the seriousness of the zero-burning policy that ASEAN has adopted. And the ASEAN Secretariat has set up a special unit tocoordinate efforts to deal with the haze problem. Meanwhile, in the long term, the ASEAN EnvironmentMinisters have agreed to work on an ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution.

In all this, ASEAN has received the support of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF), United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Development Programme,individual governments, and nongovernment organizations (NGOs).

This publication, a joint effort of ADB and ASEAN, brings together the current knowledge about landand forest fires, examines their causes and impacts with particular reference to Southeast Asia, andsuggests what could happen in the future. It describes and assesses ASEAN’s response to the haze phenomenonand the role of ADB and other international bodies. Finally, it lays down a blueprint for future national,regional, and global action to deal with the haze problem in Southeast Asia.

This work should, therefore, be of great interest to many—national governments, regional andinternational organizations, NGOs, and the media, which wrote so much about the disaster when itoccurred but little about the measures that have been taken to address it.

I wish to extend to ADB ASEAN’s congratulations and appreciation for this publication, a mostvaluable contribution to the reasoned discourse on a serious international problem, with constructiveproposals for action to deal with it. I would also like to reiterate ASEAN’s thanks to ADB for its unremittingsupport for ASEAN’s response to the haze crisis. In so doing, I reaffirm ASEAN’s commitment and resolveto ensure that this disaster does not happen again on such a devastating scale.

RODOLFO C. SEVERINO Jr.Secretary-General

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

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Foreword

Every year, millions of hectares of the world’s forests are consumed by a large number of fires, resulting inbillions of dollars in suppression costs and causing tremendous damage, health problems, and even deaths.The forest fires that have hit the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, especiallyIndonesia, have been particularly severe, with the United Nations Environment Programme labeling theblaze of 1997-1998 among the most damaging in recorded history. The environmental, economic, andsocial dimensions and impact of these catastrophic fires, and the associated transboundary atmospherichaze pollution, were profound.

Most tropical fires are set or spread accidentally or intentionally by humans. When severe droughts overthe last two decades have combined with large-scale logging in the rain forests and indiscriminate use offire for land clearance, the results have been devastating. As a result of these and other contributoryfactors, all areas of ASEAN are prone to wildfires, which are likely to remain a serious threat for some time.

As a partnership for sharing experiences, information, responsibilities, and benefits, and workingtoward common good through joint efforts and approach, ASEAN is in a strong position to address its fireproblem at the regional level. Following the 1997 fires, the affected ASEAN countries assumed a moreoperational stance toward the fire and haze disasters. Major initiatives in response to the 1997-1998fires included national strategies for coordinated action and collaborative regional efforts. At the ASEANlevel, a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) was formulated and endorsed by ASEAN EnvironmentMinisters in Singapore on 23 December 1997. The adoption of this instrument has proved to be a turningpoint in the region’s approach to preventing and mitigating the damage from recurrent fires and haze.The RHAP document is a reflection of ASEAN’s determination to actively tackle the problem.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been playing its part, supporting and catalyzing action toprevent and mitigate the impact of forest fires and haze. It has provided technical assistance at theregional level through the ASEAN Secretariat and advisory technical assistance at the national level toIndonesia.

Intended as a reference source and general guide for fire and haze management in the ASEANregion, this volume primarily targets policymakers and professionals at the regional level and in theASEAN member countries, as well as in other donor countries and agencies. As such, it reviews the fire andhaze situation in the region, but putting it into an overall global context. It draws on the findings of ADB’stwo related technical assistance projects, including lessons learned and proposals for follow-up in the shortand medium term.

The volume is organized into two main parts.THE PREMISE presents in the first three chapters background information relating to forest fires

and associated haze, comparing global responses and initiatives to address the situation. In particular, thesituation in ASEAN is dealt with in some detail.

Chapter 1 focuses on the increasing incidence and intensity of forest fires and haze in recent years,analyzing the major causes and developments in fire science and technology to address these problems.There is also a brief account of international action to address forest fires and haze.

Chapter 2 goes into some detail on the fires and haze that have affected the ASEAN region, providinganalysis on the causes, and the constraints that have exacerbated these causes. Forestland conversion

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involving uncontrolled use of fire in land preparation is identified as a major source of fires, theenvironmental, economic, and social aspects of which are examined.

Chapter 3 discusses the responses at several levels to the recent forest fires and haze in the ASEAN region,particularly the occurrences of 1997-1998. It also provides an analysis of recent trends in donor assistance.

THE PROGRAM, containing Chapters 4 to 6, discusses the programs being implemented in theASEAN region, including regional, subregional, and national components of the Operationalized RegionalHaze Action Plan (ORHAP), to enhance regional preparedness to meet any future occurrences of forestfires and haze.

Chapter 4 details ADB’s two-pronged approach to address transboundary atmospheric pollution in theregion through its advisory technical assistance grant to Indonesia and regional technical assistancegrant to ASEAN. It describes the catalytic role intended, objectives and details of activities, as well as theresults achieved and lessons learned.

Chapter 5 explains the ORHAP and how it is closely linked to, and supportive of, actions at subregional,national, and local levels in ASEAN. The three main program components of prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring and the institutional arrangements for implementation are discussed in detail with referencesto the activities and actions falling under each.

Chapter 6 looks at the important actions required to consolidate the initiatives undertaken so far andto promote and implement appropriate forest fire management in the region, to support rational land useand development. A lesson learned is that cooperation, openness, and dissemination of results amongprojects and relevant government departments is of paramount importance, as is a participatory approach.Millions of people living in rural areas depend on forests for their livelihood. Often, their aspirations for amore decent, secure, and equitable way of life are tied up with forestry development. Organized andinformed participation of these people can help all parties involved to find solutions to their problems. Thelikelihood (in terms of number and intensity) of forest fires can be reduced through rational and balancedmanagement interventions with the full participation of local communities.

A bibliography and six Appendixes follow, providing a glossary of local and technical terms, ongoingassistance programs and activities of the RHAP, procedures for formulating and implementing a FireSuppression Mobilization Plan, fire danger rating systems, funding agencies’ collaboration to combatforest fires and haze, and an outline of the ASEAN Haze Action Online.

ADB stands ready to provide the necessary assistance at the regional as well as at the national level insupport of the efforts aimed at addressing the underlying causes of forest fires and associated haze asdocumented in this publication. But it is important to recognize that the initiative and responsibility forsuccessful implementation rest with the countries concerned. Regional organizations such as ASEAN canact as a facilitator and coordinator of bilateral or multilateral support, using its influence and capacity tomobilize intraregional cooperation and collaboration in dealing with the challenge. In this context, as thepublication points out, the emphasis has to be on prevention, because as the old axiom goes, “prevention isbetter than cure.”

ROLF SELROD ZELIUSChief, Office of Environment and Social Development

Asian Development Bank

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Acknowledgements

This volume is the result of the work of a number of experts and institutions without whose support it wouldnot have been possible to compile the enormous amount of information available and convert it into aconcise publication. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the assistance and support provided by theASEAN Secretary-General Rodolfo C. Severino Jr., ASEAN Environment Ministers, ASEAN SeniorOfficials on Environment, Haze Technical Task Force, ASEAN Secretariat, Regional Haze Action PlanCoordination and Support Unit, and ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre.

Special acknowledgement is due to the following for their efforts, in various capacities, as individualcontributors or as members of various teams, in making this publication possible:

1.Erik Scarsborough, Larry Maramis, Adelina Kamal, Riena Prasiddha, Vinca Safrani, and ConnyAndryani, as members of the management unit, for their valuable contributions throughout theProject that led to this publication.

2. Erly Sukrismanto, as Forest Fire Management Specialist; Djohan Widjaja as InformationManagement Specialist; John Low Kwang Keang as Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology Specialist;John M. G. Hansen, Brian J. Graham, and Bruce J. Arthur, consultants for three AusAID-financedstudies; and Raymond Yee, consultant for the ASEAN Haze Fund Study.

3. Steffen Henkel and Lucia de Carlo, two interns from Passau University, Germany, who providedtheir assistance and support to the management team.

4. The Panel of National Fire Management Experts from ASEAN member countries, who participatedand provided technical inputs in many activities associated with the Project.

5. C. Chandrasekharan, who compiled the first draft of the publication.6. Raman Letchumanan for his excellent suggestions to strengthen the publication.This acknowledgement would be incomplete if support of several regional and international institutions

that collaborated with the Project during its implementation and beyond was not recognized. Theseinclude the Asia-Pacific Center for Environmental Law, EU-Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project,Global Fire Monitoring Center, GTZ-Integrated Forest Fire Management Project, Hanns SeidelFoundation, Indonesian Center for Environmental Law, and several donors, including AusAID, CIDA,JBIC, UNEP, US Agency for International Development; and institutions including the US Forest Service,NOAA, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Office, and WWF-Indonesia.

At the Environment Division of the Asian Development Bank, we would also like to acknowledge theefforts of ADB staff Elizabeth del Mundo, Ruby Arico, Vergel Latay, Julito Baldisimo, Emma Bides, VickyMabugat, and Helen Cruda in finalizing the publication. ADB consultant Graham Dwyer worked ascopy editor, and jointly on the design and typesetting with Segundo Dela Cruz, Jr.

S. TAHIR QADRIEditor

J. WARREN EVANSManager, Environment Division

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ADB Asian Development BankADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness CenterADTA advisory technical assistanceAMC ASEAN member countryAMMH ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on HazeAPI Air Pollution IndexASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsASMC ASEAN Specialized Meteorological CentreASOEN ASEAN Senior Officials on EnvironmentATM atmospheric transport modelsAusAID Australian Agency for International DevelopmentAVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution RadiometerBAKORNAS PB Badan Koordinasi Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (National

Coordination Agency for Disaster Management)BAPEDAL Badan Pengendalian Dampak Lingkungan (National

Environmental Impact Management Agency)BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (National

Development Planning Agency)BMG Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika (Meteorological and

Geophysics Agency)CDC Centre for Disease Control (Malaysia)CIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCIFOR Centre for International Forestry ResearchCOST ASEAN Committee on Science and TechnologyCRISP Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and ProcessingCSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research OrganisationCSU Coordination and Support UnitDIP Detailed Implementation PlanENSO El Niño Southern OscillationENSOI El Niño Southern Oscillation IndexEPA US Environmental Protection AgencyESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFDRS fire danger rating systemFFPCP Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project (of the EU)FFPMP Forest Fire Prevention and Management Project (of JICA)FIRE Fire in Global Resource and Environmental Monitoring

(CEC-JRC)FSMP Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan

Abbreviations and Acronyms

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GAW Global Atmospheric WatchGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGMS Geostationary Meteorological SatelliteGTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (German

Agency for Technical Cooperation)ha hectareHTTF Haze Technical Task ForceICRAF International Centre for Research in AgroforestryIDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster ReductionIFFM Integrated Forest Fire Management Project (of GTZ)IFFN International Forest Fire NewsIGAC International Global Atmospheric ChemistryIMS information management systemsJICA Japan International Cooperation AgencyKBDI Keetch-Byram Drought Indexkm kilometerLAPAN Lembaga Antariksa dan Penerbangan Nasional [Indonesian

National Institute of Aeronautics and Space]m3 cubic meterMACRES Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensingmm millimeterMOFEC Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (Indonesia)mt metric tonNDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation IndexNWFP nonwood forest productNWP Numerical Weather PredictionNGO nongovernment organizationNHAP National Haze Action PlanNMS National Meteorological ServicesNMSs nonmeteorological satellitesNOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationORHAP Operationalized Regional Haze Action PlanPARTS Programme to Address Regional Transboundary SmokePM particulate matterPRC People’s Republic of ChinaPSI Air Pollutant Standard IndexPMU Project Management UnitPUSDALKARHUTNAS Pusat Pengendalian Kebakaran Hutan Nasional (National

Center for Forest Fire Control)RETA regional technical assistanceRHAP Regional Haze Action Plan

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RFA Regional Firefighting ArrangementSEA-EI Southeast Asian Environment InitiativeSEAFIRE Southeast Asian Fire ExperimentSOP standard operating procedureSPOT Satellite Positioning and TrackingSRFA Subregional Firefighting ArrangementSTARE Southern Tropical Atlantic Regional Experiment (IGAC)TEWT Tactical Exercise without TroopsTKNPKHL Tim Koordinasi Nasional Pengelolaan Kebakaran Hutan dan

Lahan (National Coordinating Team for Land and Forest FireControl Management)

UN United NationsUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and CoordinationUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

OrganizationUNICEF United Nations Children’s FundUS United StatesUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentWHO World Health OrganizationWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWRI World Resources InstituteWWF World Wide Fund for Nature

Note: “$” refers to US dollars unless otherwise specified.

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BackgroundIn recent years, forest fires influenced by rapid demographicchanges, increased human activity, and unpredictableclimatic variability have become a major environmentalproblem in the tropical ecosystems of the Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region. Fires andassociated haze have adversely affected the naturalenvironment and threatened the sustainable development andmanagement of natural resources. Hence, fire and hazemanagement has acquired a new dimension in land resourcesand environmental management that must be accordedurgent and utmost attention. The problem and the causes ifnot addressed urgently may not only affect the countries inthe region, but its many impacts may also extend beyondand acquire global dimensions.

Early humans used fire as a tool to alter their surroundingsand later to prepare land for cultivation. The use of managedfires became a common practice in land conversion. However,once out of control due to negligence, carelessness, or arson,the fires led to long-term land degradation and resulted inother detrimental impacts, to the ultimate disadvantage ofhuman society.

Every year, millions of hectares of the world’s forests arebeing consumed by a large number of fires, big and small,resulting in billions of dollars in suppression costs andcausing tremendous damage in lost timber, declines in realestate and recreational values, property losses, and deaths.Wildfires have influenced many aspects of our life: the flowof commodities on which we depend, the health and safetyof the communities where we live, and the resilience of ournatural ecosystems.

Southeast Asian Fires and HazeTropical rain forests are the natural vegetation in large areasof Southeast Asia. These forests grow under conditions ofabundant rainfall, high temperature, and humidity, renderingthem less vulnerable to fires and more resistant to burning.

Wildfires in Southeast Asia since the Pleistocene age weremade possible only by periods of reduced rainfall, long enough

for rain forests to become dry and vulnerable to burning. Inthe Ice Age, extended periods of minimal rainfall occurredin Southeast Asia, making large areas of the regionvulnerable to fires. Only recently, long-term climatevariability, i.e., glacial vs. nonglacial climate and short-termclimate oscillations caused by El Niños, have regularly createdconditions that make even the rain forests vulnerable towildfires. Forest and landfires are also linked to humaninterventions.

Humans have used fires as they settled in the forests forthousands of years to practice swidden agriculture andto help in hunting. Traditional use of fire is thought to havelittle long-term ecological impact on the forests; but increasedpopulation density, shortened fallow periods, and cashcropping made shifting cultivation an agent of ignition, alongwith several other factors.

Since 1982, there have been five major fire outbreaks inSoutheast Asia, with small fires occurring almost annually.The last major fire was in 1997-1998, destroying anestimated land and forest area of more than 9 million hectares(ha) in Indonesia alone.

Underlying CausesAvailability of dry fuel, a source of ignition to set fire, and atransport mechanism such as wind to feed a conflagrationare the main factors behind all major forest fires andassociated haze. Three factors enhance the magnitude of suchoccurrences: direct and immediate causes, contributingfactors or constraints, and indirect or influencing factors.

Direct CausesMost tropical fires are set or spread accidentally orintentionally by humans and are related to several causativeagents; some of them linked to subsistence livelihood,others to commercial activities. Foremost among thevarious underlying causes of catastrophic fires in SoutheastAsia in 1997-1998 are the use of open burning techniquesfor conversion of forestland to other land uses, e.g., estatecrops, industrial plantations, and other commercial

Executive Summary

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enterprises; traditional slash-and-burn agriculture; andspeculative burning to stake land claims.

According to a study conducted by the Ministry of Statefor Environment in Indonesia,* the fires and haze of 1982-1983, 1987, 1994, 1997, and 1998 were due to a wide rangeof factors. These include:

(i) lack of institutional commitment at regional,national, provincial, and local levels to makeinvestments in preventing land and forest fires asopposed to mitigation;

(ii) increased vulnerability of forestlands to fires fromunsustainable forest management and harvestingpractices;

(iii) conflicting roles and responsibilities of institutionsconcerned with managing forestlands and forestfires, especially on the mandate, authority, financialresources, and accountability;

(iv) indifference to the cyclical nature of fires and hazein the region on the part of institutions chargedwith managing forestlands and forest fires, anddisregard for early warning announcements on theonset of El Niño;

(v) inadequate information and systems forcommunication, including ineffectiveness of suchsystems from institutional failure;

(vi) vested interests that marginalize issues relating tofires and haze to favor a particular sector, corporatebody, or individual;

(vii) lack of incentives to promote logging techniquesthat lead to sustainable output of productionforests, and mechanical land clearing;

(viii) inadequate research into the use of loggingresidues as productive inputs and development oflogging products;

(ix) indifference of the private sector (industry, large-scale agriculture, and smallholders) to theenvironmental consequences of large-scale fires;

(x) poorly specified property rights that caused mutualconflicts among numerous classes of land claimants(local residents, government, transmigrants, industry);

(xi) indifference of government and entrepreneurs tolocal customary rights, livelihood strategies, and

traditions that eroded customary law, socialcohesiveness among indigenous groups, andtraditional knowledge regarding prevention andcontrol of fires;

(xii) inadequate knowledge of fire prevention andmitigation techniques exacerbated by a lack ofoperating procedures and appropriate institutionalarrangements for coordinating mitigation activitiesat the national, regional, and international levels;

(xiii) inadequate prevention and mitigation capacity, i.e.,trained personnel, equipment, and facilities at theregional, national, and local levels; and

(xiv) inadequacy or nonexistence of committed fundingfor prevention and mitigation activities at theregional, national, provincial, and local levels.

Contributory FactorsApart from direct causes, there are contributory factors thatincrease the potential of fire danger. These include political,economic, physiographic, sociocultural, and institutionalfactors. In fact, the most important of these are policies andinstitutions.

Lack of political will, inappropriate and poorlyspecified policies, weak legislation, ambiguous regulations,bureaucratic procedures, land-use conflicts, and inadequateresources for enforcement of laws and regulations wereagain and again crucial and crippling constraints. Policygaps and conflicts in land use, tenure security, andeconomic development add considerably to the dangersposed by forest fires.

Indirect FactorsIndirect and influencing factors such as climate and climaticvariation often play a significant role in the setting off offorest fires and associated haze. Climate is an overridingcontrol factor in fire occurrence and frequency. It determinesnot only the vegetation characteristics in a general sense,but also influences soil microorganism activity and thus thelitter decomposition. In tropical lowland environments,

*Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia and UnitedNations Development Programme. 1998. Forest and Land Fires inIndonesia. Volumes I and II.

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litter decomposition is generally fast, and organic matteraccumulation is rarely an important factor. However,climatic seasonality in terms of wetness and dryness is themost important parameter related to fire occurrence. Intropical conditions where seasonal changes are less evident,the weather variations due to climatic disturbances lead tocyclical drought conditions.

Meteorologists consider El Niños as one of the significantaggravating factors behind the rise in temperatures andconsequent drought in Southeast Asia during major firesand haze in the past years. El Niños are an oceanographicphenomenon of strong and extensive warming in the upperocean of the tropical eastern Pacific. An El Niño arises,periodically, to upset global weather patterns. El Niños leadto the strengthening of a warm ocean current called theequatorial counter-current in the mid-Pacific, causing theentire weather mechanism to be disrupted. Rainfall isdelayed, crops are adversely affected, and storms occur wherethey should not.

Investigators of the fires and haze in Southeast Asiaindicated that while the El Niño phenomenon created dryconditions, the direct causes of the damaging fires werehabitual use of uncontrolled, open, and broadcast fires ascheap means of land clearing and preparation by owners ofplantations; small farmers; and slash-and-burn agriculturists.

ImpactsBurning of forests and biomass has serious impacts, oftenresulting in loss of life, livestock, and capital. The damagecaused by fires is often difficult to quantify, especially whennontangible losses are involved. Impacts of forest fires haveseveral dimensions—economic, environmental, ecological,social, and others that could be onsite and offsite, direct andindirect.

The extent of impacts would depend on the frequencyand intensity of fires, fuel load, type of forests involved, andclimatic factors.

Human interventions make tropical forests far morevulnerable to fire than otherwise. The greater the degree ofhuman intervention into the natural tropical forest ecologicalsystem, the more vulnerable these forests become to fire.This conclusion has obvious implications for conversion of

natural forestland to other uses. The Indonesian Ministry ofState for Environment Report quoted earlier provides freshempirical evidence that supports the above conclusion.According to the report, of a total area of 4.8 million haconsumed by fire in 1994, 88 percent comprised logged-over forests or land under cultivation by traditional dry landagricultural techniques.

In contrast, shifting cultivation accounted for only5 percent, transmigration farmland 4.5 percent, plantationsonly 0.8 percent, and natural protected forests a scant0.2 percent. The figures for 1997 tell a similar story. Of allland area consumed by forest fires during the year, logged-over production forests accounted for 62 percent. Theremainder comprised the national parks, 20.6 percent;protection forests, 8 percent; nature reserves, 6.5 percent;and recreation parks, 0.6 percent.

Economic Impact

An estimated spatial distribution of areas affected by1997-1998 fires included more than 6 million ha inKalimantan, more than 1.5 million ha in Sumatra, some1 million ha in Irian Jaya, about 400,000 ha in Sulawesi,and about 100,000 ha in Java. Of the burned area,4.65 million ha is forestland.

The economic loss has been estimated to be about$6 billion. This does not include the full environmental costs,e.g., loss of biodiversity or the cost of social suffering.

Apart from the loss of material goods and services, forestfires have caused serious direct economic losses throughdamage and decline in the quality of forest growing stock,reduced landscape stability, increased proneness to pests anddiseases, reduced availability of forest-based raw materialsupplies, and the need for new investments in forestrehabilitation and fire protection measures. Indirectly theyhave affected agricultural productivity and tourism.

They have also had an impact on indigenous populationsand their means of livelihood, and jeopardized the prospectsand ability of the rural poor to improve their standard ofliving.

Forest fires have also degraded surviving forests byexerting potential impact on composition, regeneration,productivity, protection functions, and aesthetic values.

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Ecological and Environmental Impacts

Ecological impacts of forest fires are reflected in thedegradation of vegetation quality, expansion of savannah andsterile grasslands, erosion of biodiversity, damage to the healthof the forest ecosystem, plant mortality, loss of wildlifehabitat and wildlife, pollution in rivers andestuaries, and overall ecological retrogression. Fires affectthe quality and productivity of soil by destroying humus andaltering its chemistry, increasing soil temperature,destroying microbial inhabitation, reducing moistureretention capacity of the soil, causing erosion of surface soiland nutrient loss, increasing run-off, lowering the subsoilwater table and causing desertification, and ultimately,reducing the carrying capacity of the land involved.

Forest fires contribute to global climate change andwarming. Burning of forests destroys an important sink foratmospheric carbon, while biomass burning is recognizedas a significant global source of emissions, contributing asmuch as 10 percent of the gross carbon dioxide and 38 percentof tropospheric ozone.

Haze formation and dispersion have importantenvironmental dimensions that include air pollution bothwithin boundary and transboundary. Other effects includereduced visibility, transport disruption, and health hazards.Apart from public health, social welfare is adversely affectedthrough displacement of communities, loss of incomesources, and dwindling livelihood opportunities.

ResponsesGlobal Concern

The recurrence of increasingly large forest fires hasattracted world concern, particularly in the industrializedcountries, for the last several years. In those countries, firescience and technology have developed considerably andsophisticated systems are being employed to forecast andmonitor fires and haze through the use of satellite andspace-borne sensors, and climate and transport models. Someof these new technologies are being transferred to tropicaldeveloping countries, but considerable efforts are required tobalance and tune them to their needs.

The increasing frequency and intensity of fires and hazeare alarming and have led to several parallel initiatives

globally. The Antalya Declaration of the Sixteenth WorldForestry Conference in 1997 highlighted the urgent needfor improved and integrated forest fire management.

ASEAN Response

The major haze source countries in the region affectedby the 1997-1998 fires have experienced similar occurrencesduring the last 20 years. Despite these, their capability toadequately respond to the situation has not matched the needs.In this connection, ASEAN has assumed the central role.For several years ASEAN was concerned with the issue oftransboundary atmospheric pollution in the region and somegeneral instruments have been put in place.

Regional Haze Action Plan

Intergovernment efforts of the ASEAN membercountries (AMCs) to address transboundary atmosphericpollution, in the wake of the 1997 forest fires and haze,resulted in the Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP),approved for implementation in December 1997. Theprimary objectives of the RHAP are to: (i) prevent forestfires through better management policies and enforcement,(ii) establish operational mechanisms to monitor land andforest fires, and (iii) strengthen regional land and forestfirefighting capacity with other mitigation measures.

The RHAP has three major component programs:prevention, mitigation, and monitoring. Different countrieshave been designated to spearhead the activities that fallunder each of the three RHAP programs. Malaysia takesthe lead in prevention, Indonesia in mitigation, and Singaporein monitoring of fires and haze. All AMCs will undertakethe national-level actions of the three RHAP programs.Prevention, mitigation, and monitoring will also take placeat the subregional and regional levels. A considerable amountof donor assistance was forthcoming for this crucial initiative,in which the Asian Development Bank (ADB) played acatalytic role.

Role of the Asian Development BankThe RHAP was signed during a period of intense fire, smoke,and transboundary pollution. It was formulated and endorsedwithin an abbreviated time frame, so it was not possible for

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the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze (AMMH) or theHaze Technical Task Force (HTTF) to work out theimplementation details prior to endorsement by the nineAMCs. What the Ministers had in mind when they endorsedthe RHAP document was to initiate a process.

The document had also made it clear that ADB’s assistancewould be sought to implement the plan. ADB’s response tothe requests of ASEAN was fast and firm. It adopted a two-pronged approach, in the form of regional and nationalinitiatives.

The regional technical assistance (RETA) 5778:Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent andMitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution; andadvisory technical assistance (ADTA) INO 2999: Planningfor Fire Prevention and Drought Management were approvedin early 1998. Implementation of these technical assistancegrants has been completed.

The focus of ADB’s RETA Project was to strengthenASEAN’s capacity in operationalizing and implementing theRHAP. The complementary ADTA was designed to estimatethe economic damage caused by the 1997-1998 fires inIndonesia, to provide a basis for policy change, and identifyinvestments needed for prevention and mitigation of forestfires at the country level.

The main objective of the RETA Project was to strengthenand formalize cooperation among ASEAN countries affectedby forest fires and haze by supporting the

• short-term measures aimed at operationalizing theRHAP;

• medium-term measures to strengthen the capacity ofrelevant institutions in implementing the RHAP, andimprove scientific understanding of large-scale fires andtransboundary atmospheric pollution; and

• strengthening the capacity of institutions to implementand institutionalize the RHAP.

These called for several actions to achieve the following:• identify actions to be taken by the AMCs to establish

an institutional framework to address the region’stransboundary haze pollution problem on a long-term,sustainable basis;

• decide the required investments, if any, to support theinstitutional framework;

• catalyze donor collaborative partnerships and activitiesto directly complement the AMCs’ planning inconfronting the region’s transboundary haze pollutionproblem;

• share knowledge and experience as well as efficient andeconomic use of regional firefighting equipment;

• develop formalized cooperation arrangements amongcountries of the region and beyond, to enhancescientific understanding of the causes andconsequences of transboundary atmospheric pollution; and

• establish a regional level framework for joint responsemechanisms through enhancement of ASEAN andassociated institutions’ capacity in the effectiveimplementation and monitoring of the RHAP.

One of the prime needs was to channel all efforts, whetherfunded by the AMCs, ASEAN, or international assistanceagencies, through an operational network of national,subregional, and regional arrangements. The RETA Projectwas able to do this effectively, particularly obtaining donorresources for the implementation of RHAP components.

In tandem with the inception workshop of the RETAProject, an open forum for donor’s participation in assistancefor fires and haze was held in early 1998. This led to anumber of commitments complementing the RETA Projectactivities, and taking over of some activities within theProject’s scope. Resources were utilized for importantunderfunded activities. The assistance of Australia and theUnited States in implementing the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO) program to address the regionaltransboundary haze as well as United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) support in various areas of fires andhaze mitigation deserve special mention.

Achievements of the RETA Project

The RETA Project’s achievements through directintervention and collaboration with other donors weregratifying. These include the following.

A. Through direct intervention:• Compiled baseline information through surveys,

studies, and assessments.• Conducted an inventory of the regions’ firefighting

resources and fire suppression capabilities.

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• Established and strengthened subregional firefightingarrangements.

• Carried out studies and evaluations on ASEAN’sexisting forest fires and haze monitoring system topromote their upgrade.

• Undertook policy studies on the use of market-basedinstruments to promote adoption of mechanical zero-burn land clearing methods and marketing ofproducts using biomass residues as productive inputs.

• Reviewed national and international laws, policies,and institutional arrangements connected withforest fire and haze issues and developed a legalframework and facility for cross-border cooperation.

• Helped to develop regional and national facilitiesfor fire and haze monitoring, e.g., ASEANSpecialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC).

• Developed and strengthened the system ofinformation management at the ASEAN level andsupported the establishment of a regionalinformation center and clearinghouse, whichincluded the setting up of ASEAN Haze ActionOnline.

• Assisted in operationalizing a RHAP that includes asystem of detailed implementation plans at theregional, subregional, and national levels.

• Assisted in organizing institutional mechanisms,particularly for regional coordination, through theestablishment of a Coordination and Support Unit.

• Promoted a continuous dialogue among ASEANmembers and partners as an ongoing system foreffective regional cooperation.

B. Through collaboration with other donors:• Formulated an operating procedure for activating

forest firefighting resources in the ASEAN region,with particular reference to Indonesia.

• Designed a model fire suppression mobilization planand initiated the preparation of Fire SuppressionMobilization Plans (FSMPs) for specific areas.

• Conducted studies on haze transport and climatemodels and harmonization of pollution indexes.

• Catalyzed and collaborated in conducting studies onhealth impacts of haze pollution.

• Promoted development of facilities for training andresearch studies relating to forest fires and hazemanagement.

• Mobilized donor support for fire-and-haze-relatedprojects, e.g., program to address regionaltransboundary smoke (PARTS), forged collaborativepartnerships with other international institutions, andfacilitated donor coordination.

Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP)

The prime output of the RETA Project was anoperationalized version of the RHAP (ORHAP), which wasapproved for implementation by the ASEAN Senior Officialson Environment and HTTF in July 1999. ORHAP had twomajor beneficial impacts on ASEAN. First, it helped ASEANto address the fire-and-haze issue directly, with actions thatincrease the region’s capacity to manage future forest firesand haze. It also catalyzed the beginning of ASEAN’sreorientation from a passive agency that responds to challengesin an ex post manner to a more forward looking institutionthat anticipates challenges and responds to them ex ante.

The programs and activities of the ORHAP are definedconsidering three basic parameters:

• the region’s transboundary pollution problem isultimately driven by national-level policies;

• haze pollution itself results from behavior heavilyreinforced by profit considerations; and

• climate factors act to worsen the tendency of the abovetwo parameters to produce haze.

And five strategic considerations:• the primary goal of the ORHAP is to prevent the

recurrence of transboundary haze and this calls for afocus on fire management;

• endorsement of the RHAP and ORHAP by an ASEANcountry implies limitations on land conversion;

• measures in the ORHAP that remove or address“binding constraints” on preventing or mitigatingtransboundary haze pollution will be given highestpriority. Measures that address successively less bindingconstraints will be assigned successively lower priority.

• the purpose of ORHAP-related measures at regionaland subregional levels is to catalyze and complement,

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rather than to substitute for, the measures carried outat the national level; and

• wherever alternative measures for achieving the sameobjective exist, the one that costs less will beimplemented.

The ORHAP is designed as a rolling plan with ashort-term horizon, to be updated annually, i.e., a detailedimplementation plan for year one plus a regular ORHAPfor the succeeding five years. Thus, the ORHAP is adocument meant to be continually refined and updated.Depending on the evaluation of activities conducted andcompleted in the previous periods, future activities can bemodified, new activities added, and redundant ones deleted.These additional activities are expected to be of two types:those undertaken directly by the AMC governments themselvesand those for which donor support will need to be catalyzed.

The three major programs of ORHAP: prevention,mitigation, and monitoring were divided into 20 activitiesand 50 actions. To implement these programs, the ASEANregion was subdivided into member countries, and each AMChad its own system of provinces, districts, etc. The countryplan, including subplans on fires and haze includes theNational Haze Action Plans (NHAPs), with the countriesfree to adopt their own program structure. The NHAPs arelinked to the ORHAP. As in the case of programs, there couldalso be parallel linkages due to overlapping of interests orother expediency criteria. The two Subregional FirefightingArrangements (SRFAs) (Borneo and Sumatra) within theumbrella of the ORHAP are cases of parallel spatial linkagesat subregional level in respect of a program activity, i.e.,firefighting. Spatially, nine NHAPs and two SRFAs areappropriately linked.

Detailed Implementation Plan

The core of the ORHAP is a Detailed ImplementationPlan (DIP), which contains the provision for actualimplementation of activities. Each DIP is prepared basedon commitments from the AMCs, assistance agencies,donor countries, nongovernment organizations (NGOs),community groups, and other voluntary organizations.

In addition to detailing the organization and designatingthe persons responsible for each action, the DIP also

presents a detailed matrix of the budget, source of funding,time frame, and a monitoring variable to determine thesuccessful implementation of actions. Thus the DIP matrixcan function also as a vehicle for monitoring ORHAPimplementation. Transparency in monitoring is assured bydissemination of the entire DIP matrix to all concernedparties by a restricted access, i.e., password-required,intranet.

While the ORHAP details the steps that ASEAN itselfwill take, donor-assisted initiatives only support the stepstaken by ASEAN. The full complement of concretemeasures that will comprise the implementation strategy alsoneed to be laid out.

Since the actions are undertaken at regional, subregional,and national levels, correspondingly, the DIP is divided intothree. The DIPs relating to various levels together comprisethe ORHAP DIP, which collectively form the detailed“to-do” list that guides implementation over six years. TheORHAP is thus composed of one regional, two subregional,and nine national DIPs.

At the ASEAN level, HTTF will monitor the progressof ORHAP implementation and take action in shapingthe region’s infrastructure for fire protection andmitigation. A brief description of the three major programsfollows:

Prevention

While the program defines its scope, funding determinesthe actual number of incorporated activities. Accordingly,the first six-year rolling ORHAP include 10 activities:

• forecasting climatological conditions that are likely toresult in fires and haze;

• mapping areas subject to heightened risk of forest fires,including how these at-risk areas expand or shrink inresponse to seasonal, annual, or multi-year changes inclimate;

• managing and disseminating information on fires andhaze, the geographical areas that may be affected byhaze, and the human health impacts or likely impactsof existing or forecasted haze presence or movement;

• reviewing the existing policy framework at the nationallevel to determine how the economic incentives that it

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provides are likely to shape the use of fire as a tool orweapon;

• bringing about appropriate policy changes to ensurethat the economic incentives provided by the policyframework at the national level are consistent with thepolicy on open burning;

• providing market-based and other economic incentivesfor promoting the adoption of new products andtechnologies that use biomass, logging, and land-clearing residues as productive inputs;

• formulating, operationalizing, and implementingNHAPs as a foundation to operationalize the RHAP,and increase the degree of readiness to meet forest fireemergencies at the national level;

• harmonizing and integrating NHAPs at the ASEANlevel to ensure collective consistency and effectivenessin jointly responding to regional forest fires and haze;

• developing and implementing institutionalarrangements for linking national firefightingcapabilities in any combination within ASEAN, e.g.,SRFAs, or other mechanisms for coordinating multiplenational firefighting capabilities; and

• formulating, ratifying, and implementing an ASEAN-wide Forest Fire Readiness Protocol that formalizesnational-level firefighting linkages by putting into placeinstitutional arrangements that facilitate rapiddeployment.

In the context of the ORHAP, prevention signifiescontrol of transboundary haze pollution and related damage,both environmental and material, to the fullest extentpossible. It involves efforts on two fronts:

• preventing fires from outside, e.g., agricultural areas,burning forests and other natural vegetation; and

• managing the use of fire for land clearing and refusedisposal so that the extent and density of burning arecontrolled.

Fires should be prevented as much as possible, sincecontrol and mitigation is more difficult and expensive.Prevention is one of the most effective ways of tackling landand forest fires. Management of the land conversion processneeds to be addressed through policy and regulatory measures.The prevention of land and forest fires embraces a wide

range of measures that either modify the fuels found withinor around the fire-threatened resources to reduce the spreadand intensity of fires, or reduce the chances of human-causedignition.

Various categories of fire prevention measures includescientific resource management, policy reforms andmodifications, command and control, public education, andmoral suasion.

Scientific forest resource management regarding firescomprises hazard reduction measures, including rational andcontrolled use of fire, such as prescribed burning. Forestfire management can be an important aspect of sustainableforest management practices to ensure that negative impactsare minimized and positive impacts maximized.

Policy measures involve removal of anomalies in the existingland conversion and related policies, improving the policyenvironment with nondistortionary incentives, andintroducing zero-burn land-clearing systems and market-based instruments.

The regional project carried out a special study on thepotential of promoting mechanical land clearing andmarketing of products based on residues. It noted that thetechnical feasibility of zero-burn land-clearing methods hasbeen proven and demonstrated in a number of cases in theregion. It was the skewed system of incentives involved inthe free use of open fire for land clearing and thelandowners’ efforts to maximize private profits that createddoubts about its economic advantages. From an overallnational and socioeconomic point of view, the system hasseveral merits. In Sarawak, Malaysia, land clearance forcultivation is mostly carried out mechanically and landpreparation for planting follows “zero-burn” methods.

Market-based instruments or approaches can be appliedin several variations to encourage land clearing through zero-burn techniques and to promote products that use the biomassresulting from mechanical land clearing as raw material. Theexact extent and conditions under which zero-burn land-clearing techniques are financially feasible orapplicable are still being worked out. However, availableevidence suggests that these conditions are likely to varywidely. What is certain is that in some haze-source ASEANcountries, explicit and implicit subsidies for land clearance

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reward the use of open burning. For environmentallyconscious operators, the existing indirect subsidies act as astrong disincentive to the use of zero-burn methods. Theincentive system, thus, subsidizes the behavior thatcontributes to transboundary haze pollution and penalizesthe behavior that attempts to prevent it. The use of market-based instruments will partially remove the two-edged biasagainst the use of mechanical land-clearing techniques.

The rationale for market-based instruments is to preventpeople from using fire as a land-clearing tool for their ownmotives at little cost, shunting the bulk of the burden tohaze-recipient populations. On the other hand, operatorsusing mechanical land-clearing techniques bear all of thecosts of land-clearing. Thus, even if open burning was notsubsidized, the operator using open burning enjoys moreprofit than the operator using mechanical land-clearingtechniques. Allowing this is inconsistent with economicefficiency and market principles where producers competeon an equal footing so that society can obtain products atthe lowest possible cost. If for any reason this equal footingis weakened, damaged, or destroyed, society-at-large is theloser. The introduction of market-based instrumentspromotes competition on an equal footing and brings abouteconomic efficiency with society as a whole benefiting.

Command and control is an expression to cover all legalmeasures including instruments, regulatory mechanisms, legalsanctions, and restrictions. Legal measures form animportant fire prevention tool. Command-and-controlmeasures directly regulate human use of fire by imposingsanctions against persons who use it in unapproved ways.Command-and-control measures are therefore implementableonly at the national or subnational level. Nonnationalentities at the regional and subregional levels can play a rolein facilitating or supporting implementation of command-and-control measures at the national or subnational levels.

Public education and moral suasion objectives can beachieved through dissemination of information and use ofthe media. Public education and awareness programsreduce transboundary haze pollution by informingstakeholders of the broader negative effects of open burningand haze pollution. Once they are made aware of theseeffects, at least some of these stakeholders will limit open

burning or even stop this practice altogether. ASEAN willtherefore promote such new programs and expansion ofexisting ones in all member countries by sponsoringworkshops and training programs, especially in key fire-and-haze-prone areas.

Moral suasion initiatives reduce transboundary hazepollution by publicly informing stakeholders who are temptedto practice uncontrolled open burning of the broadernegative effects of the practice. ASEAN undertakes suchinitiatives by meeting directly with representatives ofrelevant private sector firms as appropriate, and discussingthe broader negative impacts of uncontrolled open burningand transboundary haze pollution.

Mitigation

To reduce the impacts of fires and haze, mitigation callsfor action at three stages: pre-event, during the event, andpost-event. These three stages consist of the followingactivities: (i) preparedness to face fires where actions oninfrastructure, equipment, strategies and logistics, training,crew fitness, surveillance, etc., are planned and implemented;(ii) suppression, including aspects of detection, quickcommunication of information, crew mobilization anddispatch, provision of water, movement of equipment,coordination of field action, e.g., of aerial and groundoperations, firefighting, and extinguishing of fires; and (iii)relief to those affected by haze pollution and fires, includingmedical attention and compensation, and rehabilitation torepair damage to property and resources.

Mitigation is closely linked with other ORHAP programs.Prevention, e.g., firebreaks, fuel load control, otherpreventive measures, and monitoring includes weathermonitoring, fire modeling, fire spotting, and early warning.Many of the time-consuming operations are carried out whenthere is apparently no fire danger. For example:

• developing and maintaining infrastructure, waterstorage, firebreaks and fire corridors, aircraft landing sites;

• acquiring, maintaining, and stock verification of toolsand equipment, e.g., hand tools, heavy equipment, waterhoses and tankers, communication equipment, etc.;

• preparing and revising fire maps, informationmaterials, guidelines, and instructions for crew;

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• planning for fire emergencies, covering strategies andlogistics;

• establishing fire detection, surveillance, i.e., aerial andground, and intelligence systems;

• preparing resource mobilization plans;• contacting community leaders, cooperating agencies,

and volunteers;• conducting training and retraining for various levels;• reviewing, modifying, or improving organizational

arrangements, and standby and response orders; and• conducting dry runs and intensive drills, and keeping

the crews in good shape.The activities are carried out as per plan to keep the whole

system in a “well-oiled” condition, and ensure that nodetails are overlooked and “the war is not lost for want of anail.” Two important initiatives to promote “betterpreparedness” undertaken during the execution of theRETA Project, and still continuing, were: (i) preparation ofa system of FSMPs; and (ii) establishment of working groupsfor SRFAs.

FSMPs are required to start from the village level andmove upwards through the institutional hierarchy, to belinked at district, provincial, and SRFA levels to ensure aneffective functioning system.

When the process of formulating or upgrading FSMPsfor various areas is completed, a database containing allrelevant information such as the training and equipmentrequirements, operational costs of implementing the FSMPs,and inventory of skilled personnel and equipment needs tobe assembled. This must be carried out individually for eachgeographic area, and the results aggregated at the nationallevel. Regular and continuous updating of this database wouldensure better utilization at the time of need. Thegovernment agency performing this task at the national levelshould be assigned the lead role in fire management.

SRFAs: The main rationale for subregional cooperationin fire management and suppression is cost effectiveness.One means of increasing the cost effectiveness of firesuppression at the national level is by risk pooling at theinternational level. This involves supranational sharing offire suppression resources during periods of peak demand.

Because the risk of large-scale fires occurring

simultaneously in all countries in a regional or subregionalgrouping is slight, resources on standby in a membercountry not threatened by fire can be used to augment thosein places where fire suppression resources are fully employed.

Since the overall risk of transboundary haze and the firesthat cause them is so unevenly spread across the region, thesubregional level is the key in organizing and carrying outcooperative mitigation-related activities under the ORHAP.The same is true with monitoring activities.

Two SRFAs are in place. SRFA Sumatra’s membershipcomprises Indonesia as lead country, Malaysia, andSingapore. SRFA Borneo’s membership comprises BruneiDarussalam as lead country, Indonesia, and Malaysia. A thirdSRFA for the Greater Mekong subregion (SRFA-GMS) hasyet to be officially formed, because the impetus for this, i.e.,extensive large-scale fires within the area, has not yet arisen.SRFA-GMS would group all AMCs through which theMekong River flows: Cambodia, the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam.Its formation would leave the Philippines as the only ASEANcountry not a member of an SRFA. This deficiency couldeasily be repaired by the Philippines joining SRFA Borneo,which would be fitting, because of the country’s proximityto Borneo.

ORHAP activities to be carried out at the subregionallevel must avoid violating an individual member country’snational sovereignty in two key areas. First, therequesting country only may trigger the physical entry offire management personnel and equipment from onemember country into another’s territorial boundaries. Thehost country alone must decide when the threshold atwhich large-scale fires can no longer be contained bynational fire management resources has been breached,and suppression resources drawn from the supranationallevel will be required to prevent haze from violatinganother country’s airspace.

Second, the deployment of suppression resources drawnfrom the supranational level must take place on the basis ofan agreed subregional FSMP, rather than on an ad hoc basisimprovised at the spur of the moment. The subregional FSMPshould, as a first step, work out logistics for efficientdeployment of national fire management resources. Only

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then should deployment of supranational resources beintegrated into the national level framework.

The ORHAP’s mitigation program has identified fourpriority activities for the first six years of the rolling plan: (i)formalizing arrangements for improved training andretraining of forest firefighters at the national andregional level to ensure that trained personnel are adequatelyequipped to cope with future forest fires; (ii) inventoryingexisting firefighting capability at the national level,including all aspects of equipment and personnel, todetermine the maximum scale of forest fire that existingresources are equipped to handle; (iii) strengtheningfirefighting at the national level where each AMC’scapability is sufficient to cope with forest fires likely tooccur on an annual basis; and (iv) ensuring the continuedreadiness of firefighting capability at the national level throughregular maintenance of equipment and upgrading of skillsof firefighting personnel.

Monitoring

There are large variations in the scope, methods, types,purposes and objectives, and outputs of monitoring.Monitoring can be an event, a process, or an output; it canbe discreet, continuous, or incremental; it can be tackleddirectly, indirectly, or by proxy measures; it can be donefrom ground (site) or air (remote).

It can employ simple methods or measures, i.e.,number, area, volume, profit or sophisticated technologyinvolving satellites, computers, and systems scienceproviding for multiple linkages, e.g., weather data,economic data, management information system,geographic information systems, and facilities to importand export information.

The data needs of sophisticated monitoring systems areoften tremendous, ranging from land-use changes anddemographic trends to socioeconomic indicators,hydrometeorological factors, spatial and temporaldistribution of relevant factors, and environmental standards.

While the ORHAP has defined the scope of monitoringbased on the needs and priorities of the region, six activitieswere included in the ORHAP’s current monitoringprogram, including:

• detecting wildfires;• predicting and tracking the movements of the resulting

haze;• forecasting the degree of wildfires likely to generate

haze, as well as the type or composition of emissionsthat might be generated;

• determining the likely health impacts from typical orparticular haze;

• identifying the areas historically affected by forest firesand haze in the region, or those likely to be affected byparticular occurrences; and

• assessing the impact of past forest fires, including theextent of area burned, the composition of flora andfauna destroyed, and the socioeconomic cost ofparticular forest fires at the local, national, and globallevels.

The scope of monitoring of fires and haze covers earlywarning and fire danger rating, large-scale fire managementassistance, atmospheric pollution, and health impacts of hazeand ex-post monitoring.

Early warning system. The early warning system aims toprovide a measure of the risk of fires and to communicatethe information in a timely manner to the central,provincial, and district authorities and the community as awhole. Fire danger warning is probably the central functionof a fire monitoring system, and most other activities are, inone way or the other, related to this important aspect.Simplicity is the primary hallmark of any early warningsystem. The warning system is based on climate models andforecasting of weather trends. The El Niño SouthernOscillation index is a useful predictor of fire weather in theregion.

Nearly all fire danger rating systems incorporate threebase weather variables: rainfall reflecting wetness ordryness, relative humidity, and maximum temperature. Moresophisticated indexes add fuel types and land useclassification to the base weather variables.

Relative humidity and maximum temperature remainrelatively uniform in the parts of the ASEAN region affectedby forest fires over the past two decades. They are thus poorpredictors of fire activity. Neither are the data on fuel typesparticularly helpful, since the purpose of deliberate open

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burning is to consume whatever fuel is present. Therefore,there is need to develop a fire danger index that is mostappropriate to the situation in the ASEAN region. Efficacyof different systems such as the Keetch-Byram DroughtIndex (KBDI), Rainfall Debt, and the Canadian Fire WeatherIndex in their modified forms have been assessed.However, a decision on a common fire danger index for theregion is yet to be taken.

Large-Scale Fire Management Assistance. If a wildfireoccurs in spite of the early warning system and thepreventive measures taken, the monitoring system shouldbe able to detect the fire and begin tracking changes in itsstatus. The system should determine first the preciselocation of the fire so fire management resources can bedeployed quickly to the fire site. It should then track anyspread of the fires and resulting haze, thereby assistingnational and regional authorities in managing the fire andin activating any preestablished haze response systems. Theimportant technical activities that comprise an appropriatefire-and-haze detection and tracking system includeintensive surveillance and haze transport modeling. Theregional and national capabilities in this regard are beingenhanced through international assistance.

Atmospheric Pollution and Health Impact of Haze. Thenature and severity of the smoke emission, the direction andvelocity of its dispersion, its persistence and duration, i.e.,atmospheric residence-lifetime, the height at which itresides, its impacts on the economy and society, and smokeattenuation, etc., are influenced by various factors and formthe specifics of haze monitoring. The fuel type and theinteraction of haze with other atmospheric pollutantsinfluence the nature and chemistry of the smoke, itsparticulate conversion ratio and carbon monoxide and carbondioxide ratio in haze, as well as its impact on visibility. Thesein turn define the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) and/or AirPollution Index (API). Wind movement and velocity andother climatic factors decide the residence time of haze overthe atmosphere. A considerable amount of research is stillneeded to fully understand the haze formation and dispersalphenomenon.

The negative impacts of haze on human health are closelyrelated to the density and chemical composition of the

emissions that escape from large-scale fires. The mainpurpose of atmospheric monitoring is to provide timely hazewarnings based on the PSI and API. A warning system forhaze relies on the ability to predict deterioration visible inany place over a long period, as meteorological forecastingskills permit. The most basic forecasting tool is a box modelthat accepts the generated smoke into a fixed volume air.

Ex-post monitoring. The purpose of ex-post monitoring isto correctly measure the various impacts of fires and haze,to plan remedial measures.

Information Needs. The types of monitoring data andmeasurements involved in fires and haze are varied innature, e.g., land-based measurements, ship-platform-bornemeasurements, aircraft-borne measurements, satellite andspacecraft-borne measurements, and a wide range ofmeteorological information.

To obtain high accuracy, data need to be properlycalibrated and validated. The analysis of data will requirethe availability of a geographic information system database,which must comprise regional vegetation distribution map,fuel map, fire risk map, and land use map with informationon fire agents, causes, etc. For combined fire-smokeanalysis, this kind of database can then be linked toatmospheric chemical analyses.

ASMC in Singapore is the prime regional institution formonitoring forest fires and associated haze and gatheringrelated information, supported by national meteorologicalservices. Together they carry out (i) traditional activities relatedto meteorological monitoring and forecasting; (ii) monitoringand surveillance functions, including hot spot identificationthrough satellite imageries, haze trajectory modeling,compiling monthly and seasonal climate predictioninformation, and activities related to air quality monitoring;and (iii) effective and prompt dissemination of informationto environmental and other agencies engaged in fire and hazeresponse and management, and to the public through theInternet and news releases.

Institutions. Under the ORHAP, there is no program oninstitutions. However, strengthening of institutions is acrucial requirement, impacting on other programs. Theaspects and subjects falling under institutions are(i) organizational arrangements, (ii) regulatory and legal

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instruments, (iii) capacity building, (iv) donorcollaboration and partnership arrangements, (v) a systemfor continuous planning, and (vi) information management.

Organizational System. The ORHAP is a niche in theorganizational structure of ASEAN and benefits from theexisting infrastructure and arrangements. However,strengthening will be needed in areas of particular relevanceto the ORHAP, e.g., information management.

Within the ASEAN system, HTTF has the primaryresponsibility to manage and monitor the ORHAP. HTTFshares this responsibility with a number of regional andnational institutions, i.e., vertically and laterally. Thefollowing is a list of responsible institutions:

• ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment;• ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze;• ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment;• HTTF: Indonesia (Mitigation), Malaysia (Prevention),

and Singapore (Monitoring);• Working Group on SRFA-Borneo;• Working Group on SRFA-Sumatra;• ASEAN Secretariat-RHAP Coordination and Support

Unit, supported by the Environment Unit, theAgriculture and Forestry Unit, Information and LibraryUnit, Computer Unit, and Culture and InformationUnit;

• ASMC, Singapore;• dialogue partners and collaborative partnerships; and• NGOs and the private sector.With such a long list, the need for coordination is

evident. The role of the RHAP Coordination and SupportUnit (CSU) within ASEAN is crucial. CSU needsconsiderable strengthening of resources, facilities, andexpertise.

Regulatory and legal instruments. Policy and legalinstruments are interrelated. The present policy approachconcerning response to wildfires and land-use fires is oftenan ad hoc reaction to a situation that has already developed,rather than proactive mitigation before the emergency arises.Frequently, policy development does not consider theunderlying causes of fire incidence and spread, which maylie outside the forest sector, such as rural poverty anddeprivation or the effects of other public policies related to

land use and incentives. Sometimes forest fire incidence andspread may be caused by ill-conceived forest management,in particular, total fire exclusion policies that have led to fuelaccumulation and catastrophic fire outbreaks.

Policy objectives and measures relating to forest firemanagement need to be clearly articulated and be in tunewith the nation’s environmental and socioeconomicpolicies. Forest fire laws and regulations should bedeveloped for the enabling policy objectives to be translatedrealistically into action and linked to overall environmentaland forest laws. There should also be mechanisms withadequate capability and powers to deal with environmentalcrimes relating to fire.

In short, public policy on fire should be a dynamicpolitical manifestation of the people’s concern for theirenvironment, health, and social welfare, and trust in thesystem of resource governance. Their trust should not bebetrayed.

A viable and efficient legal system is important fortranslating policies into action. Legal instruments help toachieve policy objectives and to implement policy measures.The legal instruments covering the laws, rules, regulations,agreements, and covenants empower an institution to takeappropriate action for achieving its mission. Laws containenabling provisions to establish adequate regulatorymeasures to ensure achievement of policy objectives. Theydefine the power of the State and the nature and scope of itssectoral institutions.

Legal instruments at the national level as a means ofcontributing to the achievement of policy objectives affectgovernmental agencies and the public. Governmentagencies stipulate the responsibilities and actions that theagency and its personnel are to carry out, and explicitly orimplicitly, the limits of its authority.

Smooth implementation of the ORHAP at the regional,subregional, and national levels through cooperative,collaborative and joint activities, and related institutionalarrangements calls for a number of interagency andinternational agreements for legally formalizing sucharrangements within the ambit of a mother agreement and/or an operational protocol. An initiative to establish anASEAN Agreement on Atmospheric Haze Pollution in the

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form of a mother agreement is in progress and expected tobecome operational by 2001.

Capacity Building. Capacity building needs to beundertaken on a continued basis to avoid redundancy. Twoaspects that need to be underlined in this connection areresearch and development, and education and training.Currently, there are several project components beingimplemented to improve the capability of AMCs in fire andhaze management.

Donor Collaboration and Partnerships. Donor support andresources have made vital contributions to address theimpacts of repeated forest fires and haze. The donorsprovided a substantial amount of funds for short-termsuppression activities. While this has no doubt beenappreciated by AMCs, the sustained funding of short-termfire suppression over an indefinite period is neither feasiblenor would it be an efficient use of scarce donor or affected-country resources.

The challenge now is to use the intervening periodbetween the end of the last El Niño and the onset of the nextto put into place an institutional framework that willprepare the region for subsequent periods of vulnerability toforest fires and haze. This preparation should be such thatASEAN will never again have to resort to a crisismanagement style response during periods of heightenedrisk, as it did during 1997-1998. Accomplishing this willrequire donor funds to be used as efficiently as possible.

While assistance projects play vital roles, it is crucial toensure that they are fully owned by the AMCs and integratedinto the ORHAP, so that activities can run on effectively evenafter the external assistance is terminated. The role of thedonors in addressing the fire-and-haze issue will also have tobe redefined. Fire-and-haze-related donor activities will haveto be integrated through explicit partnerships, rather than eachof the donors simply becoming aware of other donors’involvement. A start has been made in this direction byintegrating all donor activities directly into the ORHAP-DIP.When used as intended, the DIP places the onus of developingan integrated operational plan for confronting the fire-and-haze issue directly on the AMCs and ASEAN itself.

System of Continuous Planning. Planning is an institutionalresponsibility. Preparation of a plan involves several

institutional players and inputs from experts andstakeholders. Conceptually, the ORHAP has all theimportant characteristics of a formal plan, specifically of anaction plan. The nature and emphasis of certain levels ofactions may vary when compared to a sector plan or adevelopment plan. However, the ORHAP can and doesfunction within the confines of a broader planningframework. The system of continuous planning incorporatesupdating of the six-year rolling plan and the DIP,monitoring and implementation of the ORHAP, andestablishment and operation of an ASEAN Haze Fund.

ASEAN Haze Fund. A study aiming to determine thefeasibility, purpose, concept, and alternative financingvehicles for the establishment of an ASEAN Haze Fund wascarried out under the auspices of the RETA Project. It alsoidentified various management and institutionalarrangements, including operational guidelines for the fund.The study concluded that the creation of the ASEAN HazeFund is not only feasible but urgent to finance ORHAP-related activities, particularly fire suppression andmitigation operations.

This can be achieved through a cohesive and integratedframework, drawing on the resources of AMCs, includingother sources of funding. Action to establish the fund ispending.

Information Management. The importance of informationon fire and haze management cannot be overstressed. Whilethe communication system has achieved a high level ofsophistication in various spheres of life, there are gaps inthe system being used in fire and haze management inSoutheast Asia. At site or near fires in comparativelyunderdeveloped areas, there is often no access to newcommunication systems.

The following are some of the important problemsrelating to fire information management identified duringthe 1997-1998 fires and haze in Southeast Asia:

• data are spread out around various institutions that areoften reluctant to share them. If and where available,data are not consistent or in compatible format, andare of low quality and expensive;

• data cannot be communicated in time when neededbecause telecommunication facilities are not adequate;

xxvii

• reliable human resources to gather and process dataare limited. Data on the 1997-1998 fires were mostlymonitored by three foreign-funded satellite-monitoringprojects operated by foreign experts;

• data processing was not adequate to produceinformation for supporting fire management; and

• there is lack of a proper communication plan.A study carried out by the RETA Project identified four

broad categories of information management functions: (i)policy, planning, and program development; (ii) regulatoryand technical services; (iii) administrative services andsupport; and (iv) internal information management, whichtogether formed the ORHAP information systemsarchitecture. The purpose was to summarize the informationpackages and database to suit the needs of fire and hazemanagement. These are now being put into practice.

Regional Information Center and Clearinghouse. Based onthe study, a regional information center and clearinghousewas established at the ASEAN Secretariat. It includes: real-time satellite imagery; a continuously-updated inventory ofrelevant donor-assisted initiatives; information on past,present, and future meetings, workshops, seminars, andtraining programs related to transboundary haze; andnumerous other features. As the most efficient means ofdisseminating this information, a public-access web site availableover the Internet (http://www.haze-online.or.id) on fires andtransboundary haze was established in the region. TheCoordination and Support Unit (CSU) is now responsiblefor the information center and clearinghouse.

To ease the flow of information connected with theimplementation of the ORHAP among members of theHTTF, AMMH, and international agencies, a restrictedaccess, i.e., password-required, intranet was established inparallel with the public access Internet web site. This is beingused to allow continuous updating of the various DIPsrequired for ORHAP implementation.

Training programs in the operation and maintenance ofthe web site were formulated and conducted by the RETAProject. Trainees included ASEAN Secretariat staff whowould maintain the web site’s content, as well as staff fromthe Secretariat’s Computer Unit, who would be responsiblefor integrating the web site into the ASEAN Secretariat’s

overall network of computer users. Separate trainingprograms were conducted for staff supporting the work ofHTTF members, to ensure that they would have continuousaccess to the information posted on the ORHAP intranet.

Looking AheadEndorsement of the RHAP document was a watershed inASEAN’s approach to managing the region’s transboundaryhaze pollution problem. While several activities have alreadybeen initiated during the last two years under theoperationalized RHAP, it still needs to be consolidated as asustainable system.

Based on past lessons and studies about the futureoutlook of fire factors and likelihood and fire and haze, thereis a pressing need for strengthening the ASEAN regionalcollaboration in various areas and aspects related to fire andhaze management. These include joint activities,continuation and completion of ongoing activities,consultation and undertaking of new activities, fine tuningof fire-related policies, common standards and approaches,a legal system to facilitate regional cooperation, instrumentsfor transboundary haze pollution control, institutionalizationof forest fires and haze management, providing a perspectiveframework for the ORHAP, and elevating institutionalstrengthening to the status of a program.

Joint Activities. Joint activities of different nature, i.e.,collective, cooperative, collaborative, and coordinated,suitable for the different contexts are important means ofstrengthening the regional approach. Policy studies, researchand development, specialized training, remote sensing andsatellite-based monitoring, and SRFAs are some of theactivities where cooperation has been initiated. Thiscooperation needs to be further strengthened.

As and when conditions becomes more conducive, and ifeconomy and efficiency warrant it, more and more activitiesrelated to fire management can be brought under the regionalpreview.

Continuation, and Completion of Ongoing Activities. Severalactivities have been initiated by the ORHAP under theauspices of the RETA Project. Some activities have beenstarted and are ongoing, some are in a nascent stage, andothers are still in the form of a plan awaiting approval for

xxviii

funding. Some activities are of considerable magnitude, someare complex in nature, some are short term, and others areof a medium-term nature.

An important task ahead is to carry these activitiesforward, enhance their functioning, or complete them asnecessary to realize the goals. Some of the activities to beseen through are: (i) Completing the network of FSMPs,linking village units all the way up to the regional (SRFAs)level; (ii) increasing and improving the monitoring capacityof ASMC, and establishing an effective monitoring systemnetwork; (iii) completing the work on policy changesinvolving introduction of market-based instruments, systemof responsible land clearance bonds, mechanical landclearing, and model codes of practice; (iv) providing trainingprograms on firefighting, fire management and monitoring;and (v) establishing the Regional Fire Research and TrainingCenter for Land and Forest Fire Management.

Consultation, Program Modification, and New Activities. Ameans of strengthening regional collaboration is throughregular and periodical consultation among the AMCs toreview the implementation of the ORHAP and assess theneed for program modification, including new activities.Some ideas have already come up. These include publicationof the ASEAN Forest Fire Bulletin, establishment of Pan-ASEAN Fire Centers; incorporation of public health-relatedactivities in the ORHAP; and promotion of dedicatedsatellites for fire monitoring.

Fine-Tuning Policies. There is no separate forest fire policyin the AMCs. Fire-related policies are included as clauses orprovisions in other related policies, e.g., forest policy,environmental policy, land development policy, etc. Separateregulations corresponding to these policy clauses are oftenissued. These lead to inconsistencies and even conflicts as faras forest fire and haze-related actions are concerned. There isa need for fine-tuning of fire-related policy provisions byremoving inconsistencies and providing appropriate focus.Better still, a separate policy statement on forest fires and haze canbe formulated following the accepted procedure involving policyformation, articulation, and formulation.

Catalyzing policy changes relating to the use of fires thatcause atmospheric pollution is not easy. This is a medium-term task that is being undertaken by some

countries with bilateral support from internationalagencies.

An ASEAN regional framework policy on forest fireand associated haze can serve as a model for AMCs toformulate or modify their own policies to suit their needs.

Common Standards and Approaches. For the jointefforts as envisaged in the ORHAP to succeed, it isnecessary to adopt common standards and commonapproaches. The need for harmonization of hazepollution indexes, standardization of the fire dangerrating system and hot spot algorithms, commoncurriculum for fire management training, standard termsand definitions, and common and harmonized system ofweights and measures exemplify the importance ofcommon standards and approaches.

Legal System for Regional Cooperation. The differentlevels in the legal system of the ORHAP will roughly be(i) regional level convention or a mother agreement;(ii) specific agreements such as on transboundary hazepollution; (iii) agreements related to situation andtransaction, such as an agreement for sharingmeteorological information; and (iv) standard operatingprocedures for actions falling within the purview ofspecific agreements, i.e., standard operating proceduresfor cross-border transfer of firefighting equipment.

For international agreements to be drawn up forvarious aspects of ORHAP implementation, an enablinglegal instrument is necessary. Sustained implementationof the ORHAP would be facilitated significantly by amother agreement, or a comparable legal instrument thatembodies various agreements at the bilateral, subregional,and regional levels. The ongoing initiative for an ASEANAgreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution is a prioritythat needs to be seriously pursued.

Institutionalizing Forest Fire and HazeManagement. Sustainability of human-made systems suchas forest fire and haze management depends on howeffectively it has been institutionalized with appropriatemission, structure, and controls for continued and efficientfunctioning. It is necessary to ensure that the institutionalframework is sound and capable of systematicenhancement.

xxix

A Perspective Framework for the ORHAP. The emphasis ofthe ORHAP is on implementation and action. As a rollingsix-year plan, its horizon is short. While this has merits fromthe short-term operational point of view, its lack of a long-term perspective has some serious disadvantages,particularly affecting the consistency of approach anddirection. In the absence of a long-term perspective withinwhich the ORHAP could be designed across a rolling timeframe, there are no long-term scenarios or reference pointsto guide annual forward planning. This can lead to planners’bias in the add-on plans, potentially leading to unsteady oreven a lack of progress.

On the other hand, a long-term perspective plan, of whichthe ORHAP will be a part, has the advantage that it canbetter rationalize the program structure and balance, toachieve the goals in the shortest possible time. As theperspective plan by definition will be closely linked withother related sectors, it also helps to obtain a holisticunderstanding of the ecological and human aspects of forestfires and haze.

This is an aspect to be considered along the way aheadand acted upon.

Program Status for Institutional Strengthening. In spite ofthe ORHAP principle that the fire and haze problem ofASEAN region cannot be fixed, but should be managed,there exists the potential danger that it may still concentratemostly on technical fixes. It is to be noted, however, that themost important impediment in fire and haze managementhas been the weaknesses and rigidities of institutions andinstitutional instruments. The three programs of the ORHAP(prevention, mitigation, and monitoring) are technicalprograms; it may be worthwhile to incorporate institutionsor institutional strengthening as another program.

ConclusionsThe ORHAP has been designed as a people-oriented, public-interest-propelled system, with a mission to defend the humanenvironment and particularly to prevent transboundary haze.Through its mission to manage forest fires and associatedhaze, the ORHAP can and should serve as a stabilizing forceto support land- and forest-based development in the region.The laudable commitment of ASEAN in this regard needsto be kept undiminished. Complacency should avoided, as itwould blunt this commitment.

The Premise

“The shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not just water, but the blood of our

ancestors . . . The rivers are our brothers, they quench our thirst. The air is precious to the

red man, for all things share the same breath—the beast, the tree, the man, they all share

the same breath . . . The earth does not belong to man: man belongs to the earth . . . All

things are connected like the blood which unites one family . . . Whatever befalls the earth,

befalls the sons of the earth. Man did not weave the web of life; he is merely a strand in it.

Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.”—Native American Chief, Seattle

“The earth we abuse and living things we kill, in the end, take their revenge; for in

exploiting their presence, we are diminishing our future.”—Marya Mannes

2 THE PREMISE

The Burning IssueThe Report on Global Environmental Outlook2000 prepared by the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) paints adevastating picture of the earth’s health at thedawn of the new millennium. The planet isundergoing an unsustainable course ofdevelopment, fueled by a relentless decline inthe environment and degradation of naturalresources.

Contributing to this decline are theuncontrolled and wildfires rampaging throughlands and forests, affecting the environmentalquality and ecological resilience of our habitat.

Occurring in agricultural land, forests, andrural areas, spreading from one area to another,burning furiously, and causing heavy andsuffocating haze, the fires that ravaged theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) region in 1997-1998 reacheddisastrous proportions. The environmental,economic, and social dimensions and impactof the catastrophic fires, and the associatedtransboundary atmospheric haze pollution, wereprofound. The haze caused by theconflagration in the ASEAN region andelsewhere was directly linked to importantissues of land use and abuse, toxiccontamination, biodiversity conservation,greenhouse gas emissions, and particularly tothe importance of fire management within anoverall regime of land resource management.

Experience indicates that the underlyingcauses of fires cannot be fully removed and thereis no easy remedy. Hence, abatement througheffective and integrated fire managementassumes great relevance and urgency.

Global Fire OccurrencesThe annual rate of deforestation indeveloping countries during the 1980s was16.3 million hectares (ha), while thecorresponding figure for the developing

Understanding Forest Fires—The Global Fire Scene[This chapter discusses the increasing incidence and intensity of forest fires and associated haze inrecent years, while underlining the uses of fires as an ecological agent and tool in land and forestmanagement. The major causes of forest fires are analyzed, and the development of fire science andtechnology as a means of addressing devastating fires is traced. A brief account of international action inthe field of forest fires and haze is also provided.]

CHAPTER 1

Forest fires extendingForest fires extendingForest fires extendingForest fires extendingForest fires extendingto the roadsides,to the roadsides,to the roadsides,to the roadsides,to the roadsides,Indonesia, 1997Indonesia, 1997Indonesia, 1997Indonesia, 1997Indonesia, 1997

Photo: Photo: Photo: Photo: Photo: Anonymous

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 3

countries of the Asian and Pacific region was4.3 million ha. During the period 1990-1995,there was not much change in the rate ofdeforestation, standing at 13.7 million ha forall developing countries, and 4.2 million ha forforests of the Asian and Pacific region (FAO1997). While several causes have beenattributed to the alarming rate of deforestation,in the majority of cases, fire has played adecisive role (Mol et al. 1997).

Every year, millions of hectares of the world’sforests are being consumed by fires, big andsmall, resulting in billions of dollars insuppression costs and causing tremendousdamage in lost timber, falls in real estate andrecreational values, property losses, and deaths.Wildfire is influencing many aspects of our life:the flow of commodities on which we depend,the health and safety of the communities inwhich we live, and the health and resilience ofwildland ecosystems.

There are many forests seldom affected byfire, while others regenerate easily after burning.Some forests are subjected to high firefrequencies and heavy destructive impact. It isdifficult to estimate the number and extent offorest fires and related annual losses.Comprehensive reports on losses are notavailable and forest fire statistics are oftendeficient (Goldammer 1997e).

Prehistory of FiresWildfires have been present on the earth sincethe development of terrestrial vegetation andthe evolution of the atmosphere. Lightning,sparks generated by swaying bamboos, andvolcanoes have been some of nature’s ways ofigniting forests and keeping the plantenvironment dynamic. As a perfect relationshipexisted between fire and the ecosystem (Soares1991), such natural wildfires occurred at longintervals.

Taking a cue from nature, early humans usedfire as a tool to alter their surroundings andlater to prepare land for cultivation. There ispaleontological evidence to show that firesoccurred in the prehistoric past. Themythology of many countries features accountsof fires dating back to several thousands of years.

The climate in the tropical Amazonianregion is too moist to allow a forest fire to burnas long as the forests are in an undisturbed state.There is, however, evidence that in the remotepast, forest fires did occur in the region. Forexample, Saldarrioga and West (1986)determined that the ages of charcoal fragmentscollected from the Venezuelan part of theAmazon ranged from 250 to 6,260 years old.Those fires were most likely associated withextremely dry periods or human disturbances(Reis 1996).

Recent History of FiresSince the 1960s, several fires have attractedworld attention. The Parana fire in Brazil in1963 burned 2 million ha, destroyed more than5,000 houses, and claimed 110 lives (Reis1996). With this started the new history ofwildfires in Brazil, and a permanent worry,mainly with regard to the damage that fire cancause to forest plantations. The effect of fire onvegetation became an issue in 1988 followingdevastation to some parts of the Amazonforests. According to the World Wide Fund forNature (WWF), large-scale logging and forestfires have contributed to the wiping out of some12-15 percent of the Amazon rain forest.Satellite imagery from the Advanced Very HighResolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite,interpreted by the Brazilian National Institutefor Space Studies, indicated that 20.5 million haof Brazil’s Legal Amazon (which covers an areaof 500 million ha) was burned in 1987, of whichabout 8 million ha was considered to be

While severalcauses are

attributed to thealarming rate ofdeforestation, inthe majority ofcases, fire has

played a decisiverole

4 THE PREMISE

deforestation in the dense forest area (Seltzeret al. 1988). In early 1998, the savannahs in thestate of Roraima were left parched by the worstdrought in history, resulting in big blazes, whichburned some 3.2 million–3.5 million ha. Ofthis land, about 200,000 ha were good forestsand the rest were already deforested areas orsecondary forests (Anon 1997a, Reis 1996).

Each year, fires in the Brazilian Amazon burnan area larger than Rio de Janeiro state.Ranchers and subsistence farmers ignite theirlands in an attempt to convert forests into fieldsand to reclaim pastures from invading weeds.Subsistence farmers have migrated from all partsof Brazil to the fringes of the rain forest, luredby government promises of free land and abetter life. But despite the lushness of the nearbyforest, the soil is too poor to support intensiveagriculture. They arrive armed with hope andchainsaws, clearing and burning land to farmthe poor soil.

The fires set by ranchers and subsistencefarmers often get out of hand, inadvertentlyburning forests, pastures, and plantations(WCFSD 1999).

The results of a seven-year study conductedby the Woods Hole Research Center inMassachusetts, US, suggest that the Amazonrain forest is experiencing an acute drying,leading to increased susceptibility to fire.Recent tests involving digging for water at manysites found dry ground, while similar tests sevenyears earlier revealed water close below thesurface (Reis 1996, WCFSD 1999).

Statistics in the People’s Republic of China(PRC) reveal that between 1950 and 1990,4,137 people were killed in forest fires(Goldammer 1994a). In the same period,information from satellites reveals that about14.5 million ha of forest were affected by firesin the neighboring Soviet Union,predominantly burning in the Siberian boreal

forests, which have a composition similar tothe northeastern PRC (Cahoon et al. 1994).

The Kalimantan fire in Indonesia in 1982burned about 5 million ha and caused lossesamounting to $9.1 billion. Fires have sweptthrough the forests of Kalimantan and Sumatra(also elsewhere) in Indonesia several timesduring the last two decades, engulfing millionsof hectares and causing losses estimated atbillions of dollars (Goldammer et al. 1996).

In 1983, the Ash Wednesday fire inAustralia caused 76 deaths, killed 300,000 sheepand cattle, and burned more than 2,500 homes.The Great Black Dragon Fire of the northernPRC in 1987 burned around 1.3 million ha,destroyed more than 10,000 houses, andresulted in a death toll of about 200. TheYellowstone fire in the United States in 1988almost completely burned out one of the world’smost famous parks, costing about $160 millionto suppress, and causing an estimated loss of$60 million in tourist revenues between 1988and 1990 (Polzin et al. 1993). In the longerterm, however, the increased biodiversitycreated by the fires in Yellowstone National Parkmay well yield benefits that outweigh theselosses.

In 1982-1983, Cote d’lvoire in West Africawas swept by wildfires over a total area of about12 million ha. The burning of some 40,000 haof coffee plantations, 60,000 ha of cocoaplantations, and some 10,000 ha of othercultivated plantations had detrimental impactson the local economy and left more than 100people dead during this devastating fire period(Goldammer 1998b).

In the last four years, unusual weatherconditions (and global weather changes) haveled to fires in several parts of the world. Someof the conflagrations during 1996-1998 havebeen particularly damaging, as fires sweptacross the fragile rain forests of South America

During the lastfour years,

unusual weatherconditions (andglobal weather

changes) have ledto fires in severalparts of the world

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 5

and two waves of forest fires grippedIndonesia, causing a national disaster.

Fires in Mexico and Central America haveburned a reported 1.5 million ha. These havegenerated large quantities of smoke, which haveblanketed the region and spread into the UnitedStates as far north as Chicago. From January toJune 1998, about 13,000 fires burned in Mexicoalone. Figures released by Mexican authoritiesin May 1998 indicated that a reduction ofindustrial production in Mexico City, which wasimposed in order to mitigate the additionalsmog caused by forest fires, involved daily lossesof $8 million.

Between December 1997 and April 1988,more than 13,000 fires burned in Nicaragua,the most in any Central American country,destroying vegetation on more than800,000 ha of land. The Nicaraguan Ministryof Environment and Natural Resourcesrecorded more than 11,000 fires in the monthof April 1998 alone.

In July 1998, devastating forest fires affectedmore than 100,000 ha in eastern Russia.Coniferous forests burned in more than 150locations around Vladivostok, Sakhalin, andKamchatka peninsula. In Russia’s Pacific islandof Sakhalin alone, more than 25,000 ha offorest were consumed by fire duringSeptember 1998. The same year, forest fires inFlorida, in the United States, burned an areaof some 100,000 ha (Goldammer 1998b).

Fires burned the forests and pastures ofMongolia consecutively in each of the yearsbetween 1996 and 1998. The 1996 firesaffected an area of 10.2 million ha, including2.4 million ha of forests, in which 22 millioncubic meters (m3) of forest growing stock werelost. The 1997 fires affected more than12.4 million ha, of which forests accounted for2.7 million ha. This fire killed some 600,000livestock while damage to the Mongolian

economy was estimated at $1.9 billion(Chandrasekharan 1998a).

Fire Data

Reliable data on the occurrence of wildlandfires, areas burned, and losses are available foronly a limited number of nations and regions.Within the northern hemisphere, the mostcomplete data set on forest fires is periodicallycollected and published for the member statesof the Economic Commission for Europe,covering Canada, all western and easternEuropean countries, countries of the formerSoviet Union, and the US. The last data setcovers the period 1994-1996 (ECE/FAO 1997).In the European Union (EU), a CommunityInformation System on Forest Fires has beencreated on the basis of information collectedon every fire in national databases. Thecollection of data on forest fires (the commoncore) has become systematic with the adoptionof a Commission Regulation in 1994.

The Community Information System onForest Fires covers 319 provinces (departments,states) of France, Germany, Greece, Italy,Portugal, and Spain (European Commission1996, Lemasson 1997). It containsinformation on 460,000 fires recorded between1 January and 31 December 1995, involving atotal of 6 million ha.

A global data set has been developed on thebasis of active fires detected by the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) AVHRR sensor—the “Global FireProduct” of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program under its subcomponent ofGlobal Vegetation Fire Information (GVFI)System.

The fire data set includes all free-burningvegetation fires (wildfires in forests, savannahs,and other vegetation; prescribed burning), useof fire in agricultural systems (e.g., burning of

Fires burned theforests andpastures ofMongolia

consecutively ineach of the yearsbetween 1996

and 1998

6 THE PREMISE

beneficial effects of fire. However, everyregion has its own peculiarities and the role offire varies not only between regions, but alsowithin each region from habitat to habitat. Agreat deal has been learned from fire researchand management in temperate and subtropicalecosystems. However, fire managementpractices found to be successful in theseregions should not be applied automatically tothe tropics.

Fire Frequency

Fire frequency, measured as the returninterval between fires, may be as short as oneyear or may extend into centuries. Firefrequency and intensity are not fullyindependent variables. Areas with short returninterval fires tend to have less intense fires thanareas with long return interval fires. Moreover,many ecosystems are subjected to low-intensity,short return interval fires as well as less frequent,high intensity fires. The relationship betweenfrequency and intensity is complicated by avariety of factors such as vegetation structure,productivity, weather, and topography.Grasslands, for example, can support highintensity fires that burn annually.

A distinction is often made between firefrequency and fire incidence. Fire frequency isused to refer to the fire return interval at aparticular location, whereas fire incidence isused to refer to the interval between fires thatburn within a specified land unit, but notnecessarily at the same point.

Fire Intensity

It is difficult to provide a conventionaldefinition for fire intensity. If the focus is onenergetics or fire behavior, then fire intensityis best defined in terms of energy released perunit time per unit of fire front. If it is oncarbon or nutrient cycling, or fuel reduction,

agricultural residues, prescribed burning) andburning of plant biomass in households(fuelwood, charcoal, etc.).

Fire Type ClassificationForest fire type classification is important indesigning and implementing appropriatecontrol measures. Forest fires are variouslyclassified, based on:

• source of ignition: natural and human-made fires, which may result fromcarelessness and accident, or may beincendiary in nature (often using fire as aweapon instead of as a tool);

• size of area affected: large (e.g., more than50,000 ha), medium, and small fires(irrespective of the nature of damage);

• intensity of burn and damage: very heavy,heavy, medium, and light fires (dependingon fuel load and other factors [e.g.,duration]); and

• nature of burn: underground fire (e.g.,coal seams), ground fire (that consumesthe organic materials beneath the surfacelitter), surface fire (that burns surfacelitter and other loose debris of the forestfloor), creeping fire (that spreadsoverground), and crown fire (consumingthe upper branches and foliage). Crownfires often burn the ground level vegetationand canopy of the forest, and are the mostdamaging.

Depending on the circumstances, weather,fuel load, undergrowth, etc., one form of firemay change into another or into acombination of different types. The impact offire depends on the type.

Fire Frequency and IntensityFire frequency and intensity are both a causeand an effect of ecosystem characteristics andare fundamental variables in the negative or

Every region hasits own

peculiarities andthe role of firevaries not only

between regions,but also within

each region fromhabitat to habitat

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 7

then fire intensity is the energy or biomassconsumed per unit area. These measures mayor may not be of use to measure the impact offires on ecosystem biota. For example, lowintensity surface fires in ecosystems composedof vulnerable species result in substantialchanges. In contrast, high intensity crown firesin savannahs or pine forests can simply stimulatereproduction of the same species, with little changein the overall composition of the ecosystem.

Influencing Factors

A variety of environmental factors regulatefire frequency and intensity. Climate influencesfire variations on a geographic scale. Thefrequency of lightning discharges andassociated rainfall are the most importantvariables influencing ignition in someecosystems. However, in others, humans havebeen able to and still do control the frequencyof fire starts. In general, fire frequencyincreases inversely with moisture availability.On the other hand, in very dry areas, slow ratesof biomass accumulation can result in longerfire return intervals.

Topographic diversity and vegetation patternsregulate fire frequencies in any given area.Vegetation also influences intensity. In manytemperate ecosystems fuels tend to accumulateas vegetation ages. Such an accumulation isoften associated with the production of hard anddense leaves and waste wood. Further, the qualityand distribution of these fuels also change. Inany case, such changes act as feedbackmechanisms about the likelihood of ignitions.

Changes in vertical and horizontal fueldistribution associated with ecosystemdevelopment also affect fire frequency andintensity. Given sufficient time between fires,understory trees and debris form a verticalpathway, or “ladder,” of fuels from the forestfloor to the canopy along which fire may be

carried into the crowns. Repeated burningtends to reduce fire intensity, though thelong-term ecological consequences of suchburning may vary.

Variations in fire behavior and frequencygreatly influence post-fire vegetationdevelopment. In ecosystems with light tomoderate intensity fires, and short returnintervals, post-fire species composition may bequite similar to the pre-fire composition. Inecosystems with longer and perhaps lesspredictable return intervals, post-fire ecosystemresponse typically follows a classical speciesreplacement series. The similarity between pre-and post-fire composition is also determinedin some ecosystems by fire intensity.

Humans’ historic role in changing firefrequency and intensity is variable. Humaninfluence has generally resulted in an increasein fire frequency, but fire intensity increased ordecreased in different vegetation types. Intropical regions, where human association withthe vegetation has been more prolonged, thisalteration of ecosystems from previouslyexisting conditions may have been moredramatic. The growth of population andeconomic development have increased thedamage caused by forest fires, and the fire cyclearound the world has quickened—in somecases from more than 100 years to only threeto four years, or even less. Also, in theWest’s coniferous forests and North’sforests, fire suppression has resulted insubstantial changes in fuel conditions.Although modern humans further increasedthe number of fire starts, the area burned byfires has declined in many vegetation types.Consequently, fuels have accumulated and fireintensities have risen. In the tropics, intentionalburning for forest cultivation andagriculture has increased fire incidence(Goldammer and Odintsov 1998).

Human influencehas generallyresulted in anincrease in firefrequency, butfire intensityincreased ordecreased in

differentvegetation types

8 THE PREMISE

Factors ResponsibleAnalysis of causes is an important step towarddesigning control measures, managementpolicies, and action. Historical perspectivesprovide an insight into future needs. Thereare predisposing factors or inherentconditions, as well as immediate causes thatmight result in wildfires and influence theirfrequency and intensity. These are ofteninterrelated.

Predisposing Factors

The predisposing factors are various and mayinclude the following:

• economic (poverty and dependence ofrural communities on forests forlivelihood);

• demographic (increased populationpressure on forests for their goods andservices);

• meteorological (weather conditionsincluding high temperature and loweratmospheric humidity);

• crop conditions (amount of canopyopening causing desiccation and waterstress, nature and amount of groundvegetation, and fuel load);

• nature and condition of ecosystem(vegetational types, fire resistance level ofcomponent species, and locationaltopography);

• sociocultural (cultural significance of fireto the forest dwelling and ruralcommunities); and

• institutional (lax environmental laws,inadequate enforcement capability,indifference of public administration toenvironmental matters, lack ofdissemination of weather information andfire danger warnings, misuse of fundsearmarked for fire protection, andmanagement and policy weaknesses).

Immediate Causes

The contribution of natural fires to tropicalwildland fires today is negligible. Most tropicalfires are set or spread accidentally or intentionallyby humans, and are related to severalcausative agents, some of them linked tosubsistence livelihood, others to commercialactivities (Goldammer 1997a, e). These include:

• deforestation (conversion of forests to otherland uses, e.g., as agricultural land andpastures);

• land clearance and land preparation foragricultural crops;

• traditional slash-and-burn agriculture;• grazing land management (fires set by

graziers, mainly in savannahs and openforests with distinct grass strata);

• extraction of nonwood forest products(NWFPs) (using fires to facilitate harvestsor improve the yield of plants, fruits, andother forest products, such as honey, resin,and antlers, predominantly in deciduousand semideciduous forests);

• wildland/residential area interface fires(fires from settlements, e.g., from cooking,torches, camp fires, etc.);

• other traditional fire uses (in the wake ofreligious, ethnic, and folk traditions; tribalwarfare);

• socioeconomic and political conflicts overquestions of land property and land-userights, using arson;

• speculative burning to stake land claims;accidental fires (e.g., due to falling of dryleaves and twigs on high tension electricitylines); and

• fires introduced by design (e.g.,prescribed fires) going out of control andbecoming wildfires.

Another factor to be noted in this regard isthe connection between population growth anddeforestation. The 1995 world population stood

The 1995 worldpopulation stoodat 5.7 billion, and

is expected togrow to about9.4 billion by

2050, with all theattendant impacts

on naturalresources

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 9

at 5.7 billion, and is expected to grow to about9.4 billion by 2050, with all the attendantimpacts on natural resources.

How to obtain a respite from deforestationand forest fires and haze is a major managementchallenge.

Fuel Loading

Air, temperature, and fuel are considered thethree corners of a fire triangle. It is thevolume, type, and condition of fuel thatdetermine the rapidity and intensity of any fire.Moisture content in fuels could minimize thechances of a blaze, as moisture must evaporateto permit the temperature to rise to ignitionpoint. The constant circulation of wind driesup the fuel, boosting chances of an outbreakand helping the blaze to spread.

The vegetation characteristics themselves area major determinant of fire occurrences. Fuel-loading capacity in terms of plant density andplant lifeform combination (i.e., woody plantsof various sizes and herbaceous plants,particularly grasses) determines the firepotential of vegetation. The soil substrate andits microorganism activity contribute to the fuel-loading capacity. If decomposition of theannually produced litter is slow, organic matterbuilds up at the soil surface. This is a leadingcause of forest fires in temperate environments.

Ignition SourceFire in the tropical rain forests is often relatedto forest clearing for agriculture, industrialtimber plantations, and other land-use changes,of which three broad types can be distinguished.

• Shifting cultivation where land is allowedto return to forest vegetation after arelatively short period of agricultural use.Traditionally, shifting cultivation provideda sustainable base of subsistence forindigenous forest inhabitants and had little

impact on forest ecosystem stability.Today, shifting cultivation is practiced bysome 500 million people on a land area of300 million-500 million ha (Goldammer1993a) and is often unsustainable due tothe increase in size of individual plots andshorter fallow periods.

• Temporary complete removal of forestcover in preparation for industrialtimber plantations.

• Permanent conversion of forests tograzing or cropland, as well as othernonforestry land uses.

In all cases, clearing and burning initiallyfollow the same pattern; trees are felled at theend of the wet season and the slash is left to dryfor some time. The efficiency of the first burningis variable; often not exceeding 10-30 percentof the ground biomass due to the large amountof forest biomass in tree trunks and stumps.The remainder is tackled by a second fire orleft to decompose.

The burning of primary or secondary rainforest vegetation for conversion purposes hasaccelerated in recent years. Such forest-clearingfires often escape and have been shown to oftenlead to large-scale wildfires in undisturbed rainforests under the right climatic conditions.

While a land fire (e.g., in farmlands) maylead to a forest fire, a distinction is often madebetween the two in view of the differences intheir causes, impacts, control measures, etc.Forest fires and associated haze havedamaging impacts, but not designed andcontrolled burnings.

Some ecologists assert that fire is nothingmore than a secondary factor in the destructionof dense and moist rain forests, which will notburn unless interference causes inflammablematerials to be present or accumulated. Loggingcan increase the susceptibility of tropical rainforest to fire, particularly when carried out in

Fire in thetropical rain

forests is oftenrelated to forest

clearing foragriculture,

industrial timberplantations, andother land-use

changes

10 THE PREMISE

an unnecessarily destructive and wastefulmanner or resulting in large gaps in the forestcanopy. Such practices can cause theaccumulation of flammable biomass, invasionby weed species, and desiccation of soilorganic matter—all factors that make forestssusceptible to wildfire.

A series of disturbances may also increasethe susceptibility of rain forests to fire. Forinstance, the extended rain forest fires of 1989in Yucatan (Mexico) that burned some 90,000 hawere the result of a chain of disturbances. In1987, Hurricane Gilbert damaged and openedthe closed forests, leaving behindunusual amounts of downed woody fuels. Thesefuels were then desiccated by the drought of1988-1989, and the whole forest area wasfinally ignited by escaped land-clearing fires.None of these three factors, the cyclonic storm,the drought, or the ignition source, ifoccurring alone, would have caused adisturbance of such severity (Goldammer 1992a).

Climate—An Aggravating Factor

Climate is a crucial control factor in fireoccurrence and frequency, since it determinesnot only the vegetation, but also influences soilmicroorganism activity, and thus litterdecomposition. In tropical lowlandenvironments, litter decomposition is generallyfast, and organic matter accumulation is rarelyan important factor. However, climaticseasonality in terms of wetness and dryness isthe most important parameter related to fireoccurrence. Thus, a climate and vegetationanalysis is imperative for an assessment of fireoccurrence and frequency. Climatic seasonalitydoes not manifest itself only on a month-to-month basis, but also in year-to-year variation(Mueller-Dombois 1978).

If precipitation falls below 100 millimeters(mm) per month, and periods of two or more

weeks without rain occur, the forestvegetation sheds leaves progressively. Inaddition, the moisture content of the surfacefuels is lowered, while the downed woodymaterial and loosely packed leaf-litter layercontribute to the buildup and spread of surfacefires.

Aerial fuels such as desiccated climbers andlianas become fire ladders potentiallyresulting in crown fires or “torching” of singletrees.

The occurrence of seasonal dry periods inthe tropics increases with distance from thehumid equatorial zone, leading to more open,semideciduous, and deciduous forestformations. Such forests are subject to frequentfires (often annual, but sometimes two or threetimes a year), and fire-tolerant species tend todominate. The main fire-related characteristicsof these formations are seasonally availableflammable fuels (grass-herb layer, shed leaves).The most important adaptive traits thatcharacterize the vegetation include thick bark,the ability to heal fire scars, resprouting ability,and seeds that feature fire adaptations.

Weather Variability

Meteorologists, based on availablethermometric record, have determined that fourof the hottest years in history occurred in the1990s—1990, 1995, 1997, and 1998. The firstfive months of 1998 were the planet’s hotteston record according to the scientists of the USNOAA. The El Niño phenomenon is consideredto be the main reason behind the mercury ascentand is frequently blamed for major forest fires.About 93 percent of all droughts in Indonesiahave occurred during an El Niño (Goldammerand Manan 1996). El Niño affects the globalweather pattern, resulting in extreme dryconditions, which in turn leave forests parchedand open to fires. Thus, while El Niño is not a

Climate is acrucial controlfactor in fire

occurrence andfrequency, since it

determines notonly the

vegetation, butalso influences

soilmicroorganism

activity, andthus litter

decomposition

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 11

source of fire, it aggravates the danger of firesin places where negligence and managementlapses can lead to severe conflagrations. Somepoint out that El Niño has always been inexistence, without frequently causing majorforest fires in the past. This may be due to theexistence of relatively undisturbed forest coverwith dense canopies in most tropical ecosystemsthat prevented drying of the lower vegetativestrata, particularly the ground cover.

El Nińo Southern Oscillation and Global

Weather

El Niño is a periodic oceanographicphenomenon in which a strong and extensivewarming occurs in the upper ocean in thetropical eastern Pacific, upsetting weatherpatterns globally. The El Niño effect leads to thestrengthening of a warm ocean current calledthe equatorial countercurrent in the mid-Pacific,causing the entire weather mechanism to bedisrupted. Rainfall is delayed, crops areadversely affected, and storms occur where theyshould not. Occurrence of El Niño is linked witha change in atmospheric pressure known as theSouthern Oscillation, and the overallphenomenon is often called the El Niño SouthernOscillation (ENSO). ENSO consists of ElNiño—a “warm phase” or a large warming inthe equatorial Pacific Ocean—and La Niña—a“cool phase” in which surface waters of thecentral Pacific Ocean are colder than normal.

The typical global impact of ENSOs is theanomalous pattern of rainfall and temperature.The surface ocean in the central and easternequatorial Pacific is normally colder than thatin the western equatorial Pacific. In some years,however, the ocean is especially warm. Thiswarming typically occurs around Christmas andlasts for several months. It is caused by acomplicated atmospheric-oceanic coupling thatis not yet entirely understood. During these

warm intervals, fish are less plentiful (it wasthe fishers along the coasts of Ecuador and Peruthat originally termed the phenomenon “ElNiño” [Spanish for “the Christ child”])(Goldammer 1997d).

In the eastern equatorial Pacific, theoverlying air is heated by the warmer watersbelow, increasing the buoyancy of the loweratmosphere and fueling convective clouds andheavy rains. But the air over the cooler westernequatorial Pacific becomes too dense to rise toproduce clouds and rain—in other words, dryconditions result in Australia, Indonesia, andPhilippines, while more flood-like conditionsare caused in Ecuador and Peru. Over the past50 years, 12 major El Niños have been recorded.The worst of these began in March 1997 andfaded away in June 1998. Before this, the ElNiño of 1982-1983 had been the most severe(See Box 1, and Figures 1 and 2).

According to scientists, the frequency andintensity of El Niños are on the increase. In the19th century, El Niño appeared on averageevery seven-and-a-half years; now it comes atintervals of less than five years. The reasons forthis increased frequency are not clear. There isa suggestion that the recent mood swings of ElNiño have been due to climatic changes andglobal warming, with greenhouse gases, mainlycarbon dioxide, the most dominant factor inthe global weather changes (Goldammer 1997fand 1998a).

In contrast to El Niño, La Niña (“the girlchild”) is associated with unusually cool oceantemperatures across the central and easternequatorial Pacific. This generally causes sharpreversals of weather patterns around the globeand occurs roughly half as often as does El Niño(only six major La Niñas have beenrecorded in the past 50 years). In La Niña years,monsoons are enhanced over Australia andSoutheast Asia, but the central equatorial

According toscientists, thefrequency andintensity of El

Niños are on theincrease

12 THE PREMISE

Pacific becomes drier than usual, a reverse ofthe El Niño effects. La Niña does not necessarilyfollow hard on the heels of El Niño. However,it has done so three times in the past 15 years.In general, slightly higher than normal rainfallhas been recorded during La Niña; but in certainyears the amount of rainfall can be much higherthan in La Niña years (Nicholls 1993).

The last La Niña started to develop in mid-1998. Unusual climate conditions in 1998 that

may be associated with La Niña included dryweather in parts of South America; wetter thannormal conditions in northern Australia and thePhilippines; above-normal rainfall during thesouthwest monsoon in India; increasedhurricane activity in the Caribbean and CentralAmerica; dry spells in parts of Argentina andChile; above-normal rainfall in southern Africa,with the exception of Zimbabwe; and possiblydrier than normal conditions in the Horn of

In the 1920s, Sir Gilbert Walker madethe seminal connection betweenbarometer readings of air pressure atsea level at stations on the easternand western sides of the PacificOcean. He observed that whenpressure rises in the east, it usuallyfalls in the west, and vice versa. Thiseffect, which explains the El Nińophenomenon, is referred to as theWalker Circulation. Walker and histeam analyzed weather records untilthey found patterns of rainfall in LatinAmerica that could be associated withchanges in ocean water temperatures.

In the warm Indonesianarchipelago, extensive burning ofvegetation (from shifting cultivation,forest conversion, and otheragricultural burnings) takes place.Although the impacts of these fireson atmospheric chemistry have notyet been explored, it is assumed thattwo major patterns of emission takeplace based on Walker Circulation.During the “high phase” (normalyears) of the Walker Circulation, lowpressure is centered over theIndonesian hot spots. Air masseswith products from biomass burning

(aerosols, trace gases) are carried tothe high troposphere and exportedglobally. During the “low phase,” thewarm waters from the west aretransported to the eastern Pacific,and high pressure builds up over theIndonesian archipelago. A typicalsituation develops during whichemissions from biomass burning aretrapped in the lower troposphere.

The last few years, with extraordi-nary fires in Indonesia, have beencharacterized by the low phase ofthe Walker Circulation. (Anon 1997a,Goldammer 1998b)

BOX 1 Walker Circulation

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

19971966193619051876

The figure shows the El Nińo Southern Oscillation Index (ENSOI) six monthly average (April–September) for the years1876–1997.

Source: MOE-UNDP 1998.

FIGURE 1 Visitations of El Nińo

There have been 20 ENSOs in the 120 years since 1877. There is now much debate surrounding theidea that the frequency and intensity of ENSOs are increasing, and there is some evidence that this hasbeen the trend in the past 20 years.

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 13

Africa. Several governments took steps toprepare for the 1998-1999 La Niña, includingupgrading drainage systems, limitingdevelopment in high-risk areas, and improvingflood control.

Impacts of El Nińo

In 1982-1983, El Niño caused worldwidedestruction, particularly severe flooding andextensive damage in Latin America anddroughts in parts of Asia. In Australia, forestfires destroyed thousands of houses and tookcountless lives in the El Niño season of 1982.The total damage wreaked by the 1982-1983El Niño phenomenon globally was estimated tobe between $8 billion and $13 billion, with about2,000 lives lost. In 1991-1992, the effects of ElNiño led to severe drought in Southern Africa,bush fires in Australia, and forest fires inIndonesia . During 1997-1998, El Niño spreadfrom the Pacific to vast areas in Australia, Asia,and Africa. It caused severe droughts inAustralia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, andPhilippines; led to famine in southern Africa,and hurricanes in Mexico and the southernUnited States. This El Niño fueled forest firesin Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as wellas in the Amazon.

The recent devastation caused by El Niñohas added a new urgency to a long runningscientific mission: the quest to be able toforecast weather precisely, and to understandthe causes and effects of unusual climate swings.

The Array of ImpactsThe burning of forests and biomass has seriousimpacts, direct and indirect, often resultingin loss of life, livestock, and capital. Thedamage caused by fire is often difficult toquantify, especially when nontangible losses areinvolved. The impact of forest fires has severaldimensions—environmental/ecological, social,

Source: Institute of Ocean Sciences, Canada, Down to Earth, December 1997.

FIGURE 2 The Walker Effect

Change in the temperature of the sea affects windpatterns, which affect weather globally.

Normal equatorial conditions

Air circulation loop(The Walker Circulation)

Ocean surface

Warmwaterlayer

Full developed El Nińo

Reversed Walker Circulationin the atmosphere

Ocean surface

Warmwaterlayer

Cold water layer Upwellingof nutrients

Cold water layer Upwellingineffectual

Developing El Nińo conditions

Air circulation loop(The Walker Circulation)

Ocean surface

Warmwaterlayer Cold water layer Upwelling

of nutrients

Reversedair loop

14 THE PREMISE

economic, and others, which could be onsiteand offsite. The extent of these impacts dependson the frequency and intensity of fires, fuel load,type of forest involved, and climatic factors.

Ecological and Environmental Impacts

The ecological impact of forest fires ismanifest in the degradation of the quality ofvegetation; expansion of savannah and sterilegrasslands; erosion of biodiversity; damage tothe health of forest ecosystems; plantmortality; loss of wildlife habitat; air, river, andestuary pollution; and overall ecologicalretrogression. Some authors point out that ashumans ascend the ladder of civilization, theirneeds grow in arithmetical progression and thecorresponding pollution grows in geometricalprogression (Muralikrishna 1999). Fires affectthe quality and productivity of soil bydestroying humus and altering its chemistry,increasing soil temperature, attacking microbialinhabitation, reducing moisture retentioncapacity of the soil, causing erosion of surfacesoil and nutrient loss, increasing runoff,

lowering the subsoil water table, and causingdesertification—ultimately reducing thecarrying capacity of the land involved.

Influence on Ecosystems

Fire has been, and continues to be,particularly destructive in tropical Africa, whilehigh fire frequency in tropical Australia hasresulted in a generally more fire-adaptedvegetation. Tropical lowland rain forests areessentially nonflammable vegetations, but onceinvaded by grasslands they become easilydegraded by frequent fires, destroying a goodportion of their floristic and ecologicalpotential. Slash fires following logging increasethe fire hazard in tropical forests because theypromote the establishment of fire-prone grasses.Therefore, fire as a management tool has adifferent outcome in tropical as compared totemperate forests.

Within the tropics (from latitudes 23º N to23º S), three types of tropical lowland climateare recognized:1 the humid tropics (I), thesubhumid or semidry tropics (I-II), and the drytropics (II). The three tropical climate zonesare based on mean monthly rainfall andtemperature distribution. These three zonescorrespond roughly to the potential terrain ofthe three zonal forest types: tropical rain forest(zone I, extending to about 10º N and 10º S ofthe equator in tropical America, Africa, andSoutheast Asia), semideciduous forest (zone I-II, recognized as a broad climatic transitionzone in tropical America and Africa, butalmost absent in Southeast Asia), and drydeciduous forest (zone II, which is the largesttropical climate type). Zone III representsedaphic (soil-influenced) and other variants.

A generalized spatial gradient of the tropicalecosystems is shown in Figure 3.

Zonal tropical rain forests occur typically onwell-drained, deeply weathered lateritic2 clay soil

FIGURE 3 Generalized Spatial Gradient ofTropical Ecosystems

Climatic zonesI I–II II I–III

Rain forest Semi-deciduousforest

Dry deciduousforest

Desert scruband succulents

(Monsoon forest)

Zonal Ecosystems Gradient (wet to dry)

Intrazonal Ecosystems

Heath forest

Forest onlimestone

Peat-swampforest

Tall-grasssavannahs

“Hyperseasonal”savannahs

Verysparsedesertgrass

Importantedaphicvariants

Mid-grass andshort-grasssavannahs

Othervariants*}

}

*Mostly anthropogenic.Source: Mueller-Dombois 1978.

Tropical lowlandrain forests are

essentiallynonflammable

vegetations, butonce invaded bygrasslands theybecome easilydegraded byfrequent fires

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 15

(oxisols and ultisols), which contain little organicmatter and nutrients. These soils are highly acidic(generally pH 4.2-5.6) and contain poor oxideclays with low exchange capacities. Theycommonly undergo irreversible drying whenexposed to strong desiccation.

Whitmore (1984) described several othertropical lowland rain forests that occur on quitedifferent soils. These are the tropical heath(Karangas) forests on podzolized3 sands; therain forests on limestone, ultrabasic(serpentine) rock, calcareous sand and coralrocks along beaches; and peat-swampforests. All are significant edaphic variants,which can be treated as intrazonal forest typesin the tropical rain forest terrain.

Peat-swamp forests are an important rainforest type in Southeast Asia (Whitmore 1984),as well as in tropical America andAfrica (USDA-FS 1981). In spite of theiroften turflike accumulation of organic matter,natural fires have apparently not been observedin this edaphic variant of the tropical rainforest. Savannahs are the most widespreadtropical vegetation type today, with differentsubtypes due to edaphic variations in thetropical seasonal environments.

It is not proposed to go into the details ofvarious types of vegetation. In all cases,however, it is necessary to have a clear ideaabout the positive and negative roles of fire.Figure 4 provides an illustrative case.

Release of Greenhouse GasesForest fires contribute to global climate changeand warming. Burning of forests also destroysan important sink for atmospheric carbon.Biomass burning is recognized as a significantglobal source of emissions contributing as muchas 10 percent of the gross carbon dioxide and38 percent of tropospheric ozone (Goldammerand Seibert 1990, Landsberg 1997).

Depending upon the severity of annualburning and the weather, the emissionproducts added to the atmosphere frombiomass burning amount to220-13,500 gigatons (Tg) of carbon dioxide,120-680 Tg of carbon monoxide, 2-21 Tg ofnitrous oxides, and 11-53 Tg of methane gas.The situation, obviously, is not very comforting.According to one estimate, in just a few monthsthe burning that took place in 1997 in Indonesiareleased as much greenhouse gases as all thecars and power plants in Europe emit in anentire year (Kristof 1997). Scientists haveestimated that from 1850 to 1980, between90 billion and 120 billion metric tons (mt) ofcarbon dioxide were released into theatmosphere from tropical forest fires.

In comparison, during that same time period,an estimated 165 billion mt of carbon dioxidewere added to the atmosphere by industrialnations through the burning of coal, oil, andgas.

FIGURE 4 Conceptual Diagram of Lossesand Benefits of Forest Fires in Indonesia

Source: IAP Working Group, Indonesia, 1999.

Grasslandand scrub +

Secondaryforest andplantations

+Logged-overforest and

drainedpeatlands

+Primary

forest andplantations

Progression of flammable vegetation types with drought

Incr

easi

ng e

xten

t of

fire

s

Declining benefits of burning

Loss of resourceva

lues

Increasing drought and fuel availability

In just a fewmonths the

burning that tookplace in 1997 in

Indonesiareleased as muchgreenhouse gasesas all the cars andpower plants inEurope emit inan entire year

16 THE PREMISE

According to recent estimates, some1.8 billion-4.7 billion mt of carbon stored invegetation may be released annually bywildland fires and other biomass burning(Crutzen and Andreae 1990). However, not allof the biomass burned represents a net sourceof carbon in the atmosphere. The net flux ofcarbon into the atmosphere is due todeforestation (forest conversion with andwithout the use of fire) and has been estimatedby Houghton (1991) to be in the range of1.1 billion-3.6 billion mt per year.

Wildfires burning in radioactivelycontaminated vegetation lead to uncontrollableredistribution of radionuclides, e.g., the long-living radionuclides caesium (137Cs), strontium(90Sr), and plutonium (239Pu). In the mostcontaminated regions of Belarus, RussianFederation, and Ukraine, the prevailing forestsare young and middle-aged pine and pine-hardwood stands with high fire danger classes.In 1992, severe wildfires burned in the Gomeregion (Belarus) and spread into the zone of30 kilometers (km) radius around the ChernobylPower Plant. Research reveals that in 1990most of the 137Cs radionuclides wereconcentrated in the forest litter and uppermineral layer of the soil. In the fires of 1992,these radionuclides were lifted into theatmosphere. Within the 30-km zone, the levelof radioactive caesium in aerosols increased 10times (Dusha-Gudym 1996).

Combustion Products

The immediate effects of burning are theproduction and release of gases andparticulates into the atmosphere, affecting itschemistry. The instantaneous aerial combustionproducts of burning vegetation include carbondioxide, carbon monoxide, methane,nonmethane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide,sulfur oxide, methyl chloride, polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons, and other gases thatare released and returned to the atmosphere ina matter of hours. The greenhouse gases, viz.carbon dioxide and methane, influence globalclimate, while combustion particulates alsoaffect global radiation. Methane, nonmethanehydrocarbons, and nitric oxide are allchemically active gases that affect theoxidizing capacity of the atmosphere and leadto the photochemical production of ozone inthe troposphere. Recently, it was discovered thatbiomass burning is also an important globalsource of atmospheric bromine in the form ofmethyl bromine. Bromine leads to thechemical destruction of ozone in thestratosphere and is about 40 times moreefficient in the process than chlorine on amolecule-to-molecule basis. Burning alsoenhances the biogenic emissions of nitricoxide and nitrous oxide from soil. Biomassburning affects the reflectivity and emissivityof the earth’s surface as well as hydrologicalcycle by changing rates of land evaporation andwater run off (Crutzen and Goldammer 1993;Goldammer 1993a; and Anon 1997a, 1998).

Combustion products are a significant sourceof transboundary atmospheric pollution. Thesmoke cloud due to fires in the Amazon areashowed up on satellite images on 24 August1995 spread over an area of 7 million km2

covering all of Brazil’s Amazon region and partsof Columbia and Paraguay. The concentrationof atmospheric particle pollution in some areasin Mato Grosso, Brazil, reached900 micrograms (µg) per m3, three times higherthan the safe level.

Social ImpactsApart from causing transboundary airpollution, smoke emissions from wildfires affecthuman health, particularly causing respiratoryailments, and in some cases, disease and death.

Smoke emissionsfrom wildfiresaffect human

health,particularly

causingrespiratory

ailments, and insome cases,

disease and death

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 17

They also cause visibility problems, which mayresult in a breakdown of communicationsystems, accidents, and economic loss. Othersocial impacts include damage to energy andelectric installations, disruption in the supplyand distribution of food, displacement of peoplefrom affected areas, and temporary closure ofeducational establishments and productionunits.

Air Quality and HealthThe main constituent of the smog thatadversely affects health is particulate matter.The “WHO [World Health Organization]Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation FireEvents” that arose from the meeting of expertsheld in Lima, Peru, 6-9 October 1998, stressedthe necessity of ground-based air qualitymonitoring of particulate matter in allcountries affected by regional haze fromvegetation fires. Ideally, PM2.5 (particulatematter with an aerodynamic diameter less than2.5 microns) should be measured since that sizefraction has a significant health impact. If thatis not possible, PM10 or total suspendedparticulates (TSP) should be measured. TheWHO draft document also recommends that

Agency Standard Time Period

ALA (proposed) 10 µg/ m3 Annual average

ALA (proposed) 18 µg/ m3 24-hour average

US EPA 50 µg/ m3 Average annual ambient standard

US EPA 150 µg/ m3 24-hour average

United Kingdom 50 µg/ m3 24-hour average

Indian Standard 60 µg/ m3 Annual average

WHO 70 µg/ m3 24-hour average (European Ambient Air Quality Guideline)

Note: All figures in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3).Source: Deadly Particles, Down to Earth, 15 December 1999.

BOX 2 The Air Quality Standards for PM10 Set by International Agencies

additional pollutants such as ozone, nitricoxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,aldehydes, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons bemeasured, if possible, to provide acomprehensive assessment of the health risksresulting from exposure to haze components.Measurement of carbon monoxide, carbondioxide, and TSP would also allow somepartitioning of smoke into flaming andsmoldering sources and evaluation of the biomassparticulate conversion ratio.

As the concentration of airborne particlesrises, a corresponding rise in hospitaladmissions (and even deaths) is noted. Eventhough evidence is piling up increasingly onthe lethal effects of particles, scientists are yetto fathom the extent of damage they can causeto public health. (See Boxes 2 and 3.)

Economic Impacts

Fire is one of the least expensive andsimplest tools for preparing land for growingagricultural crops. However, once out ofcontrol, it can lead to long-term site degradationand other detrimental impacts. Fire can thusbe a source of positive and negativeimpacts—the reason why rural societies

Fire can be asource of positive

and negativeimpacts—thereason why

rural societiesconsidered fire asa good servant,

but a bad master

18 THE PREMISE

considered fire as a good servant, but a badmaster.

Apart from loss of material goods andservices, forest fires cause serious directeconomic losses through damage and declinein the quality of forest growing stock, reducedlandscape stability, increased proneness to pestsand diseases, reduced availability of forest-basedraw material supplies, and the need for newinvestments in forest rehabilitation and fireprotection. Indirectly, they affect agriculturalproductivity and tourism, indigenouspopulations and their means of livelihood, andjeopardize the prospects and ability of the ruralpoor to improve their standard of living.

Forest fires can also degrade other survivingforests by exerting impact on their composition,regeneration, productivity, protectionfunctions, soil quality, wildlife, and aesthetics.

Fire in Land and Forest Management

Controlled use of fire has been animportant aspect of land and forestmanagement. Methods and techniques haveprogressively evolved to suit the types of landand the nature and scale of operations,covering all aspects of fire management—prevention/protection, mitigation, suppression,

damage control, and rehabilitation. There havebeen considerable improvements in firemanagement techniques, mainly inindustrialized countries, through the use ofsophisticated tools and equipment.

While land clearing for agriculture andestate crops has taken place on an increasingscale, a new dimension was added to forestmanagement around the middle of the19th century, when tree plantations were raisedunder a system of clear felling the naturalforests and artificially regenerating them—essentially for commercial and industrialpurposes. The commercial potential of thetropical forests also promoted increased ratesof extraction; and the conventional andconservative “selection systems” in many caseswere deliberately set aside (or diluted).

Since the beginning of the industrialrevolution, humans have transformed about40 percent of the earth’s land surface. By 1990,conversion of tropical forests—much of itaccomplished by open burning—had reachedan estimated rate of 1.8 percent of the earth’stotal forestland per year. In absolute terms, thisamounts to about 14.2 million ha. Theimplications of open burning on this scale forthe global environment are startling.

A healthy forest is one that is resilient tochanges. The term ecosystem health is used todefine the structural and functional stability ofan ecosystem and its ability to bounce back afterstress (Gupta and Yunus 1998). Forest firemanagement is an important aspect ofsustainable forest management, ensuring thehealth of forest ecosystems, and that negativeimpacts of fire are minimized and positiveimpacts maximized.

Fire Science and TechnologyThe years since World War II, particularly therecent past, have witnessed a series of

BOX 3 Pollution and Mortality

Source: Particles in Our Air: Health Effects and Concentrations, edited by Richard Wilsonand John Spengler, Harvard University Press, US, 1996.

Possible biological mechanisms by which pollution causes deathinclude the following:• increased susceptibility to infection from impaired immune

defenses;• airways inflammation leading to impaired gas exchange and hypoxia

(deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body);• provocation of alveolar inflammation by ultrafine particles with the

release of mediators that exacerbate underlying lung diseases andincrease blood coagulation;

• increased lung permeability leading to pulmonary edema (excessiveaccumulation of fluid on the lung tissues); and

• precipitation of heart failure in those with chronic heart disease byacute bronchitis or pneumonia induced by pollution.

By 1990,conversion of

tropical forests—much of it

accomplished byopen burning—had reached an

estimated rate of1.8 percent of the

earth’s totalforestland per

year

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 19

achievements in the field of fire managementscience and technology. More are in differentstages of development. Most remarkableprogress has been made in the following fields.

Detection and Monitoring of FiresThe amount of living vegetation, and itsmoisture content, has a strong effect on thepropagation and severity of wildland fires.Observation and assessment of vegetationgreenness is therefore essential for any systemof fire danger rating. Current assessment ofliving vegetation moisture relies on variousmethods of manual sampling. While thesemeasurements are quite accurate, they aredifficult to obtain over broad areas, so they failto portray changes in the pattern of vegetationgreenness and moisture across the landscape.

Space-borne remote sensing technologieshave improved the capability to identify fireactivities at local, regional, and global levels byusing visible and infrared sensors onexisting platforms for detecting temperatureanomalies, active fires, and smoke plumes.

Polar orbiting weather satellites provide thepotential for delivering greenness informationand other parameters needed for firemanagement and fire impact assessment withdaily global coverage at coarse spatial resolution.This is achieved using wide-angle scanningradiometers with large instantaneous fields of view.

Short-return interval, low-resolutiongeosynchronous satellites such as theGeosynchronous Operational EnvironmentalSatellite (GOES) (Prins and Menzel 1996) andpolar orbiting sensors such as the NOAAAVHRR (European Commission 1996,Justice et al. 1996, Kendall et al. 1996) havebeen used successfully to establish calendars ofvegetation state (fire hazard) and fire activities.Other satellites with longer temporal samplingintervals, but with higher resolution, such as

LandSat, the French Earth ResourceSatellite, SPOT, and space-borne radar sensors,deliver accurate maps of active fires,vegetation state and areas affected by fire.Because of its availability, spatial resolution,spectral characteristics, and low cost, NOAAAVHRR has become the most widely usedsatellite data set for regional fire detection andmonitoring. Currently, AVHRR data are usedfor vegetation analyses and in the detection andcharacterization of active flaming fires, smokeplumes, and burn scars.

The middle-infrared and thermal AVHRRbands of the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites havebeen used for identifying fires.4 Severaltechniques are used to detect active fires onregional scales using multispectral satellite data.A comprehensive validation of AVHRRactive fire detection techniques through a rangeof atmospheric and surface conditions has notyet been performed. Several studies, however,have provided some level of validation.

Limitations of AVHRR Fire Detection

Data are sensed by all channelssimultaneously at 1.1 km spatial resolution.Data acquired by the instrument are resampledon board the satellite to 4 km spatial resolutionand recorded for later transmission to one ofthe two NOAA Command Data Acquisition(CDA) stations, at Gilmore Creek, Alaska, andWallops Island, Virginia. This is known as theGlobal Area Coverage mode of transmission.In addition, the full spatial resolution 1.1 kmdata can be recorded for previously scheduledareas of the world, in the Local Area Coveragemode, or can be received directly from thesatellites by suitably equipped receiving stationsin the High Resolution Picture Transmissionmode.

Even in full configuration, with two NOAAsatellites in operation, the AVHRR data provide

Polar orbitingweather satellites

provide thepotential fordeliveringgreenness

information andother parametersneeded for fire

management andfire impact

assessment withdaily globalcoverage at

coarse spatialresolution

20 THE PREMISE

only a limited sampling of the diurnal cycle.The orbital characteristics of the satellitesresult in two daytime and two nighttime orbitsper location. The afternoon overpass providesthe best coverage in terms of fire detection andmonitoring in tropical and subtropical regions(Justice and Dowty 1994). In addition, theafternoon overpass enables detection of the fullrange of parameters described (i.e., vegetationstate, active fires, burn scars, smoke).

Perhaps the most fundamental problem ofAVHRR fire detection is that analysis islimited to relatively cloud-free areas. This canbe a serious issue in tropical and subtropicalregions. Cloud cover can cause anunderestimation in the extent and frequency ofburning, and limits the ability to track vegetationparameters. This issue is not limited to theNOAA satellite system. Dense clouds will preventdetection of the surface by all visible and infraredsensors. A satisfactory methodology forestimating the amount of burning missedthrough cloud obscuration has yet to bedeveloped.

With the characteristics of the NOAAmeteorological satellites, as described, it ispossible to collect near real-time informationto support fire management activities. (A fullyautomatic system has been developed to detectforest fires using data from NOAA AVHRR.The prototype system was developed in Finlandand tested in four experiments in 1994 to 1997there and in its neighboring countries).

Fire Weather and Seasonal Moisture

Changes

Since 1989, the use of a NormalizedDifference Vegetation Index (NDVI) tomonitor seasonal changes in the quantity andmoisture of living vegetation has beeninvestigated (Goward et al. 1990). DailyAVHRR data are composited into weekly

images to remove most of the cloud and otherdeleterious effects, and an NDVI image of thecontinental US is computed by the USGeological Survey’s Earth ResourcesObservation Systems (EROS) Data Center.These weekly images are obtained via theInternet and further processed into images thatrelate to fire potential (Burgan et al. 1996) andeasily interpreted by fire managers. Fourseparate images are derived from the NDVIdata—Visual Greenness, Relative Greenness,Departure from Average Greenness, and LiveShrub Moisture.

To improve the determination of spatialdefinition of fuel types requires use of a firedanger fuel model map. In the United States,the EROS Data Center has used a series ofeight monthly composites of NDVI data for1990 to produce a 159 class vegetation map ofthe continental United States at 1 km resolution(Loveland et al. 1991). Data from 2,560 fuelobservation plots randomly scattered across thecountry have permitted the development of a1 km resolution fuel model map from this. Thisis now being used to provide broad-scale firedanger maps.

Improved fire weather forecasts are neededfor forest fire management at various time andspace scales. At large time and space scales,accurate fire weather forecasts have thepotential for long-range planning of allocationof scarce resources; at smaller time and spacescales they have potential use in alerting,staging, and planning the deployment of firesuppression crews and equipment; at thesmallest time and space scales, they can be helpfulin fighting fires as well as determining optimalperiods for setting prescribed silvicultural fires(Fosberg and Fujioka 1987; Roads et al. 1991,1997).

Current US fire weather forecasts areprepared from short-range weather forecasts

Improved fireweather forecasts

are needed forforest fire

management atvarious time and

space scales

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 21

(one or two days) from the US NationalCenter for Environmental Prediction (NCEP),other model output statistics, and humanjudgment. These fire weather forecasts includeinformation about rainfall, wind, humidity, andtemperature.

An experimental modeling system,developed at the NCEP for makingshort-range global to regional weatherforecasts, is being developed at the ScrippsExperimental Climate Prediction Center(ECPC). Although this system is focused onmaking and disseminating experimentalglobal to regional fire weather forecasts forSouthern California, it could easily betransported and applied anywhere else in theworld.

Circulation Models

Global Circulation Models allow theintegration of information crucial for assessingfire danger in a regionally or globally changedclimate. This has been proven successfully forthe boreal zone (Stocks and Lynham 1996,Stocks et al. 1997) and partially for tropicalfire regimes (Goldammer and Price 1998).

Burned Area and Emission Estimates

The demands of forest inventory, land-useplanning, and atmospheric chemistry studiesrequire accurate knowledge of the amount ofvegetation affected by fire, and the types ofplants burned. High- and low-resolutionsensors have proven successful in establishingreliable data sets on burned areas on a regionalscale (Cahoon et al. 1994) and offer theopportunity to extend this method on a globalscale.

Technology DevelopmentThe integration of remotely sensed fire datawith information obtained on the ground in

geographic information systems (GIS) isincreasingly being used in fire management-oriented systems (Chuvieco 1996). Remotelyoperated air vehicles (drones) offer reliable andsafe means of information gathering fordisaster-type fire situations.

A high-quality climate database is aprerequisite for modeling, includinginitialization, testing, and verification. Hazardratings, haze monitoring, and prediction alsorequire good knowledge of the state of theatmosphere, which can be provided only bymeteorological observations of high quality(Tapper et al. 1998).

Communication systems for early warninginformation dissemination are generallyadvanced since they rely on the technologydeveloped in the civilian telecommunicationsector. Space-borne sensing and collection ofreal-time data for early fire warnings generallydepend on systems that were not specificallydesigned for sensing fire precursors, active fires,and fire effects. A short overview of the mostimportant sensors that are in use or are beingbuilt gives an indication of future possibilities.

New Space-Borne Sensors

Remote sensing users, in addition tocontinuing experimentation and refinement ofmethods, need to provide operationalmonitoring data sets on regional and globalscales to contribute to early warning of firehazards, and to fire and smoke management.The development of operational automatedmonitoring techniques and the provision ofconsistent long-term data sets are challenges tobe faced. Issues such as prohibitive costs ofdata, computing resources, data management,data archival, and distribution also need to beaddressed.

Data set development is being undertakenusing satellite sensing systems, which, as stated

The developmentof operational

automatedmonitoring

techniques andthe provision of

consistentlong-term data

sets arechallenges to be

faced

22 THE PREMISE

earlier, were not designed for fire monitoring.The current suite of sensors suitable for firemonitoring have problems such as calibration,saturation, spatial resolution, orbital overpasstime, and coverage, which need to be takeninto account in data processing and data setcompilation. It is critical that users fullyunderstand the limitations of the data and theirutility. New sensors are being designed and builtthat will reduce or eliminate some of theseproblems, but they will introduce new, and insome cases, unanticipated, ones instead. Thedevelopment of new satellite data sets is aniterative process that needs to be undertaken inclose collaboration with the users. The plannedsystems will provide a challenge in terms ofpresenting the amount of raw data in a suitablevolume and level of information content(Goldammer 1998b, IDNDR 1997). Newsensors being developed, such as the ModerateResolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, areaimed at satisfying the demands of fire scienceand management.

Challenges

Early warning, monitoring, and inventoryof wildfires need to be accompanied bymonitoring and inventory of ecologicalcharacteristics that lead to fire. Disturbances,such as insect or disease outbreaks, wind throwof trees, industrial forestry, and conversion offorests to other uses are frequently precursorsto fires.

Pests and diseases stress ecosystems, resultingin production of dead matter, particularly foliageand other fine materials that are critical to fireignition and behavior. Post-fire vegetationrecovery is important to predict fire-returnintervals. Advanced early warning systems willneed to integrate these parameters intomultilayer fire information systems. GIStechnology, combined with decision support

systems (expert systems), offers feasible, cost-efficient, and user-friendly solutions(Goldammer 1998b, IDNDR 1997).

Modern Fire Suppression Technologies

These include aircraft, communicationequipment, fire-retardants, heavy fieldequipment, fire jumping, and water bombing.They have seen limited use in developingcountries, however.

International ActionsAt the international level there is considerableinterest in forest fires and haze, particularlytransboundary implications, and their impacton the environment.

Expressions of World ConcernThere has been increasing global concern atthe deterioration of the environment,including deforestation and resource depletion.A series of international conferences, summits,and commissions, starting with the UnitedNations (UN) Conference on the HumanEnvironment held in Stockholm in 1972, haveunequivocally stated that without environmentalconservation, development will not besustainable. In this connection, the crucial issueof deforestation and the need to obviate theundesirable impacts of wildfires have also beenstated, implicitly or explicitly. The widespreadfires seen in many countries during the 1990s—particularly those of 1997-1998—and theassociated atmospheric haze pollution andnegative socioeconomic impacts provided anunprecedented urgency for dealing with fires.

The Declarations

Several international statements,commitments, and declarations on sustainabledevelopment and forest management haveflagged the need to mitigate and manage forest

Severalinternationalstatements,

commitments,and declarationson developmentand sustainable

forestmanagement

have flagged theneed to mitigate

and manageforest wildfires

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 23

wildfires, in the context of controllingdeforestation and forest degradation.

The Antalya Declaration

The Antalya Declaration of the XIth WorldForestry Congress (WFC), 13-22 October 1997,singled out forest fires for specialattention. Noting with alarm the continued rateof forest loss and degradation in many regionsof the world, the Congress called uponcountries “to develop, implement, and reviewpolicies, plans, and management practicesaimed at minimizing the destructive nature andextent of wildfires on forestlands” (WFC 1997).

The Rome Declaration

The Rome Declaration on Forestry wasadopted at the Second Ministerial Meeting onForestry, in Rome, 8-9 March 1999. At thatmeeting, the ministers responsible for forests:

• were deeply concerned at the importantchallenges associated with forest loss anddegradation in many regions;

• stressed the need to maintain the integrityof forests as ecosystems by promotingsustainable forest management worldwide;

• noted that the causes of forest fires aremany and complex; and

• recognized the need to harness all effortsto prevent forest fires as well as toaddress the multiple causes andconsequences of fires around the globe.

They also called upon the UN Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) and otherinternational organizations, donor agencies, andconcerned countries to work together to addressthe underlying causes of forest fires; to improvethe coordination of efforts to tackle, prevent,and combat forest fires; and to rehabilitateaffected areas with a view to providing assistancerequested by governments.

On their part, the ministers pledged:

• to work together toward a constructiveand forward-looking outcome for theglobal forest policy dialogue at the eighthsession of the United Nations Commissionon Sustainable Development;

• to better coordinate and strengthenefforts to prevent, manage, monitor, andsuppress forest fires, especially inanticipation of the next El Niño and, in thelonger term, to address the underlyingcauses of forest fires; and

• to work closely with counterparts in otherministries in the respective countries topromote cross-sectoral policies andactivities that support sustainable forestmanagement.

Such pledges should be followed up seriously.

Conventions

Although some international environmentaltreaties date back to the early part of the20th century, it was not until the 1960s thatconcerns about environmental pollution anddepletion of natural resources led to bindingmultilateral environmental agreements. Thefollowing conventions have had direct orindirect implications for the way the fires aremanaged and controlled:

Ramsar. Convention on Wetlands ofInternational Importance especially as waterfowlHabitat (Ramsar Convention), Ramsar, 2February 1971. www.ramsar.org

World Heritage. Convention Concern-ing the Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage, 23 November 1972.www.unesco.org/whc

CMS. Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn,23 June 1979. www.wcmc.org.uk/cms

Ozone. Vienna Convention for the Protectionof the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 22 March 1985,and Montreal Protocol on Substances

Conventionshave had direct

or indirectimplications forthe way the firesare managed and

controlled

24 THE PREMISE

that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal,16 September 1987. www.unep.org/ozone

UNFCCC. United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change, New York,9 May 1992. www.unfccc.de

CBD. Convention on Biological Diversity,Nairobi, 22 May 1992. www.biodiv.org

UNCCD. United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification in those CountriesExperiencing Serious Drought and/orDesertification, Paris, 17 June 1994.www.unccd.de

Another multilateral environmentalagreement that emerged after the 1972Stockholm Conference on Environment was the1979 Convention on Long-RangeTransboundary Air Pollution, adopted by manyEuropean states, Canada, and US (UNEP1999). Signatories have adopted a critical loadsapproach under the convention, which relatesto the transboundary effects of haze from landand forest fires in Southeast Asia (see Box 4).

Nonbinding Instruments

Nonbinding instruments are oftenforerunners of binding policy instruments and

have at times had a more profound effect onenvironmental policy than binding ones. Twononbinding instruments adopted during theUN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiroin 1992 are the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21(UNCED 1993). The Forest Principles5

adopted at UNCED falls under this category.

UN International Decade forNatural Disaster ReductionOn 11 December 1987 at its 42nd session, theGeneral Assembly of the UN designated the1990s as the International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction (IDNDR). The basic ideabehind this proclamation was the unacceptableand rising levels of losses that disasters continueto incur on the one hand. And on the otherhand, there was the existence of a wealth ofscientific and engineering know-how that couldbe effectively used to reduce losses resultingfrom disasters.

The UN World Conference on NaturalDisaster Reduction, which was part of a midtermreview of IDNDR activities, was held inYokohama, Japan, on 23-27 May 1994. The UN

The Convention on Long-RangeTransboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) inEurope, which was signed in 1979 andentered into force in 1983, is a classicexample of regional environmentalmanagement. The first protocolsorganized finance and addressedacidification and photochemicalpollution. Acidification was addressedagain in 1994 since it was found thatthe first sulfur protocol did not providesufficient protection. Recent attentionhas focused on the problems causedby persistent organic pollutants andheavy metals. Future priorities includedevelopment of an innovative, multi-effect, multi-pollutant protocol aimedat nitrogen oxides and relatedsubstances, which will include

protection of the environment as wellas human health.

Participating countries committhemselves to periodic reporting onemissions, national strategies, andprograms. Many participatingcountries have developed action plansor long-term strategies based on asystem of cost-effective, differenti-ated obligations.

Clear financing, the involvement ofnational scientific bodies, and jointimplementation have contributed toLRTAP’s status as one of the mostsuccessful regional multilateralenvironmental agreements. Emissionsof acidifying substances havedecreased in all areas since the firstprotocols came into force. The

decrease is greatest for sulfur dioxide,the pollutant causing the majorproblem, with expected nationalreductions in 2000 relative to 1980 ofabout one third in Central and EasternEurope, and two thirds to threequarters in Western Europe. However,reductions of the emissions of nitrogenoxides, ammonia, and hydrocarbonsare more difficult to achieve. This willbe the subject of a new protocol. Toexploit the advantages of the multi-effect, multi-pollutants approach,sulfur emissions will also need to befurther reduced. This should increasethe cost-effectiveness of controlling airpollution for all participating countries.

Source: UNEP 1999.

BOX 4 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

Nonbindinginstruments are

often forerunnersof binding policyinstruments andhave at times hada more profound

effect onenvironmental

policy thanbinding ones

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 25

team of specialists used the opportunity toexpress their views on global fires. In 1997, closelinks were established between the IDNDRSecretariat in Geneva and the Global FireMonitoring Center (GFMC).

In July 1997, GFMC was entrusted with theformation of a Working Group on Fire andRelated Environmental Hazards of the IDNDREarly Warning Programme. Therecommendations of the group, which weresubmitted to IDNDR in 1997, wereincorporated into the Report of the UN SecretaryGeneral: “Improved Effectiveness of Early-Warning Systems with Regard to Natural andSimilar Disasters” (Goldammer 1998b).

The proposed priority activities of theWorking Group on Fire and RelatedEnvironmental Hazards include Global FireInventory, Information Exchange andTechnology Transfer, Fire Research and Policies,and Agreements on Environmental Protection.

Scientific ProgramsFire research and technology development hasreceived considerable stimulation fromscientific projects conducted under the umbrellaof the International Geosphere-Biosphere

Program (IGBP) and other programs devotedto global change research (Andreae et al. 1993,FIRESCAN Science Team 1996, Malingreauand Justice 1997, Van Wilgen et al. 1997).While the scope of global change research isnot necessarily directed toward operationalmanagement systems, e.g., early warning ofnatural hazards, the spinoffs of sciencenevertheless have considerable potential forcontributing to management solutions.

However, the application of technologies andmethods of information gathering, processing,and distribution has revealed that many existingsystems must be further developed to meet therequirements of precise and real-timeapplication for early warning and managementof fire and other environmental hazards.

IGBP at the Max Planck Institute forChemistry, Freisburg, Germany, provides thebasis for interdisciplinary fire researchprograms. One of the operational IGBP coreprojects is the International Global AtmosphericChemistry (IGAC) Project, which isinvestigating the impact of biomass burningon the atmosphere and biosphere (BIBEX).Since 1990, interdisciplinary internationalresearch campaigns have been conducted or are

Principles• Fire is a key element of sustainable development.• Fire is a component of ecological processes.• Fire is both a threat and a tool.• Fire and its effects are not constrained by geographic

or political boundaries.• Fire is one of the few natural disturbances that can

be forecasted and mitigated.• Fire may endanger people and communities.• Fire can disrupt local economies.• Fire can cause irreversible impacts.• Fire is an important element of most global

ecosystems and atmospheric processes.• Fire’s role in the global environment is not fully

understood or appreciated.

BOX 5 Wildfire ’97—Principles and Needs

(Based on the report of the International Conference on Wildfire ’97, Vancouver, Canada, May 1997).Source: Goldammer 1997b.

Needs• Increase awareness of the impact of fire on

sustainable development.• Incorporate wildland fire into land management

policies.• Compile international data on wildland fire.• Expand our understanding of fire’s role in global

processes.• Establish international partnerships and agreements.• Coordinate international research.• Continue international dialogue.• Implement appropriate technology.• Share information, knowledge, and experience.• Evaluate international progress in wildland fire

management.

The applicationof technologiesand methods of

informationgathering,

processing, anddistribution has

revealed thatmany existing

systems must befurther developed

to meet therequirements of

precise andreal-time

application forearly warning

and managementof fire and otherenvironmental

hazards

26 THE PREMISE

in the planning and implementation stage, themost important of which in the tropics are theSouthern Tropical Atlantic RegionalExperiment (STARE) and the Southeast AsianFire Experiment (SEAFIRE) (see Chapter 3).

STARE was designed to investigate theatmospheric chemical consequences of fires intropical and subtropical forests and savannahsof South America (Brazil) and SouthernAfrica. This first intercontinental fire experimentwas conducted in the field during 1992 andinvolved more than 150 fire researchers from14 nations. It demonstrated that fires on bothsides of the tropical Atlantic cause elevated ozoneconcentrations in the troposphere during the dryseason (August-November). The SouthernAfrican Fire-Atmosphere Research Initiative(SAFARI) was the African part of STARE andincluded fire ecology research components at asubcontinental level. In 1996-1997, additionalinternational fire research programs wereconducted in near-equator Africa.

SEAFIRE will investigate the characteristicsand regional and global transport ofemissions from various types of fire in tropicalSoutheast Asia, such as fires used in forestconversion and shifting cultivation, and ingrassland and seasonally dry monsoon forests(Goldammer 1996).

Previous and current international fireexperiments under the IGBP are regularlyannounced in the UN-ECE/FAO InternationalForest Fire News (IFFN) and also published inscientific media (e.g., Journal of GeophysicalResearch).

International Exchanges

The international community of firespecialists started to organize itself in the late1980s. With the first issue of IFFN, publishedby the Economic Commission for Europe(ECE)/FAO Agriculture and Timber

Division (now Timber Section, UN-ECE TradeDivision) in 1988, a steadily increasingcommunication process in international firematters was initiated. It was followed by thepublication of the first scientific periodical,Journal of Wildland Fire, and the foundation ofthe International Association of Wildland Fire(IAWF) in 1992. This association provides thelatest information on wildland fire issuesthrough the journal as well as throughWildfire (a quarterly magazine), Current Titlesin Wildland Fire (a monthly bulletin availableon disk or printed that lists new articles,videos, and books on wildland fires), acontinuously updated International Directory ofWildland Fire (a digital master list of 30,000people working in the field), and anInternational Bibliography of Wildland Fire (adigital product with more than 45,000 citationson wildland fire). IAWF cosponsors fireconferences, sells and distributes publications,and provides free access to databases bytelephone, fax, or E-mail (http://www.neotecinc.com/wildfire). Quickinformation through the Internet is providedby FireNet (http://life.anu.edu.au/landscape-ecology/firenet/firenet.html).

A series of international fire conferences hasprovided regular platforms for presenting andexchanging scientific results; for example:

• the biannual Conference on Fire andForest Meteorology (formerly held inCanada and the United States, andbeginning with the Australian conferencein 1996 also internationally);

• the International Conference on Forest FireResearch at Coimbra University(Portugal), in 1998 for the first time inconjunction with the 14th Conference onFire and Forest Meteorology; and

• the ECE/FAO seminars on forest fires(held at five-year intervals since 1981).

SEAFIRE willinvestigate thecharacteristics

and regional andglobal

transport ofemissions fromvarious types offire in tropicalSoutheast Asia

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 27

Fire management science and technologyhave reached a level of advancement andsophistication in industrialized countries. Butin developing countries, they are still in theirnascent stage, as most do not have adequateinfrastructure, experience, and hardware tomanage wildfire disasters.

Although bilateral assistance agreementsexist and several field projects in firemanagement are carried out through nationaland international organizations, there are nofacilities and/or mechanisms available toprovide the necessary disaster managementassistance internationally on a permanent andquick-response basis.

Besides the ECE/FAO Team of Specialistson Forest Fire, which has a restricted mandateand a regionally restricted area of influence, andsome ongoing and planned regional fire researchcampaigns under the IGBP scheme, neither theUN system nor any other organization isproviding adequate structures and mechanismswith global responsibilities in fire management.

Consequently, an information andmonitoring system was needed that national andinternational agencies involved in land useplanning, disaster management, or other fire-related tasks could utilize for planning anddecision making. To fill the need, the GlobalFire Monitoring Center (GFMC) wasestablished in June 1998 in accordance withthe objectives of the UN/IDNDR,recommendations of the International TropicalTimber Organization (ITTO) Guidelines onFire Management in Tropical Forests, andrecommendations of various scientific andpolicy conferences in the field of fire.

GFMC is located at the Fire Ecology andBiomass Burning Research Group of the MaxPlanck Institute of Chemistry, Germany. GFMChas established regional activities linked toMonitoring Tropical Vegetation.

For its first phase, GFMC is sponsored bythe German Government’s Ministry ofFinance Affairs, as the country’s contributionto the IDNDR. GFMC is also cosponsored byseveral international and national organizations;UN-ECE Trade Division; IDNDR;International Union of Forestry ResearchOrganizations (IUFRO); International Bureauof Forest Research Association; IGBP; and USBureau of Land Management. The firedocumentation, information, and monitoringsystem is accessible through the Internet:http:/www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe.

International Guidelines

Fire Management Guidelines

ITTO has established a set of internationalguidelines for the protection of tropical forestsagainst fires. This resulted in a publication,ITTO Guidelines on Fire Management inTropical Forests, in 1996. The Guidelines contains29 principles and recommendations covering:policy and laws, strategies (fire managementplanning, fire management options, firesuppression, role of communities in fireprotection), monitoring and research,institutional framework and capacitydevelopment, socioeconomic considerations,land resources management, and training andpublic education. The Guidelines offers aframework for countries in the tropics, to befine-tuned in accordance with socioeconomic,cultural, and vegetation conditions.

Health Guidelines

As a consequence of the 1997-1998 fires andhaze, several international agencies haveundertaken important initiatives. One issue thatattracted attention was the health affects ofsmoke from vegetation fires. To address this,WHO has prepared Health Guidelines forEpisodic Vegetation Fire Events.

The InternationalTropical Timber

Council hasestablished a setof international

guidelines for theprotection of

tropical forestsagainst fires

28 THE PREMISE

Notes1 Montane climate/vegetation influenced by

altitudinal zonation is not included here.2 The residual product of rock decay.3 Zonal soils that develop in a moist climate.4 The satellite can detect fire points, normally

called hot spots. It, however, was developedfor weather and oceanic monitoring, both ofwhich have temperatures below 40oC. Thesensor measures the average temperature of1 km2. This does not mean that a fire has to beof this size, since a small hot fire can influencethe average temperature of the 1 km2 pixelconsiderably. Unfortunately, detecting hot spots

is not flawless. Bare soil, corrugated iron, andlow vegetation (grass) can also have a hightemperature in the sun and are often wronglyassigned as a fire hot spot. This misclassificationcan account for more than half of results.Further, hot spots cannot be detected in areaswith thick haze or smoke cover, as the sensorcannot penetrate haze, smoke, or cloud. Areacalculation is difficult or impossible with onlyhot spot information.

5 Full title: A nonlegally binding statement ofprinciples for a global consensus on themanagement and conservation and sustainabledevelopment of all types of forests.

30 THE PREMISE

The BackgroundNearly half of the ASEAN6 region is coveredwith tropical forest, accounting for about6 percent of the forest area of the world. Theregion’s forests have global significance in termsof biological diversity (FAO 1999a). ASEANis an important timber producing region(particularly of tropical hardwoods), accountingfor 6 percent of the world’s industrial roundwoodproduction. More than 85 percent of this comesfrom Indonesia and Malaysia. These twocountries are major producers and exporters ofwood-based panels (mainly plywood), together

accounting for 34 percent (in value) of worldexport trade in panels. Three quarters of totalwood production is used as fuelwood and charcoal.In addition, the region is rapidly developing asubstantial pulp and paper industry. Many ASEANmember countries (AMCs) are also majorexporters of nonwood forest products (NWFPs),in particular rubber, rattan, and bamboo.

The amount of land under forest in theASEAN region is 46.2 percent and forest areaper capita is 0.4 ha. The rate of deforestationin the region has been substantial, at about–2.8 million ha during 1990-1995, representingan annual change of –1.3 percent.

Forests have supported overall economicdevelopment in AMCs by generating investmentfunds and providing land for the expansion ofagriculture and estate crops. The need forincreasing export earnings and other nationaleconomic development imperatives hasprompted the conversion of forestlands intorubber, oil palm, and timber plantations. Firehas been used extensively in land preparationas a cost-effective process (see Box 6).

As a result of these and other factors, allAMCs are prone to wildfires, which are likelyto remain a serious threat for some time. As apartnership for sharing experiences,information, responsibilities, and benefits, and

Forest Fires and Haze in theASEAN Region[This chapter focuses on forest fires and haze in the ASEAN region, and provides a detailed analysis of thecauses and constraints that exacerbate these problems. Forestland conversion involving uncontrolled use offire has been identified as a prime cause and source of forest fires. The social, economic, and environmentalimpacts of the recent forest fires and haze have been enormous, with the estimated total cost of the 1997-1998 occurrences alone amounting to $9.3 billion.]

CHAPTER 2

Smoke emanatingSmoke emanatingSmoke emanatingSmoke emanatingSmoke emanatingfrom plantation sites,from plantation sites,from plantation sites,from plantation sites,from plantation sites,as seen throughas seen throughas seen throughas seen throughas seen throughsatellite imaging,satellite imaging,satellite imaging,satellite imaging,satellite imaging,Indonesia, 1Indonesia, 1Indonesia, 1Indonesia, 1Indonesia, 1999999999977777.....

Photo: Photo: Photo: Photo: Photo: ASEANSpecializedMeteorological Centre,Singapore

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 31

working toward common good, ASEAN is ina strong position to address its fire problem atthe regional level.

Similarities and Differences betweenAMCsThere are several differences and similaritiesbetween AMCs. The differences in geographiclocation, in terms of latitudes and longitudes,geological evolution, physiographic andtopographic aspects, volcanism, wind direction,etc., are reflected in their climate, vegetationaltypes, land categories, resource endowments,and capabilities. The diverse ethnic andhistorical background (including the history ofcolonization), coupled with the nature ofresources available, has also resulted indifferences in such aspects as religion, culture,

political system, demographic features, level ofeconomic development, and share ofinternational trade.

Because of the proximity and contiguity ofthese countries, an underlying “unity indiversity” has developed in social and economicattitudes, resulting from migration, trade, andsociocultural interaction. Accordingly, there areconsiderable similarities in land-use practices,economic activities, social habits, commercialdealings, and international interests. In spite ofthe differences in the level of industrialization,agriculture continues to be important to allAMCs, with the exception of BruneiDarussalam and Singapore.

The entire ASEAN region generally fallswithin the tropical zone and followscomparable land management systems.

ASEAN is in astrong position

to address its fireproblem at theregional level

Conversion of forest and wildlands toother productive uses is a prominentfeature of the national economicdevelopment policy in a number offorest- and land-abundant ASEANcountries, just as it formed animportant part of the economicdevelopment process of all countriesthat today enjoy a high level of income(i.e., the developed economies ofEurope, North and South America, andOceania). As in the case of theselatter economies, the land conversionprocess is essentially complete insome AMCs (Brunei Darussalam,Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand).

In others (Indonesia and Malaysia),land conversion is taking place, and isseen by policymakers as an importantand positive contribution to economicdevelopment. In yet other AMCs, landconversion is experiencing a hiatus asa result of previous political andeconomic dislocations (Cambodia andViet Nam). Land conversion in thesecountries may, therefore, resume inthe future when the pace of economicdevelopment quickens sufficiently. Instill other AMCs (the Lao People’s

Democratic Republic [Lao PDR] andMyanmar), a significant amount ofland remains in an undisturbed state,which means that national develop-ment policymakers in these countrieshave the option of using large-scaleland conversion to help fuel futureeconomic development.

Land conversion is undertaken inorder to harness the wealth containedin land resources so that it directlyand immediately enters into the flow ofproduction and national income. Oncebrought into this flow, this wealth caneasily be transformed into goods andservices of all types. Some of this landwealth is transformed into investmentin future productive capability, whichstimulates employment and ultimatelyaugments national income. Some ofthe remainder is used to purchaseconsumption goods, which in partincreases the demand for home-produced goods, indirectly stimulatingfurther domestic investment andemployment.

But land conversion can supportreal development only if it can becarried out without damaging the

environment. One of the major causesof Indonesia’s 1997-1998 wildfires,identified by investigators, was theland clearing practices of oil palmplantations companies andsmallholders, who used fire as a low-cost (or free) way of preparing land forcropping. More than 60,000 ha offorestland per year were converted intooil palm between 1995 and 1997.Most of the oil palm plantations wereopened up through systematic burningof vegetation, primarily logged-overforest. In addition to the existing2.4 million ha, the IndonesianGovernment intends to allocateanother 3.1 million ha for futureconversion into oil palm plantations.

Regulations allow for three kinds ofland-clearing permits: open burning,controlled burning, and zero burning.However, landowners and companiesare generally reluctant to adopt moreexpensive zero-burn land preparationsystems. This is also true of forestplantations.

Source: ADB/ASEAN (1999). Final Report of RETA 5778:Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent andMitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution.

BOX 6 Land Conversion and Economic Development

32 THE PREMISE

Shifting cultivation is prevalent in all the forestedcountries of the region.

The rapid land use changes taking place inthe countries is reflected in the high rate ofdeforestation. For a comparison of population,income, land, and forests of AMCs,see Table 1.

Fire Regimes of the RegionThe region has a number of distinct fireregimes, each with one or more associatedvegetation formations. Fire regimes are bestunderstood as existing along a gradient ofecological and human factors. The characteristicsand features of the major fire regimes are brieflydescribed in the following sections.

Tropical Rain ForestsTropical rain forest is the natural vegetationover large areas of Southeast Asia and the

Pacific. These forests require abundant rainfalland high temperatures all year round. If monthlyrainfall drops below 100 millimeters (mm),drought will result. Insular Southeast Asia,Papua New Guinea, and the high islands ofMelanesia were largely covered with species-rich forests until recent decades. Logging andagricultural expansion have now greatlydecreased their quality and extent. Apart fromPapua New Guinea and the protected or remoteparts of Southeast Asia, the lowland rain forestsof the region are a mosaic of disturbed stands,fire climax grasslands, secondary vegetation, andcommercial crop plantations. Within this broadclimate type, special vegetation types have theirown fire regimes. The fire climax Imperatacylindrica grasslands are fired by humansannually to prevent invasion by woody pioneerspecies. Peat swamp forests are susceptible tocontinuous subsurface burning during severe

Pop. DensityLand Area (1997 GNP per Area % of Per Capita

Country (’000 ha) pop/km2) Capita (’000 ha) Land Area (ha) ’000 ha % Rate

Brunei Darussalam 527 56.9 25,160 434 82.4 1.5 -3 -0.6

Cambodia 17,652 59.5 270 9,830 55.7 1.0 -164 -1.6

Indonesia 181,157 112.3 980 109,791 60.6 0.6 -1,084 -1.0

Lao PDR 23,080 22.5 350 12,435 53.9 2.5 -148 -1.2

Malaysia 32,855 63.9 3,890 15,471 47.1 0.8 -400 -2.4

Myanmar 65,755 71.2 — 27,151 41.3 0.6 -387 -1.4

Philippines 29,817 237.1 1,050 6,766 22.7 0.1 -262 -3.5

Singapore 61 5,573.8 26,730 4 6.6 NS 0 0.0

Thailand 51,089 115.7 2,740 11,630 22.8 0.2 -329 -2.6

Viet Nam 52,797 34.7 260 9,117 28.0 0.1 -135 -1.4

Total 454,790 96.5 1,594 202,629 44.6 0.5 -2,912 -1.4

— = no— = no— = no— = no— = not at at at at avvvvvailable.ailable.ailable.ailable.ailable.SourSourSourSourSource: ce: ce: ce: ce: SSSSStttttatatatatate of the We of the We of the We of the We of the Worororororld’ld’ld’ld’ld’s Fs Fs Fs Fs Forororororesesesesestststststs (F (F (F (F (FAAAAAO 1O 1O 1O 1O 1999).999).999).999).999).

TABLE 1 ASEAN Region: Country Information

Annual Changein Forest Area

Forest Area

Fire regimes arebest understood

as existing along agradient of

ecological andhuman factors

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 33

droughts, and heath and limestone forests aremore fire-prone than other forest types due tothe limited water-holding capacity of their soils.

Undisturbed lowland rain forest is highlyresistant to burning, but scientific evidenceindicates that Borneo’s forests (and byinference, those elsewhere) have burnedperiodically over tens of millennia duringextreme droughts. Humans have used fires asthey settled in the forests over thousands ofyears to create swidden7 plots and facilitatehunting. Traditional use of fire is thought tohave had little long-term ecological effect onthe forests, but increased human populationdensity, shortened fallow periods, and cash-cropping have made shifting cultivation a majoragent of deforestation. Careless commercialtimber harvesting has greatly increased firehazard, and logging roads have providedagricultural settlers with access to remoteforest areas, thereby increasing the risk thattheir land-clearing activities will result inwildfires. Logged and otherwise disturbedforests are being cleared by “slash and burn” ofwaste wood, in preparation for conversion topalm oil or pulpwood plantations.

Severe ENSO-related droughts over the lasttwo decades, combined with large-scalelogging in the rain forests and indiscriminateuse of fire for land clearance, have led tomassive wildfires in Indonesia and, to a lesserdegree in neighboring countries. These havedramatically changed the fire regime, andthreaten the existence of lowland rain forestflora in many parts of Sumatra and Kalimantanin Indonesia, and Sabah and Sarawak inMalaysia. The rain forest fire regime has shiftedto a much higher fire frequency; larger areashave burned and fire intensity has increased.But fire policy and fire managementapproaches for rain forests are at an early stageof development (Whitmore 1998a,

Goldammer and Seibert 1990, Schweithelm1998b).

Tropical Lowland Deciduous ForestsThis regime includes monsoon and savannahforests, the latter having less tree cover and moregrass. These forests occur in areas where thedry season is three to seven months long, totalannual rainfall is usually less than 2,000 mm,and the mean temperature in the coldest monthis rarely less than 20 degrees C. Monsoon teak(Tectona grandis) forests occur naturally incontinental Southeast Asia and have beenplanted elsewhere. Dry Dipterocarp savannahforests are also found in continental SoutheastAsia, and open grasslands and thorn forests arespread in patches across drier parts of theregion. The relatively dry Lesser Sunda Islandsof eastern Indonesia contain monsoon andsavannah forests with affinities to Australianflora. These forests usually burn one or moretimes in a year with low level litter, ground-level fires being the norm. Levels of fireadaptation vary among formations. Fires aretypically ignited purposely or accidentally byhumans, and increased frequency of burning isputting stress on these fire-adapted ecosystems(Stott et al. 1990, Goldammer 1996).

Fire Climax Pine ForestsPine forests occur naturally on disturbed sitesin the lower montane forests of tropical Asia,primarily in the Himalayan foothills, themountains of continental Southeast Asia,Sumatra (Indonesia), and Luzon (Philippines).Human disturbance of forests at lower andhigher elevations has caused the altitudinalrange of fire climax pine forests to expand. Pineplantations have been established at lowerelevations in many parts of the region. Tropicalpine species have various levels of fireadaptation and are prone to burning due to the

The rain forestfire regime has

shifted to a muchhigher fire

frequency; largerareas have

burned and fireintensity has

increased

34 THE PREMISE

also report that the thermoluminescence analysisof burned clay collected on top of anextinguished coal seam near active coal fireshas proven fires occurred between 11200 and13300 BC. Charcoal residues suggesting ancientforest fires were also found in several places inBrunei Darussalam and Sabah.

Humans probably had a role in starting forestfires in recent millennia, and may havedeliberately burned forests to improve huntingfor thousands of years. As prehistoric humansettlers of the Indonesian archipelago began toswitch from hunting and gathering to growingcrops, they used fire to clear agricultural plotsin the forest. The cycle of forest clearing,cultivation, and abandonment is known asswidden, kaingin, or shifting cultivation, anagricultural system adopted throughout mostof the region over a period of thousands of years.Swidden cultivation has continued into thiscentury in locations where soils are too poor tosupport permanent cultivation of annual crops.Until recently, swidden agriculture was thedominant form of cultivation in Kalimantan,and is still practiced there as well as in Sumatra.Typically, swidden plots are cultivated for oneto three years, then abandoned to allow naturalvegetation to regrow, creating a mosaic ofpioneer and secondary vegetation patches inthe mature forest. In areas with growingpopulations of forest dwellers, the number ofyears between abandonment and the nextclearance of a swidden plot has been shortenedto a period that does not permit regenerationto progress beyond pioneer vegetation.

Recorded Fires of the PastIn the absence of droughts, undisturbed maturerain forest is resistant to burning due to highhumidity below the forest canopy. There is alsoa scarcity of fuel such as ground vegetation,leaf litter, and fallen branches due to the rapid

volume and flammability of their litter. Theseforests are productive if fire frequency andintensity are stable, but tend to become degradedif fire occurs too frequently or is combined withother disturbance factors. Most fires are ignitedby humans through carelessness, but may bestarted purposely to improve grazing or helpwith hunting. Most pines will not regenerate iffire occurs annually, so it is necessary to reducethe fire frequency. Total fire exclusion usuallyresults in broad-leaved species reclaiming thesite (Goldammer and Penafiel 1990).

Forest Fire HistoryThe Ancient FiresEven though fire has been an integral part oftropical forest ecology in the Asian and Pacificregion and wild forest fires have occurred inthe region for centuries, they were much lessprevalent in the tropical rain forests comparedto the dry forests, savannahs, and grasslands.

The wildfires that have been a feature ofSoutheast Asia’s ecology since the PleistoceneAge are made possible by periods of reducedrainfall, long enough for even rain forests tobecome dry enough to burn. During the IceAge, extended periods of minimal rainfalloccurred in Southeast Asia, making large areasof the region vulnerable to fire. More recently,the recurring El Niño phenomenon has createdconditions that enable large-scale wildfires toreoccur in the ASEAN region (Qadri andScarsborough 1998).

Scientific evidence based on dating charcoaldeposits found in the soils of East Kalimantanindicates that forest fires have repeatedly burnedareas of lowland rain forest since about15500 BC. Goldammer and Siebert (1989,1990) report that the radiocarbon dates of soilcharcoal recovered in their study areas in EastKalimantan indicate that forest fires occurredbetween about 15510 BC and 1650 AD. They

Most fires areignited by

humans throughcarelessness, butmay be startedpurposely to

improve grazingor help with

hunting

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 35

recycling of fallen vegetative material. Forestsadapted to grow on sand and limestone-derivedsoils are more susceptible to fire than thosegrowing on other soil types, and peat swampforests are particularly vulnerable to above andbelow ground fires when water levels fall duringdroughts (Whitmore 1984). Tropical rain forestsrecover even after a severe fire, if leftundisturbed and if seed sources are nearby. Buthundreds of years may be required to reach asuccessional stage8 that approximates the speciescomposition that existed prior to the fire. Highintensity fire, followed by frequent burning,leads to conversion of tropical rain forest tograsslands, unlike monsoon forest formationsin seasonally dry areas that recover quickly fromfrequent fires.

The majority of forests on the islands ofBorneo and Sumatra have been affected byhuman actions, and tens of millions of hectareshave been converted to grasslands and variousagricultural uses. An analysis of remote sensingdata from the mid-1980s indicated that theIndonesian archipelago contained about10 million ha of grasslands at that time(RePPProT 1990). Much of the remainingforest has been logged in recent years, andlogged forests are frequently degraded orconverted to agriculture. The present landscapeis a mosaic of vegetation types and land uses,including some intact forest ecosystems, loggedforests in various stages of regeneration,scrubland, grassland, annual crops, and treeplantations.

Forest fires have been reported a number oftimes over the past 150 years on the island ofBorneo, and such fires probably also occurredin Sumatra. Records of forest fires were firstmade in the late 19th century when Michielsen(in 1882) conducted a survey of the regionbetween the Kalanaman and Cempaka Rivers(now Sampit and Katingan Rivers) in Central

Kalimantan. He reported that forest fires haddamaged a number of sites in 1877. Soon after,Gerlach recorded evidence of forest fires in whatis now the Sentarum Lake Wildlife Reserve inthe southwestern region of West Kalimantan(Meijaarad and Dennis 1997). It can no longerbe assumed that tropical forest fires are a recentphenomenon. But the frequency and intensityof tropical forest fires have increased in parallelwith the frequency and intensity of humanactivities in the forests (Schindele et al. 1989).

Grasslands still cover the 80,000 ha SookPlains in Sabah as the result of a drought-relatedforest fire in 1915 (Whitmore 1998a). Periodicfires have been reported in theDanau Sentarum Wildfire Reserve in WestKalimantan since the middle of the 19th century.Brunig (1971) reports that the relatively fire-prone kerangas or heath forests of Sabah andSarawak burned spontaneously or by humanaction in the 1880s, the early 1930s, and thelate 1950s. So while the burning of forests ofSumatra and Kalimantan is clearly not a recentor geographically unique phenomenon, the factthat these islands remained largely forested untilrecent decades indicates that neither naturallycaused fire nor human use of fire led tosignificant deforestation in the past.

Earlier fires were undoubtedly smaller inarea and probably more spread out over timethan the fires of the past two decades. A 1924forest map of what are now the provinces ofCentral, East, and South Kalimantan showedthat this large portion of Borneo was still94 percent forest covered at the time(RePPProT 1990).

Fires in Recent YearsWhile the fires of 1997-1998 were severe, theywere not the first such examples. Records inthe region have shown that there have been atleast nine instances of widespread fire and smoke

Earlier fires wereundoubtedly

smaller in areaand probably

more spread outover time thanthe fires of the

past two decades

36 THE PREMISE

in the region since the 1970s, occurring mostlyduring El Niño periods.

Indonesia

Areas in Indonesia that are prone to fireinclude forest areas whose canopies have beenbroken and opened, secondary forests,deciduous forests (particularly teak forests), andgrasslands. Such areas are found in almost allprovinces of Indonesia.

With the stepping up of economic activitiesin Indonesia’s outer islands, forest fires havebecome commonplace, occurring every year.During pronounced El Niño years, whenconditions are usually dry, fire and smokeproblems tend to be much more serious. Seriousfires occurred in 1982-1983, 1987, 1991-1992,1994-1995, and 1997-1998. Less serious firesoccurred in 1999. Again fires have beenreported in March 2000, particularly from theRiau province. Media reports indicated thatsome 1,200 fires have been detected inKalimantan and Sumatra. The economic costof the fires has extended far beyond thedestruction of large tracts of forestland. Inaddition to the direct damage these fires havecaused to human and animal populations livingin the affected areas, the resulting smoke hasdirectly imperiled human health and economicwell-being in adjacent AMCs.

Fires of 1982-1983

One of the most serious of the recent fireswas in East Kalimantan during 1982-1983,demonstrating the greater vulnerability ofdisturbed forests to blazes. In that fire season,ENSO caused large-scale wildfires, which ranout of control from several land clearings andslash-and-burn sites as well as from loggingareas, alang alang, and camping sites. It hasbeen estimated that the overall land area ofKalimantan affected by fire exceed

5 million ha. In East Kalimantan alone, about3.5 million ha were affected by drought andfire. Of this, some 1.4 million ha were logged-over forest, 800,000 ha primary rain forest,750,000 ha secondary forest, and 550,000 hapeat swamp forest. The fires resulted in theloss of timber values of about $8.3 billion, anda total of timber and nontimber values plusrehabilitation costs of about $9.1 billion(Goldammer et al. 1996). Undisturbed primaryforests were less affected by fire, compared tothe moderately and heavily disturbed forests.Logged-over forests are highly sensitive todrought and easily combustible (Malingreau etal. 1985, BAPPENAS 1999).

Fires between 1983 and 1997

Land and forest fires that occurred duringthe extended dry periods in 1987 (66,000 ha),1991 (500,000 ha), and 1994 (4.87 million ha)were distributed over some 25 provinces,including Maluku and Sulawesi. These fireswere larger than during years with normalrainfall. The smoke emitted from theIndonesian archipelago during these years wasnot primarily caused by forest fires alone, butalso by the application of fire for convertingforests into estate tree crops and forestplantations, as well as by slash-and-burnagriculture (Goldammer 1998b). Also, theburning of coal seams represents a permanentfire source from which wildfires spreadwhenever severe droughts occur and fuelconditions are suitable for carrying a fire.

Fires of 1997-1998 and Beyond

Noted by UNEP as one of the biggestenvironmental shocks since 1950, the 1997-1998 forest fires of Indonesia were among themost damaging in recorded history (UNEP1999). The area affected by fire has beenestimated as 9.76 million ha. Indonesia (and

With thestepping up of

economicactivities in

Indonesia’s outerislands, forest

fires have becomecommonplace,occurring every

year

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 37

Malaysia) experienced one of the worst recordeddroughts in recent history during that period.It occurred in two spells. The dry conditionsthat started around April 1997 abated brieflyby November 1997. But the El Niño persistedand drought resumed in early 1998, in a patternreminiscent of the El Niño drought and fires of1982-1983. The second spell lasted fromJanuary to May 1998, until the onset of rain.9

Less serious, sporadic fires occurred in thedry season of 1999. With the shock of 1997-1998 fires still strongly evident, the smalleroutbreaks of 1999 did not attract muchattention.

Two aspects of the fires that have affectedSoutheast Asia during the past two decadesdifferentiate them from previous occurrences.First, the magnitude of the fires themselvessurpassed all previous outbreaks of this type onrecord. Previous fires were much smaller,primarily because the scale of land clearancesin the past was limited and consequently thefuel load for burning was also less. Second, thescale of the damage caused by transboundaryhaze pollution resulting from the fires has beenwithout precedent.

The fires of the 1980s and 1990s weretriggered by open burning for large-scale landpreparation for commercial crops. This accountsfor the exceptional magnitude of the firesthemselves, and for the scale of the damage fromthe transboundary haze produced. All of theabove factors have prompted much more swiftresponses from the AMC governmentscompared to their pre-1980 stance, that rainswould eventually quell the fires, and at least inthe long term, reverse any damage they mayhave caused.

Other ASEAN CountriesEven though the major centers of fires and hazeduring the last 20 years have been in Indonesia,

other AMCs have also experienced forest fires,although on a smaller scale. Information availableon the fire situation in these countries is scanty.

Some AMCs, apart from Indonesia, mightexperience significant forest fires and haze ifconditions are created by land clearing forexport-oriented commercial crops,socioeconomic evolution, and/or climaticvariations.

Malaysia

The threat of forest fires in peninsularMalaysia has been relatively small and most ofthe recorded examples relate to plantationforests. Besides the documented fires in forestplantations, those in natural forests occursporadically throughout the peninsula duringdry spells of January-March and June-August.Such occurrences have been small in size andreadily brought under control.

Fire appears to be a more serious problemin Sabah. The worst fires of recent yearsoccurred in 1982-1983 when about 1 million haof (mostly logged-over) forests were reportedburned (Phillips 1987). The cause wasattributed to a severe drought, which was alsoblamed in large part for the fires in Kalimantanduring the same period.

In Sarawak, fires have been reported anddocumented to be confined to forest plantationareas, and to date have been relatively small(Mhd Saad et al. 1996). During 1997-1998,extensive fires did break out in Sabah, and to alesser degree in Sarawak and in the peat andhill forests. Neighboring Brunei Darussalamalso suffered small fires during the same period,extending over an area of about 6,500 ha ofheath forests, peat swamp forests, andbushlands.

Thus, even though on a lower scale, forestfires in Malaysia remain a cause for concern,particularly since the country shares similar

The scale of thedamage caused

by transboundaryhaze pollutionresulting from

the fires has beenwithout

precedent

38 THE PREMISE

geographic, climatic, ecological, and land-useattributes with Indonesia.

Malaysia has a reasonably effective legal andinstitutional framework to control fires and haze,including: a system of fire permits andrestrictions on open fires, a system formonitoring air pollution, forest managementprescriptions in line with sustainability criteria,and a relatively advanced firefighting capability.

The Ministry of Science, Technology, andEnvironment has formulated a NationalContingency Plan to Combat Forest andPlantation Fires in Malaysia. The Plan isexecuted by a National Forest and PlantationFire Committee that is composed of variousgovernment agencies, with the mandate todevelop guidelines and procedures to coordinateinteragency fire response. The Fire and RescueServices Department is the lead agency for firesuppression.

Malaysia has pioneered the use of zero-burning techniques for forest clearance(Hashim et al. 1993) and is using persuasion,technical advice, and penalties to encourageplantation firms to adopt these techniques.Shifting cultivators in Sarawak are required toundertake prescribed burning to avoid wildfires.Many plantation units have their own firedetection and suppression systems. As part ofroutine forest management and asprescribed in the working plans, Malaysiamaintains a system of firebreaks, and anadequate amount of firefighting equipment(BAPPENAS/JICA/ITTO 1999).

Philippines

As in the case of Indonesia, tropical rainforest is the dominant natural vegetationformation in the Philippines, but deforestationhas progressed to the point that little intactlowland forest remains. Forest cover hasdiminished from more than half of the nation’s

land area in 1950 to 21 percent today. Populationgrowth, commercial logging, and agriculturalexpansion are the main causes of deforestation.All fires are caused by human activity and oftenstart from shifting cultivation. Meanwhile, firepreparedness planning and implementation hasbeen more reactive than proactive (Castillo1998). Forest fires occur in pure pine stands(Pinus kesiya) in the highlands of NorthernLuzon, in broad-leaved forests adjoiningshifting cultivation fields, and in grasslands(thereby complicating attempts at reforestation).The archipelago’s 6 million ha of fire climaxgrassland are typically burned annually toenhance grazing. The pine forests are fire-proneand the broad-leaved forests are susceptible toburning during ENSO-related droughts.(Schweithelm 1998a). Laws forbiddingswiddening and forest burning have been largelyineffective, resulting in a paradigm shift in thelate 1980s toward community-based forestmanagement.

The Philippines seems to have suffered fromthe second worst fires in 1982 and 1983 (afterIndonesia). The total burned area was estimatedat 8,063 ha in 1982 and 117,951 ha in 1983.In the years between 1984 and 1989, firesburned between 3,000 ha and 37,000 ha offorests per year. In the years 1990, 1992, and1993, fires affected 12,473 ha, 36,906 ha, and14,914 ha, respectively.

During 1997-1998, fires occurred in severalprovinces including Benguet, Bukidnon, DavaoOriental, Mountain Province, NegrosOccidental, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, andPangasinan. The fires consumed almost50,000 ha of natural and plantation forests and37,500 ha of grasslands.

Thailand

The forests of Thailand are categorized intotwo main groups: evergreen forests (45 percent)

Malaysia has areasonably

effective legal andinstitutional

framework tocontrol fires

and haze

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 39

and deciduous forests (55 percent). Deciduousforests are further classified into three mainsubgroups: mixed deciduous forest, drydipterocarp forest, and savannah. Since theyshed their leaves during the dry season ofDecember to April, creating high fuel loads,these forests are highly vulnerable to fire.

About 90 percent of the nation’s land areawas forested at the beginning of the 20th centurybut by 1999 this had reduced to about23 percent, including areas under scrub andbamboo (FAO 1999a). The rapid rate ofdeforestation has been, and continues to be,the result of agricultural expansion toaccommodate the growing human population,which has increased 10-fold since the beginningof the 20th century. Teak was always the mainfocus of commercial forestry, but output hasfallen as deforestation has increased, leading toThailand becoming a net timber importer in1977. A total nationwide harvesting ban innatural forests has been imposed since 1989(Mhd. Saad et al. 1996).

Fires occur annually in the dry season fromDecember to May, typically in the form ofground fires in the drier forest formations,grasslands, and dryland agricultural areas, andmostly in the north and northeastern parts ofthe country.

Virtually all fires are started by humans inorder to facilitate gathering of NWFPs, disposeof agricultural waste, convert forestland intoagricultural fields, settle conflicts, help withhunting, and also due to carelessness. Peoplehave generally believed that fire is not harmfulto forests.

Fire data are not regularly collected for theentire country, but an aerial survey in 1984-1986 indicated that 3.1 million ha of allvegetation types are burned annually, while arepeat survey in 1992 showed that the burnedarea was down to 2 million ha.

The National Forest Policy (1985) mandatesthat a plan for slowing deforestation mustinclude forest fire prevention and suppression.Other laws set penalties for igniting open,unauthorized fires. Attempts at firemanagement began in 1971 with short-termtechnical assistance through a consultant, fundedby the Canadian Government. This led to thetraining of some Thai forest officers abroad inforest fire control in the early 1970s and theestablishment of a Forest Fire Control Sectionin the Forest Management Division of the RoyalForest Department (RFD). This section wasupgraded to a Subdivision in 1981, and Officeof Forest Fire Control and Rescue in 1991.

RFD has taken the following actions toprevent and control forest fires:

• established forest fire control units in fire-prone areas;

• cooperated with the Ministry of Interiorto organize and train local governmentofficials and volunteers in firefighting;

• organized a network of governmentagencies and commercial aviation firmsto report fires;

• provided funds to purchase firefightingequipment;

• conducted a nationwide fire preventioncampaign; and

• begun collecting fire data and conductingresearch.

RFD has had some success in reducing forestfires through public fire prevention campaignsand strengthening of local fire managementbrigades. Thailand is the first Southeast Asiancountry in which helicopters and fixed-wingaircraft have been used for aerial firefightingand personnel transport.

Further improvements in Thailand’sequipment for fire management capability areconstrained by budget and personnel limitations(Schweithelm 1998b).

Thailand is thefirst Southeast

Asian country inwhich helicopters

and fixed-wingaircraft have been

used for aerialfirefighting and

personneltransport

40 THE PREMISE

Viet Nam

The forests of Viet Nam, accounting forabout 28 percent of the country’s land area,have been considerably degraded due to shiftingcultivation, fuelwood collection, overfelling, andfires. The unsettled situation in the country forthe past several decades has accelerated theenvironmental degradation. Viet Nam is nowin the process of rebuilding its resourcemanagement systems and related institutions.

The main problem areas with regard to forestfires in Viet Nam are the seasonally flammabledeciduous forests, indigenous pine forests,degraded natural vegetation, shifting agricultureand deforestation complex, and intensivelytreated agricultural lands. The peak of burningactivities in Viet Nam is during the mid to latedry season (January-April).

One major problem is the fires occurring inthe economically valuable Melaleucaleucadendron forests. Available fire informationis limited. In the mountainous pine forests inthe highlands of Da Lat, northeast of Ho ChiMinh City, the annual area reported destroyedby fire usually does not exceed 100 ha, but manyfires seem to be unreported (Goldammer 1992).

CausesTo start a forest fire requires inflammable matter(fuel load), a source and reason leading to actualignition, and a favorable condition where theignited fuel can spread the combustion.Climatic conditions, fuel source, and its naturedefine the fire-proneness of a situation; whereasthe ignition source and condition of burningdefine the fire itself.

In the ASEAN region, various factors havebeen associated with the considerably increasedincidence and intensity of fires of late. Theseinclude: (i) careless logging that has killed treesunnecessarily, left too much wastewood in theforest, opened the closed canopy exposing the

forest floor to drying by sunlight and wind, andmade the forest accessible to agricultural settlers;(ii) increasing numbers of people clearing landfor farming in or near forests by burning; (iii)temporary forest conversion using traditionalslash-and-burn methods; (iv) permanentconversion of forestland to agricultural uses(e.g., cultivation of food crops, estate crops,horticultural products, grazing of livestock); (v)conversion of natural forest (mainly exploitedor otherwise degraded secondary forest) for theestablishment of industrial timber plantations;(vi) drainage of peat swamps for agriculturalor other purposes; and (vii) fires that havespread and turned wild from theseinterventions.

While the causes of forest fires are more orless common to all the AMCs affected by therecent fires and haze, discussions tend to focuson Indonesia because of its significance to theregion and the availability of information fromseveral studies on its forest fires. These suggestthat the main causes of fires and haze are: (i)the imperatives of national economicdevelopment and related financing needs; (ii)land conversion using open fires, prompted byprivate profit maximization; and (iii) problemsrelating to land tenure and social equity. Thesecauses are aggravated by factors such as ENSO-induced drought; technological andinfrastructural limitations; and institutionalinadequacies.

Land Conversion and Preparation

It is a common misconception that most landconversion in the ASEAN region involves theclearing of pristine forest. While this may betrue in the case of peat swamp forestland, muchland conversion in the region simply continuesthe process of human intervention that beganwith timber extraction from virgin forestland.According to a recent report, of the total area

To start a forestfire requiresinflammablematter (fuel

load), a sourceand reason

leading to actualignition, and a

favorablecondition wherethe ignited fuelcan spread thecombustion

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 41

of about 4.8 million ha consumed by fire during1994, 88 percent comprised logged-over forests,some of which were under cultivation bytraditional dryland agricultural techniques. Bycontrast, shifting cultivation areas accountedfor only 5.3 percent, transmigration farmland4.5 percent, areas occupied by previously-established plantations only 0.8 percent, andnatural protected forests a scant 0.2 percent.The corresponding figures for 1997 (whichexclude information for calendar year 1998) tella similar story. Of the total land area consumedby large-scale fires during that year, logged-overproduction forests accounted for 62 percent.The remainder comprised the following:national parks, 20.6 percent; protection forests,8.4 percent; nature reserves, 6.5 percent; andrecreation parks, 0.6 percent (MOE/UNDP1998).

Observations made during the fires and hazeof 1997-1998 and previous cases have indicatedthat the intensity of fire in logged areas wasdirectly related to the intensity of logging.10 Evensevere fires did not completely destroymoderately logged stands where, after the fire,a few trees with green foliage could still beobserved, although spaced and scattered. Inheavily logged forest areas, where remainingtrees were widely spaced, shrubs had formed athick ground cover, providing an efficientbiomass source for the fires after the extensivedrought. Here, the fuel consumption was morecomplete (BAPPENAS 1999).

The main factors causing increasedcombustibility are wasteful logging; and forestclearance for agricultural crops, estate crops,and forest plantations leading to buildup of drymaterials. The changing composition ofvegetation due to mono-cropping, draining ofpeat swamps, and mining practices that exposecoal deposits also contribute to altering the fuelcharacteristics.

Thus, land clearance and preparation activitiesinfluence the volume and condition of the fuelload, serve as the ignition source, and often causethe spread of fire. These activities, in effect, takeadvantage of drought conditions created byweather disturbances such as ENSO.

Drought Conditions

Indonesia’s climate is shaped by the annualcycle of east and west monsoons, which affectrainfall and winds across the archipelago. Themajor islands and most smaller island groupsare dominated by a humid tropical climate andrain forest vegetation, although the Lesser SundaIslands, eastern Java, and small parts of otherislands have mild to pronounced rainfallseasons. Drought in Indonesia is generallyexperienced between May and October.

There are two weather phenomenonconsidered to be crucial to the spread of forestfires and haze. The first is recurrent ENSOconditions, bringing extraordinarily dry weatherto the region (and in the process, creatingconditions ideal for disposing of biomass residueby open burning). Prolonged drought inIndonesia occurs at least once every 10 years.Data on rainfall in Bali, Java, Kalimantan,Sulawesi, and Sumatra since the early 1900sshow that prolonged drought occurred 17 timesduring the century, of which 11 correspondedwith an El Niño. When the dry season inIndonesia occurs at the same time as an El Niño,the result is a prolonged drought, which extendsfrom June to November and can continue untilMay of the following year. The second weatherfactor is that in geographic areas that lie closeto the equator, there is relatively little wind.This means that in the ASEAN areas whereland conversion is in progress, the weatherforces that mix (and dilute) the particulatematter from land conversion fires withunpolluted air are weak.

The intensity offire in logged

areas was directlyrelated to theintensity of

logging

42 THE PREMISE

In Indonesia, a prolonged drought as aconsequence of an El Niño has occurred fivetimes over the last 20 years. This had varyingeffects in different parts of the country,depending on the strength of the El Niño andthe monsoon winds sweeping past Indonesia.Compared with the previous El Niño years, theone in 1997 had the highest impact on droughtand fires in Indonesia. Forest and land fires in1997 occurred in nearly all provinces.

Contributing ConstraintsDuring the recent forest fires and haze,particularly in 1997-1998, several factors haveaggravated the causes of fires.

Physiographic

The physical condition of the locality—difficult terrain, slope and accessibility, andinadequate availability of water—often makesfire management measures difficult to carry out.Fire crews often struggle to access forests insteep terrain and peatlands. Conditions such aslow humidity, lack of clouds, and inaccessibilityof natural water bodies affect fire suppressionoperations. Because of such constraints,performance of water bombing and cloudseeding operations in Indonesia during the1997-1998 fires was unsatisfactory.

Sociocultural

Cultural and/or religious leanings ofindigenous and rural communities, fire worship,and practice of slash-and-burn agriculture canbecome obstacles to adopting scientific firemanagement. Other sociocultural factorsinclude land tenure issues, conflict of interestamong different classes of people andcommunities, and use of fire as a weapon toinflict harm on the enemy. Such situations arecommon among indigenous communities andbetween the indigenous communities and

transmigrants. Also, in some situations, ruralpeople move into the forest to eke out alivelihood by illegally clearing and cultivatingforestland.

Inadequate social awareness is, in severalcases, reflected in eco-hostile and private profit-maximizing attitudes by private operatorsunwilling to invest in fire protection. Also, fireis often set deliberately for individual economicgain, through grazing, collection of honey, andother NWFPs, as well as hunting and gathering.In addition, villagers are also often reluctant tofight fire without attractive cash incentives.

Technological and Infrastructural

Technological constraints include lack ofappropriate technology; inadequate knowledgeand appreciation about technologicalpossibilities as well as limitations; insufficienttools and equipment; inadequately trainedpersonnel; lack of research support;inadequacies in forest fire managementexemplified by lapses in monitoring, fire dangerwarning, fire protection measures,presuppression planning and preparedness, andfirefighting; and reluctance to adopt zero-burntechniques of land preparation and low impactlogging.

Lack of infrastructure such as access roads,fire corridors, fuelbreaks, observation towers,water reservoirs, communication and mappingfacilities, satellite stations, etc., affect theefficiency of fire management.

For example, the total reported length ofcleared fireline in Indonesia is only about150 km, which appears grossly inadequate.Adequate infrastructure is found only in areascovered by some of the donor-funded projects.

Institutional

Most of the important constraints areinstitutional in nature. Lack of political will,

Compared withthe previous ElNiño years, the

one in 1997 hadthe highestimpact on

drought and firesin Indonesia

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 43

inappropriate and poorly specified policies,weak legislation, ambiguous regulations,bureaucratic procedures, and inadequateresources for enforcement of laws andregulations have come up again and again ascrucial and crippling constraints. Policy gapsand conflicts relating to land use, tenure security,and economic development add considerablyto the forest fire danger.

Indonesia’s economic policy, which allowsfor large-scale expansion of commercial crops,encourages land speculation and may lead toecological disaster. The pace and manner ofplantation development has been such that theMinistry of Forestry and Estate Crops(MOFEC) is little more than a haplessbystander (Anon 1997b). Unlike other countriesin the region, Indonesia’s policy on timberpricing subsidizes the concessionaire. In someother countries it is based on competitive bids.A study indicated that in 1990, Indonesia’stimber subsidies cost the Government$2.5 billion in lost revenues (Constantino1990); and this further leads to wasteful use ofresources. For reasons related to tenure security,many forest dwelling communities do not yetacknowledge current forest boundaries.

An absence of properly designed plansrelating to land use; inadequacies of forestmanagement and fire management; and lack ofupdated land-use maps, fire maps, fireinformation management, and disseminationreflect institutional weaknesses. Lack ofinstitutional ability to learn lessons from pastmistakes and to follow up on recommendationsis a matter to be addressed seriously. Forexample, there have been severalrecommendations to curtail the volume oftimber production to ensure sustainable forestmanagement (SFM) in Indonesia, includingprotection of forests from fire and otherdamaging agents. A national fire management

plan was prepared by the Ministry of Forestry(predecessor of MOFEC) in the mid-1980s, incooperation with FAO.

According to the plan, the forest area of thecountry was to be divided into firefightingcontrol units of 40,000–50,000 ha in Java, and100,000–150,000 ha outside Java, such thatfires (even if they occur) can be prevented fromspreading and confined to the control unit(GOI/FAO 1990b). But this plan has not beenpursued. Again, after the Bandung Conferenceof 1992, a Long-Term Integrated Forest FireManagement Strategy for Indonesia wasprepared, but this also was not seriously followedup.

Inadequate research, technologydevelopment, and knowledge about thedifferent aspects and situations of fire (forexample: in coal seams and peat swamps); andinadequacies of measures and means at all levelsto improve fire management skills have beenmajor constraints. There are relatively fewpersonnel trained in fire science.

Recently, efforts have been made inIndonesia to strengthen training facilities. Areport indicates that by the end of August 1998there were 16,175 persons trained in fireprotection and suppression, up from about14,000 in 1997 (MOFEC 1998).

Some of the other constraints identified byanalysts following the 1997-1998 fires and haze,particularly as applied to Indonesia, include thefollowing.

• Increasing vulnerability of forestlands tofires resulting from unsustainable forestmanagement and harvesting practices.

• Conflicting and inadequately identifiedroles and responsibilities of institutionsconcerned with managing forestlands andforest fires, especially with regard tomandate, authority, financial resources, andaccountability.

Indonesia’seconomic policy,which allows for

large-scaleexpansion ofcommercial

crops,encourages landspeculation and

may lead toecologicaldisaster

44 THE PREMISE

• “Business as usual” attitude of governmentagencies.

• Indifference to the cyclical nature of fireand haze from institutions charged withmanaging forestlands and forest fires,including disregard for early warningannouncements concerning the onset ofENSOs.

• Inadequate information and systems forcommunicating fire-related information.

• Vested interests that marginalize issuesrelating to fire and haze as a means offavoring a particular sector, corporate body,or individual(s).

• Neglect by government and entrepreneursto local customary rights, livelihoodstrategies, and traditions, which result inerosion of customary law, socialcohesiveness among indigenous groups,and traditional knowledge relating to theprevention and control of fires.

• Lack of incentives for promoting loggingtechniques that lead to sustainable outputof production forests and mechanical landclearing; inadequate use of loggingresidues as productive inputs anddevelopment of products made from them;and absence of an incentive system toinvolve local people.

• Insufficiency or nonexistence ofcommitted funding at national,subregional, provincial, and local levels toadequately address the issue of forest andland fires.11

• Lack of a proactive quick action approach.12

• Delay or inaction, often due to lack offunds, in rehabilitating the badly burnedareas. Apart from harboring pests anddiseases, the dead and charred materialsremaining in the area can cause future firesby providing a highly combustible fuelload.

• Poor coordination of fire management(including fire suppression). Inadequatecoordination among sectors, betweencentral and provincial levels and/or amongthe donors has been reported.13

The Dimensions of theImpactArea AffectedThe size of the area affected by fires overthe years has varied considerably. The threebiggest fires were those of 1982-1983, 1994,and 1997-1998, and the areas affected,respectively, were 5,000,000 ha; 4,865,000 ha,and 9,756,000 ha in Indonesia. Distributionof the fires differs depending on theinterpretational and definitional differences, andalso on how the estimates were made.

1994 Fires

In 1994, fires (of varying intensities)occurred in 24 provinces of Indonesia.Distribution by land-use type is given in Table2.

Table 2 suggests that the incidence of fire inprimary forests is relatively low (8,000 ha), farless, for example, than the extent of fire inreforestation areas. Based on this data, firesappear to be closely associated with other land-use activities and hence fire control should notbe the sole responsibility of MOFEC (MOE-UNDP 1998).

1997–1998 Fires

The 1997-1998 fires occurred in 27 provincesof Indonesia, falling within the five large islands.Nearly 70 percent of the fires were in Kalimantan.Irian Jaya, Sulawesi, and Sumatra were alsosignificantly affected (BAPPENAS 1999). Firesalso occurred on a smaller scale in BruneiDarussalam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand.Details of their impacts are not available.

The threebiggest fires were

those of 1982-1983, 1994, and1997-1998, andthe areas affected,respectively, were

5,000,000 ha;4,865,000 ha,

and 9,756,000 hain Indonesia

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 45

Land-Use Type Affected by FireLand-Use Type Affected by FireLand-Use Type Affected by FireLand-Use Type Affected by FireLand-Use Type Affected by Fire Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)

Traditional Dry Land Farming 2,800

Shifting Cultivation 1,500

Transmigration Farming 260

Plantations 221

Transmigrant Settlements 39.5

Reforestation Areas 20.5

Timber Estates 17

Natural Forests 8

Total 4,866

Source: Goldammer 1997.

TABLE 2 Spatial DisSpatial DisSpatial DisSpatial DisSpatial Distribution oftribution oftribution oftribution oftribution ofArArArArAreas Afeas Afeas Afeas Afeas Affffffectectectectected bed bed bed bed by 1994 Firy 1994 Firy 1994 Firy 1994 Firy 1994 Firesesesesesin Indonesiain Indonesiain Indonesiain Indonesiain Indonesia

LaLaLaLaLand-Use Type Affected by Firend-Use Type Affected by Firend-Use Type Affected by Firend-Use Type Affected by Firend-Use Type Affected by Fire Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)Area Burned (’000 ha)

Agriculture 3,843

Estate Crops 119

Timber Plantations 188

Lowland Forest 3,100

Peat and Swamp Forest 1,450

Dry Scrub and Grass 700

Montane Forest 100

Total 9,500

Source: ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire Prevention and Drought Management(BAPPENAS 1999).

TABLE 3 Spatial DisSpatial DisSpatial DisSpatial DisSpatial Distribution oftribution oftribution oftribution oftribution ofArArArArAreas Afeas Afeas Afeas Afeas Affffffectectectectected bed bed bed bed by 199y 199y 199y 199y 1997–19987–19987–19987–19987–1998FirFirFirFirFires in Indonesiaes in Indonesiaes in Indonesiaes in Indonesiaes in Indonesia

ADB under its advisory technical assistance14

(ADTA) used a variety of techniques, dependingon availability of data, to obtain spatialestimates. For estimates of the area burned inIrian Jaya, a combination of aerial and groundsurveys was used; along with a comparison ofTotal Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)imagery for Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, andSumatra. The rest of the estimates wereobtained from analysis of SPOT images by theCenter for Remote Imaging, Sensing andProcessing (CRISP) at the National Universityof Singapore.

In addition to computation of the areaburned, CRISP (Liew et al. 1998) undertook amanual classification of fire scars for bothKalimantan and Sumatra, concluding that abouthalf of the affected area consisted of plantationsand/or agricultural lands, 20 percent was peatswamp forests, and the remainder secondaryforests and bushes. CRISP has also performed

preliminary estimates of areas burned in Javaand Sulawesi through a visual assessment ofSPOT Quicklook Mosaics. In the absence ofdetailed analyses of satellite imagery for all theaffected provinces, a lack of up-to-date landcovermaps, and ability to overlay all fire areas onland-use or land classification systems,assessments of fire location by functional land-use categories were achieved by extrapolationof findings by CRISP. Distribution by land-usetype so assessed is given in Table 3.

The extent of the forest area burned and theshare of peat and swamp forest in it areparticularly noteworthy, because of thetransboundary implications (see Box 7).

Transboundary Haze PollutionThe transboundary dimension of fires canmanifest itself in various ways: fires crossingnational boundaries cause direct damage, massmigration of wildlife (and also of humans)

46 THE PREMISE

across borders, impact on water quality andfish resources in international waters, and—most important—transboundary atmosphericpollution and other haze effects. This lastmentioned impact was highly evident in thewake of the 1997-1998 fires in the ASEANregion. As Ramon and Wall (1998) observed,“whereas the impact of fires concerns mainlyforesters and conservationists, it is the smokethat causes politicians and economists to react.”

Fires cause smoke, the smoke mixes with theatmosphere and drifts around, causingtransboundary atmospheric pollution and relatedproblems. The haze-affected countries have bornemuch of the cost of the region’s recent fires,though they have had little control over theirmagnitude, frequency, or duration. Emissionsfrom wildfires are thus a regional problem, eventhough the fires themselves may occur well withinthe national boundaries of individual AMCs.

Haze Formation and Dispersion

Forest fires and other vegetation firesproduce gaseous and particle emissions that haveimpacts on the composition and functioning ofthe global atmosphere (Crutzen and Goldammer1993; Levine 1991, 1996; Van Wilgen et al.1997). These emissions interact with thosefrom fossil-fuel burning and other technologicalsources, which are the major cause ofatmospheric pollution and human-causedclimate changes.

Open burning to dispose of biomass residueof land conversion involves stacking it into largeheaps and leaving it undisturbed until it is dryenough to burn. It is then set alight. The resultis typically a low-temperature fire that onlypartially burns the material to be disposed of.A relatively large quantity of partially-combustedmaterial therefore remains, much of it beinglight enough to be carried into the air by the

Peat forests are waterlogged forestsgrowing on a layer of dead leaves andplant material of up to 20 metersdeep. These are a biologically diverseresource and a recognized componentof the world’s biological heritage.

The countries of Southeast Asia, inparticular Indonesia and Malaysia,have more than 20 million ha, or60 percent, of the world’s tropicalpeatlands. In the event of a prolongedspell without rain, and a lowering ofthe water table in the peatswamp, theorganic layers progressively dry out.Subsequent fires have spread toforests covering thousands ofhectares of peatlands. Fires in thesepeatlands create much more smokeper hectare than other types of forestfires and are difficult to extinguish.The fires go deep underground andcan burn uncontrolled and unseen inthe peat deposits for several months.

While the spread of surface andground fires in this type of organicterrain may not be severe, deep

burning of organic matter leads to thetoppling of trees and a completeremoval of standing biomass. Further,the smoldering organic fires maypersist and be reactivated as anignition source in the next dry spell(Goldammer and Seibert 1989).

In the past 20 years, the incidenceof major fires in the peatswampforests of Southeast Asia has beenincreasing. In East Kalimantan, a firethat started in September 1982 lastedfor 10 months and affected more than35,000 ha. The fire followed an almostunprecedented period of drought in theregion, associated with an El Niňo.

The contribution of tropicalpeatlands to the global carbon cycle ishigher than in most temperate zones.It is estimated that 15 percent of theglobal peatland carbon resides intropical peatlands. Peatswamp fireemission contains, like otherbiomass-burning emissions, largeamounts of carbon dioxide, carbonmonoxide, particulate matter, oxides of

nitrogen and sulfur, and a variety ofvolatile and semivolatile compounds.However, peat vegetation has a higherbiomass density and burns predomi-nantly under smoldering combustion.This results in higher emissions of allpollutants per hectare burned.

At the annual meeting of the stand-ing committee of the Convention onWetlands, better known as theRamsar Convention, 27 countries andfour global NGOs gathered in Switzer-land on 2 October 1997. Theyexpressed their concern at the forestfires in Indonesia. Louise Lakos, chair-person of the committee, noted: “Themembers of this internationalconservation body drew attention tothe fact that a large proportion of thearea burning is peatswamp forest,which constitutes an important globalwetland type, which we cannot affordto lose. Time is short and action isneeded urgently.”

Source: Down to Earth, Vol. 6 No. 11, 31 October 1997.

BOX 7 Tropical Peatlands

The haze-affectedcountries haveborne much ofthe cost of theregion’s recent

fires, though theyhave had little

control over theirmagnitude,

frequency, orduration

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 47

heat generated by fire. A similar process alsohappens when wildfire enters a forest.

Once released into the atmosphere, thepartially-combusted material tends to remainstationary, unless there is sufficient wind to mixit with fresh air free of particulate matter. Ifenough mixing takes place, the partially-combusted material from the fires becomes sodispersed that it is relatively benign, and forthe most part, unnoticeable. This is ordinarilythe case in ASEAN countries where landconversion is in progress. In these areas, land-clearing fires occur continuously, on a year-round basis, and often the production ofemission materials and local formation of hazeremains unnoticed.

However, when a large enough number ofland-clearing fires occurs at the same time in alimited area, or when the fires in a particulararea reach a large enough scale, so muchemission material is released at the same timethat the atmosphere is incapable of fully dilutingit. If the resulting buildup of atmospheric debrisbecomes sufficiently concentrated, windsultimately transport the cloud of haze into theairspace of recipient countries before it can beadequately diluted. Transboundary haze is born.

Therefore, haze pollution can be said to be“transboundary” only if its density and extentis so great at source that it remains atmeasurable levels after crossing into anothercountry’s air space. Reducing transboundaryhaze pollution in the region, therefore,ultimately requires limiting the amount ofemissions from open burning that each membercountry allows to enter the atmosphere duringany particular time. The aim of limiting theemissions (and their release into theatmosphere) should be to control pollution bothwithin boundaries and at a transboundary level.

Most particle processes in the atmosphere,such as atmospheric deposition rate and

residence time, light scattering properties andvisibility, deposition pattern within the humanlungs, and health impacts depend on particlesize.15 While coarse particles flush out of theatmosphere within several hours up to a day,fine particles have the longest residence time(up to weeks) in the atmosphere and travelextensive distances (hundreds to thousands ofkilometers). Their elimination out of theatmosphere is mainly due to rain.

Factors Affecting Haze Dispersion

The haze problem suffered by Indonesia andits neighbors, due to the 1997-1998 wildfires,was a result of a combination of factors—thevolume of smoke, humidity, and the level ofwind speed and rain.

The distribution of haze away from thebiomass fires in Indonesia is primarilycontrolled by wind and vertical mixing. Themost significant large-scale influence on windsin the region is the position of the intertropicalconvergence zone (ITCZ), which exerts controlover the broad-scale wind speed and direction.

By September 1997 many large anduncontrolled fires were burning in the peat areasof East-Central Sumatra, much of SouthSumatra, and Central and West Kalimantan.During the September-October period, thickhaze blanketed these regions in particular. Inlate September-early October the haze wascarried out of these regions, particularly to thenorth and west under the influence of relativelystrong trade wind flow. It was during this timethat peninsular Malaysia and Singapore wereespecially hit by haze. This was a period duringwhich the ITCZ was lying well north over theMekong area countries and the Philippines,with the trade winds to the south of the ITCZhaving a strong north-south component. As theITCZ moved south later in October, the airflowdeveloped more of an east-west component,

The hazeproblem sufferedby Indonesia andits neighbors, dueto the 1997-1998

wildfires, was aresult of a

combination offactors—thevolume of

smoke, humidity,and the level ofwind speed and

rain

48 THE PREMISE

pushing most of the haze away from the firezones, toward the west and into the IndianOcean.

The fires of February-April 1998 werelargely confined to Borneo, and in particular toEast Kalimantan province. Haze became thickagain during March and April 1998, but waslargely confined to Borneo, especially in thesouth. The presence of a broad area of low-level convergence over Borneo at this timeresulted in light low-level winds (or lack ofstrong winds), which limited the hazemovement off the island.

Magnitude of Dispersion

Fires do not respect national (in some cases,even natural) boundaries. During the 1982-1983 East Kalimantan fires, the haze alsoreached as far as peninsular Malaysia andSingapore, lasting an entire month and coveredan area of about 35 million ha. In 1997, hazecovered about 100 million ha of land and waterand lasted as long as six months. From Septemberto November 1997, the dense haze from theIndonesian fires spread over an area the size ofWestern Europe, affecting some 70 millionpeople in the region, directly or indirectly. Thishaze was, probably, the worst on record. The1998 fires in Indonesia did not affect mainlandAsia as much as in 1997. The haze covered thesource area of East Kalimantan and spread overto West Kalimantan, southeastern Sarawak, andparts of peninsular Malaysia.

Critical Sources of Haze

Haze from fires in peatland is estimated tocontribute 60 percent and converted forests 18percent of the total smoke and haze produced.Instead of stray individual fires, 80 percent ofthe haze was produced by seven clusters of firesin and around peat forests in Kalimantan andSumatra. Shifting cultivation accounted for only

1.5 percent of the haze. The thickest haze camefrom an extensive fire in a 1 million ha area ofpeat being drained by the Government for amassive rice planting project, known as theGrand Million Hectare Peatland Project (ProjekSejuta Hectare Lahan Gambut). During the1997-1998 fires, more than 700 million mt ofcarbon dioxide were released into theatmosphere from the burning of the peat16

(Levine 1998).

Adverse Impacts of Haze

Air Pollution

At the peak of the haze, the Air PollutionIndex (API) reached unprecedented levels inthe region. An API count exceeding 100 butbelow 200 is considered unhealthy; between200 and 300 is very unhealthy; and between300 and 500 is considered hazardous. APIreadings remained in the hazardous range forlong periods in September and October 1997in Sarawak, with a high of 849 recorded. Areading of 1,000 was recorded in the interiorof East Kalimantan in mid-April 1998, a levelthat is probably not unusual in areas close tothe fires. Malaysians and Singaporeans wereinformed when air pollution reached unsafelevels, and were warned to take appropriateprotective measures.

In Miri, as the API continued to hover abovethe 500 mark in April 1998, the SarawakNatural Disaster Relief Committee declared ahost of emergency mitigation measures,including closing of schools and kindergartens,advising residents to wear protective masks andto refrain from using private motor vehicles,and advising polluting industries (mainly in thequarry, mining, cement-mixing, asphalt, saw-milling, and transport sectors) to scale downoperations in order to reduce the volume ofpollutants being emitted into the atmosphere(Abraham 1998).

Haze from firesin peatland isestimated tocontribute

60 percent andconverted forests18 percent of thetotal smoke andhaze produced

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 49

Most Indonesians were, however, unawareof the level of health hazard they faced. Someareas were affected by the haze from July toDecember 1997, and it started again in February1998. Exposure to acute air pollution elevatesthe probability of premature death in vulnerablegroups such as asthmatics, people with chroniclung or heart disease, and young and oldpneumonia patients.

Health Hazards

According to the Economic andEnvironment Program in Southeast Asia (EEP-SEA) and WWF (1998 b, c), the haze of 1997cost the people of Southeast Asia some$1.4 billion, mostly in short-term health costs.

More than 40,000 persons were hospitalizedfor respiratory and other haze-related ailments.The long-term impacts on health of exposedchildren and elderly are as yet unknown. InKuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, at one stage, theGovernment came within a hairsbreadth ofevacuating the city’s 400,000 inhabitants. InIndonesia alone, health officials estimated that20 million people suffered from health problemsrelated to the haze.

Impairment of Visibility

The effect of haze on light and visibility hasan impact on economic production(manufacturing and agricultural), transport,tourism, etc., while haze-caused accidents result

Preventive Measures

None

Not necessary

Individuals with light heart andrespiratory problems have toreduce physical movement andoutdoor activities

Aged and sick individuals haveto stay indoors and reducephysical exercise; the publichas to avoid excessive outdooractivity

Aged and sick individuals haveto stay indoors and avoidphysical activity; at Index levelsof more than 400, people haveto avoid physical outdooractivities; everybody has to stayindoors, close all windows anddoors, and limit physicalactivity

BOX 8 Air Pollution and Health Effects

Health Effects

None

None or limited for the generalpopulation

Moderate symptoms forsensitive individuals, followed byirritation in healthy population

Significant symptoms as well asdrop in tolerated body move-ment or exercise in heart andlung patients; general symp-toms among healthy population

Appearance of certain earlydiseases in addition to clearand significant problems as wellas decrease in tolerated bodymovement or exercise forhealthy population; index ofmore than 400 could potentiallycause premature death for sickpeople and the aged if nottreated properly; healthyindividuals will have symptomsthat restrict normal activity

Health Category

Good

Moderate

Unhealthy

Very unhealthy

Hazardous

Air Pollutant Standard Index (PSI)

Up to 50

51–100

101–199

200–299

300–higher

Source: World Health Organization.

50 THE PREMISE

in loss of lives. Several gaseous compounds inthe haze are likely to affect global environmentand climate. Quantitative evaluation of impactswas, however, limited due to the fragmentaryparticle measurement data and methodologicalproblems.

Particulate matter scatters the light andcauses severe reduction of visibility. Analysis offreshly emitted biomass burning particlesgenerally have two size distributions, consistingof fine particles smaller than 2.5 microns indiameter (PM2.5) and coarse particles rangingfrom more than 2.5 microns diameter to about10 microns (PM10). In biomass emissions, thefine particles represent up to 90 percent of thetotal mass of particles emitted (Ward 1998).The size distributions of partially aged biomassburning particles found in Indonesia, Malaysia,and Singapore indicate that the ratio of PM2.5

to PM10 is about 80 percent. This ratio includesthe urban particle background, whose fineparticle fraction generally contributes about 50percent of PM10. These results indicate that thefine particle fraction in haze conditions is muchhigher than in urban background aerosols(Dieterle and Heil 1998).

During the 1994 fires, haze pollutionin Sumatra reduced the average daily minimumhorizontal visibility to less than 2 km. At theend of September of that year, visibility inSingapore dropped to less than 500 meters (m),

while in Malaysia it dropped to 1 km or less insome parts of the country. Haze disrupted land,sea, and air transportation.

The 1997 haze was so thick at times thatvisibility was reduced to less than 10 m, makingland, sea, and air travel hazardous (see Box 9).In some areas, visibility fell to only a few metersfor several months. In one Indonesian town,school children were reported to have been tiedto a rope to prevent them from becoming lostin the haze on their way to school. On 11 April1998 the Sultan of Brunei’s palace becamealmost invisible behind a thick curtain of haze(Associated Press, 11 April 1998), as wereKuala Lumpur’s tallest-in-the-world twin towersin September and October 1997, and again inApril 1998.

Disruption to Transport

Transport was also severely disrupted.Closures of airports and cancellations of flightswere common in the region. River transportin Borneo and marine traffic in the Strait ofMalacca were also disrupted. Economic lossesfrom such disruptions, and aircraft andmaritime accidents were compounded by steepdeclines in tourist arrivals.

Similar problems have been recorded duringvirtually every major outbreak of fires and hazein the region since 1982-1983. Following eachof these instances, several AMCs have resolved

The smog arising out of the 1997 firesspread to Brunei Darussalam,Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,Singapore, and Thailand, affecting apopulation of 70 million.• On September 26, all 234 people on

board a jetliner died when it crashedbefore landing in northwestIndonesia. Visibility was poor due tothe haze.

• An Indian cargo ship collided with aPanamanian vessel in the Strait ofMalacca, killing 29 people. Reason:poor visibility.

• Seven boat accidents werereported in Kalimantan’s MahakamRiver. In one, nine students werekilled.Doctors point out that the smog

(haze) can cause a range of ailments

from heart and lung diseases todamage to the nervous system, blood,and kidneys.

Experts predict that the impact ofthe forest fires in Indonesia ispotentially more dangerous than thatof the oil fires in Kuwait during the1990 Gulf War.

Source: Down to Earth, 31 October 1997.

BOX 9 The Toll of Haze

The 1997 hazewas so thick at

times thatvisibility was

reduced to lessthan 10 m,

making land, sea,and air travel

hazardous

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 51

to prevent any recurrence. But despite suchresolve, disasters due to fires and haze haveoccurred repeatedly in the AMCs.

Global Warming

Most of the gases present in haze play director indirect roles in regulating the atmosphereof the earth (Wirawan 1993). Their releaseduring large-scale burning leads to an increasein the concentration of greenhouse gases,thereby contributing to global warming.Burning peat is especially detrimental becauseit releases carbon into the atmosphere that hasbeen in storage for thousands of years, andsmoke from peat fires contain high levels ofsulfur oxides (see Box 7). British peat specialistJack Rieley estimated that the peat fires inIndonesia in 1997-1998 could have releasedmore carbon dioxide than the annualcontribution from cars and power stations inwestern Europe (WWF 1997). Efforts arecontinuing to quantify the amount of biomassthat was burned in the 1997 fires, in order toestimate the amount of carbon dioxide releasedfrom the burning of above-ground vegetation

(Liew et al. 1998, Ramon and Wall 1998). Thehaze also has effects on the world’s climate (seeBox 10).

Ozone Concentration

Nitrogen oxides in haze can be quicklyconverted into nitric acid, causing acid rain.(Rain falling in Sabah in 1997 was highly acidic,registering pH3.85, a level of acidity thatdamages plants and aquatic life.) Haze can alsoundergo a photochemical reaction that greatlyincreases the ground level concentration of ozone(Abraham 1998, Crutzen and Andreae 1990).Ozone causes eye irritation, impairs lungfunction in humans, and reduces crop productionby damaging plants (Wirawan 1993).

Economic CostsEconomic costs of the fires were high and theyhad profound impacts. Some of them werehighly visible. The fires burned villages, causedlosses of property, and injury and harm topeople. Many lost their means of livelihood. Allthose who lived in haze-affected areas suffereddiscomfort.

Scientists studying the effects of forestfires have, so far, focused on thecooling that occurs when smokeblocks sunlight. It was reported thatsmoke particles help in forming waterdroplets. However, it was not certainhow this would affect rainfall. NowDaniel Rosenfeld, an atmosphericscientist at the Hebrew University ofJerusalem, Israel, has shown thatsmoke from forest fires can, in fact,stop clouds forming raindrops. In otherwords, smoke tends to prevent rainfall.

Rosenfeld studied simultaneousvisual, infrared, and radar observationsfrom the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration’s (NASA’s)Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission(TRMM) satellite as it passed over

Borneo in March 1998, when half ofthe island was covered with smog. Hefound that dense smoke completelyturned off normal tropical rain. Thesmoke filled the clouds with tinyparticles that made water vaporcondense. However, the moisture wasdivided among so many droplets thatthey were too small to fall as rain. Atthe same time, smoke-free clouds overthe other half of the island producedample rainfall (New Scientist, Vol. 164,No. 2208).

Rosenfeld believes forest fires areat least partly responsible for thedecline in rainfall in the tropics overthe past century. “For certain types ofclouds, heavy smoke blocks precipita-tion altogether,” he says, adding that

smoky tropical clouds can yield somerain only if they rise high enough forwater to freeze.

Experts warn that this may lead todisastrous effects on the world’sclimate. Similar effects seem to beoccurring elsewhere, says ChristianKummerow, a project scientist atGoddard Space Flight Center, nearWashington, DC.

Anything that affects the rainfallpattern is important. According toHans Graf of the Max Planck Institutefor Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany,about two thirds of the energy thatpowers the planet’s weather depends onthe formation and fallout of raindrops.

Source: Down to Earth, 15 January 2000. p. 24.

BOX 10 Effects of Haze on World’s Climate

The fires burnedvillages, caused

losses ofproperty, and

injury and harmto people. Manylost their means

of livelihood

52 THE PREMISE

Direct economic impacts of the fires andhaze included loss of forest and land resourcecapital; loss of timber and nontimber forestcrops and stocks; damage to infrastructuralassets; agricultural crop losses, productivity loss,and falling yields; falls in tourism arrivals andrevenue; disruption in commerce; and disarrayin transport systems, unplanned cost of firesuppression efforts, health care, andrehabilitation.

Plant growth may also have been affected bythe reduction in solar energy as a result of thesun’s rays being partially blocked by haze.Photosynthesis may have been further reducedby the deposition of soot particles on leaves. Adrop in aquaculture and fisheries productivityalso results from a reduction in available solarenergy.

Fire affected the marine environment andits biological resources, resulting in increasedsediment from burned water catchments. Thisresulted in a reduction of primary aquaticproductivity through light suppression and byimposing stress on filter feeding organisms. Thehaze also reduced solar radiation andproductivity of all species with food chain linksto the mangrove ecosystem. Details about theeconomic impacts of the fires on specificsubsectors of the economy can be found invarious reports (BAPPENAS 1999, MOE-UNDP 1998, EEP-SEA and WWF 1998b).

Social CostsHealth-related Costs

During the haze, the health of some40 million people in the region was directlyaffected. (Some sources estimate the totalnumber of people affected directly and indirectlyto be about 70 million.) More than 40,000 peoplehave sought medical help and hospitalization inIndonesia and Malaysia for smog-relatedrespiratory ailments (BAPPENAS 1999).

A rapid survey by the Japan Medical Teamfor Disaster Relief in October 19971 7 assessedthe effects of haze pollution on human healthin the Province of Jambi, Sumatra. The surveyindicated that 98.7 percent of the peoplecomplained of at least one symptom and91.1 percent of the people complained of atleast one respiratory symptom after the haze. Aphysical examination revealed that 33.3 percentof tested people suffered from conjunctivitis,8.9 percent stridor, and 2.9 percent rale(Obayashi 1998).

The United Nations Disaster Assessment andCoordination (UNDAC) Mission on ForestFires conducted assessments of land and forestfires in several countries, including BruneiDarussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,Singapore, and Thailand, in September-October 1997. The team reported that 11people died and 23,000 people suffered fromrespiratory diseases in Central Kalimantan. InJambi, 35,368 cases of upper respiratory tractinfections were reported, while in West Sumatrathe number was even higher (47,565 cases).South Sumatra also recorded a number ofdiarrhea cases during the haze.

The Indonesian Ministry of Health estimatedafter the 1997-1998 fires that the haze-relatedhealth problems affected 240,000 people in thecountry. The total number of deaths, severeasthma cases, bronchitis, and acute respiratoryinfection cases in eight provinces of Kalimantanand Sumatra was about 2,000. These numbersreflect the health problems caused by PM10 anddo not include effects associated with otherpollutants.

A study on asthma attacks among childrenrevealed that a high concentration of fire-generated carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,and inhalable suspended particulate matter(PM10) was responsible for the health problems(ASEAN 1998a).

More than40,000 peoplehave sought

medical help andhospitalization in

Indonesia andMalaysia forsmog-relatedrespiratoryailments

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 53

Other Social Costs

Other social impacts of forest and landfireshave included damage to heritage sites,graveyards, tribal houses, and shelters in therice fields.

Environmental CostsEnvironmental costs include those resulting fromecological and related impacts of fires on plant,wildlife, soil, air, water, biodiversity, and globalclimate, and a diminution of the environmentalservices of the forests.

Ecological impacts of wildfire of 1997-1998included adverse ecological changes affectingterrestrial, aquatic, marine, and agriculturalecosystems; reduction in ecosystem functioningand landscape stability; damage to wildlife,wildlife habitat, and protected areas; loss ofsequestered carbon, emission of greenhousegases and contribution to global warming;microclimatic changes; air pollution; waterquality changes, reduction in water yield;increased soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients andfall in productivity; plant mortality, loss of forestgrowing stock, damage to regeneration, spreadof alang alang, and forest degradation/deforestation; erosion of biodiversity affectingecosystem, species, and genetic variability; andloss of environmental heritage—all affecting thepotential sustainability of development.

Biodiversity Loss

There has been loss of biodiversity as a resultof the 1997-1998 fires, which caused increaseddegradation of globally important protected areassuch as Kutai National Park. The 1997-1998fires destroyed most of East Kalimantan’s KutaiNational Park and Bukit Suharto NatureReserve. Some 85 percent of Wanareset(research forest) was also burned. Severedamage was not limited to natural biodiversity,but also included agricultural ecosystems. A

great deal of the forest burned was secondary,resulting in depleted biodiversity.

In Iriyan Jaya, Kalimantan, and Sumatra, aparticularly dangerous ecological impact hasbeen the degradation of large areas of peat soilsthrough fire. Extensive fire damage to the peatsoils of the swamp forest ecosystem is alsoexpected to accelerate the changes broughtabout by draining of these swamps foragricultural expansion, and drastically alter therole of this ecosystem in water storage tosustain regional forest, agricultural, and aquaticecosystems.

Wildlife Decline

The fires affected not only humans but alsowildlife. A drop in the numbers of rare andendangered animal species caused directly byfires has been compounded by the hunting ofdisoriented animals for food and for sale.

WWF Indonesia in a news release of17 December 1998 claimed a decrease in thepopulation of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) as aresult of forest fires in 1997-1998 in Indonesiaand Malaysia. In Borneo and Sumatra,orangutans were forced to flee the forests dueto the heat and smoke. Hunger, too, drove themout of the forests as the fires destroyed the fruitson which the orangutans feed.

The Kalimantan fires have reduced theorangutan habitats by some 40 percent,worsening a decline estimated by WWF (1998)at 80 percent in the 1970s and 1980s.Destruction occurred not only to theorangutans’ habitat but also to the habitats ofother flora and fauna. Efforts must be madeurgently to protect these important habitats.

Estimated Value of Total CostsThere have been several attempts to estimatethe value of all the losses caused by the firesand haze. Insufficient data and the differences

A drop in thenumbers of rareand endangeredanimal species

caused directly byfires has been

compounded bythe hunting of

disorientedanimals for food

and for sale

54 THE PREMISE

in the methods adopted have causedconsiderable variation. Nevertheless, theeconomic costs have been significant,irrespective of the methodology. Some detailsof 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 fires in Indonesiaare provided, as an illustration.

Fires of 1982-1983

Economic losses due to the 1982-1983 firesare estimated at $9 billion (Table 4). Thisamount is three times the total annual revenuefrom the forestry sector in 1980, which totaled$3 billion (MOE-UNDP 1998).

In addition to the opportunity costs incurredby the State, local communities also experiencedsignificant losses. Mayer (1989) reported thatfood, water, and forest supplies werediminished, access to remote communities wasblocked, and income was reduced. Accordingto Mackie (1984), damage to pepper cropsalone amounted to $2 billion.

Thus, the estimate of losses, while significant,is only partial as the socioeconomic costs havenot been fully accounted for.

Fires of 1997–1998

Since the fire season of 1997-1998 continuedin two sequences over two calendar years, there

are several valuations of losses—preliminary,detailed, by individual years, and by individualsectors of economy; covering host and recipientcountries of haze impact; and morecomprehensive ones covering all the fires.

One of the more comprehensive estimateswas prepared by the Asian Development Bank(ADB). It includes losses covering forestland(timber, NWFPs, reduced/impaired growth),biodiversity, spiritual and cultural values, indirectbenefits, carbon sequestered, plantations, estatecrops, agricultural crops, and tourism, as wellas additional costs incurred for treating haze-related ailments and firefighting.

This valuation builds on previous estimatesbut includes the cost of the 1998 fires. Amodeling approach was used so that theestimates can be updated when more databecome available. The approach to valuing thelosses has been to sum the value of the individualcomponents, each of which uses the mostappropriate technique.

The total losses resulting from the 1997-1998fires and haze have been estimated at between$8.8 billion and $9.7 billion, with an averageof $9.3 billion. A summary of these costs isgiven in Table 5. With all their negative impacts,and heavy socioeconomic and environmentalcosts, the fires exposed the weaknesses ofgovernment policies in Indonesia.

The reform package introduced by theGovernment in April 1998 to the InternationalMonetary Fund and further described in theMemorandum of Economic and FinancialPolicies of 29 July 1998 reflects the measuresand targets set to correct the situation. The firesalso elicited spontaneous responses regionally,nationally, and internationally in the form ofconcrete support and action.

SourSourSourSourSource of Lossce of Lossce of Lossce of Lossce of Loss Value ($ billion)Value ($ billion)Value ($ billion)Value ($ billion)Value ($ billion)

Timber from Natural Forest 7,981

Timber from Swamp Forest 348

Nonwood Forest Products 373

Rehabilitation Expenses 352

Total 9,054

Source: Schindler et al. 1989a, b.

TABLE 4 Losses Resulting from Forest Firesin East Kalimantan, 1982–1983

CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 55

Estimated Economic Losses ($ million)

Sector Minimum Maximum Mean

Agriculture

Farm Crops 2,431 2,431 2,431

Plantation Crops 319 319 319

Forestry

Timber from Natural Forest (logged and unlogged) 1,461 2,165 1,813

Lost Growth in Natural Forest 256 377 316

Timber from Plantations 94 94 94

Nonwood Forest Products 586 586 586

Flood Protection 404 404 404

Erosion and Siltation 1,586 1,586 1,586

Carbon Sink 1,446 1,446 1,446

Health 145 145 145

Transmigration, Buildings, and Property 1 1 1

Transportation 18 49 33

Tourism 111 111 111

Firefighting Costs 12 11 12

Total 8,870 9,726 9,298

Source: Final Report, ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire Prevention and Drought Management (BAPPENAS 1999).

TABLE 5 Summary of Costs of the 1997–1998 Fires in Indonesia

56 THE PREMISE

Notes6 Member countries of ASEAN are Brunei

Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia,Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore,Thailand, and Viet Nam.

7 For definition see Glossary in Appendix 1.8 For definition see Glossary in Appendix 1.9 Several reports and papers including the

WWF discussion papers “The Year theWorld Caught Fire” (WWF 1997) and “TheFire This Time” (Schweithelm 1998a)contain an overview of the Indonesianwildfires in 1997 and 1998.

10 Ground surveys made by Lennertz andPanzer (Panzer 1989) in timber concessionsthroughout the burned area have providedproof that damage was generally heavierin logged-over than in primary forests.

11 The situation has been the same for severalyears. A seminar on Forest Fire and SatelliteData Utilization held in Jakarta inSeptember 1987 revealed that the Ministryof Forestry had been unable to dealcomprehensively with forest fires due toshortage of funds (GOI/FAO 1990b).Investigations indicated that the country’smultimillion dollar reforestation fund,collected on timber produced, had not beenused to fight fires or set up antifire defenses.

12 The Indonesian Government has beensomewhat late in reacting to fire warnings;data on hot spots were available duringJanuary/May 1997, and yet there was notimely proactive initiative. Even after newsreleases were made of an impending ENSO,land preparation burnings continued asusual in August 1997.

13 In Indonesia, during the 1997-1998 fires

and haze, intersectoral coordination at thecentral level was not effective due toinadequate institutions, including unclearassignment of tasks, authority, andresponsibilities among the relevantinstitutions, especially in the mobilizationof personnel, equipment, and financialresources, as well as reporting andinformation dissemination. Theseproblems were also seen at provincial anddistrict levels. Donor assistance does notcome from a single source using a clearlydefined mechanism. Some is receiveddirectly by MOFEC, some through theBAKORNAS PB, and others go directlyto the provinces. Exchange of informationis not well organized, which complicatesmonitoring of the assistance (BAPPENAS/JICA/ITTO 1999).

14 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for FirePrevention and Drought Management.

15 Apart from the impact of particulate matteron health, it could also affect the long-termglobal temperature balance by disturbingthe evaporation-condensation cycle.

16 ADB under its ADTA INO 2999 estimatedthat a total of 757 million mt of carbondioxide were produced during the 1997and 1998 fires (more than 85 percent ofthis was as a result of the combustion ofpeat). The total cost of the carbon releasedinto the atmosphere (based on $7/mt) wascalculated to be $1.446 billion. This figureis conservative; other estimates have putthe amount of carbon dioxide produced at3.7 billion mt, or nearly five times the levelestimated by the technical assistance.

17 Within about two to three months of theforest fires and haze.

58 THE PREMISE

Nature of InitiativesThere have been various responses to past fireoutbreaks, but the recent round of fires inIndonesia and neighboring countries led toseveral new initiatives, and the reviving orrevamping of old ones, to address the problem.18

The new initiatives in response to the 1997-1998 fires included formulation of nationalstrategies for coordinated action, regional effortswithin ASEAN, and international support. Manycountries and international organizations haveprovided emergency assistance in cash and kind,including equipment, materials, medicine, andfirefighters. Some of these initiatives hademergency and disaster abatement dimensions.Others had short-term (for addressing damage

control) and medium- and long-term (sustainableimprovement) perspectives. Some of the post-fire initiatives involving reviews, planning, andinvestment studies belong to the latter category,supporting sustainable development.

To help establish and ensure effectivecoordination of these mutually reinforcinginitiatives, ADB has provided technicalassistance at the regional level to the ASEANSecretariat and advisory technical assistance atthe national level to Indonesia (see also Chapter4).

In the 1990s, the world focused its attentionon sustainable development and sustainableforest management. Indonesia, for its part, hasreported that in response to UNCED decisions,Agenda 21, and Forest Principles, it hasdeveloped a framework to strengthen nationalefforts to realize proposals of theIntergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF),which included protection of forests from fires(GOI/MOFEC 1998c).

ASEAN Response to Fires and HazeNearly all of the fires and haze in the ASEANregion over the past two decades have beencaused by direct human interference ratherthan occurring naturally. This means thatcontrol of fire and haze is within the collectivegrasp of AMCs, a fact that has not been loston ASEAN.

Responses to Fires and Hazein the Region[This chapter discusses the varied responses, at several levels, to the recent fires and haze, particularlythose of 1997-1998, and analyzes trends in donor assistance.]

CHAPTER 3

The afThe afThe afThe afThe aftttttererererermath of amath of amath of amath of amath of aforest fire, Indonesia,forest fire, Indonesia,forest fire, Indonesia,forest fire, Indonesia,forest fire, Indonesia,1998.1998.1998.1998.1998.

Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo: Anonymous

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 59

Collective CommitmentsBeginning in the early 1980s, AMCs launchedseveral national and regional initiatives aimedat controlling these problems. The first of these,with far-reaching regional influence, occurredin 1985 with the adoption of the Agreementon the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources, which made specific reference toair pollution and “transfrontier environmentaleffects.”

Between 1990 and 1997, ASEAN initiativestargeted control of fires and haze.Transboundary atmospheric pollution was alsohighlighted in the 1990 Kuala Lumpur Accordon Environment and Development.Environmental pollution issues were againextensively discussed at the Bandung Conferenceof 1992, which itself gave rise to a number ofworkshops and meetings on transboundaryatmospheric pollution, held in Indonesia andMalaysia between 1992 and 1995.

The 1992 Singapore Summit identifiedtransboundary pollution as one of ASEAN’smajor environmental concerns and addressedit in its 1992 Singapore Resolution onEnvironment. Concern over transboundaryatmospheric pollution was once again voicedin the 1994 Bandar Seri Begawan Resolutionon Environment and Development.

At the informal ASEAN Ministerial Meetingon Environment (AMME) held in Kuching,Malaysia, on 21 October 1994, environmentministers discussed transboundary pollutionand agreed that ASEAN should collaborateactively to build up its member countries’expertise and capacity to address the problem,as well as to minimize its effects. As a result,an ASEAN Meeting on the Management ofTransboundary Pollution was convened inKuala Lumpur in June 1995, at which theASEAN Cooperation Plan on TransboundaryPollution was adopted.

Haze Technical Task Force

Three months later in September 1995, theASEAN Senior Officials on Environment(ASOEN) convened their sixth meeting in Bali,Indonesia, at which they established a HazeTechnical Task Force (HTTF).

HTTF’s initial objective was to put intooperation the measures included in the 1995ASEAN Cooperation Plan on TransboundaryPollution, relating to atmospheric pollution,including the following tasks:

• demarcate critical areas of land and forestfires;

• identify the critical periods for occurrenceof haze;

• develop a system for National Focal Pointsto alert ASOEN on impending haze;

• organize proper collection and effectivedissemination of meteorological data,including satellite photographs of “hotspots” by the ASEAN SpecializedMeteorological Centre (ASMC) inSingapore and the countries concerned;

• develop a proper monitoring system foractions taken on the ground to fight andcontain land and forest fires; and

• monitor and report on the status of projectsrelating to the management and controlof transboundary haze pollution involvinginternational organizations and developedcountries.

HTTF was also charged with producing amanual on implementing measures tomitigate and control haze-causing land andforest fires.

However, the absence of specific operationaldirectives rendered the cooperation planineffective. Consequently, ASEAN faced moremajor transboundary pollution in 1997.

The HTTF, which includes all AMCs and ischaired by Indonesia, met for the first time inJakarta on 16-17 October 1995.

The absence ofspecific

operational plansrendered the

cooperation planineffective.

Consequently,ASEAN facedmore major

transboundarypollution in 1997

60 THE PREMISE

Following the 1997 fires, the affected AMCsassumed a more operational stance toward thefire and haze disasters than previously. Indonesiaand Malaysia signed a bilateral memorandumof understanding on 11 December 1997 thatallowed the two countries to jointly addresscertain aspects of transboundary haze and toundertake joint responses to other disasters.Malaysia supported Indonesia with personneland equipment for firefighting.

Regional Haze Action PlanAt the ASEAN level, a Regional Haze ActionPlan (RHAP) was formulated by HTTF andendorsed by the ASEAN Ministerial Meetingon Haze (AMMH)19 held in Singapore on22-23 December 1997. The signing of thisinstrument, the third of its type to be endorsedby the AMCs, has proven to be a turning pointin the region’s approach to preventing andmitigating the damage from recurrent fires andhaze.

Objectives of Haze Action Plan

The primary objectives of the RHAP are to:• prevent forest fires through improved

natural resource management policies andenforcement of relevant legislation;

• establish operational procedures formonitoring land and forest fires; and

• strengthen regional firefightingcapabilities as well as other mitigationmeasures.

An operating assumption of the RHAP isthat developing fire suppression mobilizationand response strategies at national and regionallevels is necessary if future fire-and-hazedisasters on the scale of that of 1997 are to beavoided (see Appendix 2).

The signing of the RHAP by the nineASEAN Environment Ministers signaled a newstance toward ASEAN multilateral cooperation

in confronting regionwide fire and hazedisasters. The two previous “action plans” were,in fact, strategy documents that provided abroad-brush description of the steps the regionshould take in mitigating the impact oftransboundary haze.20 In contrast, the RHAPhas an operational focus, the intent of which isto identify actions to be taken by specific partiesat regional, subregional, and national levels formitigating the impacts of fires and haze.

The RHAP document is, therefore, areflection of the AMCs’ determination to activelytackle the problem rather than simply describinga broad-brush approach to it. Thisdetermination to take action is obvious fromthe frequency of the meetings of both HTTFand AMMH, which in 1997 increased sharplyrelative to previous years. At the peak of the1997-1998 fires and haze, AMMH meetingswere held every six weeks, with the meetingsof HTTF and subregional working groupsoccurring even more frequently.

During the course of these meetings, twopoints became clear to AMMH. First, theregion’s fire-and-haze issue constitutes arecurrent problem that is far too large for anyone agency to address effectively; coordinatedand concerted action by all AMCs, as well asdonors, will be required. Second, if the RHAPis to succeed in reducing the prevalence or theimpact of transboundary haze, it will have tobe fully put into operation.

Scope of Haze Action Plan

Transboundary pollution and othercrossborder impacts from fires are issues ofregional significance, so it is appropriate thatthere should be a regional plan to addressthese.

The term “haze” in the title may raise somedoubts and questions. Why haze plan? Why notfire plan? Is haze the only issue of concern to

Following the1997 fires, theaffected AMCs

assumed a moreoperational

stance toward thefire and hazedisasters than

previously

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 61

arise from land and forest fires? The word“haze” seems more appropriate, particularly inthe regional context as it drifts disastrously overother territories away from the source. It is the“dirty cloud of haze” that gives the fire aregional or transboundary dimension and bringsin the social dimension of health and safety.The term “haze” internalizes all the factorsleading to the production of haze—thecondition of forests, land clearing, combustibleresidues, and ignition source. To control haze,one has to address all the factors that lead to it.The RHAP is a plan for fire management andmore.

The scope of the RHAP includes establishingand enhancing fire prevention; improvingcapabilities for fire suppression in the event ofoccurrence to minimize any impact; andstrengthening regional mechanisms for firemonitoring and early warning.

The RHAP, thus, has three majorcomponents—prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring. Specific countries have beendesignated to spearhead the activities that fallunder each of the three RHAP components.Malaysia takes the lead in prevention, Indonesiain mitigation, and Singapore in monitoring offires and haze. This notwithstanding, all of theAMCs will undertake actions at the nationallevel that relate to all three of the RHAPcomponents. In addition, individual actionssupporting prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring will also take place at subregionaland regional levels.

HTTF realized that it must focus firemanagement efforts in specific areas. Theconcept of Subregional FirefightingArrangements (SRFAs) was endorsed at thethird AMMH held in Brunei Darussalam on4 April 1998; and a work program wasinitiated to develop SRFAs for Borneo andSumatra.

Contribution of Regional InstitutionsSpecific technical/scientific contributions canbe provided by individual institutions. Examplesof such institutions involved in issues relatingto fire and haze include: the Asian DisasterPreparedness Center (ADPC), ASEAN Instituteof Forest Management (AIFM), ASMC, andEconomic and Environment Program inSoutheast Asia (EEP-SEA).

National-Level InitiativesThe Front-Line CountriesThe front-line countries that most felt theimpacts of the fires were Indonesia andMalaysia, followed by Brunei Darussalam andSingapore.

While the major efforts of firefighting wereto be taken up by Indonesia, Brunei Darussalamand Malaysia also experienced their share offires, though on a considerably smaller scale.All the countries, however, had to fight the hazeproblem.

National efforts involved priming oforganizational arrangements, coordination ofactivities, relief and rehabilitation measures,and post-fire evaluation. Follow-on actionsincluded formulation and implementation ofNational Haze Action Plans (NHAPs).

Assessment of Response

The arrangements made to combat firedisasters formed part of an emergency plan.This will require reviews of suitability to developa stable system of fire management andpromotion of forest rehabilitation,consolidation, and long-term development.

An ADB study21 has investigated these andother institutional issues with regard toIndonesia. One of its major findings was thatthe roles of agencies involved in fire and disastermanagement were unclearly defined, and a leadagency for coordination and provision of

Specific countrieshave been

designated tospearhead the

activities that fallunder each of the

three RHAPcomponents.

Malaysia takes thelead in

prevention,Indonesia in

mitigation, andSingapore in

monitoring offires and haze

62 THE PREMISE

an operational means to monitor firesthroughout the year, since these are availableon a daily basis.

The most commonly used satellite for firedetection is the NOAA22 polar orbiting satellite.The satellite carries many sensors on board tomeasure a host of different parameters on theearth. The sensor to detect forest fires is theAVHRR. It has five channels to measureoutgoing radiation from the earth in fivedifferent wavebands. The third channel of theAVHRR is sensitive to high temperature targetssuch as land and forest fires. Thus, byprocessing the AVHRR data at each pass, it ispossible to extract latitude and longitudecoordinates of suspected fires daily to aprecision of about 1 km, which is the resolutionof the AVHRR sensor.

There are many nonmeteorological satellites(NMSs), which also have fire detectioncapability. The Defense Meteorological SatelliteProgram (DMSP) Operational LinescanSystem (OLS) has a unique capability to detectlow levels of visible—near infrared—radianceat night.23 The resolution is similar to that ofthe NOAA AVHRR sensor. A proposal to makethe DMSP/OLS data available to the ASEANregion is being considered. Commercial high-resolution satellite data, e.g., SPOT andLandSat, can provide valuable confirmation andexact coordinates of forest fire locations.However, such data are expensive and notsuitable for operational monitoring of fires.Further, these satellites have sampling intervalsof two to three weeks, making it impossible tofollow the development of forest fires.

A weather satellite soon to be launched byJapan, the Multifunctional TelecommunicationSatellite (MTS), will carry a multispectral sensorsimilar to that on the GOES. This will providehourly hot spot virtual analysis. However, theresolution of the sensor is about 5 km, making

strategic direction was lacking. This led toconfusion where disaster response (relief andaid distribution), interagency coordination (foreliminating duplication and implementingcompatible strategies), and fire suppressionactivities were undertaken by multiple agencies.Many communities did not understand who wasin charge, nor did they know whom to turn tofor assistance. The question of responsibilityfor provision of funds for fire suppression wasunclear and significant delays in securingapproval for funding contributed to confusionin mounting suppression action. In some cases,the delays were so chronic that no firesuppression measures were undertaken(BAPPENAS 1999). While the study had notrecommended that a single agency should beresponsible for all fire management, there isstill room for one agency to play a lead role tocoordinate other inputs at national, provincial,and local levels.

Application of TechnologyForest Fires and Haze MonitoringIn addressing the fires and haze, an importantmeasure, which calls for reasonablysophisticated technological know-how, ismonitoring. Monitoring techniques varyconsiderably among the AMCs, with respect tofires, haze, and climate change.

Forest Fires

In the ASEAN region, most land and forestfires are detected by local dwellers and groundpatrols. Lookout towers are used whereavailable. To a much lesser extent, aerialsurveillance is also used to detect fires. Satellitedetection of fires is gradually being accepted asan institutional mechanism for fire detection.Satellite detection is cost-effective compared toconventional methods because the satellite cansee large areas simultaneously. It can also provide

In the ASEANregion, most land

and forest firesare detected by

local dwellers andground patrols.Lookout towersare used where

available

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 63

it less precise than the NOAA AVHRR sensor.Currently, at least five agencies in the region

are providing satellite detection of hot spotsthrough ground stations in Bogor, Jakarta,Palembang, Samarinda, and Singapore. Whilesatellite data are vital, there are constraints thatrequire more direct observations be carried outto supplement the satellite information. Satellitedetection of fires is often difficult due to:

• inability to penetrate cloud;• often nonoptimal flyover;• false alarms from nonfire targets near the

threshold temperature;• poor resolution (1 km at the center, 7 km

at the edge), and• decreased detection performance in heavy

smoke haze. (BAPPENAS 1999)Most of the NMSs have the capability to

receive Geostationary Meteorological Satellite(GMS) and NOAA satellite imagery, whichmeans that they theoretically would also be ableto detect hot spots and haze. However, someof the NMSs lack the capacity to use this satelliteimagery to detect large-scale fires and haze. Atraining course has been developed by ASMCto help NMSs process satellite data for hot spotdetection. Being able to detect hot spots usingUS NOAA satellite imagery will enable theNMSs to better support their national fireresponse effort through faster responses to detectfires with their own satellite capability.

Some national-level institutions other thanNMSs also have specialized monitoringcapabilities, including the ability to determinethe exact coordinates of large-scale fires. Theseinclude Lambaga Antariksa PenerbanganNational or National Institute for Aerospace(LAPAN) of Indonesia and the Malaysian Centrefor Remote Sensing (MACRES). This capabilityallows the NMSs and specialized centers todirectly assist national governments in locatingland and forest fires, which greatly reduces the

amount of time required for dispatching crewsto fire sites.

Haze

Available operational monitoring of hazefrom the ground comes through regularmeteorological bulletins required by membercountries of the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO). The NMSs normallyoperate an array of ground observing stationswithin the country. Under WMO requirements,the stations will make reports called SynopticReports (SYNOP) at three-hourly intervals.This report will consist of local measurementsof temperature, pressure, visibility, reactivehumidity, winds, cloud, type of weather, andadditional meteorological parameters. Thevisibility and weather type will reveal detailsabout the extent of haze conditions, if any, atthe locality. These will be transmitted throughthe national telecommunication network to themain weather headquarters. The report will beconsolidated along with others across thecountry and transmitted to WMO countries.Through this method, concerned countries canmonitor the haze conditions of designated areasof another country, provided they are alsomember countries of WMO. The disadvantageis that most of these observing stations are notcolocated near the forest fires, therefore thereport does not represent the worst conditions.

If the observing station is colocated in anaerodrome, it is also obliged to send hourlyreports of weather conditions, calledMeteorological Aerodrome Reports (METAR),under International Civil Aviation Organization(ICAO) requirements. The METAR is similarto the SYNOP report and will also reveal theextent of haze conditions nearby.

Aerial reports about haze are occasionallyreported by commercial flights traveling in theregion. But this reporting is voluntary and the

While satellitedata are vital,

there areconstraints that

require that moredirect

observation becarried out to

supplement thesatellite

information

64 THE PREMISE

reporting format does not include a hazedescription. Occasionally, some pilots will reportvisibility conditions and haze depth.

The best method of monitoring haze isthrough remote sensing. The Japanese GMS24

carries the Visible/Infrared Spin-ScanRadiometer (VISSR), which is capable ofdetecting smoke haze. Since it is geostationary,it will provide hourly visible images duringdaytime. With these images available, it ispossible to track the development and spreadof haze to different regions. GMS,unfortunately, is unable to provide quantitativemeasurements of haze concentration. Anothersatellite suited to detect haze is the Total OzoneMapper Spectrometer (TOMS) sensor on boardthe Earth Probe (EP) satellite. TOMS can detectsmoke particles from a variety of ground-basedsources, such as biomass burning, whethernaturally occurring or caused by agriculture, oilindustry fires, or industrial smoke.

The TOMS data are able to provide aquantitative approximation of aerosolconcentrations in the haze by correlating tomeasurements made on the ground. The EPsatellite is polar orbiting, like NOAA, thereforeonly one image is available daily.

Monitoring Experience during

1997–1998 Forest Fires and Haze

Experience of monitoring the 1997-1998fires and haze in Indonesia, and BruneiDarussalam and Malaysia, are reviewed here.

Indonesia

Fire detection systems in the country usesophisticated technology (satellite imagery) aswell as conventional methods such as fire towersand terrestrial patrols.

During the 1997-1998 fires and haze inIndonesia, MOFEC and several otherorganizations monitored hot spots appearing

on NOAA weather satellite images, trackedwhere fires were burning each day, and providedearly warnings about fire dangers to the fireteams through a chain of command structureat national, provincial, and district levels.

There are six NOAA-AVHRR satellitestations in Indonesia. Two in Jakarta are locatedat the Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics(Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika or BMG)and LAPAN that are mainly for weathermonitoring purposes; and there is one each inBogor (West Java), Palembang (South Sumatra),Samarinda (East Kalimantan), and Palangkaraya(Central Kalimantan). The specialized systemfor fire detection and monitoring by satellite isprimarily held by the MOFEC with supportfrom funding agency projects. The Bogorstation, supported by the Japan InternationalCooperation Agency (JICA), operates NOAAAVHRR and a smoke-tracking Himawari.Overlaid with NOAA images (hot spots), theHimawari images could confirm the existenceof fires. The stations produced hot spot mapsdaily and sent these to provinces where the hotspots existed. The basic constraint was the poorcommunication system between stations andreceiving addresses (provinces, districts, andfields). This rendered the detection and controlsystem inefficient.

Caution is required in using hot spot datafrom satellite images to detect and evaluate fires,because of the limitations described earlier. Thetotal number of hot spots counted on imagestaken during the day decreases on similarimages taken at night, probably due to daytimechanges in humidity. Hot spots may representheat sources other than from land and forestfires, including burning coal seams, gas flares,and activities in settlement areas. Theinformation provided also has not always beeneffective due to the coarse scale (resolution) ofthe images and communication delays. The

The best methodof monitoringhaze is throughremote sensing.The Japanese

GMS carries theVisible/Infrared

Spin-ScanRadiometer,

which is capableof detectingsmoke haze

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 65

experiences of the 1997-1998 fires have shownthat much improvement is needed to strengthenthe early warning capability through acombination of enforcement and awarenessprograms at the local level.

While aerial surveillance with multispectralscanners and fire detection by satellite sensorsrepresent the higher side of the technology, at apractical field level it is necessary to have asystem of fire (lookout) towers, surveillanceteams with two-way communicationequipment, fire patrol teams, and localinformants for immediate detection of fires.Local villagers are often the key informants andthey need to be provided with adequateincentives.

The results of automatic processing of satelliteimages as well as of surveillance measures mustbe transmitted immediately to the localfirefighting units for ground verification andfire suppression, as warranted. This calls foran effective and efficient communicationsystem, linking all levels in the fire managementsystem.

Aerial surveillance using aircraft orhelicopters is limited. Although the aerialsurveillance exercises held in Riau by the SRFA-Sumatra found the system to be effective fordetecting fires on a real-time basis, it is stillconsidered inefficient due to its high operationalcosts. MOFEC is cooperating with domesticcommercial airlines for surveillance; requiringthe airlines to report to the closest airports anyfires they spot during their regular flights. Thenthe airports forward this information to theclosest MOFEC office for further action.

Along with information generation, it isessential to ensure that there are adequatecapability and preparedness to quickly respondto firefighting needs, including personnel,tools, techniques, skills, infrastructure, andmobility.

Brunei Darussalam

Brunei Darussalam has adequatelycontrolled its forest fire and haze pollutionproblems. The Fire Services Department,which is responsible for fire and hazemanagement, has developed a nationalcontingency plan for combating fires.

The areas of concern have beencompartmentalized into five jurisdictionalzones: Commands A, B, C, D, and E. In termsof fire hazard, the Forestry Departmentestablished a Fire Hazard Rating and Zoningscheme that is based on the following factors:(i) the presence of communities and settlements,(ii) historical data on frequency of fireoccurrence, and (iii) abundance of combustiblematerials.

Taking these factors into account, thedepartment classified the country into three FireHazard Zones: (i) Low Hazard Zone, (ii)Medium Hazard Zone, and (iii) High HazardZone. The zoning system is useful in prioritizingor concentrating the surveillance for firedetection and control.

The Government has established an “AirborneCommand” stationed at the Royal Brunei AirForce Second Squadron at the internationalairport. The Command uses helicopters andhelitankers for controlling fires, under anoperation called “Clear View.” This is aimedmainly at providing quick and accurateinformation for water bombing. It also helpswith the early fire detection and warning system.So far, the system has been effective andefficient.

In addition to these sophisticated measures,Brunei Darussalam is still practicing a “wordof mouth” approach to fire detection. Thisencourages citizens to promptly report any firein their district. The Fire Services Departmentis promoting this approach through a publicrelations program.

Local villagersare often the keyinformants andthey need to beprovided with

adequateincentives

66 THE PREMISE

Malaysia

Malaysia has been widely practicing aerialsurveillance for fire detection and monitoring,even though it still depends principally onground patrolling. Hot spot information isreceived from, among others, the NationalMeteorological Services. A word of mouthapproach is also a component in the system.The people’s concerns about the consequencesof burning and strict law enforcement havemade the approach effective.

Fire Prevention and MitigationTechnologyAn analysis of the situation with regard to fireprevention and mitigation as a background forassessing future needs is given later under therespective sections (see Chapter 5).

Acquisition of TechnologyScience and technology relating to forest firecovers various aspects; there is need for anappropriate balance of focus, depending onperceived needs.

While most of the skills needed at the fieldlevel are to be developed locally, certainsophisticated technology can be acquiredthrough technology transfer. The use ofgeosynchronous satellites and space-bornesensors for early warning of fires andatmospheric pollution; investigation ofcandidate systems for fire weather and firedanger forecasting; assessing influence of inter-annual climate variability; and interpretation offire scar characteristics are some of the areaswhere most tropical countries will need to buildnational capability. ASMC, BMG, and LAPANare examples of institutions that canappropriately be strengthened.

Science and technology relating to forestfires at the forest end are weak. There is nolong-term research being carried out to address

fire-related problem areas. Urgent action isneeded to address weaknesses in managementand technology.

Southeast Asian Fire Experiment

SEAFIRE is a research project in theplanning and preparation phase and will beconducted under a scheme of the InternationalGeosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). TheInternational Global Atmospheric Chemistry(IGAC) project is a core project of IGBP. Oneof the activities of IGAC (Natural Variabilityand Anthropogenic Perturbations of the TropicalAtmospheric Chemistry) investigates the impactof biomass burning on the atmosphere andbiosphere (Biomass Burning Experiment orBIBEX [http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~bibex]). SEAFIRE will establish the fireresearch component within the Integrated Studyon Land-Use Change in Southeast Asia, withlinkage to other activities of IGBP.

SEAFIRE will explore the ecological impactsof fire in land use (fires used in forestconversion and shifting cultivation, grassland,and seasonally dry forests) and thecharacteristics, the regional and global meansof spreading, and the atmospheric chemicalimpacts of the resultant smoke. Land and marinesources of trace gases and aerosols will beconsidered, as well as industrial sources (fossil-fuel burning, secondary chemical products).Special emphasis will be given to climatevariability (ENSO vs. non-ENSO). SEAFIREwill also coordinate with other regional activitiesin fire management and research.

International ResponseMost international assistance projects to addressSoutheast Asia’s fires and haze are countryprojects in Indonesia. Assistance at regional levelis mostly in the form of regional seminars andmeetings. While there are international

While most ofthe skills neededat the field level

are to bedeveloped locally,

certainsophisticated

technology canbe acquired

throughtechnology

transfer

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 67

assistance projects relating to, or havingcomponents of, fire and haze management insome of the other AMCs (e.g., Malaysia,Philippines, and Thailand), details are notavailable.

Based on experience, many of the projectshave undergone revisions and modifications.It was therefore difficult to obtain a fully updatedsituation.

A list of active funding agency-assistedactivities is given in Appendix 5.

Emergency and Immediate TermAssistance, 1997–1998In spite of Indonesia’s experiences of the previousfew years with fires and haze and the efforts tobuild capacity for fire management, the fires of1997-1998 attained disastrous dimensions as theIDNDR entered its last quarter. This promptedseveral emergency actions.

In response to the escalating fire and droughtemergency, a UNDAC Team was dispatchedto Indonesia at the end of September 1997 toprovide assistance in terms of needs assessment,resource mobilization, and coordination ofinternational support (Dennis 1998). TheUNDAC Team cooperated with the nationalauthorities, local donor country representatives,UN agencies, and international nongovernmentorganizations (NGOs).

UNEP and the UN Office for theCoordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)made a joint appeal for emergency assistanceto the region. Donors responded with directfinancial and in-kind assistance. An OCHA-UNEP mission was again dispatched toIndonesia toward the end of March 1998 toassess the impact of fires in East Kalimantan,with the worsening of drought and fire situation.

Realizing the gravity of the 1997-1998 forestfires, the UN Secretary-General appointed theExecutive Director of UNEP to monitor and

coordinate the global assistance and expertiseprovided by international agencies through theUN system. A meeting was organized inGeneva to mobilize resources from the fundingagencies. Firefighting experts, other UNagencies, international organizations, anddonors were invited to participate. Throughits facilities at GRID-Sioux Falls, in the UnitedStates, UNEP provided daily satellite imagesvia the Internet showing hot spots and somespatial data layers such as population, elevation,drainage, and land cover to help in firesuppression planning. UNEP also supported aweb site showing the biodiversity loss andspecies in danger due to the forest fires.

Contributions

Emergency assistance in cash and kind(material supplies, equipment, expertise,services of firefighters, use of water bombingaircraft, helicopters, communication facilities,masks, and other types of humanitarian aid)was received from different sources. Theseincluded countries such as Australia, Canada,PRC, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, NewZealand, Norway, Russia, Singapore, Sweden,Switzerland, Thailand, UK, and US, as well asfrom UN and other agencies including theUnited Nations Development Programme(UNDP), UNEP, United Nations Children’sFund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO), WHO, Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF), World Bank, ADB,Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC), EU, and ASEAN. With assistancecoming from so many different sources, theproblems of coordination were compounded.This assistance represented considerableemergency-related expenditure. For instance,Germany provided about $5.5 million in direct

Emergencyassistance in cash

and kind(materialsupplies,

equipment,expertise, services

of firefighters,use of water

bombing aircraft,helicopters,

communicationfacilities, masksand other typesof humanitarianaid) was received

from differentsources

68 THE PREMISE

assistance for 15 firefighting vehicles, forestprotection equipment for 50 teams of 20persons each, and small mobile water treatmentplants and drilling equipment. The United Statescontributed a $2 million emergency fund in1998, in addition to $3.5 million providedearlier.

NGO Relief Efforts

SKEPHI, TELAPAK, Wahana LingkunganHidup (WALHI), WWF, and the WorldResources Institute (WRI) were some of theinternational and national NGOs that providedsupport in addressing the forest fires and haze.The Indonesian NGOs raised public donationsfor relief projects, supplied masks andmedicines, and provided other forms ofhumanitarian assistance. Forest WatchNetwork, a global network of NGOs with WRIat the lead, helped raise public awareness andconcern about the Indonesian fire disaster. TheForest Watch Network has a central node,regional nodes, and subnodes. TELAPAK,located in Bogor, is Indonesia’s nodalorganization. Haze Busters based in Singaporefunded by Asia Foundation and others, is aunique voluntary effort serving as a link betweendonors and recipients.

Meetings

A full count of all the national, regional, andglobal meetings (including conferences,workshops, and seminars) organized bydifferent agencies, on various aspects of the1997-1998 fires and haze in Southeast Asia isnot available. The following are illustrative ofthe range: Asian Regional Meeting on El NiñoRelated Crisis, 2-6 February 1998, Bangkok,hosted by ADPC and cosponsored by the UnitedStates Agency for International Development(USAID)/DFID/NOAA; Asia-Pacific RegionalWorkshop on Transboundary Atmospheric

Pollution, 27-28 May 1998, Singapore,organized by the Germany-SingaporeEnvironmental Technology Agency (GESTA);Bi-Regional Workshop on Health Impacts ofHaze Related Air Pollution, Kuala Lumpur,1-4 June 1998, organized by WHO; JICA/ITTO International Cross-Sectoral Forum onForest Fire Management in Southeast Asia,7-8 December 1998 in Jakarta; and Workshopon Regional Transboundary Smoke and Hazein Southeast Asia organized by WMO, 2-5 June1998, Singapore.

Medium- and Long-Term AssistanceEarly Fire Projects

The 1982-1983 fires and haze brought theissue of (and the need for) forest firemanagement to world attention. Between 1982and 1992, short- to medium-term internationalassistance was provided to Indonesia to addressthe problem. This included (i) fact-finding,needs assessment, and consultation missions;(ii) emergency assistance; (iii) technical aid andequipment; (iv) training courses and seminars;and (v) management support. Several agenciesand countries such as the European Community,FAO, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur TechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ), ITTO, JICA, UNDP,UN Disaster Relief Organization (UNDRO),Australia, Canada, Finland, and United Stateswere involved. During this period, six medium-term projects, two seminars, three trainingcourses, and 10 missions were undertaken.

The Bandung Strategy of 1992

The forest fires and haze of 1991 inSoutheast Asia emanated mainly from theIndonesian archipelago. To avoid a recurrence,the Indonesian Government called forinternational cooperation to support nationalfire management. In June 1992 aninternational conference on “long-term

The UnitedStates

contributed a$2 million

emergency fundin 1998, inaddition to

$3.5 millionprovided earlier

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 69

integrated forest fire management” was heldin Bandung in which national agenciesinvolved in fire management, internationaldevelopment organizations, and potentialdonors participated. The aim of the conferencewas to develop the framework for a concertedaction plan for Long-Term Integrated ForestFire Management in Indonesia. The Bandungstrategy became a reality in 1994 when thebilateral Indonesian-German project on“integrated forest fire management” becameoperational, followed by other projectssupported by EU and JICA.

Ongoing Pre-1997 Projects

Projects related to land and forest fires arebeing undertaken by different government andnongovernment agencies, educationalinstitutions, and others (see also Appendix 5).As of September 1998, there were 34 donor-assisted ongoing and planned projects underthe purview of MOFEC. Of these, sevenprojects were directly or indirectly related toforest fire management (FFM). Four of themwere long-term projects started after theBandung meeting, with three projects havingforest fires as their main concern.

The four projects are:(i) GTZ’s Integrated Forest Fire

Management Project (IFFM) in EastKalimantan (1994-2002);

(ii) JICA’s Forest Fire Prevention andManagement Project (FFPMP) inBogor, Jambi, and West Kalimantan(1996-2001);

(iii) EU-Forest Fire Prevention and ControlProject (FFPCP) in Southern Sumatra(1995-1998); and

(iv) the Indonesia-UK Tropical ForestManagement Programme (ITFMP).

ITFMP was started in 1992 and compriseda number of components related to fires, as

part of its overall forest management objective.All four projects have locally installed NOAAAVHRR satellite image receiving systems inorder to detect and monitor fire hot spot activity.In addition to strengthening the institutionalcapacity of MOFEC to deal with fires, FFPCP,IFFM, and FFPMP have also adopted rural orcommunity-based approaches to fire preventionand control.

Achievements of the Early Projects

IFFM. At the village level, socioeconomicstudies were carried out to investigate theconcept of community-based fire managementand organize volunteer fire response crews. Firecenters have been established in 10 forestdivisions linked to provincial fire centers. Firedamage rating and early warning systems havebeen set up and demonstrated, and fireprotection equipment and tools supplied andtraining provided to local people and armypersonnel. The integration of IFFM into thestructures of government forestry departments(central and provincial) provides direct accessto those concerned with fire- and haze-relateddecisions. Planned activities include thepreparation of a fire management strategy;setting up of a fire-GIS; refining the earlywarning and fire detection systems; andundertaking improved training and capacitybuilding programs.

FFPMP. The overall goal of the project isto prevent forest devastation and environmentaldisturbances caused by wildfires and smoke.The project aims to strengthen the capabilityof MOFEC at central level, in Jakarta andBogor, to deal quickly with forest fires and alsoto improve prevention and initial suppressionat the local level. The project componentsinclude early warning and detection; a systemof forest fire base maps; extension and trainingin the use of pumps, hoses, and hand tools;

Projects related toland and forestfires are beingundertaken by

differentgovernment andnongovernment

agencies,educational

institutions, andothers

70 THE PREMISE

participatory forest fire prevention involvinginnovative institutional structures; and use offirebreaks, trenches, and fire-resistant treespecies, along with other improved landmanagement methods.

For farmers involved in the program, theproject provides seeds, seedlings, and fencingmaterials; while labor is provided on a self-helpbasis.

FFPCP. The objectives are: (i) to obtainan understanding of the occurrence of fire andthe present means of control in the provinceof South Sumatra; (ii) to develop anoperational NOAA fire monitoring and earlywarning system in Palembang (SouthSumatra); and (iii) to establish forest fireprevention and control systems in threedifferent pilot areas representing threeimportant forest types.

Other aspects covered by the project includesocial forestry, research on fire management andfire risk, and GIS for forest fires.

ITFMP. The emphasis of the program wason sustainable forest management. Theprogram consisted of five projects: seniormanagement advisory team, provincial forestmanagement, forestry research, training, andcommunity-based conservation management.The last project incorporated componentsrelating to forest fires.

Others. Two other projects within thepurview of MOFEC with a component on firemanagement are: (i) forest sector supportprogram and integrated forestry radiocommunication project with support from EU,and (ii) strengthening the managementcapabilities of MOFEC, supported by GTZ.

New Fire and Haze-Related Medium-Term

Assistance

After the 1997 fires, numerous short- andmedium-term fire projects were proposed and

started. These have varied in scope, focus,magnitude, and budget, etc. Some werenational in coverage, while others are regional.Some of the important ones are briefly describedhere.

UNEP Initiatives

UNEP is implementing a medium-termproject on “Emergency Response to CombatForest Fires in Indonesia and to PreventRegional Haze in Southeast Asia.” This project,funded with $750,000 under the GEF, has fivemajor components. Most significant amongthese is an early warning and emergencyresponse system that uses a combination ofaerial surveillance and satellite imagery to detectfires and allows firefighting teams to respondquickly.

Another component of the UNEP project isfocusing on development of internationalagreements relating to transboundaryatmospheric pollution. The UNEP projectcollaborates closely with ADB in this regard,as well as in other subinitiatives to promote theRHAP. UNEP has also helped ASEANcountries in implementing the SumatraFirefighting Surveillance Pilot Project. It is alsoassisting other AMCs in developing the ASEANProtocol/Agreement on Addressing theRegional Fire and Haze Problem.

ITTO-CFC National Guidelines on Forest Fire

This project is being carried out incollaboration with the Directorate General ofNature Conservation (PKA) and InstitutePertanian Bogor (IPB). National guidelines arebeing finalized. Apart from these, the projectenvisages several other outputs: skillsdevelopment, training of trainers, equipmentsupply, communication development,coordination, financing and budgeting aspects,and public awareness.

After the 1997fires, numerous

short- andmedium-term fire

projects wereproposed and

started

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 71

GTZ: Sustainable Forest Management

Promotion in East Kalimantan

This is a new component on a pilot basis,added to the IFFMP in January 1998 to assistforest enterprises (private and state-owned), andlocal people to take the necessary steps torehabilitate fire-affected forests and integratethese into management systems.

WWF-Indonesia

WWF-Indonesia provided additional inputin the analysis of the causes and impacts of forestfires and haze and formulation of an IntegratedConservation Development Plan. The latterincorporates a buffer zone protection plan andimpact of fires on conservation areas.

UNDP Assistance

UNDP provided support in the preparationof an action plan for prevention andmanagement of forest and land fires. Thisproject has recently been completed. UNDP isconcentrating its efforts on immediatelystrengthening the ability of the IndonesianGovernment to assess and monitorenvironmental disasters.

CIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO Project

This project will study the underlying causesand impacts of fires in Southeast Asia. This isa three-year in-depth study. The Centre forInternational Forestry Research (CIFOR),International Centre for Research inAgroforestry (ICRAF), and UNESCO proposea three-tiered approach: (i) a general overviewof the fire situation in the Indonesianarchipelago; (ii) a more detailed assessment inKalimantan and Sumatra (to assess how theirfire characteristics are representative ofIndonesia as a whole); and (iii) a detailedassessment of causes and effects at specific sites(in Kalimantan and Sumatra).

The research is designed in a modular way;with each module standing independently, butcomplementing and supporting the others(CIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO 1998).

The combined expertise and field knowledgeof these three institutions is unique insupporting the study. While some fundingcommitments have already been received,more are expected soon.

ADB Assistance Program

ADB’s assistance on forest fires has includedtwo separate but interrelated technical assistanceprojects (see Chapter 4). The first of these isADB support for a national initiative throughan ADTA to Indonesia. This will assess theextent of economic damage caused byuncontrolled fires in 1997 and assist theGovernment to bring about the necessary policyreforms and investments in prevention of futurefire disasters and better management ofdroughts.

The second project consists of support toASEAN through a regional technical assistance(RETA) project for strengthening ASEAN’scapacity in preventing and mitigatingtransboundary atmospheric pollution resultingfrom the forest fires, and improving cooperationamong fire and smoke-affected ASEANcountries.

ADB (through the latter project) andASEAN were instrumental in mobilizingsupport of other donors and establishingpartnership arrangements to address forest firesand haze. The following three assistanceprograms were catalyzed by ADB/ASEAN.

WMO Program to Address Regional

Transboundary Smoke (PARTS)

PARTS was formulated by WMO in 1995in response to a collective request from AMCs.It consists of three components.

ADB andASEAN were

instrumental inmobilizing

support of otherdonors andestablishingpartnership

arrangements toaddress forest

fires and haze inthe region

72 THE PREMISE

(1) Upgrading of ASMC’s capability in theuse of satellite imagery to detect fires andhaze. This includes automated firedetection, upgrading of hardware inpreparation for the coming generationof satellites and sensors, expandingASMC’s capability in analyzing thechemical composition of smoke plumes,and developing satellite-basedmeteorological surveillance techniquesof selected AMC national meteorologicalservices.

(2) Upgrading of the region’s capability in themodeling of long-range transport of hazeand other pollutants. This will involveinstallation of atmospheric transportmodels at ASMC’s facility in Singapore,training of ASMC staff in the use of theirmodels, and visits of ASMC staff toNOAA facilities in the US.

(3) Designing and implementing a strategy forregional monitoring of transboundaryatmospheric pollution with assistance fromappropriate international experts.

All the three PARTS components includetechnical assistance and training via workshops,and twinning arrangements such as exchangevisits that emphasize on-the-job training.

The Australian Government will directlyfinance PARTS component 1 as one of threeof its initiatives for assisting ASEAN inaddressing the impacts of fire and haze in theregion.

The US Government will finance PARTScomponents 2 and 3 as two separate subprojectsunder the Southeast Asian EnvironmentInitiative (SEA-EI).

Australian Assistance

Australian assistance is provided through aproject to combat fires and haze in SoutheastAsia. This project, running for two years, covers

Indonesia and Malaysia. There are threecomponents covering fire prevention,mitigation, and funding of PARTS.

• Improving the capability for using satellitetechnology for fire and haze detection andmonitoring at ASMC, in association withrelevant national-level institutions(component 1 of PARTS).

• A program directly contributing to ADB’sRETA 5778, consisting of threesubcomponents:(i) support for an Applied Study on

Formulating a Regional FireSuppression Training and ResearchProgram;

(ii) support for an Applied Study onStrengthening NHAPs for AMCs,with particular reference toIndonesia; and

(iii) support for an Applied Study onFormulating a Framework for a FireSuppression Mobilization andResponse Plan, with particularreference to Indonesia.

• Support for training in fire mitigation andprevention, which will build on theApplied Study on Formulating a RegionalFire Suppression Training and ResearchProgram.

US Assistance under SEA-EI

SEA-EI is a regional assistance programpackage consisting of US contributions throughdifferent agencies for 10 projects under threegroups: forest management, fire prevention, andfirefighting; and climate prediction andenvironmental monitoring.

The 10 projects are as follows:• causes and impacts of forest fires in

Southeast Asia—technical assistance toCIFOR/ICRAF;

• reduced impact logging—extension of the

All the threePARTS

componentsinclude technical

assistance andtraining via

workshops, andtwinning

arrangementssuch as exchange

visits thatemphasize on-the-

job training

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 73

technology including training;• alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture;• subregional fire disaster response

coordination;• coal and peat fire suppression. This has

two components: (i) building capacity toextinguish coal seam fires in Indonesia,and (ii) assessing peat fires in easternMalaysia. Assistance is provided throughthe Indonesian Ministry of Mines andEnergy and Malaysian Fire and RescueDepartment;

• climate impact forecasting: establishclimate models that will generate anddistribute regional climate forecasts up toone year in advance;

• atmospheric modeling capacity: to helpdevelop and enhance the region’satmosphere modeling capability in ASMC(component 2 of PARTS);

• smoke and haze monitoring: assistance toenhance the region’s physical monitoringcapacity (component 3 of PARTS);

• disaster reduction applications of climateforecasting: USAID’s Office of ForeignDisaster Assistance will work with ADPCin Bangkok; and

• health assessment: providing support tothe Malaysian Centre for Disease Control(CDC) to devise health directions tominimize the impact of haze on affectedpopulations.

The US Government has approved morethan $5.28 million for this initiative.

Others

There are other initiatives, some of whichare self-funded and others fully or partly financedby donors from resources of approved projects.These include: Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency (CIDA)/ASEAN firedanger rating system for Indonesia; CIDA-

BAPPENAS development planning assistance;WHO project on air quality monitoring andmitigation of health implications of forest fireand haze; burned area estimation using SPOTquick-look mosaics and mapping the extent ofIndonesian fires by CRISP. There are two EUprojects to address tropical deforestation andfires: (i) Fire in Global Resources andEnvironmental Monitoring, and (ii) TropicalEcosystem and Environmental Observation bySatellites.

Proposals and Pipeline Projects

Forest Fire Hazard Mapping

UNEP has proposed a project for an EarlyWarning System and Forest Fire HazardMapping in Indonesia.

The proposed project output will includesatellite data to demonstrate technicalpossibilities, creation of a GIS database, forestfire hazard maps, an early warning system,forest fire models, and improved capacity infire hazard mapping. The project will addressthe need for a proper spatial database at 1:50,000scale with thematic layers (e.g., elevation,hydrology, geology, vegetation, soil, and landuse).

Joint ASEAN Program in Fire and Haze

Management

This proposal is for the development of anASEAN-wide fire and smoke managementstrategy and operational system, by sharingresponsibilities and resources, focusing on:prediction of fire hazard and fire effects onecosystems and atmosphere; detection,monitoring, and evaluating fires; and sharingfire suppression technologies and resources (thisprogram is expected to evolve during theOperationalized Regional Haze Action Plan[ORHAP] and would eventually represent itsASEAN core program).

UNEP hasproposed a

project for anEarly Warning

System andForest Fire

Hazard Mappingin Indonesia

74 THE PREMISE

Project Firefight

A World Conservation Union and WWFProject, Firefight, proposes to establish a globalnetwork for forest fire prevention and control.The project aims to raise public awareness aboutthe dangers of fires; improve forest firemanagement worldwide; and eliminate adverseenvironmental, social, and economic impactsof forest fires (IUCN/WWF 1998).

Technology Assessment and Applications

The application of modern technology to thedifferent aspects of fire management such asweather monitoring, wide-area surveillance, andspeedy communication is being discussed as apotential project of vital importance to theregion and some of the major donors appear tobe interested.

Trends in Fire and Haze ProjectsAfter studying in detail the objectives andactivities of 35 projects, training courses, andmissions, Dennis (1998) observes that fireprojects arise out of extreme fire outbreaks. Theworse the problem, the more likely attentionwill be attracted, with the two experiencing adirect functional relationship. Interest in firehas only been short-lived after a spurt of activitiesfollowing a major blaze.

Earlier projects addressed issues of fireprevention and control. After the 1994 fires,which created extreme transboundary pollution,the projects also started focusing on the causes.Of the 35 projects, missions, and trainingcourses, six are mainly directed at understandingthe problem, 19 at doing something practical,and 10 address both issues. Most currentprojects are of short-term scope, investigatingthe underlying causes. Some address specificaspects, such as capacity building andbiodiversity conservation. In the case of severalrecent projects, there are overlaps or similarities

in objectives, activities, inputs, and outputs,even though their geographical locations differ.A lesson to be learned from the degree of overlapis that cooperation, openness, anddissemination of results among projects and therelevant government departments is ofparamount importance.

A trend in the new generation fire projectsis the emphasis given to sophisticated space-borne remote sensing technology ofmonitoring and prediction, compared topractical presuppression and suppression.There are also no projects that seriously addresspost-fire rehabilitation. Because of thedifference in technological competencies andconditions between these two levels, a barrierto the transfer of technology, even the transferof information, is created. The projectsanalyzed were implemented by differentnational agencies, further creating problemsof coordination and counterpart support(Dennis 1998).

In Indonesia, the bulk of the fire projectsarising from the 1997 disaster deals withassessment of damage and development ofcapacities to undertake necessary activities toprevent, monitor, and control fires. However,no direct provision was made for facing thereemergence of such devastating fires, so soon,in 1998. There was, therefore, no adequatesource of funding to fight the 1998 fires in EastKalimantan other than that provided by theIndonesian Government.

Neighboring Sarawak, on the other hand,has no exclusive or major forest fire projectsand the current projects emphasize sustainablemodel forest management. Yet, Sarawak’sforests have been comparatively safe from fire.It has to be said, however, that the 1998 firesin East Kalimantan would have overtaxed anyfire suppression arrangements, in the absenceof an adequately planned integrated approach.

A trend in thenew generationfire projects isthe emphasis

given tosophisticatedspace-borne

remote sensingtechnology of

monitoring andprediction,

compared topractical

presuppressionand suppression

CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 75

Notes18 A comprehensive account of past, present,

and proposed fire projects in Indonesiaduring 1982-1998, with details such asobjectives, component activities, targetgroups, geographical coverage, timehorizon, counterpart agency, budget level,and where relevant, achievements andimpacts, can be found on the Southeast Asiaweb site of the Global Fire MonitoringCenter (http://www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe) and in a recent publication ofCIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO-EU, A Review ofFire Projects in Indonesia (1982-1998) byRona Dennis (1998). The book covers thehistory of fires, forest fire activities of donorcountries, ongoing and proposed fire projects,projects in the aftermath of the 1997 fires,Indonesia’s response to the fires and smokehaze, and international relief assistance.

19 AMMH is in fact a meeting of the ASEANMinisters of Environment focusing onhaze.

20 The two previous “action plans” referredto are: (i) the Long-Term Integrated ForestFire Management Strategy for Indonesia,which was one of the outputs of theBandung (Indonesia) Conference of 1992;and (ii) the ASEAN Cooperation Plan onTransboundary Pollution, which wasadopted at the ASEAN Meeting on theManagement of Transboundary Pollutionconvened in Kuala Lumpur in June 1995.

21 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Forest FirePrevention and Drought Management.

22 The US NOAA satellite is a meteorologicalsatellite and its access is free to membercountries of WMO.

23 This capability enables the instrument todetect clouds illuminated by moonlight; andlights from cities, towns, industrial sites,gas flares, and ephemeral events such asfires and lightning-illuminated clouds.

24 The GMS satellite is in stationary orbit, ata constant location 36,000 km above theat-risk areas of the ASEAN region.

The Program

“Present day science and technology offer an opportunity to beautify, in the full

sense of the word, life on earth, to create conditions for the all-round

development of every individual. But it is this very creation of the human mind

and human hands that threatens the very existence of the human race! What

a crying contradiction! We want science to cease to be the servant of two

masters—life and death. We want it to serve life only”—Mikhail Gorbachev

“A first rate theory predicts; a second rate theory forbids; and a third rate theory

explains after the event”—Aleksander Isaakovich Kitaigordskii

78 THE PROGRAM

Role and Concerns of ADBADB has played a prominent role in promotingthe development of the Asian and Pacific region.ADB’s concerns, and therefore its operations,cover a wide spectrum of developmentactivities. Its overarching objective is povertyreduction, while its medium-term strategicobjectives are to foster economic growth,improve the status of women and disadvantagedgroups, support human resource development,help to sustainably manage natural resources,and protect the environment.

Apart from loans and equity investments,ADB provides technical assistance grants for

the preparation and execution of developmentprojects and programs, and also for advisorypurposes. It gives priority to regional,subregional, and national projects and programsthat contribute to the harmonious developmentof the region as a whole and that promoteregional cooperation.

Environmental ConcernsIn 1996, ADB in collaboration with HarvardUniversity completed a research study onenvironmental indicators. Three sets of indexesfor monitoring environmental changes weredeveloped: cost of remediation, environmentalelasticity, and environmental diamond.

The cost of remediation reflects the cost ofmoving the environment from its present stateto a more desirable level in the future. Thisindex has strong policy implications for nationalgovernments and multilateral financinginstitutions (MFIs) since it reveals the amountof wealth that a society has to forego to restorethe environment to a more livable level. Theindex relates environment to the cost ofrepairing damage done to it in dollar terms.

Environmental elasticity is a dynamic ratiothat measures the percentage change of anaggregate measure of environmental quality forevery 1 percent increase of a country’s per capita

The Asian Development Bank’sTechnical Assistance[This chapter gives a brief account of ADB’s two-pronged approach to address transboundary atmosphericpollution in the region through an advisory technical assistance grant to Indonesia and a regionaltechnical assistance grant to ASEAN. It explains the catalytic role, objectives, and activities of theregional technical assistance, as well as the results achieved and the lessons learned.]

CHAPTER 4

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Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo: Anonymous

CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 79

gross domestic product (GDP). Theenvironmental changes are generally defined byseveral selected environmental indicators andare aggregated through a weighting scheme.

The environmental diamond measures andpresents the state of the environment graphically,in terms of overall quality of air, water, land,and ecosystem. This indicator reveals a generalpicture without concealing the multipledimensions of the environment.

The three indexes can be used by MFIs andgovernments in determining the state of theenvironment, the rate of environmentaldegradation compared to economic growth,and the costs of improving the environment.In terms of environmental investments, MFIsmay give added emphasis to countries withnegative environmental trends. The green sideof environmental degradation (land andecosystem) should receive greater attention andinvestments. Systematic and standardized datagathering, however, should be a priority forADB’s developing member countries.

Environmental Challenges

Environment was also one of the majorthemes of ADB’s study on Emerging Asia:Challenges and Changes.25 The study shows thatAsia’s environment has become so polluted anddegraded that it poses a threat not just to thequality of life of its people but also to economicgrowth. The costs of this environmental neglectare massive.

Many argue that Asia cannot spare theresources needed to clean up its environment.But the solution to Asia’s environmentalproblems does not lie in a mammothenvironmental bureaucracy charged with theresponsibility of investing billions of dollars inenvironmental infrastructure. Rather, what isneeded is a redeployment of existing resourceswithin the public sector to ensure that

environmental issues are fully reflected inmacroeconomic and sectoral policies. Theenvironment should be regarded as a dimensionthat cuts across sectors, policies, andinstitutions. The energies of the private sectorand civil society must also be better harnessedfor environmental management.

Unfortunately, Asia’s environment is likelyto get much worse before it gets better. Mosteconomies are still a long way from the pointwhere rising incomes will create the demandsfor better environmental standards and inducea shift in economic structure toward lesspolluting economic activities. However, itwould be wrong to conclude that economicgrowth per se is the cause of Asia’senvironmental woes. The culprits are failedpolicies and institutions, and reckless neglect.How to improve policies and establish efficientand effective institutions are expected to beamong the major challenges of the 21st century(ADB 1998b).

It is in this context that atmospherictransboundary pollution caused by forest firesassumes significance.

Policy Emphasis on Forestry

ADB plays a leading role in the regionsupporting and catalyzing action to prevent andmitigate the impact of forest fires and associatedtransboundary atmospheric pollution.

ADB’s policy emphasis on forestry (and landuse) is to promote sustained management ofresources, focusing particularly on (i)conservation of ecosystems, species, andbiodiversity; (ii) rehabilitation of degradedareas; and (iii) institutional strengthening (ADB1995). The issue of forest fires and haze in theASEAN region is a challenging one. ADB’scontributions can support the capacity ofregional and national institutions to effectivelyface future fires on a sustainable basis without

ADB plays aleading role in

the regionsupporting andcatalyzing actionto prevent and

mitigate theimpact of forest

fires andassociated

transboundaryatmospheric

pollution

80 THE PROGRAM

allowing them to become environmentalcatastrophes.

Technical Assistance to Address Forest

Fires and Haze

Several ADB missions visited Indonesia inlate 1997 to take stock of the fires and hazeand consider possible responses. Followingconsultations with national, regional, andinternational agencies and bilateral donors, aswell as with the ASEAN Secretariat, a balancedapproach was formulated to address the causesof the economic and environmental damageresulting from these fires, and to prevent theirrecurrence. ASOEN’s HTTF in its November1997 meeting reviewed a position paper forregional technical assistance. HTTF, whileconveying its agreement in principle, suggestedthat ADB assistance be directed toward puttingthe RHAP into operation and supporting variouseconomic and scientific studies to enhanceunderstanding of the causes and consequencesof forest fires and associated haze formationand dispersion.

Accordingly, a mission to Indonesia,Malaysia, and Singapore in December 1997 metwith senior officials of the ministries anddepartments of environment in the respectivecountries, the Malaysian Institute of ForestManagement in Kuala Lumpur, and ASMC inSingapore, and also participated in the HTTFmeeting in Singapore. The mission discussedvarious initiatives by the region to address theproblem of fires and transboundary atmosphericpollution, as well as the key aspects of puttingthem into operation.

The RHAP prepared by HTTF/ASOEN wasendorsed by the AMMH held in Singaporefrom 22 to 23 December 1997 (See Appendix2).

The RHAP was signed during a period ofintense fire, smoke, and transboundary

pollution. The document itself is, therefore, areflection of ASEAN’s determination to activelydo something about the problem rather thansimply describing a broad-brush approach toit. However, the RHAP was formulated andendorsed within such a short space of time thatit was not possible for the AMMH or HTTFto work out implementation details prior to itsendorsement by the nine AMCs.26 What theministers had in mind when they endorsed theRHAP was to initiate a process. The documenthad also made it clear that ADB’s assistancewould be sought to implement the plan.

Two-Pronged Approach

ADB adopted a two-pronged approach toaddress the causes and economic andenvironmental damage from the fires and toprevent their recurrence, supporting regionalinitiatives as well as national ones. The resultwas a set of twin projects: a RETA Project27

for strengthening the capacity of ASEAN toprevent and mitigate transboundaryatmospheric pollution, and an ADTA28 forplanning for fire prevention and droughtmanagement in Indonesia, approved in early1998. Both projects have been completed.

Advisory TechnicalAssistanceADB approved on 20 March 1998 an ADTAgrant for $1 million to the IndonesianGovernment. The objectives were to assess thedamage and economic cost to Indonesia fromthe 1997-1998 fires and haze, and to formulatean investment plan that would prepare thecountry for future occurrences and recurrentdroughts.

More specifically they are:(i) to determine the causes of the fires, and

the social, environmental, and economicimpacts of fire and drought;

A balancedapproach wasformulated to

address thecauses of the

economic andenvironmental

damage resultingfrom these fires,and to preventtheir recurrence

CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 81

(ii) to assess the possible causes of theuncontrolled fires in 1997 and the hazeproblem, and how these could have beenprevented;

(iii) to assess and evaluate policies andregulations relating to the use of firefor site preparation, and the efficacy ofmethods used in preventing andcontrolling fire outbreaks;

(iv) to assess the need for new approachesto fire prevention and control; and

(v) to make recommendations on the costsand benefits of investments inprevention, early warning systems,firefighting capability, and institutionalstrengthening.

The ADTA was completed in April 1999.Details of implementation, outcome,achievements, and proposals for follow-up areprovided in a three-volume final report(BAPPENAS 1999).

Regional TechnicalAssistance ProjectADB approved $1 million for the RETA Projecton 24 February 1998 from the Japan SpecialFund. The ASEAN Secretariat and associatedinstitutions including ASMC were to providethe counterpart support, including staff, officespace, and meteorological equipment (includingthe supercomputer at ASMC), and otherfacilities, estimated at an equivalent $200,000.

Objective and ScopeThe main objectives of the RETA Project wereto strengthen and formalize cooperation amongAMCs affected by the fires and haze via supportfor:

• short-term measures aimed at putting theRHAP into operation;

• medium-term measures that strengthen thecapacity of relevant institutions to

implement the RHAP, and improvescientific understanding of large-scale firesand transboundary atmospheric pollution;and

• strengthening the capacity of concernedinstitutions to implement andinstitutionalize the RHAP.

These aims called for several actions with aview to achieving the following:

• helping to identify actions to be taken byAMCs to put into place an institutionalframework for addressing the region’stransboundary haze pollution problem ona long-term, sustainable basis;

• identifying the investments (if any)required to support the institutionalframework;

• catalyzing donor collaborative partnershipsand activities that would directlycomplement the actions the AMCs plannedto undertake in confronting the region’stransboundary haze pollution problem;

• sharing knowledge and experience as wellas efficient and economic use of regionalfirefighting equipment;

• developing formalized cooperationarrangements among countries of theregion and beyond to enhance the level ofscientific understanding of the causes andconsequences of transboundaryatmospheric pollution; and

• establishing a regional level framework forjoint response mechanisms throughenhancement in the capacity of ASEANand associated institutions to effectivelyimplement and monitor the RHAP.

In this regard, the RETA Project’s scope ofwork included:

(i) operationalizing the RHAP (includingformulation of a mobilization andresponse strategy for activatingfirefighting resources);

The mainobjectives of theRETA Project

were tostrengthen and

formalizecooperation

among AMCsaffected by the

firesand haze

82 THE PROGRAM

agency for the RETA Project; and its ProjectManagement Unit (PMU) was housed withinthe ASEAN Secretariat Building in Jakarta.

Compared to other areas in which a regionalframework has been used to strengthen intra-ASEAN ties (e.g., trade, transport andintraregional tourism—all of which have legallybinding instruments concluded), regionalcooperation to combat transboundary hazepollution is at a relatively early stage. While asoft-law legal framework for regionalcooperation in this has existed since the mid-1980s, few concrete measures have beenidentified and fewer still have beenimplemented.

Transboundary haze pollution is a complexissue that requires coordinated concretemeasures by a relatively large number of partiesif its negative impacts are to be diminished.More important, the action has to be takenbefore a haze problem develops, so that crisescan be avoided or their intensity reduced.

Crisis management by definition involvesshort-term measures not focused on preventingor reducing the intensity of future disasters.

It is a costly and inefficient means ofaddressing ASEAN’s transboundary hazepollution problem over time. Short-term crisismanagement initiatives were, therefore,deliberately excluded from the scope of theRETA Project.

Its focus was instead on assisting ASEANto develop an institutionalized approach toaverting or reducing the negative impacts offuture transboundary haze.

Implementing the ProjectMeetings of the ASEAN EnvironmentMinisters, ASOEN, HTTF, and subregionalworking groups monitored the progress of theRETA Project and ensured timely action andcoordination on bringing the RHAP to fruition.

(ii) improving the ASEAN Secretariat’sinformation management anddissemination relating to fires and haze;

(iii) strengthening the capacity of ASMC (inSingapore) to allow it to serve as aregional hydrometeorologicalinformation center, in collaborationwith national counterpart agencies;

(iv) developing appropriate mechanisms forinternational cooperation for fireprevention and mitigation;

(v) establishing fire detection andmonitoring systems at the regional level;

(vi) undertaking socioeconomic andscientific studies with a regional focusthat may include:(a) use and marketing of biomass and

logging residues,(b) use of market-based incentives to

promote adoption of new productsand technologies, and

(c) transboundary atmosphericpollution; and

(vii) disseminating the results of the studiesreferred to in v above, as well asinformation concerning implementationof the RHAP via regional workshops.

The most important task of the RETAProject was to “develop a strong andcomprehensive time-bound plan for prevention,mitigation, and monitoring” (as well asinstitutional strengthening and identifyingrequired investments) at the national andregional levels.

Relationship between the RETAProject and the RHAPThe RETA Project was intended to be part of aprocess that would lay a strong foundation toaddress the fire and haze problem in the ASEANregion by putting into operation the RHAP.The ASEAN Secretariat was the implementation

The mostimportant task of

the RETAProject was to

develop astrong and

comprehensivetime-bound planfor prevention,mitigation, andmonitoring at

the national andregional levels

CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 83

Within ADB, a Steering Committee, chairedby the Manager of the Environment Division,with representatives from the Office ofEnvironment and Social Development, Forestryand Natural Resources Division West, Forestryand Natural Resources Division East, ProgramsDepartment East 2, and Consulting ServicesDivision was set up to oversee implementation,to monitor progress, and to liaise with ASEAN.

The ASEAN Secretariat itself liaised withnational governments and agencies, arrangedand conducted regional workshops andseminars, and provided necessaryadministrative support. PMU, meanwhile, tookcare of the day-to-day administration andmanagement of the RETA Project.

A multidisciplinary team of international andregional consultants assisted the ASEANSecretariat.

An input of about 60 person-months,comprising 12 person-months of internationaland 48 person-months of domestic consultants,was involved.

As envisaged in the original projectdocument, the RETA Project was to beimplemented over 12 months, with the firstthree-month phase culminating by the end ofMay 1998 and resulting in the development ofan operational plan.

The second phase was to focus on buildinga clear understanding of the smoke and hazepollution and to strengthen institutions toaddress the issues involved.

The Process

The cornerstone on which the RETA Projectwas built and completed was the RHAP. Thespecific terms of reference within which theProject functioned were to:

(i) assist ASEAN in formulating a time-bound operational plan that AMCs coulduse to implement and monitor the

RHAP. This aim was achieved byformulating the ORHAP and DetailedImplementation Plans (DIPs);

(ii) create a better understanding of hazeformation, movement, and dispersion.This was achieved by initiating ASMCstudies on haze formation andmovements, in association with partnerinternational institutions;

(iii) strengthen the capacity of ASEAN andnational institutions to avoid or face firesand haze. A key instrument in thisregard is the proposed ASEANAgreement on Transboundary Haze,which is supported by legal agreementsthat will specify various aspects of jointfire management response systems; andharmonize fire detection andmonitoring systems, and otheroutcomes of the program forstrengthening ASEAN and nationalinstitutions; and

(iv) convene regional workshops, seminars,and training programs to disseminatethe results of scientific studies relatingto transboundary haze pollution, anddiscuss their relationship to the overallRHAP implementation process.

The Activities

The following activities were undertaken tofulfil the major goals:

(i) development of a framework for puttingthe RHAP into action;

(ii) strengthening of national andsubregional plans to address fire andhaze issues;

(iii) review of regional policies, anddevelopment of strategies andguidelines to promote (a) land-usepractices that curb deployment of fire,and (b) market-based instruments that

The RETAProject was to be

implementedover 12 months,

with the firstthree-month

phaseculminating bythe end of May

1998 andresulting in thedevelopment ofan operational

plan

84 THE PROGRAM

discourage practices that result in firesand emissions;

(iv) review of experiences within and beyondthe region concerning fire prevention,control, and mitigation strategies;

(v) an inventory of existing firemanagement capacity in the affectedAMCs to be made available for regionalfire suppression efforts;

(vi) formulation of an operating procedurefor mobilization of fire suppressionresources in each affected country, aswell as with cooperating agenciesoutside the region; development of FireSuppression Mobilization Plans(FSMPs) and SRFAs.

(vii) development of an improvedinformation management anddissemination system in the ASEANSecretariat relating to fires and haze;

(viii) strengthening of the capacity of ASMCto serve as a regional hydro-meteorological information center, incollaboration with nationalmeteorological agencies;

(ix) development of regional training andresearch programs via exchange visits,secondments, and joint trainingexercises in fire management, remotesensing of fires and haze, applicationof GIS, and other priority subjects;

(x) undertaking of socioeconomic andscientific studies that enhanceunderstanding of forest fires and haze;

(xi) convening of regional meetings,seminars, and workshops; and

(xiii)establishment of a Coordination andSupport Unit (CSU).

Studies Carried out by the Project

When the ASEAN Environment Ministersendorsed the RHAP, two themes stood out as

deserving in-depth analysis. First, ASEAN’scollective fire management capacity needed tobe strengthened. Second, in order to preventrecurrence of similar fires with the return ofeach ENSO, policies that encouraged adoptionof mechanical land-clearing techniques wouldneed to be put in place.

Mobilization of Donor Support

In tandem with the Inception Workshop ofthe Project, early in 1998, an open forum forfunding agencies’ participation in assistance forthe fire and haze problem was held. This led toa number of commitments complementing theProject activities, with the donors taking oversome of the activities within the RETA Project’sscope. The resources so released were used tofinance other important activities that had beenunderfunded.

The RETA Project thus promotedcollaborative programs with various donors,including the Australian Agency forInternational Development (AusAID), CIDA,the Governments of New Zealand, Norway,and the United States (under its SEA-EI),and UNEP. Several donors are also workingwith CSU on forest fires and haze pollutionmanagement.

Main Outcome of the RETA Project

The prime output of the RETA Project wasan operationalized version of the RHAP(ORHAP) which was approved forimplementation by the ASOEN/HTTF in July1999. The ORHAP includes priority actionsfor prevention, mitigation, and monitoring offires and haze, and is composed of one regional,two subregional, and nine national DIPs. TheORHAP requires execution of a relatively largenumber of interdependent initiatives thatcomplement one another and fit together intoan overall framework.

The primeoutput of theRETA Project

was anoperationalizedversion of the

RHAP(ORHAP) whichwas approved forimplementationby the ASOEN/

HTTF inJuly 1999

CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 85

The RETA Project report contains definitionsof program components; generic guidelines forimplementing the ORHAP; a detailed ORHAPproviding descriptive summary of actions;NHAPs and two SRFAs; an annual operationalplan and a six-year rolling plan for implementingthe ORHAP; procedure for formulating rollingsix-year programs; procedures for implementingspecific portions of ORHAP and criteria forchoosing from the alternatives; Fire SuppressionMobilization Plans (FSMPs) and procedures forformulating and implementing them; details ofexisting and required regional legal frameworksat the ASEAN level; particulars about a fire-and-haze information clearinghouse; andmonitoring framework and establishment of aCSU at the ASEAN Secretariat for undertakingthe continued refining and implementation ofthe ORHAP.

The ORHAP has had a beneficial impacton ASEAN in two respects. First, it has helped

ASEAN to address the fire-and-haze issuedirectly, with actions that increasing the region’scapacity to manage future incidents. It has alsosparked the beginning of ASEAN’sreorientation from a passive agency thatresponds to challenges in an ex post manner, toa more forward-looking institution thatanticipates challenges and responds to them exante.

The regional level coordination, sup-port, and monitoring of the ORHAP hasbeen institutionalized through establishment ofCSU, which fully took over the coordinationand support functions with effect from 1 October1999. A web site (http://www.haze.online.or.id)was also set up for online information exchangeand updates. CSU acts as a clearinghouse forpotential collaborative programs for bilateral andmultilateral assistance aimed at prevention andmitigation of forest fires and associatedtransboundary haze pollution.

The ORHAPrequires

execution of arelatively large

number ofinterdependentinitiatives that

complement oneanother and fit

together into anoverall

framework

A. Through direct intervention••••• Compiled baseline information through

surveys, studies, and assessments.••••• Conducted inventory of the region’s

firefighting resources and firesuppression capabilities.

••••• Established and strengthenedsubregional firefightingarrangements.

••••• Carried out studies on ASEAN’sexisting fire and haze monitoringsystem with a view to upgradingthem.

••••• Undertook policy studies on the use ofmarket-based instruments forpromoting adoption of mechanicalzero-burn land-clearing methods andmarketing of products that usebiomass residues as productive inputs.

••••• Reviewed national and internationallaws, policies, and institutionalarrangements relating to fire andhaze issues and developed a legalframework and facility forcrossborder cooperation.

••••• Catalyzed development ofregional and national facilitiesfor fire and haze monitoring.

••••• Developed and strengthened thesystem of informationmanagement at the ASEAN leveland supported establishment of aregional information center andclearinghouse including settingup of a haze web site.

••••• Helped put in place anOperationalized Regional HazeAction Plan, including a systemof Detailed ImplementationPlans at the regional,subregional, and national levels.

••••• Assisted in organizinginstitutional mechanisms,particularly for regionalcoordination, throughestablishment of CSU.

••••• Promoted dialogue amongASEAN members and partners asa long-term system for effectiveregional cooperation.

B. Through collaboration with otherdonors

••••• Formulated an operating procedurefor activating forest firefightingresources in the ASEAN region, withparticular reference to Indonesia.

••••• Designed a model FSMP andinitiated preparation of FSMPs forspecific areas.

••••• Conducted studies on hazetransport and climate models andharmonization of pollutionindexes.

••••• Catalyzed and collaborated in studieson health impacts of haze pollution.

••••• Promoted development of facilitiesfor training and research relatingto forest fire and hazemanagement.

••••• Mobilized donor support for fireand haze projects (e.g., PARTS),forged collaborative partnershipswith other internationalinstitutions, and facilitated donorcoordination.

BOX 11 Achievements of ADB’s Regional Technical Assistance Project

86 THE PROGRAM

Throughout the RETA Project, PMU hasprovided support in the formulation of the AMCs’NHAPs. The numbers of studies and analyses

carried out by the team have been substantialand will be useful during the implementation ofthe ORHAP and also as reference materials.

CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 87

Notes25 Emerging Asia: Challenges and Changes,

Asian Development Bank, 1997.26 Cambodia joined ASEAN on 30 April 1999,

bringing total membership of the groupingto 10 countries. The RHAP was thus

originally endorsed by only nine AMCs.27 RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of

the ASEAN to Prevent and MitigateTransboundary Atmospheric Pollution.

28 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for FirePrevention and Drought Management.

88 THE PROGRAM

The Process andConsiderationsForests form the main body of the terrestrialecological system. As an inseparable componentof the total land use system, forestry hassignificant interrelationships with agricultural,pastoral, and food-producing systems. Theinterrelated and multiple roles of forests,covering the wide spectrum of environmentalconservation and use of forest resources, arevital for human welfare and sustainablesocioeconomic development.

In planning for forest resource managementand development, sustainability is a crucial

consideration. And an important componentof sustainable management is protection frominjurious factors, including fires.

Managing Forest FiresThe importance of fire management isincreasing as forests, woodlands, and grasslandsface greater demands for commodities andamenities. Recent research has extended ourknowledge of fire behavior, fire ecology, firesuppression, and other aspects of fire sciencethat are being incorporated into ecosystemmanagement.

Fire management can take several forms,from no active management to fire exclusion,i.e., total suppression. Fire exclusion may beappropriate for plantations or plantcommunities of thin-barked trees; while noactive fire management may be appropriate forwilderness and national park areas where firecan be allowed to play out its role as a naturaldisturbance agent; or fire management can takean integrated form. The integrated firemanagement option embraces all possibletreatments, managing ecosystems to enhancethe benefits of fire while reducing its detrimentaleffects (Landsberg 1997, Goldammer 1997a).

Since fire can either be the cause or the resultof changes in the landscape, fire management

Operationalized Regional HazeAction Plan[This chapter explains the concepts behind the ORHAP and how it is closely linked to, and supportiveof, actions at subregional, national, and local levels. Further, the three main program components—protection, mitigation, and monitoring—and the institutional arrangements for the program are discussedin detail with reference to activities falling under each.]

CHAPTER 5

Training ofTraining ofTraining ofTraining ofTraining ofIndonesianIndonesianIndonesianIndonesianIndonesianfirefighters, 1997firefighters, 1997firefighters, 1997firefighters, 1997firefighters, 1997

Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo: Anonymous

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 89

should be conceived on a landscape scale,incorporating forests and their immediatesurroundings. Fire management was, andcontinues to be, largely a reactive process inmost developing countries with little datahandling capacity (Landsberg 1997). Thissituation needs to be improved.

Approaches toward fire management willvary for different forests and landscapes, dictatedby their characteristics. An essential tool is afire management plan. This will form part of,or be integrated with, the forest managementplan, aiming for sustainability and efficiency.Preparation of fire management plans should bebased on statistical and nonstatistical information,including inventory of past forest fires, weather,topography, and fuel type and size, supported bythe latest land use and forest cover maps. Aclassification system and a clear understandingof forest fires and their causes are important toestablish alternative approaches to fire preventionas well as for forest rehabilitation. In anintegrated approach to fire management, it isnecessary to think comprehensively and on a long-term basis, taking into consideration availabletechnology and skills.

Fire Management Planning

Fire management integrates fire-relatedbiological, ecological, physical, and technologicalinformation into forest and land management,to meet desired objectives. Interrelated firemanagement activities include fuel management,fire prevention and control, fire suppression,beneficial uses of fire, and the associated planning,training, education, and research. Firemanagement, thus, encompasses all measurestaken to maintain fire regimes within desiredbounds, and is an integrated framework ofpolicies, institutional arrangements, procedures,technology, and resources. This frameworkusually runs vertically through two or more layers

of government, as well as horizontally amongvarious land management agencies and privateowners. Fire management policy objectives willnot be effectively achieved if any of the pieces ofthe framework are missing or do not work welltogether.

Predictability of Future Fires

Economic, social, environmental, andclimatic factors have historically beenresponsible for causing forest and land fires.There is no reason to expect that these factorswill become any less responsible for fires in thefuture. Although forest and land fires are causedby human actions, experience shows that thesefires can be primed or aggravated by aprolonged drought (or during ENSOs). Thethreat of a prolonged drought as well as of forestand land fires can thus be anticipated by regularmonitoring of ENSOs.

In areas of recurrent fire and haze, aneffective RHAP is needed to prevent themthrough better management and enforcement.The factors contributing to the starting of fires,particularly weather and related disturbances(e.g., ENSOs), are predictable. Based on databetween 1990 and 1997 on the SouthernOscillation Index and sea surface temperature,there will be more El Niños in 2000-2003, 2007-2010, 2013-2015, and 2020-2022; or at leasttwo in any 10-year period (MOE-UNDP 1998).Thus, it is possible that fires and widespreadhaze will occur again, as the present land useplans in the region call for continued large-scaleland conversion. There is a pressing need forthe region to maintain greater vigilance and todevelop better fire management capabilities, wellin advance.

Holistic View of Fire

An event being predictable does notnecessarily make planning easy, as it is likely to

It is possible thatfires and

widespread hazewill occur again,

as the presentland-use plans inthe region call forcontinued large-

scale landconversion

90 THE PROGRAM

be influenced by several other unforeseensituations. A holistic view of fire and anunderstanding of its negative and positivefactors are necessary for intelligentmanagement of resources. Integratedmanagement of fire recognizes its traditionaluses and does not exclusively concentrate onfire exclusion (prevention, suppression). Thebeneficial role of fire should be an integratedelement of the overall approach to sustainablevegetation resource management andprotection. Also, in order to address the mainsource of land-use fires, as well as of unwantedwildfires, local people and communities haveto be integrated into the overall systems offire management.

RHAP as a Strategic GuidelineThe RHAP document as endorsed by AMMHin December 1997 could correctly be thoughtof as a set of strategic guidelines that brieflydescribes the objectives, process, and broad stepsto be adopted in this regard. It thus forms thebasis for developing an OperationalizedRegional Haze Action Plan.

Need for Operationalization of RHAP

When the RHAP was drafted in 1997, theregional fire and haze disaster was at its peak,so crisis management was the order of the day.It was, therefore, not possible to incorporate agreat amount of detail concerning how theRHAP was to be implemented. In fact, theRHAP document itself fulfilled a dual function:it provided a mandate for HTTF to takeemergency action to address the fire and hazedisaster; and it provided a vehicle that ADBcould use to quickly mobilize assistance for theRHAP’s later implementation via regional andadvisory technical assistance.

The process of operationalizing the RHAPhas given rise to two versions of the plan. The

first version (RHAP) is the one adopted by thenine ASEAN Ministers of Environment whenthey met in December 1997. This is the formal“official” version, as endorsed by AMMH. Theoperationalized version drafted by the RETAProject is referred to as the ORHAP.

Principles and Parameters

Any management policy or system shouldbe tailored to certain principles, in order toreflect conditions, needs, and resources. Thisis particularly true in the case of managing fires.

Some General Principles

Some important parameters are:(i) know what fire regimes you want:

determine what fire regimes arepossible under the prevailing climate,ecological conditions, and land use; ofthese, decide which are most desirableand practicable;

(ii) manage fires to meet specific objectives:these may include sustainable resourcemanagement, maintenance of ecologicalprocesses or key species, biodiversityconservation, protection of human ornatural values, or avoidance ofatmospheric or other offsite impacts;

(iii) design fire management policies withinthe context of other land use trends: asfar as possible, address related orunderlying factors that increase fire risk;maintain coordination and cooperationwith related sectors;

(iv) develop a fire management policysystematically within a comprehensiveframework: ad hoc efforts may beneeded to address acute firemanagement deficiencies, but only acomprehensive framework of law,institutions, and resources will beeffective in the long term;

The beneficialrole of fire

should be anintegrated

element of theoverall approach

to sustainablevegetationresource

management andprotection

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 91

(v) involve partners: communities, NGOs,the private sector, and neighboringcountry governments should beparticipants in fire policy formulationand fire management. Successful policyformulation depends on asking the rightquestions of the right people;

(vi) change attitudes: effective firemanagement requires changingattitudes of key players at thecommunity level, in the private sector,and in the government;

(vii) critically evaluate procedures andtechnology: imported technology andprocedures may not meet needs or maybe impractical within resourceconstraints; and

(viii)assign responsibility clearly (e.g., to theappropriate level of government orcommunity) (Schweithelm 1998b).

Parameters

Three parameters have been identified inoperationalizing the RHAP.

(i) The region’s transboundary pollutionproblem is ultimately driven by policy atthe national level.

Since land conversion in the ASEAN regionover the past two decades has been driven byeconomic development policies at the nationallevel, there is a direct causal relationshipbetween such policy, land conversion fires, andtransboundary haze pollution. This defines animportant parameter and constraint withinwhich the ORHAP must pursue its objectiveof reducing (ideally, to zero) the number, scale,frequency, duration, and negative impacts oftransboundary haze pollution in the ASEANregion.

Since this represents an important constraint,it is also an important factor in shaping theframework of the ORHAP.

Land conversion can be carried out in a widevariety of ways, some of which maximize short-term gains at the expense of long-term benefitsto the national, regional, or global community.The large-scale land conversion fires that causehaze in the ASEAN region are viewed as beingpredictable, policy-driven outcomes of thenational economic decision-making process.Therefore, these fires will remain a problem inthe region until the land conversion process hasbeen completed in all AMCs.

Transboundary pollution is thus seen as aproblem that cannot be “fixed,” but one thatmust be managed. The ORHAP must focuson managing the threat of transboundary hazepollution, which will remain a given parameterduring the entire period that the land conversionprocess in the region is underway. It will callfor a relatively large number of concrete stepsin haze-producing AMCs, supporting andcomplementing the measures to be carried outat the regional and subregional levels.

(ii) Haze pollution itself results from behaviorheavily reinforced by profit considerations.

Open burning as a waste disposal techniqueis cheap and, therefore, profitable to land usersand operators. Land conversion typicallyinvolves the felling of trees and clearing of brush.This generally results in a large amount ofbiomass residue, which in most cases isregarded as waste matter to be disposed via theleast-costly and most rapid means—fire. Thelonger it takes to dispose of the waste biomass,the more profits are reduced.

These considerations have historically madeopen burning the technique of choice fordisposing of waste biomass for small-scale andlarge-scale land conversion operations. In bothcases, the effect is magnified by any direct orindirect subsidies to land conversion.

In the absence of policies that alter theprofitability of open burning, either by reducing

Transboundarypollution is thus

seen as a problemthat cannot be

“fixed,” but onethat must be

managed

92 THE PROGRAM

The limitation to the right of any countryendorsing the RHAP/ORHAP to arrange itsown natural resource management policy in anyway it chooses is that: “it should not allow thehaze pollution to emanate from land-conversionfires within its territorial boundaries; and inthe event it happens should not allow hazepollution to violate the airspace of anothercountry—thereby causing adverseenvironmental impact on its own citizenry andthose of the neighboring countries.”

First, this will require that haze producingAMCs undertake concrete measures to prevent,mitigate, and monitor large-scale fires. Anumber of related measures must also beimplemented at subregional and regional levels.

(iii) In ORHAP, measures that remove oraddress “binding constraints” onpreventing or mitigating transboundaryhaze pollution will be given highest priority.Measures that address less bindingconstraints will be assigned lower priority.

The degree to which a measure proposed inthe ORHAP will be effective depends onwhether or not it would help to remove a causeor a binding constraint, thus reducing the riskof occurrence of fire and haze. For example, ifall measures under the ORHAP had so far aimedat improving the region’s capability to detectlarge-scale fires, its fire detection capabilitywould be excellent.

But the region’s capacity to manage orsuppress those fires once detected would beminimal. Taking yet another step to improvethe region’s capability to detect large-scale fireswould have zero impact on improving capacityto prevent or reduce transboundary hazepollution. This is because under suchcircumstances the “binding constraint” onachieving this goal would be the lack of firemanagement capacity, not lack of fire detectioncapability.

subsidies that encourage it or penalizing thisbehavior directly, open burning by default willremain the waste residue disposal technique ofchoice. Modification of this behavior in theshort or medium term is a difficult, costly, anduphill task. The ORHAP must, therefore,primarily focus on managing the effects of thisbehavior, and only secondarily on modifyingit, through policies.

(iii) Weather factors increase the tendency ofthe above two parameters to producetransboundary haze pollution.

As has already been described, theextraordinarily dry conditions brought aboutby ENSO, among other factors, periodicallyincrease the risk of transboundary hazepollution. This makes the number of measuresrequired for fire and haze prevention,mitigation, and monitoring relatively large,calling for a considerable amount of investment.

Strategic ConsiderationsAvoiding wastage of resources is the key to theefficiency of the ORHAP. The mix of measuresand their implementation must therefore be ascost-effective as possible. Based on the foregoingconsiderations, certain strategic positions havebeen identified to ensure that the ORHAPeffectively responds to the reality of the situation:

(i) The primary goal of the ORHAP is toprevent the recurrence of transboundaryhaze and this calls for a focus on firemanagement.

Preventing transboundary haze requires thatthe density and quantity of haze in theimmediate atmosphere at any one time bereduced below levels that cause haze pollutionto cross international boundaries.

(ii) Endorsement of the RHAP/ORHAP byan AMC implies limitations on themanner in which it carries out landconversion.

Avoiding wastageof resources is the

key to theefficiency of the

ORHAP

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 93

The ORHAP so far has led, in relative terms,to overinvestment in monitoring and severeunderinvestment in fire management andsuppression. If this disparity is allowed to widen,the results will be disastrous. This is clearly asuboptimal outcome that can be avoided byadhering to the above strategic principle.

(iv) The purpose of the ORHAP-relatedmeasures at the regional and subregionallevels is to catalyze and complement—rather than to substitute for—the measurescarried out at the national level.

For an ORHAP-related measure to beundertaken at the regional or subregional level,one of the two criteria must be met. The firstof these—the economies of scale—should besuch that the activity is more efficientlyundertaken at the regional or subregional levelthan at the national level. For example, thedivision of labor between the regional andsubregional level in the training of firemanagement personnel or in the training oftrainers is determined by the nature ofeconomies of scale of the particular training. Itis more cost-effective to provide the training offire management personnel at the regional levelthan at the subregional level. However, thetraining-of-trainers in fire management trainingis more cost-effective at the subregional levelor below.

The second criterion is that the measureshould catalyze similar measures at the nationallevel. For example, the formulation of an FSMPfor the haze-prone areas of Sumatra facilitatedby the SRFA-Sumatra is expected to lead tosimilar plans in other haze-prone provinces ofIndonesia.

(v) Wherever alternative measures forachieving the same objective exist, themeasure that achieves the desiredobjective at the least possible cost will beimplemented.

The relative scarcity of finances is likely tocause this principle to be upheld in all caseswhere measures are completely financed by thecountries themselves. Special care must be takenalso in the case of financing by donors.

Structuring of Programs

For evaluation of impacts/effectiveness, aconsistent program structure is needed in whichdifferent subprograms, program elements, andprojects or activities can be incorporated.

The concept is that the programs and activitiesare hierarchically linked through a commondenominator. In a program structure, the areaof concern is divided into several programs; eachof the programs into subprograms; each of thesubprograms into program elements; and eachof the program elements into projects. (If needed,further subdivisions can be introduced along theline of hierarchy. In this hierarchy, the programtends to be long term and projects short term.)Once a project is completed, achieving itsimmediate objective, it normally is not repeatedor continued. It would have, in a short period,contributed to the long-term objective of theprogram element, subprogram, and program,of which it is a part; and that is the commondenominator running through the chain ofhierarchy.

Program structure is a form of scientificclassification of planned activities for decisionmaking, account keeping, prioritizing, andscheduling. It helps coding of activities andaggregation and computerized datamanagement; it facilitates storage and analysisof trend data, and monitoring and evaluationof programs. A coded structure makes it easyto compile related information.

The designing of program structure shouldreduce overlaps, improve stability, and simplifyfuture planning, monitoring, and evaluation.The program structures can be developed based

The ORHAP sofar has led, in

relative terms, tooverinvestmentin monitoring

and severeunderinvestment

in firemanagement and

suppression

94 THE PROGRAM

on the nature of activities involved or objectives,or a combination of both. The number of levelsin the hierarchy depends on the complexity, size,and spread of the plan.

ORHAP’s Program Components

The ORHAP has adopted the three-programstructure proposed in the RHAP, of prevention,mitigation, and monitoring.

To effectively address the haze issue requiresthat several activities and actions are undertakenunder each of the three programs to address aparticular aspect of the problem.Implementation of each of these actions needsto be monitored closely if the transboundaryhaze problem is to be properly addressed. Inorder to keep the cost of monitoring of eachaction to a minimum, a single agency can bemade responsible for ensuring that each actionis successfully carried out within the time framespecified.

The framework of the ORHAP thus workson three levels, the most aggregated of whichis that of the ORHAP programs of prevention,mitigation, and monitoring. The next level isthat of the activities, each of which fall underone of the three ORHAP programs. The lowestlevel is that of the actions, each of whichsupports a particular activity.

Each of these three ORHAP programs is tobe operationally defined, by listing the activitiesthat fall under each of them. Once the activitiesthat comprise each of the programs have beendecided, the actions that fall under each of theactivities are identified. Some of the activities(and the actions under them) are to be undertakenat the regional level, some at the subregionallevel, and others at the national level.

Program Linkages

Within the framework of a plan, the programcomponents and subcomponents must have

vertical linkages (based on the commondenominator that links them to achieve programobjectives), as well as parallel linkages due tooverlapping of scope.

When a plan covers a large spatial area, thespace is divided into units and subunits. Eachof the subunits and units carries out the programactivities, and in aggregation, it adds to thewhole. There will be several activities undereach of the program areas to be undertakencentrally, covering common areas of interest forreasons of control, guidance, efficiency,effectiveness, and economy. Here also, thelinkages—vertical and horizontal—are evident.

For the ORHAP, the ASEAN region has beensubdivided into member countries, which eachhave their own systems of provinces, districts,etc. The NHAPs represent the country plan(including subplans) on fire and haze. Thecountries are free to adopt their own programstructure. The NHAPs are naturally linked tothe ORHAP. As in the case of programs, therecould also be parallel linkages due to overlappingof interest or other criteria. The two SRFAs(Borneo and Sumatra) within the umbrella ofthe ORHAP are cases of parallel spatial linkagesat subregional level in respect of a programactivity, i.e., firefighting.

Thus, the three ORHAP programs havebeen divided into 20 activity groups—prevention with 10 activities, mitigation withfour activities, and monitoring with sixactivities. (Initially these 20 activities werefurther subdivided into about 50 specificactions. In the process of refining and revisingthe ORHAP, the number of activities andactions can change.) Spatially, it consists of nineNFAPs and two SRFAs, appropriately linked.

At the ASEAN level, HTTF will implementactivities, monitor progress, and also take actionin shaping the region’s infrastructure for fireprotection and mitigation.

In order to keepthe cost of

monitoring ofeach of these

individual actionsto a minimum, asingle agency can

be maderesponsible forensuring thateach action issuccessfully

carried out withinthe time frame

specified

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 95

The Planning Horizon

Based on the length of the planning period,the plan can be classified as being immediateterm, short term, medium term, and long term.The immediate and short-term plans areoperational in orientation and will have detailedscheduling and budgeting of activities andoperations. The medium- and long-term plansare of a perspective nature, indicative of thedirection toward the goal to be achieved. Theplans can be of fixed term, with provision forrevision at the end of each period or horizon,each time taking advantage of the lessons learnedin the previous period. It can instead be “rolling”in nature, such that it is updated annually orperiodically with the horizon remainingunchanged, i.e., there will always be a planready for a fixed period ahead. The ORHAP isalso designed as a rolling plan with a short-term horizon, being updated annually—i.e.,there will be a detailed implementation planfor year one plus a regular ORHAP for the fiveyears beyond (second to the sixth years)—effectively having a horizon of six years.

Thus, the ORHAP is a document meant tobe continually refined and updated. Dependingon an evaluation of activities conducted/completedduring the previous periods, future activities canbe modified, new activities added, and redundantones deleted. These additional activities areexpected to be of two types: those undertakendirectly by the AMC governments, and those forwhich donor support will need to be catalyzed.

Hierarchy of PlansThe planned activities will be carried out atregional, subregional, and national (includingprovincial, district, and village) levels.

National-Level Plans

The ORHAP specifies that all AMCs willformulate NHAPs for combating wildfires and

haze, in accordance with their own nationalpriorities and the nature and degree of threatthat each faces. It is necessary at every stage tospecify operational responsibility and relatedmeans and specifications. The actions to beimplemented under the NHAPs are a matterfor each of the AMCs to decide. This allowsfor a high degree of specificity in theidentification of the actions to be undertakenat national level, and the level of fundingdevoted. Efficiency demands that the level ofinvestment of each AMC be in direct proportionto the risk of causing or suffering the impactsof fire and haze, this risk being a variable thatis likely to change over time.

Rationale for Subregional and Regional

Actions

As already outlined in the section onStrategic Considerations, some actions are suchthat sufficient economies of scale exist for themto be centralized at the regional level. Otheractions are more efficiently undertaken at thesubregional level. For example, modeling andforecasting of long-range weather changes suchas ENSO requires extensive and sophisticatedcomputing resources. The resourcesrequirement allows it to be most efficientlycarried out at a regional level.

On the other hand, sharing of firesuppression resources such as personnel andequipment is more efficiently carried out atthe subregional level, since physicallyredeploying equipment and personnel overlong distances is inefficient, impractical, andtime-consuming.

Program Description

A detailed treatment of the three ORHAPprograms—prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring—and the institutional arrangementsand instruments required to support effective

Efficiencydemands that the

level ofinvestment of

each AMC be indirect proportion

to the risk ofcausing or

suffering theimpacts of fire

and haze

96 THE PROGRAM

implementation of the ORHAP, is outlined inthe following sections.

PreventionORHAP’s Prevention ProgramIn the context of ASEAN-level involvement, theORHAP has specified 10 activities under itsprevention program:

(i) forecasting climatological conditionsthat are likely to result in fire and haze;

(ii) mapping of areas subject to heightenedrisk of forest fires, including how theseat-risk areas expand or shrink inresponse to seasonal, annual, or multi-year changes in weather;

(iii) management and dissemination ofinformation relating to the present orlikely future fires and haze, the presentor likely geographical areas affected byhaze resulting from forest fires, and thehuman health impacts (or likelyimpacts) of existing or forecasted hazepresence or movement;

(iv) reviewing the existing policyframework at the national level with aview to determining how the set ofeconomic incentives that policyframework provides is likely to shapethe use of fire as a tool or weapon;

(v) bringing about appropriate policychanges to ensure that the set ofeconomic incentives provided by thepolicy framework at the national levelis consistent with the policy as itpertains to the use of open burning;

(vi) providing market-based and othereconomic incentives for promoting theadoption of new products andtechnologies that use biomass andlogging or land-clearing residues;

(vii) formulation, operationalization, andimplementation of NHAPs that serve

as the foundation for operationalizingthe RHAP, and increase the degree ofreadiness to meet forest fireemergencies at the national level;

(viii)harmonizing and integrating theNHAPs at the ASEAN level to ensuretheir collective consistency andeffectiveness in jointly responding toregional forest fires and haze;

(ix) developing and implementinginstitutional arrangements for linkingnational firefighting capabilities in anycombination within ASEAN (e.g.,SRFAs, or other mechanisms forcoordinating multiple nationalfirefighting capabilities); and

(x) formulating, ratifying, andimplementing an ASEAN-wide ForestFire Readiness Protocol that formalizeslinkages among national-levelfirefighting capabilities by putting intoplace a system that enables rapiddeployment.

While these activities may not cover all theaspects of “prevention,” some of them overlapin certain aspects of mitigation and monitoring,indicating the interrelated nature of theprograms.

Categorization of Strategic MeasuresIn the context of the ORHAP, the maximumcontrol of transboundary haze pollution andother related damage (environmental andmaterial) involves efforts on two fronts:

• to prevent fires from outside (e.g.,agricultural areas) getting into andburning forests and other naturalvegetation, and

• to manage fires that are being set for landclearing and refuse disposal so that theextent and density of burning arecontrolled.

In the context ofthe ORHAP, the

maximumcontrol of

transboundaryhaze pollution

and other relateddamage (bothenvironmentaland material)

involves effortson two fronts

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 97

Fires should be prevented as much aspossible. Prevention is one of the most effectiveways to tackle land and forest fires, whilefirefighting is more difficult and costly.Management of land conversion process shouldbe addressed through policies and regulations.The prevention of land and forest fires embracesa wide range of measures that either modifythe fuels found within or around the fire-threatened resources to reduce the spread andintensity of fires, or reduce the chances ofhuman-caused ignition.

The various categories of fire preventionmeasures include scientific resourcemanagement, policy reforms/modifications,command and control, public education andawareness creation, and moral suasion. Allmeasures to prevent fire and haze directly orindirectly contribute to mitigation by reducingthe intensity of impact, even if fires occur.

Scientific Management of ForestResourceThe traditional approach for preventing firesescaping into forests and to other areas containinglarge fuel loads has been through a system offire protection or fire hazard reduction.

Hazard Reduction

Hazard reduction is an important aspect offire protection. While it is difficult to preventfires completely, it is possible to reduce fireincidence and intensity. Establishment andmaintenance of firebreaks, which are naturalor constructed barriers to stop or check fires;clearing the paths, tracks, and campsites of anyinflammable materials; planting belts of fireresistant species around parks, protected areasand forest plantations, and along road margins;spraying of fire retardant chemicals in vulnerablelocations; establishing buffer zones for protectedareas for the dual purpose of fire prevention and

habitat protection; and prescribed burning toreduce combustible materials before the onsetof the fire season are some of the relevantactivities in this regard. In the case of peatswampforests, hazard reduction should primarily takethe form of preventing them from being renderedinflammable by draining.

Prescribed Burning

Prescribed burning, often used as asilvicultural tool, is the controlled applicationof fire to wildland fuels in specific areas, topromote resource management.

Prescribed burning has been used byforesters, in suitable forest types, to manipulatespecies composition and characteristics offorests and also to prepare sites for forestplantations. Traditionally, prescribed burnswere undertaken after logging to removebranches and other logging debris, exposemineral soil, and produce better growingconditions. However, scientists are nowadvocating regular prescribed burns tomaintain the natural composition of forests,and prevent fuel buildup in forests thattraditionally have been visited by fires regularly.According to scientists, if prescribed burnswere used more often, then the forests wouldreceive a quick input of nutrients, and excessorganic matter would be removed. Such firesin suitable situations can help to check weedgrowth in forest plantations, induce betterregeneration and growth of plants (e.g., teak),maintain a seral status of vegetation thatcontain a high percentage of commercialspecies (e.g., moist deciduous forests), reducesoil acidity, increase bacterial activity, andreduce protozoan population (GOI/FAO1990b).

To accomplish a prescribed burn safely,managers must prepare a plan and instructionsdetailing how the burn will be executed. A

Scientists are nowadvocating

regularprescribed burnsto maintain the

naturalcomposition of

forests, andprevent fuel

buildup in foreststhat traditionallyhave been visitedby fires regularly

98 THE PROGRAM

prescribed burn will be safer and more successfulif the perimeter of the area is extended to naturalboundaries such as lakes, rivers, and marshes.

Narrow roads or single-blade bulldozedfirelines may not be wide enough to preventthe fire from crossing. Along with prescribedburning in the forests, zero-burning methodsof site preparation for commercial crops inprivate lands adjoining forests are oftenpromoted.

System of Vigilance

In combination with management measures,it is necessary to adopt a system of vigilance andthis includes hazard rating, forecasting of fireproneness based on weather pattern and climaticfactors, fire risk assessment, fire classification,mapping of fire risk areas, dissemination of fireinformation, early fire danger warning, intensivesurveillance, code of public behavior in high firerisk situation, enforcement of governmentregulations, and relevant command-and-controlmeasures. Some of these overlap with mitigationand monitoring activities.

Forest fire prevention should be undertakenas a joint effort of all concerned—as a matter ofcivil defense involving government institutions,private agencies, and the public. Participationof rural people, and their goodwill, is particularlyimportant. It is necessary to provide appropriateincentives for their sustained cooperation.

Establishment and maintenance of firebreaksand other fire prevention and presuppressionmeasures (see Box 12), including the relatedinfrastructure, involve considerable investment.This is often not supplied by individual ownersand private companies, to save on costs. Duringthe 1997-1998 fire season in Indonesia, therewere no effective firebreak systems in mostcases. Even though fire warning messages andrelated instructions were announced throughthe media, these were of limited value in theabsence of an adequate infrastructure andenforcement system.

Policy MeasuresA good policy provides a rational and balancedstrategy for action. It helps to prioritize action

Along withprescribed

burning in theforests, zero-

burning methodsof site

preparation forcommercial

crops in privatelands adjoiningforests are often

promoted

Construction of firebreaks andfuelbreaks around and inside a forestis a common method employed tointerrupt the continuity of fuels.

FirebreaksA firebreak is a line, up to several

meters wide, on which all combus-tibles are removed and the mineralsoil exposed. The objective offirebreak construction is to segregate,stop, and control the spread of awildfire. The width of the firebreakvaries with fuel loads and expectedspotting (fires jumping over thefirebreak) behavior. Since fires mayeasily cross firebreaks of up toseveral dozen meters, their use is notalways cost-effective. In addition,firebreaks in steep terrain tend toerode during the rainy season.

FuelbreaksThe concept of fuelbreaks is

entirely different. Fuelbreaks aregenerally wide (20-30 m) strips ofland on which the native flammablevegetation has been modified orreplaced by introduced vegetation sothat fires burning into them can bemore readily controlled. In thetropics, it has been demonstratedsuccessfully that fuelbreaks can bemaintained economically byagricultural or agroforestry land uses(e.g., cultivation of groundnuts,millet and legumes, as practiced inSudan). Fuelbreaks include:• agricultural and pastoral land uses

where most of the woody, above-ground biomass is removed andsubstituted with agricultural cropsand livestock grazing;

• shaded, agroforestry-stylefuelbreaks where trees are widelyspaced and livestock grazingreduces the abundance of surfaceand aerial fuels; and

• fuelbreaks that are maintained asforest but where aerial fuels aremechanically shredded or removed.The most important fuels in

forests that need to be treated arethose between the ground surface andthe canopy of upperstory trees.Surface fuels (grass-herb stratum,shrubs) are the main carriers of fire,while aerial fuels are those combus-tibles not in direct contact with theground (foliage, lianas, twigs,understory tree crowns), which carrythe fire into the crowns (fuel ladders).

Source: Tropical Forest Update 6(1), March 1996.

BOX 12 Firebreaks and Fuelbreaks

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 99

and to attract funds and attention for carryingout policy components. Policies in generalshould be able to curtail conflicts andinefficiencies.

A detailed account of policies, strategies, andlegal or regulatory instruments has beenprovided under the section on strengthening ofinstitutions (page 152). Only policy aspects asthey relate to the program of protection underthe ORHAP are discussed here.

Policies relating to several sectors such asagriculture and rural development directlyinfluence the fire and haze situation. For eachof the policy objectives, appropriate measuresare clearly to be specified. If the statement ofpolicy objectives and details of policy measuresare left vague, there can be serious problems.

Influence of Existing Land Conversion

Policy

Land conversion takes place in the majorhaze source countries, particularly in Indonesia,for raising palm oil plantations, timber estates,expansion of agricultural crops in peatland, andfor transmigration. Policies on land conversion,particularly relating to authorized practices, arevague and not supported by stringent andpractical control measures. Policies, includinginstruments available (and employed) for theirimplementation, indirectly influence humanattitudes and behavior. Thus, skewed economicincentives can do more harm than good. Somegovernments in the region inadvertently increasefire hazards through policies that explicitly orimplicitly encourage settlement and conversionof forests because of the incentives provided.

This is particularly true in cases where theoverall impact of the country’s natural resourcemanagement policy is to significantly reward landconversion (and thus large-scale open burning)via financial inducements. The extent of the fireand haze problem appears to be in direct

proportion to the magnitude of the financialincentives for land-clearing offered by the policyregime. The greater the financial incentives toclear land the more uphill the task will be toaddress the issues related to forest fires and haze.

This situation persists due to conflictsamong, or inefficiencies within, key aspects ofthe overall policy framework. The conflicts andinefficiencies embody inconsistencies amongpolicies, such as those of plantationestablishment, food security, forest concessions,processing of timber and NWFPs, forest productstrade, transmigration, and land-tenure rights oftraditional and indigenous groups. Aconsiderable amount of anecdotal evidence existsto show that policy inefficiencies andinconsistencies drive a significant portion ofASEAN’s transboundary haze pollution problem.

Concealed Subsidies

Clearing land of vegetative growth, residues,and debris by burning is the cheapest method,compared to other alternatives. The costlinessof other methods (e.g., mechanical, zero-burnsystem) of land clearance has historically madeopen burning the technique of choice fordisposing of biomass residue. Thus, there is acomponent of concealed subsidy in the systemof land clearance existing in some AMCs.

Ways to discourage land clearing includemaking open burning expensive by chargingfees for a fire license (as with the fire permitsystem in Malaysia), and requiringlandholders to use only controlled burning.Incentives for fire use should be appropriatelybalanced by disincentives (economic orpunitive) for carelessness. It is oftencarelessness that causes even small fires to goout of control and spread. The right to convertland should not be taken as an unconditionalreward and license to cause social harm.Equally important are laws, rules, and

Policyinefficiencies andinconsistencies

drive a significantportion ofASEAN’s

transboundaryhaze pollution

problem

100 THE PROGRAM

regulations pertaining to fires (e.g.,forbidding certain activities during summer,in areas prone to fire damage) and theirenforcement. They must serve as deterrentfor those who commit environmental crimes,while providing incentives to those whocooperate in preventing forest fires.

Changing the Policy Environment

Policies on the use of fire should meetresource management objectives, within theparameters of specific fire regimes. Resourcemanagement objectives and fire regimes arelikely to change, sometimes quickly anddramatically, in response to alterations in thenatural environment or in the social, economic,and political conditions. Policymakers andplanners should understand these changes andtheir impact, in order to design policyinstruments that are flexible enough to beeffective in a wide range of circumstances.

The Human Context

The nations of Southeast Asia are, with twoor three exceptions, in the early to middle stagesof economic development. While they varygreatly in terms of culture, economy, politicalsystems, and demography, most AMCs sharecharacteristics that make it technically difficultor politically unattractive for them to managethe human factor in fires. Some AMCs haverapidly growing populations, with a largepercentage of poor people living in rural areaswho are heavily dependent on small-scaleagriculture and forest products for theirlivelihoods. In some countries, forested areas areresource frontiers for timber production, mining,and commercial agriculture, as well as safetyvalves to relieve population pressure elsewhere.This has created a three-way conflict betweenlogging and mining firms, agricultural settlers,and indigenous forest dwellers. Governments

have frequently been ineffective in reducing theconflicts regarding land and forest resources dueto inappropriate or ineffective land use and landtenure policies, insufficient managementresources, and often a lack of political will.

In recent decades, this situation has led tofaster deforestation, relentlessly changing fireregimes. Poor harvesting practices have madeforests more fire-prone, fire use is undisciplined,and fire is often the tool of choice for forestconversion. The changes in the fire regimes ofthe tropical rain forests has been most dramatic;but even the fire regimes in seasonally dry areashave changed as fires have become more frequentand intense. Policies should now be designed tostabilize fire regimes, a more complex task thanmanaging fires in a relatively stable regime.

The Ecological Context

The climatic and ecological factors that shapefire regimes are generally thought to berelatively stable, but they can changeunpredictably and sometimes suddenly. Theincreased severity of ENSO-related drought inthe western Pacific during the last two decadesis an example. This may be a short-term anomalyor a long-term trend caused by natural climateoscillations or human-induced climate change.Fire regimes can also change suddenly as theresult of natural disasters such as cyclones,which can alter forest structure and fuelconditions overnight.

Each vegetation formation has acharacteristic fire regime shaped by climate,ecological factors, and human actions, whichdetermine the frequency, intensity, size,seasonality, and predictability of fire(Christensen 1993). Fire regimes determinehow fires affect vegetation ecology andbiogeochemical processes and fluctuate naturallyin response to long-term climate change andshorter-term climate oscillations. Humans have

It is oftencarelessness that

causes evensmall fires to goout of control

and spread

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 101

altered the fire regimes of most areas of theregion through their use of fire andmodifications of vegetation.

The flora of most seasonally dry areas haveevolved in areas where wildfires are frequent,and many species depend on fire forregeneration. In the wet tropics too, flora haveevolved in area where fires were caused bysevere droughts with long return periods(Goldammer and Seibert 1990). These fireregimes have been altered dramatically overthe past century as humans have used fire andharvesting to modify rain forests at anaccelerating rate, causing shifts in vegetationstructure and species composition.

Policy-Related Suggestions

Lack of a fire policy adds to conflicts andconfusion regarding the managed use of fire.Enforcement of fire prevention and control callsfor strict policies and rules on burning, includingconditions under which the use of fire is legal.Effective enforcement requires a policingsystem and the political will to act.

The forest fires and haze issue has to berationally approached through a combinationof appropriate policy changes, involvingincentives and market-based instruments.

Policy Changes

New policies should primarily aim at alteringland clearance practices that causetransboundary haze pollution.

Policies on land use and land conversionpractices should define controls relating to typeof land, processes, precautions, and socialresponsibilities. They should promote policy-induced actions, e.g., use of zero-burn land-clearing techniques, and the introduction of firepermits for open burning. Some countries suchas Malaysia have introduced such measures.There is evidence that at least under some

conditions, zero-burn techniques can be usedfor disposing of biomass residue from landclearings, with the residue being used for theproduction of semifinished or finished goods.When properly carried out, such policy measurescan help reduce transboundary haze pollution,enhance the environment, and promoteeconomic development.

Supplementary provisions that would helpin the prevention of fires and haze includemeasures to (i) reduce the rate of conversionof natural forests, (ii) reduce the size of forestutilization concessions, (iii) introduce reduced-impact logging practices, (iv) introduce market-based instruments to promote residueutilization, and (v) rationalize shiftingcultivation.

In the case of Indonesia, there are somespecial needs to combat the danger of fires andhaze.

• Efforts should be made to provide thecapacity and facilities to completeprovincial spatial plans to be used as a basisfor reliable local land zoning.

• Clearance of peatlands should be subjectto special regulations; burning of any kind,including managed burning, should bestrictly prohibited.

• All peat soils should be identified anddelineated, to ensure special attention andprotection.

• Efforts should be made to rehabilitatepeatlands that were cleared for irrigatedrice planting under the Grand MillionHectare Peatland Project.

Rational Incentives

Instead of allowing undeserved gains throughindiscriminate use of fire for land clearing,rational incentives must be introduced, in theinterests of sustainable development, socialequity, and safety. An example is the no-fire-

Lack of a firepolicy adds toconflicts and

confusionregarding the

managed use offire

102 THE PROGRAM

bonus plan of the Philippines, which is aneffective fire prevention mechanism within theSocial Reforms Agenda of the MountainProvince. In relevant cases, eco-labelingrequirements and certification of forest productscan be linked to the track record of producersin carrying out forest fire protection measures.

Fire Protection as a Sustainability

Criterion

Recently, the concept of criteria andindicators (C&I) in the context of sustainableforest management (SFM) has added a newdimension to strategic planning. C&I providestandards to judge the performance and progresstoward achieving SFM. The quality andeffectiveness of fire protection should beestablished as one of the criteria for SFM. Anexplicit policy statement to that end can help topromote fire protection.

Residue UtilizationResidue UtilizationResidue UtilizationResidue UtilizationResidue Utilization

There is considerable scope for introducingeco-friendly market-based instruments aseffective incentives to adopt zero-burn land-clearing techniques in AMCs. Land-clearingresidues can be used (rather than burning them)to produce a large number of intermediate orfinal products including furniture, fence posts,handicrafts, fuelwood, active carbon, chips forpulping, mulching materials, and otherconsumer products.

Market-based instruments can be includedin a program of waste reduction and wasteutilization, incorporating logging residues fromthe neighboring areas.

A survey conducted under the ADB ADTA29

in Indonesia showed that the amount of residuein logged forest in East Kalimantan was419 m3/ha, including 146 m3/ha suitable forsawlogs. In Riau, the figure was 98 m3/ha. Inconversion forest, using a cutting limit

>30 cm diameter at breast height (dbh), thewood residue in East Kalimantan was 317 m3/haincluding 177 m3/ha suitable for sawlogs, whilein Riau, the figure was 267 m3/ha. In areasusing less than 30 cm dbh as the cutting limit,the amount of wood residue in East Kalimantanwas 29 m3/ha, while in Riau, little residueremained. Wood residue utilization is limited,as it is illegal to remove any residue from forestconcession areas. The main consumers of woodresidue in Riau are the pulp and paper industriesthat consume about half of the residue generated.In East Kalimantan, the residue is stillunutilized. The pulp and paper industries inEast Kalimantan use their own wood fromforest industrial plantations.

While the potential for residue utilizationseems to exist, considerable planning andpromotion are needed. If residue utilizationalong with zero-burn techniques of land clearingwere to become profitable, it could not onlygenerate attractive incomes to the operator butcould even subsidize the mechanical clearingof land. Introduction of a penalty (or high fees)for land clearing by open burning could improvethe attractiveness of residue utilization. Anypolicy that promotes such a system will becomea market-based instrument.30

The success of market-based instrumentsdepends on the profitability of mechanical landclearing for residue utilization compared towaste disposal by open burning. This relativeprofitability heavily depends on the degree towhich open burning is either explicitly orimplicitly subsidized by existing distortions innatural resource management policy in general,and land conversion policy in particular. Otherfactors such as geographic proximity to biomassresidue processing facilities and availability orquality of transport also affect the costs ofprocessing biomass residue. Residue-basedproducts, by their nature, will be of low-value-

Market-basedinstruments canbe included in a

program of wastereduction and

waste utilization,incorporating

logging residuesfrom

neighboringareas

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 103

per-unit-weight, so a wide range of factorswould affect their relative profitability.

Zero-Burn Land Clearing and Market-

Based Instruments

ADB’s RETA Project studied the potentialof promoting mechanical land clearing andmarketing of products based on residues.

The technical feasibility of zero-burn land-clearing methods has been proven anddemonstrated in a number of cases in theregion.31 In Sarawak, Malaysia, land clearancefor cultivation is mostly carried out mechanicallyand land preparation for planting follows “zero-burn” methods. Logs are stacked alongcontours, to prevent soil erosion. Sometimes apartial/light burning is carried out to reducethe debris.

The exact extent and conditions under whichzero-burn land-clearing techniques arefinancially feasible or applicable are not yetknown. However, evidence available so far,suggests that these conditions are likely to varywidely.

What is certain is that in some haze-producing AMCs, explicit and implicit subsidiesfor land clearance reward the use of openburning. For environmentally consciousoperators, existing indirect subsidies act as astrong disincentive to use zero-burn methods.The perverse incentive system, thus, subsidizesthe behavior that contributes to transboundaryhaze pollution and penalizes the behavior thatattempts to prevent it. Use of some form ofmarket-based instrument will at least partiallyremove the two-edged bias against the use ofmechanical land clearing.

The Rationale

The rationale for applying market-basedinstruments to zero-burn land clearing is asfollows. Persons using fire as a land-clearing

tool enjoy all the profit of doing so, but bearonly a small portion of the costs, as populationssuffering haze shoulder the rest of the costs.On the other hand, operators using mechanicalland-clearing techniques bear all of the costs ofland clearing. Thus, even if open burning wasnot subsidized, the operator using open burningenjoys a distinct profit advantage over theoperator using mechanical land clearing.Allowing this difference is inconsistent witheconomic efficiency and market principles underwhich producers compete with one another onan equal footing so that society may enjoy theirproducts at the lowest possible cost. If for anyreason, this equal footing is weakened ordestroyed, society-at-large is the loser. Theintroduction of market-based instrumentspromotes competition on an equal footing andresults in economic efficiency.

ADB’s RETA Project points out that severalfirms have successfully completed the transitionto mechanical land clearing. The firms that werethe most successful in this regard were thosethat could profitably make use of waste biomassresidue either within the firm itself or within avertically-integrated corporate structure ofwhich the firm formed one part.

The most common and profitable uses ofbiomass residue were found to be: (i) chippedbiomass residue as fuel for steam turbines thatdrive electricity generators at large, export-oriented pulp mills; and (ii) as a source nutrientfor oil palm. In the latter case, the biomassresidue was simply allowed to decompose inplace. By adjusting the planting time of the oilpalm seedlings, the firm was able to significantlyreduce application of supplementary fertilizer,resulting in lower production costs.

Some VariantsThere are several types of market-basedinstrument.

Even if openburning was notsubsidized, theoperator usingopen burning

enjoys a distinctprofit advantageover the operatorusing mechanical

land clearing

104 THE PROGRAM

System of Cess and Performance Bond

The variant of market-based instrumentrecommended for encouraging zero-burn landpreparation is the cess. The cess, which ideallywould represent the financial equivalent of theenvironmental damage caused by land clearingthrough open burning, would be collected fromall persons in advance of land-clearing activities(i.e., when land-clearing rights are granted).The proceeds of the cess would then be held asa performance bond, which would be returned(with interest) to operators who have clearedthe plot of land in question via mechanicalmeans. The proceeds forfeited could be usedto further improve and promote the mechanicalclearing of land.

This arrangement has several advantages.First, it creates a favorable bias toward use ofzero-burn techniques for land clearing and landuses that do not require heavy land preparation.While this market-based instrument can beemployed even in the absence of policy changes,in practical terms, it would call for appropriatepolicy direction. The policies should signal agovernment’s intent to encourageenvironmentally responsible behavior and todiscourage the opposite. Second, in cases inwhich mechanical land clearing is not financiallyviable, the government will have placed atransparent monetary value on the damagecaused to society by open burning, with thecompensation being collected in advance of thedamage. Third, this sets the stage for tighterenvironmental controls, once enforcementcapacity has been upgraded, or medium-termchanges in natural resource management policyhave been put into place.

Encourage use of Biomass Residue. Acomplementary aspect of the market-basedinstrument is promoting the production andsale of products that use biomass residue asraw material. The forfeited proceeds of

performance bonds can be used to subsidizecompanies that produce goods from biomassresidue. This subsidy could be paid in any of anumber of ways (e.g., as a year-end corporatetax rebate).

The appropriate level of the subsidy andmeans of paying it are heavily dependent onthe local conditions, the infrastructural facilitiesavailable, or the geographical area in whichproduction of the goods using biomass occurs.

Tradable Permits

Making the firms pay for the right to usethe atmosphere to dispose off pollutants givesthem the incentive to reduce the amount ofpollutants. This can be done in various ways.One such variation is tradable permits. Theoriginal concept of a tradable industrial pollutionpermit recognized that it is cheaper for somefirms to reduce emissions of certain pollutantsthan it is for others. Tradable pollution permitsare simply “bearer certificates” that grant alimited right to discharge emissions into theatmosphere. The government can then controlthe amount of pollutants released by limitingthe number of certificates issued.

There are several considerations whenadapting the tradable permit system to helpcombat fires and haze: (i) the sources ofemission move around and cause a problem inspatial distribution, and (ii) fire and haze aremainly produced during the dry season makingit difficult to space out the emission time-wise.Therefore, modifications are necessary iftradable permits are to help reduce haze. Oneway is to reduce the number of permits incirculation such that a worst case scenario wouldnot cause transboundary pollution.

Direct Pollution Charges

Another market-based instrument fordiscouraging open burning is the levying of a

The cess, whichideally wouldrepresent the

financialequivalent of theenvironmentaldamage causedby land clearingthrough open

burning, wouldbe collected from

all persons inadvance of land-clearing activities

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 105

direct charge for each unit of emissionsproduced. Conceptually, this is a compellingidea, primarily because firms would be chargeddirectly for the pollution damage they cause,thus forcing them to incorporate this factor intotheir decision-making process. A variation isscaled pollution charges where polluters payaccording to the degree to which they increasethe risk of transboundary haze.

But direct pollution charges have drawbacks,most of which result from the fact thatgovernment monitoring and surveillance costsare significant. It is probably not feasible tocharge directly for the emissions themselves,since this would involve numerous problems inmeasurement, all of which could be subject tolegal challenge.

Recommended Alternative

As with all market-based instruments, theobjective of the three types considered—performance bonds, tradable permits, and directand scaled pollution charges—is to make aparticular market function more efficiently, orto create a market where none existed before.The market in question here concerns the rightsto use the atmosphere for waste disposal.

Their use would depend on the situation inthe jurisdiction in question. All the alternativeshave advantages and limitations and it isnecessary to balance them. However, based onthe situation in Riau and South Sumatraprovinces, performance bond schemes havebeen found to be objective, uncomplicated,inexpensive, and easy to administer. Theassumption is that all persons or firms clearingland will do so via open burning. They aretherefore charged a fee that reflects the damagethat such open burning causes. The fee is thenonly returned upon the person or firmdemonstrating to the satisfaction of theenforcing agency that their plot of land was

cleared using mechanical means instead of openburning.

AMCs can collaborate at the regional andsubregional levels to support use of market-basedinstruments at national level. An importantprerequisite for the success of market-basedinstruments at the national level is sustainedpolitical will.

For example, implementing a system ofperformance bonds assumes that the bond willbe collected in an efficient and timely manner,and that the proceeds will be utilized in a waythat ensures effective functioning of theinstrument. Lapses will lead to failure of theinstrument to achieve its objectives.

Command-and-ControlCommand-and-control is an expression to coverall legal measures including instruments,regulatory mechanisms, legal sanctions, andrestrictions. Legal measures form an importantaspect of fire prevention.

Command-and-control measures directlyregulate the use of fire by imposing sanctionsagainst those who use it in unapproved ways.They are therefore usable only at the national orsubnational level (nonnational entities cansupport implementation of command andcontrol measures at the national or subnationallevel).

A wide range of command-and-controlmeasures exists. The most stringent for firemanagement is a total ban on open burning ofany type under any circumstance. Examples ofless stringent command-and-control measures(in descending order of stringency) are:

(a) issuing permits on a case-by-case basisthat allow open burning as an exceptionto a total ban on burning;

(b) automatic issuance of a single-use permitas per (a) above upon the applicant’ssigning a sworn affidavit that he/she will

AMCs cancollaborate at the

regional andsubregional levelsto support use ofthe market-based

instruments atnational level

106 THE PROGRAM

adhere to guidelines specified byauthorities;

(c) legal sanctions against persons who donot comply with published restrictionson open burning issued by appropriateauthorities;

(d) legal sanctions against persons who donot comply with published restrictionson open burning issued by appropriateauthorities during publicly-announcedperiods of increased fire risk;

(e) limitations on open burning duringcertain hours of the day, days of theweek, or seasons of the year;

(f) bans on open burning unlessappropriate authorities are notified inadvance of the intention to burn;

(g) restrictions on the area of land that maybe burned on any one occasion; and

(h) voluntary compliance with guidelines onopen burning issued by appropriateauthorities.

The number of permutations andcombinations of command-and-controlmeasures regulating use of fire is obviously large.The list of measures above is therefore not meantto be exhaustive. Its purpose is to demonstratethe wide array of the types and levels ofstringency that could potentially be adopted byfire control authorities at the national orsubnational level.

The level of stringency of the particularcommand-and-control measure(s) adopted shouldbe consistent with two factors. These are (i) therisk of large-scale fires and haze being caused;and (ii) a realistic assessment of the institutionalcapacity for implementation of, and the amountof resources available for, enforcement.

Need for Credibility

In the absence of credible enforcement,stringent measures will increase, rather than

decrease, the prevalence of open burning.Adopting a regime of obviously unenforceablecommand-and-control measures would causeperpetrators to question whether authoritieswould ever be able to implement any fire controlregime. If the answer is perceived to be in thenegative, the jurisdiction would become an“outlaw area” within which perpetrators coulduse fire in any manner they like, with impunity.

Even if a regime of strictly voluntarycompliance had no more than a neutral impacton the use of fire, it would still be more cost-effective than (and therefore preferable to)adopting stringent measures that the authoritiesare incapable of enforcing. Further, a credibleprogram of strictly voluntary compliance couldcomprise the first stage of introducing a phasedprogram of successively more stringentcommand-and-control measures. If authoritiespublicly announced their schedule for the phasedprogram in advance, any credibility achievedin the first stage of voluntary compliance wouldincrease the chance of success of more stringentmeasures later in the program.

The greater the number of phases of theprogram that have been successfully andcredibly implemented, the greater the likelihoodof automatic compliance in the future. Such aprogram thus becomes increasingly more cost-effective over time.

The ORHAP recognizes the legitimacy ofall of the command-and-control measures listedpreviously, as well as their permutations andcombinations. It encourages all ASEANgovernments to adopt such measures that canmost cost-effectively prevent transboundary hazepollution. Ultimately, success at any level willgenerally depend on:

(i) the political will of the government toenforce the regime;

(ii) the amount of resources devoted toenforcement; and

In the absence ofcredible

enforcement,stringent

measures willincrease, rather

than decrease, theprevalence ofopen burning

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 107

(iii) the magnitude of surveillance andenforcement costs, which are influencedby the total area of land in which openburning is likely to take place, and theremoteness or accessibility of the areasin which enforcement operations areto be carried out.

Need to Upgrade Command-and-Control

Regimes

If an AMC has been a source oftransboundary haze over the past 20 years, itsprevention efforts could probably be improvedby establishing or upgrading existing command-and-control measures on the use of fire. TheORHAP, therefore, has incorporated theprocedure described below for this purpose.

Procedure

First, each national or subnationalgovernment (as appropriate) should review itscurrent (if any) command-and-controlmeasures. The purpose is to discover how anexisting command-and-control regime might bealtered (or a proposed regime appropriatelyconfigured) to ensure maximum impact per unitof investment in controlling transboundary hazepollution. The criteria established fordetermining whether or not a particularmeasure should be implemented at all, and fordetermining the order of priority for measurescontemplated, should guide this process.

Second, all contemplated changes to thecommand-and-control regime (or measuresproposed for a new regime) should be imposedwithin a time-bound plan for upgrading (orestablishing) the regime—for example, with ahorizon of not more than five years. Utmostcare should be taken in addressing the twinissues of sequencing and timing in formulatingthis plan. The plan should also include a scheduleof estimated costs for the upgrading (or

establishment of) the regime, and a descriptionof how these are to be financed.

It is unrealistic to expect that command-and-control measures, in isolation, will be sufficientto control the use of fire enough to preventtransboundary haze pollution. Upgrades shouldtherefore be placed in the wider context of anoverall fire and haze prevention program thatincorporates policy reforms, moral suasion, andpublic education.

Regional and Subregional Support

Even though command-and-controlmeasures are to be applied at the national andsubnational levels, the ORHAP includesconcrete steps to be taken at the regional andsubregional levels to support the upgrading (orestablishing) of command-and-control regimesin haze-producing countries. These stepsinclude (i) convening workshops so thatcountries that have successfully upgraded theircommand-and-control regimes can share theresults with other countries contemplating orundergoing such upgrading, (ii) provision orsharing of expertise that directly supports theupgrading process by AMCs that have alreadycompleted the upgrading, (iii) assistance inprocuring third-party financing for theformulation of such programs, and (iv)catalyzing third-party financing for upgradingcommand-and-control regimes that havealready been formulated.

Moral SuasionThe term “moral suasion” is generally used byeconomists and other social scientists to denotean attempt to get a private decision maker toincorporate the full costs of a particular actioninto the decision-making process, as opposedto considering only the direct costs of thataction. In the context of the ORHAP, the scopeof moral suasion is restricted to influencing the

If an AMC hasbeen a source oftransboundary

haze over the past20 years, its

prevention effortscould probablybe improved byestablishing or

upgradingexisting

command-and-control measureson the use of fire

108 THE PROGRAM

decision whether or not to set large-scale fires.Moral suasion encourages those who might setlarge-scale fires to consider all the social costs(to all populations at home and abroad). Moralsuasion may or may not involve an open orimplied threat of imposing penalties, should anenvironmentally irresponsible action be taken.It is generally more effective when itincorporates such a threat and, in effect,complements command-and-control.

During the past two decades, moral suasionhas successfully been used to encourageenvironmentally responsible behavior amongthe private sector in a large and growing numberof countries, including jurisdictions lackingenvironmental controls, laws, or regulations ofany type. The ORHAP has endorsed the use ofmoral suasion as a category of measures forpreventing transboundary haze pollution. Assuch, it recognizes that moral suasion may beapplied by virtually any segment of ASEAN,including the general public, local communities,NGOs, religious groups, and the governments,as well as by international donors.

Means of Moral Suasion

Effective moral suasion can be achieved byensuring that information on fires and haze isaccurately and objectively provided to the public.This is being carried out via the fire-and-hazeinformation management system at the ASEANSecretariat in Jakarta. This system, whichfunctions as a clearinghouse for fire-and-haze-related information, has been upgraded and apublic-access web site established on theInternet.

Because moral suasion initiatives may beundertaken by such a wide range of individualsor groups, there is substantial potential for—and few constraints facing—theirimplementation at the regional, subregional,national, or other levels. The ORHAP supports

Moral suasionencourages those

who might setlarge-scale fires to

consider all thesocial costs

all legitimate moral suasion activitiesimplemented at all levels aimed at preventingtransboundary haze pollution, provided that theseare carried out in ways consistent with therespective legal systems.

Public education through informationdissemination is an important means of moralsuasion.

Public EducationThe fire-and-haze information managementsystem at the ASEAN Secretariat, and inparticular, its web site, functions as a publiceducation and awareness-raising vehicle. Themore informed the people are on fire and hazeissues, the more likely it is that they can expresstheir feelings on transboundary haze to theappropriate authorities; or to engage in moralsuasion. The ASEAN community has anintrinsic right to as much information asavailable on forest fires because of the profoundand wide-ranging impacts of transboundaryhaze pollution.

An important function of public educationis to ensure that the public is made aware ofthe health risks associated with exposure to hazepollution, and of the preventive measures thatindividuals need to take to minimize these risksin the event of haze. The ORHAP includesnumerous initiatives for disseminatinginformation regarding fires and transboundaryhaze to local communities in more remote areasas well as those in urban centers. The systemalso incorporates measures to inform regionaland international bodies of the steps being takenwithin and beyond the ASEAN jurisdiction toprevent and mitigate large-scale fires andtransboundary haze pollution.

Public education and awareness programsare most effective (and cost-effective) whenformulated and implemented at the communitylevel. As FSMP is a community-level response

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 109

Public educationinitiatives that

generate revenuetend to be more

cost-effective(and sustainableover time) than

those that do not

to the threat of forest fires and haze, HTTFdecided that the plan should incorporate publiceducation.

Within the ORHAP, the public educationmeasures that should be given the highest priorityare those that are the most cost-effective. Thereare two factors that affect the cost-effectivenessof these measures: first, the greatest impact perunit of expenditure, when they are implementedwithin the context of an overall plan; and second,capacity to generate revenue.

Public education initiatives that generaterevenue tend to be more cost-effective (andsustainable over time) than those that do not.ASEAN’s fire-and-transboundary-haze-pollutionproblem is of such high profile that opportunitiesexist for tied-in revenue-generating publiceducation initiatives. Such opportunities shouldnot be overlooked because of assumptions thatpublic education initiatives can only consumeand not generate resources for their furtherexpansion. The fire-and-haze-related publiceducation initiative of the IFFM based inKalimantan (Indonesia) provides an example.The project has resulted in television shows onthe fire-and-transboundary-haze problemfeaturing an Indonesian teenage television star.This initiative appears to be revenue-generatingto the point of profitability. It also gives rise toprofit-making spin-off initiatives involving thesale of clothing and other paraphernaliaassociated with the shows.

Among the issues decision makers and thepublic need to be informed about are the variousalternative methods of land clearing and theirimplications. To this end, it is necessary todevelop and disseminate outreach materialssuch as posters, pamphlets, and brochuresfeaturing some best examples of land-clearingpractices and fire prevention techniques.Moreover, scientific knowledge and informationabout forest fires should be developed in

multimedia format and disseminated throughtelevision and radio broadcasts. Developmentand distribution of short and illustratedsummaries of lessons learned in addressingimpacts and possible causes of 1997-1998 forestfires will help to make people aware of thedisaster and dissuade them from activitiesdamaging the environment.

Strategy for Public Awareness and

Education

The development of community and publiceducation programs is seen as the most effectiveway of creating public awareness on the impactsof fires and haze. Such programs also create asense of personal responsibility that reduces thelikelihood of the occurrence of more large-scalefires in the region.

The ORHAP envisaged the first phase inthis regard as the formulation of a regionwideoperational strategy for a public awareness andeducation program. UNEP has provided fundsfrom the public awareness and educationcomponent of the Emergency Response projectto develop the first phase of the regional strategy.This will focus primarily on the two SRFA pilotareas with possible spin-offs to BruneiDarussalam, Malaysia (particularly the states ofSabah and Sarawak), and Philippines (withemphasis on Palawan). UN-ESCAP has agreedin principle to provide additional support. Oncethe operational strategy for the public awarenessand education program has been formulatedand disseminated, it is expected that furthersupport from a wide range of donors can becatalyzed.

MitigationORHAP’s Mitigation ProgramThere are four main activities designed to betaken up within the six-year planning periodenvisaged under the mitigation program of the

110 THE PROGRAM

Haze mitigationis designed to

reduce haze andits impact; andfire mitigationaims to reducethe spread and

intensity of firesand their impact

ORHAP. These are based on current prioritiesat ASEAN regional level.

The activities include the following:(i) formalizing arrangements for improved

training and retaining of forestfirefighters at the national and regionallevels. They should be adequatelyequipped to cope with future forest fires;

(ii) inventorying existing firefightingcapability at the national level, includingall aspects of firefighting equipment andpersonnel. This would determine themaximum scale of a forest fire that theexisting firefighting capability isequipped to handle;

(iii) strengthening firefighting capability atthe national level to a point at whicheach AMC’s firefighting capability issufficient to cope with forest fires likelyto occur; and

(iv) ensuring the continued readiness ofnational firefighting through regularmaintenance of equipment andupgrading of skills among firefightingpersonnel.

Scope of Mitigation ActivitiesThe dictionary meaning of mitigation is “tocause to be less harsh or hostile; to soften; torelieve; to reduce; to mollify.” In that generalsense, haze mitigation is designed to reducehaze and its impact; and fire mitigation aimsto reduce the spread and intensity of fires andtheir impact. Since haze is an impact of fire,mitigation of haze and fire overlaps.

Mitigation requires action at three stages—pre-event, during event, and post-event. Withrespect to fire and haze, correspondingly, thesethree stages are: (i) preparedness for any fireoccurrence (in which actions relating toinfrastructure, equipment, strategies and/orlogistics, training, crew fitness, surveillance,

etc., are planned and implemented); (ii)suppression (covering such aspects as firedetection, quick communication of correctinformation, crew mobilization and dispatch,provision of water, movement of equipment,coordination of field action, e.g., of aerial andground operations, firefighting, andextinguishing of fire); and (iii) relief (to thosewho are affected by haze pollution and fire,including medical attention and compensation)and rehabilitation (to repair damage to propertyand resources).

Along with or immediately after a fire, twodifferent operational directions will beinvolved—one, to address haze with itstransboundary dimension, affecting the health,welfare, and lives of the people; and two, toaddress the damage by undertaking damagecontrol and rehabilitation (including salvageoperations where appropriate).

Mitigation activities are closely linked withother ORHAP programs—prevention (e.g., useof firebreaks, fuel load control, and others) andmonitoring (e.g., weather monitoring, firemodeling, fire spotting, and assessment of hazeintensity).

Mitigation thus involves a continuum ofinterrelated activities and in the ORHAP, coversmost of the entire spectrum of fire management.

Mitigation and Fire Management

Mitigation is a strategy for suppressingunwanted fires. Fires on the landscape becomeunwanted when they extend beyond theirintended management objective by: (i) placingat risk human health and safety, and valuednatural and human-made resources; and (ii)creating haze pollution beyond the boundariesof the area affected by fire. To effectively addressthe two criteria of unwanted fires, the use of afire danger rating index and an air quality indexis necessary.

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 111

AMCs that allowopen burning,

either as a matterof explicit or

implicit policy,put the whole

region at ahigher risk of

transboundaryhaze pollution

than docountries that

ban openburning

Modern fire management recognizes that itis not possible—nor is it always desirable—toextinguish all fires. Fire management maytherefore involve containing a fire, which isthen allowed to burn itself out. If extinguishinga particular fire is feasible and desirable, firemanagement may involve suppression. At theother end of the spectrum, fire managementmay involve prescribed burning. This is usuallycarried out to destroy accumulations of fuel thatif left undisturbed could result in fires on a scalelarge enough to cause heavy damage and/ortransboundary haze.

The components that comprise modern firemanagement are consistent with virtually anypolicy toward the use of fire. They are as fullyconsistent with a complete ban on open burningas they are with conditional and controlledburning or voluntary compliance. The approachthat a particular AMC takes in its policy towardfire reflects that country’s perception of itsparticular situation (e.g., the extent of forestand wildlands, the degree to which it mightcontribute to economic growth, and the levelof development of the country’s firemanagement infrastructure). In all cases,however, adequate fire management andsuppression capability is an obviousrequirement.

AMCs that allow open burning, either as amatter of explicit or implicit policy, put thewhole region at a higher risk of transboundaryhaze pollution than do countries that ban openburning. Countries that allow open burningthus have a bigger obligation, for the safety ofthe rest of ASEAN, to invest appropriately infire management than countries that ban openburning, other things being equal. Thisadditional investment is necessary tocompensate for the increased risk oftransboundary haze pollution resulting fromtheir policies. This is particularly true of AMCs

in which large-scale land conversion is takingplace.

The Different Phases of Fire Management

Fire management covers all aspects andphases relating to land and forest fires. A hazeaction plan is, in a way, a fire management planand includes pre-fire (or pre-suppression),suppression, and post-fire (or post-suppression)phases.

Since the pre-fire period is aimed atimproving preparedness, the focus of action isto enhance overall fire management capabilityand to plan for mobilization of all necessaryresources for fire suppression in the event of afire. Thus, this is a vital phase and canconveniently be divided into two subphases: (i)the period of high fire probability and risk, i.e.,immediately prior to a likely fire, or a periodof high fire danger rating, and (ii) a period ofno fire threat, i.e., outside/before the firedanger period.

Activities During Periods ofNo Fire DangerDuring the period between two fires, whenthere is apparently no fire danger, manyoperations can be carried out, for example:

(i) developing and maintaininginfrastructures, water storage,firebreaks and fire corridors, aircraftlanding sites, etc.;

(ii) acquisition/maintenance and stockverification of tools and equipment(hand tools, heavy equipment, waterhoses and tankers, communicationequipment, etc.);

(iii) preparing/revising fire maps,information materials, guidelines, andinstructions for crew;

(iv) planning for fire emergencies, coveringstrategies and logistics;

112 THE PROGRAM

(v) establishing fire detection, surveillance(aerial and ground), and intelligencesystems;

(vi) preparing resource mobilization plans;(vii) contacting community leaders,

cooperating agencies, and volunteers;(viii)conducting training and retraining for

various levels;(ix) reviewing/modifying/improving

organizational arrangements, andstandby/response orders; and

(x) conducting dry runs and intensive drills,and keeping the crews in good shape.

The activities are carried out as per plan andthe purpose is to keep the whole system “well-oiled,” and to ensure that no details areoverlooked so that “the war is not lost for wantof a nail.”

Fire Plan

The purpose of forest fire planning is todevelop elements of a fire management programand to achieve an adequate level of readiness toattack a major blaze, when it happens, efficientlyand effectively. It covers aspects such as hazardreduction, weather monitoring, and capacitydevelopment for quick response to fire incidents.It takes into account the engineering, education,and (law) enforcement aspects of firemanagement.

The advent of advanced technology has ledto the development of computerized firemanagement systems that offer the chance toovercome some of the weaknesses in firemanagement planning. Along with appropriatemodels to provide an integrated fire ratingscheme, it will be possible to develop anadvanced fire suppression strategy by integratingthe ground positioning system, GIS, and highresolution remote sensing. A GIS databaseconsisting of elevation, hydrology, geology,vegetation, transport networks, settlements,

etc., will be useful in planning fire suppressionsand mobilizing resources.

Other strategic elements requiring focusedattention include the following:

• measures and actions for the efficientmobilization and dispatching of firesuppression resources and a plan (firesuppression mobilization plan) that can beused to improve the organizationalefficiency and cost-effectiveness of firemanagement at village, district, provincial,national, subregional, or regional levels.

• capacity building programs ranging fromtraining for managers in theoretical andpractical aspects (covering forest firefactors, fire prediction and planning,surveillance, fire protection, firesuppression, rescue operations, andrehabilitation) to practical drills in firesuppression for firefighters. Appropriatetraining is also required for local volunteersand others who will be required toparticipate in firefighting;

• arrangements for the provision of vitalinformation including checklists, maps,etc.; and

• appropriate mechanisms to obtainparticipation/cooperation of local people,communities, the private sector, and NGOsin fire management and suppression. Localpeople can be enlisted as voluntary firewardens and voluntary firefighters.Improved incentives including honorariums,access to resources and entrepreneurialopportunities, and provision of off-farmincome-earning to community members willhelp to promote participation.

Procedure for Activating Firefighting

Resources

The centerpiece of the mitigation programof the ORHAP is envisioned to be a

The advent ofadvanced

technology hasled to the

development ofcomputerized fire

managementsystems that offer

the chance toovercome some

of the weaknessesin fire

managementplanning

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 113

regionwide fire suppression mobilization (andresponse) plan. An important first step informulating the FSMP is to organize aregionwide inventory and assessment of existingfirefighting capability (tools, equipment,personnel, level of training, funding, adequacyof existing dispatch plans, and overall capabilityin responding to fire emergencies) to supportcooperative fire suppression efforts. Suchinventories should be conducted regularly.

Inventory of Fire Management Capability

Fire management and suppression capabilityis of prime importance for the ORHAP. If firesand haze in the ASEAN region are to bemanaged efficiently, then the upgrading of anyinadequate fire management capacity mustreceive high priority. With this in mind, severalinventories were undertaken prior to, andduring, implementation of ADB’s RETAProject.

As the country designated to take the lead inimplementing the mitigation program,Indonesia began a preliminary inventory of firemanagement capacity prior to commencementof the RETA Project. At HTTF’s request,Indonesia performed a second inventory withassistance from the Project.

Because the first and second inventoriesfocused mainly on equipment rather than theoverall aspects of fire management capacity, theRETA Project itself conducted a third inventoryat the request of HTTF, with assistance fromthe US Forest Service, AusAID, and Canada,and a team of Indonesian experts. The exerciseinvolved four field teams.

The countries included in the third inventorycomprised Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia,Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore. In eachof the countries, the inventory and assessmentcovered equipment, fire management personnel,facilities, communication, logistics, training

programs, fire control organizations (national,provincial, community organizations), andoperational procedures. Lists of equipmentprovided details of hand tools, water handlingequipment, mechanical equipment,transportation, aerial firefighting capability,personnel protection equipment, logisticsupport, fire detection tools, and communicationequipment.

Three major findings resulted from theinventory and assessment exercise.

First, the level of wildland fire managementcapacity across AMCs is inversely related to thedegree to which each country suffered fromforest fires and haze during 1997-1998.

Second, in Indonesia, the AMC most affectedby fires and haze, there is a relative scarcity ofdedicated fire suppression equipment, but arelative abundance of nondedicated firesuppression equipment (i.e., equipment suchas common agricultural tools that can effectivelybe used for fire suppression). This means thatin terms of potential fire suppression capacity,Indonesia is well placed. By effectivelyorganizing its abundant personnel andnondedicated fire suppression equipment,Indonesia can quickly and cost-effectivelyimprove its fire management capacity.

Third, a far greater upgrading of firesuppression equipment and technical expertisethan originally envisaged would be required atdistrict level and below, for fire suppression unitsat these levels to provide the necessary base forregional cooperative fire suppression initiatives.

Fourth, in most of these areas, it is themanner in which fire suppression equipmentand personnel is organized—rather than the lackof either—that forms the binding constraint onfire management capacity.

Last, in the absence of operational FSMPs,the region’s fire suppression resources tend tobe used in a highly inefficient manner.

If fires and hazein the ASEAN

region are to bemanaged

efficiently, thenthe upgrading ofany inadequate

fire managementcapacity mustreceive high

priority

114 THE PROGRAM

A positive aspect to these findings is thatin locales in which the region’s firemanagement capacity is wanting, this capacitycan be mobilized at low cost, simply byorganizing existing fire suppression resourcesin a more efficient way. This is true of allgovernmental levels and is the key to ASEANmobilizing fire suppression resources at thesubregional level.

The original intention of the inventory andassessment was to: (i) aggregate data onavailable equipment and technical expertise, (ii)construct a regional-level inventory and trackingsystem for fire suppression equipment andpersonnel, and (iii) construct from this system,an operating procedure for activating forestfirefighting resources (Operating Procedure)in the ASEAN region. However, two findingsof the inventory and assessment exerciseindicated that a different strategy forformulating the Operating Procedure would berequired.

• First, the inventory and tracking systemsfor fire suppression equipment andpersonnel become unwieldy and unfeasiblebeyond the district level.

• Second, the existing inventory andtracking systems in the most critical haze-producing areas (Kalimantan and Sumatrain Indonesia) were either at a preliminarystage of development or were nonexistent.Thus, in most critical areas, inventory andtracking systems for fire suppressionequipment and personnel would have tobe newly arranged, or substantiallyupgraded, to enable fire management unitsat these levels to support regionalcooperative fire suppression initiatives.

Architecture of the Operating Procedure

Accordingly, it was decided by HTTF thatthe Operating Procedure be based on

community-level FSMPs, the foundation forwhich had already been laid by the ADBADTA.32 AusAID provided assistance for theformulation of the Operating Procedure.

Essentially, the Operating Procedureacknowledged that the key to efficient firemanagement is capacity at the community level,rather than being based on centralizedmanagement at the regional level. This can beachieved by formulating community-levelFSMPs, which would incorporate (ground-based) monitoring activities, as well as fireprevention and awareness programs. Theywould also serve the additional purpose ofproviding a framework for upgradingequipment and skills, since only when existingfire suppression resources are organized asefficiently as possible can appropriate upgradingprograms be formulated.

The architecture of the Operating Procedurewould thus involve a network of interlinkedFSMPs at the community, subdistrict, district,province (or state), and national levels in eachcountry. These national networks of FSMPswould then link at the supranational level withAMCs located in the same subregion.

Measure of Adequacy for Fire Management

Capacity

The ORHAP requires that each AMC matchits fire management and suppression capabilityto the level of risk of causing transboundaryhaze. If a particular country has not been asource of transboundary haze during the pasttwo decades, its fire management capability ata minimum is considered to match the level ofrisk to which it exposes the region. It may bethat the land conversion process in the countryhas essentially been completed, reducing therisk of large-scale fires to a minimum.

The fire management capacities of someAMCs fall far short of the required standard.

The OperatingProcedure

acknowledgedthat the key toefficient fire

management iscapacity at the

community level,rather than being

based oncentralized

management atthe regional level

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 115

One purpose of the ORHAP’s mitigationprogram is to outline a system through whichthese countries can speedily acquire adequatefire management and suppression capacity.

Under the ORHAP, the fact that a countryhas been a source of transboundary haze duringthe past two decades is prima facie evidencethat its fire management capability falls shortof what is required. The ORHAP requires thatany such country must, as quickly as possible,create a timebound plan for upgrading its firemanagement capacity to a level sufficientenough to cope with once-in-20-years fires andhaze. The ORHAP further requires thatfollowing any fires and haze, the source countriesmust put in place time-bound operational plansto be able to manage and suppress fires of thescale that caused the haze. Fulfillment of thiscondition ensures that at a minimum, AMCshave sufficient fire management and suppressioncapacity to address the risk of transboundary hazeto which they may expose the region. Informationmust be shared with all other AMCs on acontinuous basis, either via the ORHAP’srestricted-access intranet, or other appropriatemeans of communication (e.g., facsimile/lettersent to HTTF).

It is, however, by no means certain that anyupgraded fire management and suppressioncapacity in an AMC would be sufficient tosuccessfully address all future threats oftransboundary haze. It calls for a system ofcontinuous assessments and upgrades.

Ultimately, upgrading fire management/suppression capacity is a costly venture that mustcompete with other national priorities. It istherefore not possible—nor does the ORHAP’smitigation component require—that all AMCsbuild national-level capacities sufficient tocompletely eliminate the risk of their causingtransboundary haze at any point in the future.Instead, AMCs need only fulfill their

responsibilities under the ORHAP. Regional-level collective action can, often, compensatefor likely deficiencies in individual countries.

In many cases, more than the cost, thebinding constraint on efficient fire managementand suppression is a cumbersome and inefficientorganizational structure, the streamlining ofwhich is nearly costless. Assistance in obtainingthe necessary expertise or funding may berequested from the chairperson of HTTF, whochannels such requests to the appropriateagencies or institutions. The upgrading of firemanagement and suppression capability intransboundary-haze-source AMCs is alsosupported by complementary measures at theregional and subregional levels.

Upgrading of Fire Management Capacity

Often, upgrading of fire managementcapacity is taken to be synonymous withprocuring additional tools or equipment, orproviding additional training or retraining tofire management personnel.

Provision of training and equipment has inthe past been popular. But only under restrictedconditions have such initiatives had a positiveimpact on fire management capability. Whenprovided in isolation, training and equipmentdo little to improve fire management capacity,since lack of training or equipment per se israrely the binding constraint.

Only when equipment and training areprovided to remove binding constraints presentin an overall fire management and suppressionsystem are they likely to have any appreciablepositive impact.

The equipment procured often fails to reachthe hands of those that can most efficiently makeuse of it, and training is received by those deemeddeserving a favor, rather than those who mightbest benefit from it. Further, the type, scale, size,and level of technical sophistication of the

In many cases,more than the

cost, the bindingconstraint onefficient fire

management andsuppression is a

cumbersome andinefficient

organizationalstructure, the

streamlining ofwhich is nearly

costless

116 THE PROGRAM

equipment procured is often poorly (if at all)suited to the requirements of the recipient country.The same can be true of the type and content oftraining provided.

Upgrading of fire management capacity isto be undertaken within a system of FSMPs(formulation or upgrading) for specificgeographic areas. Such plans are the basicbuilding blocks of fire management capacity.

Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans

The purpose of FMSPs is to improve theefficiency with which fire suppression resourcesin any given geographic area are mobilized.FSMPs can therefore be used to improve theorganizational efficiency and cost-effectivenessof fire management at the village, subdistrict,district, provincial, national, and subregionallevels.

Given that FSMPs at the community levelwere to provide the foundation for ASEAN’sfire suppression resource-sharing scheme, theywould be linked operationally at communitylevel, and subsequently at higher levels.

FSMP formulation and implementation focuson Indonesia, since the payoff from upgradingfire management capacity in that countryoutweighs that in other AMCs. Owing to theconstraints caused by the recent financial crisisaffecting some AMCs, FSMP focuses onconsolidating and better organization of existingfire suppression resources, rather than onwholesale additions of fire suppressionequipment or training. Only after the existingsuppression resources are organized asefficiently as possible would it make sense toshift the focus to upgrading fire managementcapacity.

Such upgrading programs use the existingFSMP as the starting point, since it is from theFSMPs that the personnel, skills, and equipmentrequirements can be most easily derived. And

it allows the initial and recurrent financial costsof the upgrading to be calculated withreasonable precision, given that FSMPprograms already in place include an annualreview and budgeting process. If governmentfunding allocated to fire suppression in the areain question is insufficient to finance a proposedupgrading program, then third-party sourcesof financing have to be sought. Alternatively,the upgrading program can be scaled down, orundertaken in a phased manner over severalbudgeting periods.

Building on the foundation provided byADB’s ADTA INO 2999, which providedinputs to Indonesia’s Integrated Action Plan(IAP) for Addressing Land and Forest Fires,and in order to ensure consistency among theFSMPs at the various governmental levels, aModel Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan wasdrawn up. This was done by national firemanagement experts (NFMEs) and numerousinternational fire management experts workingon various projects closely interlinked with, andcatalyzed by, ADB’s RETA Project and theORHAP. The model FSMP was then used as atemplate for developing FSMPs for the mostcritical areas. The rationale for this is thatvirtually all jurisdictions, to ensure adequate firemanagement capacity, should share one factorin common: a preformulated, agreed, writtenFSMP that embodies the collective decisionsof all relevant agencies on how fire emergenciesare to be addressed within the geographic areaconcerned.

Having agreed on FSMPs in advance of afire allows such incidents to be addressed asquickly and efficiently as possible, regardless ofthe extent of financial resources available foraddressing the fire emergency.

For the RETA Project, community-levelFSMPs were prepared for critical districts ofRiau and South Sumatra provinces, with a view

Equipmentprocured oftenfails to reach thehands of thosethat can most

efficiently makeuse of it, and

training isreceived by thosedeemed deserving

a favor, ratherthan those who

might best benefitfrom it

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 117

to ultimately replicating them in all criticalprovinces of Sumatra and all four provinces ofKalimantan.

Salient Features of FSMPs

FSMPs lay out, well in advance, the exactprocedures to be followed in carrying outsuppression. Therefore, all suppressionresources available in the area covered by theplan can be used in as efficient a manner aspossible. They avoid spur-of-the-moment crisis-management-oriented decision making, whichalways leads to inefficient resource use andwastage of valuable time. FSMPs specify asingle, transparent chain-of-command foraddressing fire emergencies agreed in advanceby all parties concerned. This avoids confusionand decisions being taken at different levels thatconflict with one another. They provide anorganizational structure into whichcomplementary fire suppression resources canbe merged. When fire suppression crews fromanother geographic area or country arrive at afire scene, these can be deployed immediatelyand with maximum efficiency.

If a fire escalates to the point where locallyavailable resources can no longer cope, FSMPsstate the procedure to be followed. The successof FSMPs, however, depends on sustainedcommitment—by all parties and agencies thathave agreed to participate in the plan—tomaintain and enhance the degree of readinessthe plan envisages.

FMSPs allow all available resources,including those provided by volunteers andlocal community groups to be deployed withmaximum possible efficiency. In virtually alljurisdictions, volunteers (not to mentiondonors) are much more likely to participateactively in fire suppression (and prevention)when a plan exists that unambiguouslywelcomes their role.

Formulation (and implementation) of aFSMP for a specific geographic area cantherefore take place independently of anyproposed or pending changes in the lead agencyfor fire management at the national level, or ofproposed or pending devolution of powers.

Once an FSMP has been formulated for aparticular area, the maximum degree ofreadiness that can be achieved using availableresources can be determined. If a greater degreeof readiness is deemed to be required, aprogram for upgrading the existing degree ofreadiness can be easily formulated from the plan,and the relevant personnel, training, tool, andequipment requirements derived. From these,reliable cost estimates and a realistic schedulefor implementing the upgrading program canbe formulated. In extreme situations, FSMPscan be funded entirely at the local level, usingwhatever financial or other resources areavailable.

Experiences of the 1997-1998 fires suggestthat some of the most efficient fire suppressionschemes were funded and implemented totallyby local communities, using self-providedresources. The donor-sponsored mobilizationplans that operated within the geographic areasadjacent to the project sites enjoyed similarsuccess.

The FSMP Process

Details of the procedure for formulating andimplementing FSMPs are given in Appendix 3.Only some important aspects relating to theFSMP process are highlighted here.

Initial Planning

FSMPs are to be prepared or upgraded for asufficient number of geographic areas withinthe country concerned to ensure that firemanagement capacity is sufficient to cope witha once-in-20-years occurrence. A work plan for

Experiences ofthe 1997-1998

fires suggest thatsome of the most

efficient firesuppression

schemes werefunded and

implementedtotally by localcommunities,

using self-providedresources

118 THE PROGRAM

preparing FSMPs is necessary if a time frame(and budget) are to be followed. The work planshould specify that operational training,equipment, and other input requirements areto be collectively derived from the FSMPs; andshould consider the potential for, and constraintson, local provision or manufacture of suchinputs.

Once the work plan for formulating orupgrading the FSMPs for all geographic areashas been completed, a cost estimate should beprepared. If the number of FSMPs is relativelylarge, the overall workplan can be divided intophases, with the work being undertaken forgroups of geographic areas arranged in orderof priority. Higher priority will be assigned toplaces posing the greatest risk of causingtransboundary haze.

A financing plan to meet estimated costs isthen prepared; and technical assistance shouldalso be sought from countries well advanced inwildland fire management.

Institutional Collaboration

While preparing FSMPs, every effort shouldbe made to simultaneously create a transparentand operational institutional structure for firemanagement for the country as a whole. Inseveral countries (including countries highlyadvanced in fire management) many agenciescooperate in fire management initiatives. Butthe countries with the most efficient firemanagement regimes are those that succeed indesignating a single body as the lead agency infire management. The lead agency takesresponsibility for working out, in consultationwith all agencies involved in fire management,the details of all collaborative workingarrangements.

These details, including the roles andresponsibilities of each particular agency, shouldthen be enshrined in written interagency

agreements. For countries in which theorganizational side has previously been thebinding constraint on efficient fire management,care is needed in sorting out the institutionaldetails of the new organizational structure andrelated roles and responsibilities. Successfullyconcluding such interagency agreements is nota trivial task, as it generally results fromnegotiations enabling all agencies to arrive at aconsensus as to the various roles andresponsibilities of each. While somewhatonerous, this task is central to ensuring thatlater implementation of the FSMP can succeed.

Simulation Exercise

Simulation exercises and mock drills are animportant part of the process, helping toenhance an FSMP. An example involving a “dryexercise” and “wet exercise” was carried out inRiau province in October 1999, funded byUNEP’s Environment Assessment Programmefor Asia Pacific. It was conducted by IndonesianGovernment agencies connected with firesuppression, with BAPPEDAL acting as thecoordinator, in collaboration with the ASEANSecretariat/CSU.

This joint activity was a part of theImmediate Action Plan—Field TrainingExercise Phase 1,33 which comprises activitiesnot only for mitigation, but includes ones aimedat prevention and monitoring of forest fires andhaze in the most haze-prone areas in Riau andSouth Sumatra provinces.

The objectives of the fire suppressionsimulation were to create a practice arena forlearning and strengthening existing institutionalstructures involved with fire suppression at theprovince and district levels. The dry exerciseconsisted of a “Tactical Exercise withoutTroops” (TEWT) at the provincial and districtlevels and the wet exercise consisted of a full-scale drill at four priority districts. The purpose

Successfullyconcludinginteragency

agreements is nota trivial task, as itgenerally results

fromnegotiationsenabling all

agencies to arriveat a consensus as

to the variousroles and

responsibilities ofeach

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 119

was learning while doing. The observationsrecorded indicate that there was confusion inthe division of responsibilities among nationalagencies. Institutional weaknesses, includingpoor coordination, were evident. These needto be addressed in order to enhance FSMPs.

Resource Constraints

The personnel, training, equipment, andother input requirements for particular FSMPsarise as part of the process of preparing orupgrading FSMPs.

Once the input requirements are derived,an inventory of tools, equipment, and skilledpersonnel for that geographic area should beundertaken, and the results of the inventorycompared with the operational requirementsof implementing the FSMP concerned.Requirements for additional training, and firemanagement and communications equipment,are then derived by comparing the overallrequirements of the plan with the results of theinventory.

The cost of implementing the FSMP shouldbe kept to a minimum, for example, by usingvolunteers, labor-intensive fire suppressiontechniques, and community- or village-levelresources wherever possible. Local manufactureof tools and equipment or adaptation ofagricultural tools for fire management shouldbecome part of the overall plan.

Precise costings for the necessary trainingand equipment should then be formulated, anda proposed schedule for their provision devised.Funding can be arranged, in part from third-party sources, if necessary. If funds for meetingthe training and equipment requirements areinsufficient or not forthcoming, therequirements should be reviewed and scaledback, or provision of lower-priority items andtraining deferred. This should be brought tothe notice of HTTF.

Level of Details in FSMPs

FSMPs are the most detailed at the base (i.e.,community) level, since it is here thatpredetermined arrangements for mobilizing anddispatching suppression resources must bespecifically stated. When base FSMPs are linkedtogether at successively more aggregated levelsof government (subdistrict, district, province,national), the amount of details decreases (witheach higher level of aggregation).

FSMPs at the national level generally do littlemore than indicate the role each national-levelagency associated with fire suppression is to play.National-level FSMPs tend to be short, thindocuments, while those at the community leveltend to be highly detailed. FSMPs at the districtand provincial levels simply contain standardoperating procedures (SOPs) for sharing of firesuppression resources among subdistricts withina particular district, or districts within aprovince. District- and provincial-level FSMPsare thus similar in format to those for the SRFAs.SRFA-level FSMPs need not be highly detaileddocuments, since they essentially compriseinteragency agreements specifying the SOPs foractivating SRFA-level fire suppression resource-sharing arrangements.

As the process of formulating or upgradingFSMPs is completed for the various areas ofthe country, a database containing all relevantinformation such as the training and equipmentrequirements, the operational costs ofimplementing the FSMPs, and the inventory ofskilled personnel and equipment should beassembled.

This should be performed individually foreach geographic area, and the results aggregatedat the national level. Updating of this databaseshould be continually carried out. Thegovernment agency performing this task at thenational level should be assigned the lead rolein fire management.

The cost ofimplementing theFSMP should be

kept to aminimum, forexample, by

using volunteers,labor-intensivefire suppressiontechniques, andcommunity- or

village-levelresources

wherever possible

120 THE PROGRAM

Subregional Cooperation in Fire

Suppression

As outlined earlier, once FSMPs have beenformulated and implemented at the communitylevel, they are linked through an FSMP at thedistrict level. District-level FSMPs are likewiselinked through an FSMP at the provincial level.For instance, for the fire-prone areas that fallwithin the jurisdiction of the SRFA for Borneoand Sumatra, the provincial-level FSMPs arelinked together through FSMPs at the SRFAlevel.

Since the subregion is the highest level ofaggregation at which economies of scale in firesuppression activities exist, this interlinkage ofFSMPs does not extend to the regional (i.e.,ASEAN) level.

Rationale for Subregional Cooperation

The main rationale for subregionalcooperation in fire management andsuppression is its cost-effectiveness. One meansof increasing this is via risk-pooling atinternational level. This involves supranationalsharing of fire suppression resources duringperiods of peak demand.

Regional or subregional sharing of firesuppression resources is a form of risk-pooling.Because the risk of large-scale fires occurringsimultaneously in all countries in a regional orsubregional grouping is slight, resources onstandby in a member country not threatenedby fire can be used to augment those in thecountry or countries where fire suppressionresources are fully employed. This form of risk-pooling forms the basis of, and economicjustification for, the two SRFAs.34

Because the overall risk of transboundaryhaze and the fires that cause it is so unevenlyspread across the various areas of the region,the subregional level is the key in organizingand carrying out cooperative mitigation-related

activities under the ORHAP. The same is trueof monitoring that directly supports firemanagement, such as detecting large-scale fires,and tracking or predicting their futuremovements. The subregional level is, therefore,an important focus of activities under all threeof the RHAP’s components, not just“firefighting,” as the designation “SubregionalFirefighting Arrangement” may imply.

Additional Factors and Issues

Risk-pooling among AMCs via sharing offire suppression resources during periods ofpeak demand makes eminent sense also fromthe point of view of efficiency.

Operationally, there are many ways in whichrisk-pooling might be implemented. Not all ofthese are practical. For example, the concept ofall AMCs sharing fire suppression resourceswould appear to have much to recommend it.An obvious advantage at the regional levelwould be that the wet and dry seasons in thenorthern and southern portions of the ASEANgrouping are reversed. This fact would appearto give rise to complementarities in the sharingof fire suppression resources among the AMCs.But from a logistical and operational point ofview, this possibility is not encouraging. Thepractical problems involved in shipping firesuppression equipment and personnel from, say,Singapore overland via Malaysia and Thailandto the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (LaoPDR) would pose daunting practical problems.Myanmar assisting the Philippines in firesuppression would be equally impractical. Thus,the SRFAs were formed as a logical and efficientresponse to the possibilities offered by risk-pooling and resource-sharing at the internationallevel, as well as the limitations imposed bygeography and transport.

Ultimately, considerations led to SRFAsforming the foundation for regional

Regional orsubregional

sharing of firesuppressionresources is a

form ofrisk-pooling

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 121

cooperation in fire management andsuppression.

Although formulation of SRFAs took accountof both the potential for resource-sharing as wellas its limitations, effective cooperation at theSRFA level has posed operational issues that theORHAP must address if SRFA membercountries are to reap maximum benefits.

Means of Resource-Sharing

Ultimately, fire suppression resource-sharingmust be able to be activated quickly if it is tobe cost-effective. In addition to shippingarrangements for personnel and equipmentbeing agreed in advance, immigration andcustoms preclearance procedures must also bein place if movement of personnel andequipment is to be carried out at short notice.But putting preclearance procedures into placepresumes that a number of fundamental choiceshave already been made. These relate to exactlywhat is meant by “resource-sharing” in theSRFA context, since this is a concept that canbe operationalized in a number of ways.

The ORHAP rules out the possibility of eachSRFA maintaining a physical inventory of firesuppression equipment warehoused within oneof its member countries, since this wouldrequire a large number of difficult issues to beresolved. Examples include the following. Whattypes of equipment are to be kept in theinventory? Is it permissible for the equipmentto be used by individual member countries attheir own discretion, or must the decision foruse be made jointly? How will duplication ofequipment and effort be avoided? Moreimportant, who is to finance the initial purchaseof equipment, its warehousing, andmaintenance costs, and its upgrading as andwhen required?

Perhaps a more important question than anyof the above is that of which equipment should

be held in a joint inventory. The answer to thisquestion ultimately depends on how the SRFA’sfire suppression capability has beenprogrammed to complement a membercountry’s national-level suppression capabilities.This in turn depends on national-level FSMPsalready in place, and the provisions they containfor using complementary suppression resourcessourced from the SRFA level. A major obstacleto ASEAN resolving its transboundary hazepollution problem is the fact that not all haze-source AMCs have FSMPs in place. Because ofthis, a joint-inventory approach to firesuppression resource-sharing at the SRFA leveldoes not appear to be feasible.

Operationally, this reflects a fire managementcapacity that falls short of the required level.Immediate action at the subregional level istherefore critical to ensure that the risk ofeconomic, social, and environmental damageresulting from further transboundary haze isreduced to the absolute minimum, givenexisting time, resource, and other constraints.Concerted measures for immediately upgradingfire management capacity in the region’s mosthaze-prone geographic areas must beundertaken at the subregional level emphasizingcost-effectiveness.

Resource-Sharing Agreements

In the context of the ORHAP, “resource-sharing” means that an agreement would havebeen reached among SRFA member countriesthat allows fire suppression personnel andequipment from one SRFA member country tobe temporarily used in another, upon activationof the arrangement by the country requestingassistance in fire suppression.

However, even this system of resourcesharing requires a number of issues to beaddressed, most of which relate to how thepersonnel and equipment from the providing

The ORHAPrules out the

possibility of eachSRFA

maintaining aphysical

inventory of firesuppressionequipmentwarehoused

within one of itsmembercountries

122 THE PROGRAM

country are to complement personnel andequipment in the recipient country. Forexample, how will geographic positioning ofthe SRFA-provided equipment and personnelbe determined? Which country’s chain-of-command will be used, or how will chains-of-command be harmonized or integrated? Howwill language differences (if any) be addressed?Will suppression teams from the two countriesbe merged, work in tandem, or work in parallelas independent units?

Resolving these issues essentially requiresthat a subregional-level FSMP incorporatingresource-sharing arrangements be formulatedand implemented.

Such a plan should also incorporate relevantresource-sharing arrangements for monitoringand prevention in addition to fire management.Implementation of these arrangements wouldrequire negotiation of international agreements

Finally, the issue of whether the national,subregional, or regional level is the appropriatepoint of contact when activating firesuppression resources originating from outsidethe ASEAN region must be clarified. TheORHAP identifies the national level as beingthe key in activating fire management andsuppression resources from outside the region.Requests for assistance in fire suppressiondirected to countries outside the ASEAN regionhave in the past efficiently come from thenational level.

There are numerous operational reasons(e.g., the need to arrange preclearance ofpersonnel and equipment) why this approachallows deployment of external resources in theshortest possible time.

This historically-evolved arrangement ofmobilizing fire suppression resources fromoutside the ASEAN region by national-levelauthorities is therefore retained under theORHAP.

National and Subregional Level Operational

Linkages

A basic issue behind the regional cooperationto address fires and haze is the fundamentalconflict between natural resource management(land conversion) policy at the national level,and the obligations of the countries to ensurethat haze pollution originating within theirterritorial boundaries does not violate theairspace of other countries. It is a basicassumption of the ORHAP that this conflictwill remain in the foreseeable future.

Before describing the legal framework forthe subregional FSMP, it is necessary to clarifythe linkage between the national and subregionallevels, since these have important implicationson national sovereignty within ASEAN.

ORHAP activities to be carried out at thesubregional level must avoid violating anindividual member country’s nationalsovereignty in two key areas.

First, the physical entry of fire managementpersonnel and equipment from one membercountry into another’s territorial boundariesmay be triggered only by the requesting country.The host country alone must decide when thethreshold at which large-scale fires can no longerbe contained by national fire managementresources has been breached, and suppressionresources drawn from the supranational levelwill be required to prevent haze from violatinganother country’s airspace.

Second, the deployment of resources drawnfrom the supranational level must take place onthe basis of an agreed subregional FSMP, ratherthan on an ad hoc basis. The subregional FSMPshould, as a first step, sort out efficientdeployment of national fire managementresources.

Only then should deployment ofsupranational resources be integrated into thenational-level framework.

The ORHAPidentifies the

national level asbeing the key inactivating fire

management andsuppression

resources fromoutside the

region

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 123

This would appear to leave some issuesunresolved. First, the matter of requiring that anational mobilization plan include provisionsfor fire suppression resource contributions fromthe supranational level could seem to contravenenational sovereignty. Second, and more importantif no mobilization plan yet exists (or ever will) atthe national level, this would negate the possibilityof organized supranational resource-sharing at thesubregional level. These points underscore theneed for a clear legal framework.

Legal Framework for SRFA-Level FSMP

These problems become irrelevant unless anduntil the national sovereignty issues relating toSRFAs are sorted out. SRFAs (or any othersupranational ASEAN bodies) do not have amandate to sort out the national FSMPs ofindividual AMCs, or even to require that suchplans be prepared. But SRFAs do have a mandateto provide organized arrangements forsupranational fire suppression resource-sharing.

Several aspects of the rationale forestablishing SRFAs are relevant. They are aform of risk-pooling; the least-cost way ofcollective action in preventing haze pollutionfrom crossing international boundaries; and theyare cost effective. Taking these considerationsinto account, the most efficient framework fororganizing fire suppression resource-sharingarrangements is through SRFA-level FSMPsprepared only for those areas, within the relevantSRFA’s geographical jurisdiction, with thehighest level of perceived risk of generatingtransboundary haze.

Thus, the FSMP into which fire suppressionresources drawn from the supranational levelare to be integrated is not an overall nationalFSMP. Instead, it is a geographically-specifiedFSMP that intensively focuses suppressionresources into those areas of an SRFA’sjurisdiction that carry an extreme level of risk.

As long as the relevant authorities in thosespecified areas agree to participate in theformulation and implementation of the plan,national sovereignty is in no way compromised.

Sharing of resources drawn from thesupranational level will be significant duringthe FSMP’s formulation phase. Both the panelof national fire management experts and thedonors should remain closely involved in theformulation of the plan, which is a process thatmust ultimately be endorsed by HTTF andAMMH. The formulation stage of the SRFA-level FSMP should sort out the issues relatingto its personnel, training, equipment, andcommunications requirements. The recurrentcosts of maintaining the level of readinessdesigned to be achieved will also be derivedfrom the plan as the formulation processproceeds.

The fire management personnel of thetransboundary-haze-source-countries must takedue responsibility for the FSMP, since it is theircountry that must implement and execute theplan. Donors also have an important role toplay through technical and financial support.

In all matters relating to the functioning ofSRFAs, HTTF’s, and AMMH’s, closesupervision is essential in solving issues andproviding guidance.

Since the most haze-prone areas of theASEAN region lie within the jurisdiction ofSRFA-Sumatra, its FSMP will be formulatedfirst. From this plan, all relevant training,equipment, communications, and otherrequirements for implementing the plan willbe derived, and cost estimates and financingplans worked out.

Once the FSMP for SRFA-Sumatra has beenformulated, complementary monitoring andprevention can be identified and integrated intothe plan. This will be accomplished by adding(and properly integrating) all relevant

SRFAs have amandate to

provideorganized

arrangements forsupranational fire

suppressionresource-sharing

124 THE PROGRAM

monitoring and prevention to be carried out atthe SRFA level, into the FSMP.

If the FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra weresuccessful in reducing the risk of transboundaryhaze within its member countries, it wouldserve an important wider purpose of providinga model for other subregional FSMPs.

Time Frame to Implement the Operating

Procedure

The Operating Procedure for activatingfirefighting resources spans all actions relatingto formulation, linkages, and implementationof the FSMPs. As conceived in the ORHAP,formulation and implementation of FSMPs ineight provinces of Indonesia, linking of theseeight FSMPs at a national level, and itsformulation and implementation for SRFA-Sumatra and SRFA-Borneo would complete theOperating Procedure as currently envisaged.

The time frame for full-scale implementationof the operating procedure depends chiefly ontwo variables.35 The first and most importantof these is the amount of time required forformulating and implementing FSMPs in themost haze-prone geographic areas of theASEAN region. The other is the time neededfor putting into place legal agreements forresource-sharing arrangements at thesubregional level.

The geographic areas requiring the greatestdegree of upgrading of fire managementcapacity comprise eight provinces of Indonesia.The first four of these include Jambi,Lampung, Riau, and South Sumatra provinceson Sumatra. The other four are Central, East,South, and West Kalimantan provinces, whichtogether comprise the Indonesian portion ofBorneo.

Fire management capacity upgradingprograms based on existing FSMPs are takingplace and progressing rapidly in the haze-prone

areas of Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia(chiefly, Sabah and Sarawak states). Emphasismust therefore be placed on using regionalresources to the fullest extent to promote FSMPsin the eight Indonesian provinces.

On the legal framework for activatingSRFA-level fire suppression resource sharingarrangements at the subregional level, it hasbeen proposed that these interagencyagreements be negotiated and finalized over twoyears, as part of the negotiation of an umbrellaASEAN Agreement or Protocol onTransboundary Haze Pollution.

Considering the nature of the processinvolved, it is apparent that pursuing thesimultaneous formulation and implementationof FSMPs in eight provinces of Indonesia wouldnot be pragmatic. Emphasis must instead beplaced on getting FSMPs up and running in arestricted number of locales, and on makingthe process of formulating and implementingsuch plans a sustainable and replicable process.ADB’s RETA 5778 has been able to catalyzeagreement with donors for support.

It has been estimated that upgrading of firemanagement and linking of FSMPs at thecommunity, subdistrict, district, provincial,national, and subregional levels would take sixcalendar years beginning in April 1999. Thistime frame and program for implementing theOperating Procedure for activating forest firesuppression resources is described on an action-by-action basis in the DIPs for SRFA-Sumatraand SRFA-Borneo.

While it may be tempting, considering thepossible proximity of the next ENSO, to reducethe time frame, it should be remembered thatachieving sustainable gains in fire managementcapacity is the primary goal of this exercise.The implementation of the six-year programultimately depends on the assent of Indonesia.From the Indonesian Government’s point of

If the FSMP ofSRFA-Sumatra

were successful inreducing the riskof transboundary

haze within itsmember

countries, itwould serve an

important widerpurpose ofproviding a

model for othersubregional

FSMPs

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 125

view, a limited first phase of formulation andimplementation of base-level FSMPs would giveit sufficient time to work out the details of itsprogram of decentralization of fire suppressionactivities. In this regard, the sequencing of thesix-year program appears appropriate. Theactual time frame for implementation of theprogram is flexible. However, the higheconomic, social, and environmental costs offuture transboundary haze will hopefully act asan impetus for it to be implemented as fast aspossible.

Activities Under Threat of Fire DangerThe fire danger warning is a critical period ofhigh alert and of great significance in firemanagement. This is because there is still thepossibility to prevent fires breaking out throughproper surveillance and by defusing ignitionsources. Appropriate action during this periodcan also help to prevent a spot fire becoming aconflagration. However, an importantpreoccupation during this period should becomplete readiness to attack any fire that breaksout and to reduce its impact to the lowestpossible level.

The main activities during this period wouldbe to further review and fully understand allfield conditions; ensure the fitness of the crewand adequacy of crew structure, equipment, andfacilities; go over possible alternative responsesand fallback plans; establish the adequacy ofskills and competency in fire and rescueoperations (such as pump operation, use ofbreathing apparatus, assessing wind directionand counter firing, fire jumping, waterbombing, etc.); inform and alert the localcommunity and collaborating partners infirefighting (e.g., fire service, forest service,police force, civil defense, armed forces,departments of health, information, civilaviation, transportation, information, etc.); and

prepare logistics (field strategies) for differentterrains and land types (steep hills, vast plains,grass lands, peatswamps) and nature of fire(ground fire, crown fire, coal seam fire, etc.),varying from beating the fire, counter firing,digging trenches to chemical spraying, andwater bombing.

Central to the action is surveillance, firemonitoring, and detection as immediately aspossible, and communicating the details oflocation of fire spotted, nature, and type of fireat detection, wind speed, and temperature, etc.,as precisely as possible to the coordinating andfirefighting units. The information may comefrom satellite monitoring, observation towers,airlines, military patrols, or informants. In someinstances it will be necessary (if possible) tocrosscheck and verify the information to avoidconfusion and time wastage.

The components of an effective system forsuppression—readiness and actual firesuppression—would involve coordinatingmechanisms, human resources, fundingmechanisms, community response capability,adequacy of tools and equipment, fire training,logistical support, and cooperativearrangements. However, lack of attention tothis phase was evident in many cases inIndonesia during the 1997-1998 fires. Fieldinvestigations in Riau and South Sumatra haveshown that during the fires of 1997-1998 therewere several lapses (ADB/ASEAN 1999).

Fire Surveillance and Warning

Vital information required for firesuppression and haze management is thelocation and extent of all fires. To strengthensurveillance capability, the Working Group ofSRFA-Sumatra implemented a fire surveillancepilot project in Riau with support fromIndonesia, Singapore, CIDA, and UNEP. Themain activities were early detection of fires

Theimplementationof the six-year

programultimately

depends on theassent ofIndonesia

126 THE PROGRAM

using aircraft, near real-time remote and groundbased information, photo documentation of firesites, communication of fire information toground fire stations, rapid ground checking,and fire suppression.

Fire detection is also carried out throughsurveillance by ground patrols and localcommunity members and by enlisting thecooperation of commercial airlines. A systemof fully equipped fire observation towers isnormally an effective means to detect andpinpoint the location of fire. But there are onlya few functioning fire observation towers inthe AMCs. Communication has been an areaof weakness, particularly at the subnational(provincial and district) and local levels (Anon1997a).

Fire danger warning is an area of obviousoverlap between mitigation and monitoringprograms. Since monitoring has to do more withfire danger rating and early warning, these havebeen discussed at length under that section.

When a Blaze BlowsThe efficiency and effectiveness of the FSMPand dispatch system will be put to test duringan actual fire, i.e., fire suppression. Theresponse time should be as short as possibleand this will happen if the fire location iscorrectly identified in maps and with referenceto quick access.

‘Combat’ Plan and Action

The fire “combat” plan, which has been(hopefully) well rehearsed, is to be put intoaction instantly, once the news of a blaze arrives.The crew(s) and volunteers are assembled;mission explained, and directions given in quickbriefing (e.g., regarding fire intensity, winddirection, water sources, escape routes, reliefarrangements); tasks are clearly assigned;deployment prioritized in cases of multiple fires;

crew transport organized; equipment and toolsin position; and the coordinated action (say,involving ground and aerial attacks) starts toput out the fire—all in an efficient andcoordinated manner. Aspects such as standbyrelief teams, medical assistance, provision offood and drinking water, evacuationarrangements, etc., should be such that thefirefighting could be conducted uninterruptedly,as long as needed.

In remote and inaccessible areas, it may benecessary to airlift the crew or resort to aerialfire control. Wherever feasible, ground effortscan be supported through water bombing. Inthe cases of large fire events, firefighters willneed to be supported by voluntary fire brigades,forest workers, armed forces, etc. Smokecontrol, through efforts to isolate the fire andto reduce the volume and effects of smoke, isan integral part of fire management. Moppingup or post-fire suppression (including fellingof smoldering trees) is important to ensure thatthe fire is fully extinguished.

Reports indicate that during the 1997-1998fires in Indonesia, several measures were takenin the forestry sector: direct suppression by localfire crews (forest rangers) in cooperation witharmy and police personnel; mobilization of firecrews from neighboring provinces; organizinglocal people and concession staff to fight fires;water bombing (also using chemical retardants)from aircrafts; and cloud seeding to induce rain.International emergency assistance, in additionto long-term development assistance, wasreceived in the form of services of trainedfirefighters (e.g., from Malaysia), aircraft, andwater bombing facilities (from the UnitedStates), along with firefighting supplies, handtools, and other equipment (e.g., fromGermany). Sophisticated technology (waterbombing, cloud seeding) was used only on alimited scale and its success was undetermined.

To strengthensurveillance

capability, theWorking Group

of SRFA-Sumatraimplemented afire surveillancepilot project in

Riau withsupport from

Indonesia,Singapore,CIDA, and

UNEP

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 127

In 1997, Indonesia reportedly had some14,000 persons trained in firefighting of whomonly 1,400 were regular staff of MOFEC (forestrangers), 8,500 persons were with forestconcessions, 3,500 were with State-ownedenterprises, and 600 were members of thepublic. These numbers appear highlyinsufficient. Some 8,000 firefighters battled theblaze in Indonesia for months in 1997 and1998. Additionally, MOFEC operated itscommand posts for 24 hours a day at the centrallevel in Jakarta and Bogor, and in each province.Through these posts, information anddirections on fire situation and control wereexchanged. In spite of involving a large numberof agencies/institutions at the central,provincial, district, and local levels, the firescould not be fully controlled and final respitecame only with the rains.

The failures of 1997-1998 offer severallessons for the future.

Coordination and Logistics

Lack of effective and meaningfulcoordination involving a large number ofagencies/institutions at the central, provincial,district, and local levels was a serious problemduring the 1997-1998 fire disaster. Similardeficiencies in coordination were also seenelsewhere. For example, aerial support forfirefighting provided as part of emergencyassistance could not be coordinated with groundaction and it was, therefore, not effective. If thereis no effective and efficient system in place toprevent, control, and combat fires at site, anyamount of technological inputs elsewhere willnot be of much use. A balancing of equipment,technology, and training is required foroptimizing benefits.

Several recent reviews of the fire situationin Indonesia conclude that fire suppressionmeasures undertaken were not effective for all

types of fires (MOE-UNDP 1998, BAPPENAS1999). Effective fire control at the local leveldepends on understanding of simple techniques;and at this level fires can be contained usinglocally available resources of personnel andequipment.

A good fire suppression strategy will morethan compensate the cost of upkeep ofpreparedness, when compared to the value ofthe risks and losses averted.

Post-Fire ActionIn the case of small fires, economic andenvironmental impacts are likely to be low. Withlarge fires, such as those experienced in theregion in 1982-1983, 1994, and 1997-1998,there will be multiple impacts—in-boundary andtransboundary. Transboundary impacts are feltprimarily in the form of haze pollution. Thus,the post-fire measures needed will be of twocategories: (i) mitigation of environmentalemergency, and (ii) rehabilitation of materialdamages.

Mitigation of Environmental Emergency

This activity is to be started almostimmediately after the onset of a large fire andmay have to continue for days after the fire isextinguished.

Suffocating and Blinding Impacts

Transboundary atmospheric haze pollutioncan result in an environmental emergency with“suffocating and blinding” impacts on publichealth, shipping and transport, civil aviation,agricultural and industrial production, tourism,and on the general welfare of the people. It isnecessary to establish and operate a system ofalertness or warning based on the PSI and APIindicating public health impacts of differentlevels of pollution. Simultaneously, it is necessaryto specify the actions individuals and institutions

The failures of1997-1998 offerseveral lessons for

the future

128 THE PROGRAM

need to take to reduce the impact. Relevantactions to be undertaken at institutional levelinclude dissemination of information about thepollution level; alerting medical institutions;emergency medical relief; supplying smokemasks, oxygen cylinders, and other emergencyneeds; restricting civil, industrial, educational,and cultural activities; and closing of airportsand transport systems to avert accidents.

Health Care

There is insufficient knowledge on the publichealth implications of haze on growing children,elderly, and the infirm; and this would call forlong-term monitoring. A post-haze assessmentof losses or costs (direct and indirect), andidentification and mapping of major hazesources and haze-prone areas is required toimpress on the need to avert similar (human-caused) disasters in the future, at all costs.There is also a need for long-term planning inthe health sector to mitigate the effects of forestand land fires, supported by infrastructuredevelopment, equipment and skills for airquality monitoring, health-effect alleviation,

community awareness raising and educationprograms, structured data collecting systems,and rapid response mechanisms. These shouldbe properly coordinated.

Demobilization

Demobilization procedure would beundertaken after the fire suppression has beencompleted, including:

(a) personnel demobilization: (i) recount oftotal personnel, (ii) checking ofpersonnel health, (iii) rehabilitationsupport, and (iv) repatriation and returnof persons to their respective agency;

(b) equipment demobilization: (i) each unitcollects all equipment that has beenused, cleans it, and fixes it if broken;(ii) checks the amount, type, andownership of equipment beforereturning to Command Post/PolicyLevel Crisis Center (POSKO); (iii)POSKO officer checks all equipment,referring to the equipment inventory list;(iv) if all equipment has been collected,it will be returned to the owners

The ITTO/CFC/IPB Project: NationalGuidelines (for Indonesia) on theProtection of Forests Against Firespecifies the following minimumpersonnel and equipment require-ments for every 30,000 ha of forest.(i) One mobile suppression team

consisting of 34 people. The teamincludes one team leader, oneperson responsible for logistics,two drivers, and three fire crews of10, each consisting of one crewboss and nine crew members. Thisteam is supplied with:• one 4WD pick-up truck (1 ton);• four Handy Talkys (HT-5 watts),

one each for the team leaderand group leaders;

• one radio station (40 watts);

• two sets of hand tools;• eight backpack pumps;• one portable pump;• 33 units of protective equipment;

and• one unit of logistic support such as

tents, cooking equipment, first aid,and maps.

(ii) One mobile detection teamcomprising two people (one driver,one passenger). The team rides a trailmotorcycle and is supplied with onepair of binoculars, one HT-5 watts, twoforester’s bolos, one backpack pump,situation maps, and logistical support.The equipment is used for initialattack.

(iii) One pump team. The number of teammembers depends on fire magnitude

and field conditions. The team isequipped with one HT, andcommunication kits includingwhistles and semaphore flags.

(iv) One team of heavyweightequipment. The team is suppliedwith kits similar to the pump team.Although these specifications

appear to be appropriate for generalconditions, the circumstances atnational as well as lower levels requirestandards unique to local conditions.Land type, landscape, topography,vegetative cover, and demography arefactors to be taken into account indetermining specific equipmentrequirements.

(Source: ITTO/IPB/MOFEC 1999).

BOX 13 Fire Suppression—Minimum Requirements of Personnel and Equipment

There isinsufficient

knowledge onthe public healthimplications of

haze on growingchildren, elderly,and the infirm;and this would

call for long-termmonitoring

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 129

according to the inventory list ofborrowed equipment; (v) owners storethe equipment in warehouses; and (vi)replacement of damaged equipmentwithin a reasonable period.

In normal cases of annual or periodic fireswhere the extent and damage is limited, themain post-fire activity will be demobilization.Even in cases where the impact has been heavyand multi-faceted, demobilization (as far as itrelates to firefighting) has to take place. Theserious post-fire problems are to be addressedon a different footing and level.

Rehabilitation of Material Damages

Rehabilitation of burned forests, lands, andother properties would involve inventory andclassification of fire damage; fire scarevaluation; loss or cost estimation; salvageoperations (to remove recoverable/reusablematerials); planning and implementingrevegetation and replanting measures to nurtureback damaged areas; and compensation forprivate loss to innocent persons. Mopping upof the burned area is to be undertaken before apost-fire inventory and classification is carriedout. A plan of action for follow-up has to bedecided accordingly—for example, to salvagethe usable materials, carry out sanitaryoperations, rehabilitate the area by naturalregeneration or artificial means, etc.

Salvage and sanitary operations to save usabletimber and to dispose of the combustiblematerials to avoid future fires are an essentialpost-fire activity. The dead materials would alsoserve as a sanctuary for pests and diseases.Another important but often neglected part ofthe post-fire process is to assess the damageand to make a report on it, including importantobservations. Post-fire silvicultural operationswould cover short- and long-term rehabilitationmeasures involving complete protection from

damaging influences, cutting back of seedlingsand saplings capable of sprouting, and a phasedreplanting program depending on the conditionof the burned area.

When the area and damage involved is large(consequently requiring heavy investment), itwill be necessary to address the situation basedon a detailed rehabilitation plan. The area tobe rehabilitated may include plantation forests,peat swamps, mixed hill forests (some havingcoal seam fires), and protected areas. Each ofthe different forest types would require differentsilvicultural treatments: sanitary felling, cleaning,promoting natural regeneration, enrichmentplanting, etc., in some cases; salvage felling,land preparation, disposal of inflammablematerials, and replanting in other cases; andreinforced protection measures as required, inall cases, to ensure that another fire is avoided.Rehabilitation can be taken up as part of anoverall IFFM for a defined geographic area.

Salvaging of the residual stock, dependingon the nature of burn, can be in the form oflogs, fuel and charcoal, chips, or briquettesmade out of pulverized wood. In most cases,however, it may not be economical andpulverized wood may have to be mixed withsoil and allowed to disintegrate.

Post-fire rehabilitation often turns out to bea major investment activity.36 For lack ofresources, this important aspect of forest firemanagement is often neglected, leaving theremnants as a future source of fire.

MonitoringORHAP’s Monitoring ProgramFor effective monitoring, numerous activitieswill have to be undertaken at the ASEANregional, subregional, national, provincial(subnational), and local levels. The programactivities included under the ORHAP do notnecessarily cover the entire spectrum of

Salvage andsanitary

operations tosave usable

timber and todispose of thecombustible

materials to avoidfuture fires are anessential post-fire

activity

130 THE PROGRAM

monitoring, but represent those that arerequired at the ASEAN level to remove bindingconstraints and to ensure effective functioningof the monitoring system.

The activities that define the monitoringprogram of the ORHAP at present include thefollowing:

(i) detecting wildfires;(ii) predicting and tracking their

movements and the movement of theresulting haze;

(iii) forecasting the degree to whichwildfires are likely to generate haze, aswell as the type or composition ofemissions likely to be generated;

(iv) determining the likely health impactsresulting from typical or particular haze;

(v) determining the areas historicallyaffected by forest fires and haze in theregion, or those likely to be affected byparticular types; and

vi) assessing the impact of past forest fires,including the extent of the area burned,the composition of flora and faunadestroyed, and the socioeconomic costof particular forest fires at the local,national, and global levels.

Monitoring of the implementation of theORHAP per se will be dealt with under thesection, “Strengthening of Institutions.”

Scope and PurposeMonitoring requires several related actions:overseeing, observing, watching, checking,keeping track of, warning, regulating, testing,measuring, etc. Monitoring covers all aspectsof planning and implementation—the causes,the context, and the consequences.

There are, thus, large variations in the scope,methods, types, purposes, and outputs ofmonitoring. Monitoring can be of an event, aprocess, or an output; it can be discreet,

continuous, or incremental; it can be donedirectly, indirectly, or by proxy measures; and itcan be done from ground (site) or air (remote).It can employ simple methods or measures(number, area, volume, profit) or sophisticatedtechnology involving satellites, computers, andsystems science, providing for multiple linkages(e.g., weather data, economic data, GIS) andfacilities to import and export information.

The data needs of sophisticated monitoringsystems are often tremendous, ranging fromland-use changes and demographic trends tosocioeconomic indicators, hydrometeorologicalfactors, spatial and temporal distribution ofrelevant factors, and environmental standards.

In the case of forest fires and haze,monitoring covers:

(i) fire factors (e.g., weather, humanactivity, danger level);

(ii) atmospheric factors (e.g., air quality,visibility) including factors of humanhealth and welfare (e.g., PSI/API,concentration of particulate matter);and

(iii) predictions (about drought, ENSOs).Depending on the nature of activity (e.g.,

detection of land clearing or incipient fires,recording of weather data, tracking themovement of haze), monitoring, includinginformation gathering, can be carried out fromthe ground or from the air.

Fire- and Haze-Related MonitorsFire and haze and their consequences are linkedto a large number of monitoring variables—covering climatic factors, economic and land-use policies, civil defense systems, technologicalcapability, public health and welfare, and otherrelated aspects.

Actions for prevention and mitigation of fireand haze involve prediction and detection offires, and assessments of impacts. These require

Monitoringcovers all aspectsof planning and

implementation—the causes, the

context, and theconsequences

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 131

a combination of monitoring efforts of differentnature and complexity, and coordination andintegration of information from variousmonitoring sources. How the information(message) is communicated and acted upon isalso a matter to be monitored for assessing theefficiency and effectiveness, as well as the needfor undertaking refinement or improvement.

Types of monitoring data and measurementsinvolved, with respect to fire and haze, arevaried in nature, e.g., land-based measurements,ship-platform-borne measurements, aircraft-borne measurements, satellite and spacecraft-borne measurements, and a wide range ofmeteorological information.

To obtain high accuracy, the data need to beproperly calibrated and validated. The analysisof data will require the availability of a GISdatabase that must comprise regional vegetationdistribution map, fuel map, fire risk map, andland use map with information on fire agents,causes, etc. For combined fire-smoke analysis,this kind of database can then be linked toatmospheric chemical analyses.

The fire monitoring system based on remotesensing must provide spatio-temporalinformation on fire activities that will allow theproduction of datasets useful for a variety ofpurposes. Information on the location of firerequires geographic accuracy in order to knowin which ecosystem type or in which land-usesystem individual fires or a sequence of fires areburning. The timing of fire monitoring withina season and within the day as well as frequencyof observation (e.g., daily, weekly, etc.) andperiods of observation (e.g., continuous or atintervals) are critical. The resolution of data mustbe determined in accordance with specific needs.

The manifold interactions between climatechanges and human-caused disturbances ofecosystems often result in changes of fireregimes, particularly in the densely populated

regions of the tropics. Climate change modelsfor assessing the interactions and impacts ofexpected changes in temperatures, precipitation,and length of dry season can help to predictsuch developments.

An assessment of the potential impacts ofclimate change on fire regimes in the tropicsbased on Global Climate Models (GCMs)(Goldammer and Price 1998) recently indicatedwith a high degree of certainty that tropicalclosed-evergreen forests will becomeincreasingly subjected to high wildfire riskbecause of land-use changes, increasing firesources (use of fire as a land-clearing tool), andclimate change (prolonged dry seasons,increasing occurrence of extreme droughts).

International fire managers need to beprepared for situations that in the near futuremay require the development of innovativetechnologies and the preparedness toaccomplish tasks that may differ from today’ssituation. This implies a perpetual alertness.While warning of potential disaster implies a highlevel of confidence, a second level, or alert level,with lower level of confidence is useful from thestandpoint of strategic or contingency planning.This alert level is intended to convey the messagethat the potential for disaster has increased, butthat actions would still be limited to planning.

Upgrading Needs of the Monitoring

System

There are at present no satellites solelydedicated to monitoring (including quantifyinggeographical extent and environmental impact)of forest fires and haze.

However, there are systems (satellitenetworks) from where relevant observations canbe downloaded.

The “Guidelines on Fire Management inTropical Forests” (ITTO 1997a), targetingdeveloping regions of the tropics, state that:

The manifoldinteractions

between climatechanges and

human-causeddisturbances of

ecosystems oftenresult in changesof fire regimes,

particularly in thedensely

populatedregions of the

tropics

132 THE PROGRAM

“Assessment, prediction and monitoringof fire risk and means of quantification offorest fires and other rural fires areprerequisites for fire management planningpurposes. Statistical data sets can also beused to call attention of authorities,policymakers and the general public. Inthe tropics, it is difficult to gather suchinformation by ground-based methods.Air- and space-borne sensors offerpossibilities to less accessible and sparselypopulated land areas with inadequateground-based infrastructures.”The Guidelines recommended that AMCs:(a) seek access to weather information from

ground stations and space-bornesystems, using this information for fireintelligence (the risk assessment);

(b) use existing remote sensing systems forfire detection and prediction to obtainreal-time information on the location offires; and

(c) join others in supporting thedevelopment of internationalmechanisms (early warning systems), topredict wildfires. Such a system wouldnot predict occurrence, but rather wouldreport the development of conditionsthat could result in serous fires. It wouldhave to gather and interpret informationfrom several sources, including satellitesand land-based stations.

Prototypes

There are several forest fire monitoring andinformation systems, mainly in industrializedcountries, that can serve as prototypes.Integrated systems, such as the CanadianWildland Fire Information System (CWFIS),developed by the Canadian Forest Service, is aprototype system that is adaptable to othercountries.

The CWFIS incorporates several functionsand aspects: weather observations, weatherforecasts, fire danger, fire behavior, fire activity,resource status, situation reports, decisionsupport systems, technology transfer, andinformation exchange. The Canadianexperience has shown that exchanginginformation among fire agencies is a precursorto developing mutual understanding. This, inturn, fosters agreements to exchange resourcesas no agency or nation can be completely self-sufficient in fire management. Prior interagencyand intergovernmental agreements are the keyto avoiding delays that can preclude effectiveexchanges of resources.

ORHAP and Functional Role ofMonitoringThe monitoring program of the ORHAP coversthree broad areas—monitoring for prevention,monitoring for mitigation, and ex postmonitoring. There are obvious overlaps amongthem.

Monitoring for prevention includes:forecasting weather variations that are likely toincrease the risk of fire and haze, monitoringchanges in meteorological variables, and usingthe resulting data and information as inputs intothe operation of the region’s fire danger ratingsystem (FDRS). The FDRS providesquantitative measurements of the level of riskof fire and haze to which a particulargeographic area is exposed.

Monitoring for mitigation includes detectingwildfires, and predicting and tracking theirmovements; detecting haze pollution resultingfrom wildfires, and predicting and tracking itsmovement; forecasting the composition/type ofemissions; and determining the health impactsof typical or particular haze occurrences in theregion. Ex post monitoring includes:determining the areas historically affected by

There are severalforest fire

monitoring andinformation

systems, mainlyin industrializedcountries, that

can serve asprototypes

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 133

fire and haze in the region, and assessing theimpact of previous instances. The ORHAP’smonitoring program provides information that:

(i) permits fire management andsuppression resources to be preparedand positioned in a way that allows themto be used as efficiently as possible inmanaging large-scale fires;

(ii) allows haze-affected populationsadditional time to take precautionsagainst the adverse health impacts ofimpending haze;

(iii) allows haze-prone jurisdictionsadditional time to take actions thatcounterbalance an impending increasein the risk of large-scale fires and hazepollution;

(iv) allows potential haze-affectedpopulations to be informed of thenature of the adverse human healthimpacts of haze pollution, and of thesteps they can take to reduce theseimpacts; and

(v) helps sum up the ex post estimates ofthe economic costs of fires and hazethat may be used as a guide fordetermining the appropriate level offuture investment to offset suchdisasters.

Thus, the rationale of monitoring is thatit greatly increases the efficiency of measuresaimed at reducing the impacts of fires andhaze. While monitoring tends to exhibitpowerful economies of scale, future investmentshould be evaluated mainly on the basis of itscapacity to reduce haze pollution.

Categorization of ComponentActivitiesThe ORHAP’s regional monitoring system forresponding to forest fires and haze consists offive broad categories of activities:

(a) an early warning system that predictsextended dry periods by forecasting long-term changes in weather variables;

(b) a fire danger rating system that identifiesareas subject to heightened risk of fire;

(c) a large-scale fire management assistancecomponent that detects outbreaks ofwildfires and haze, and tracks andpredicts their movements;

(d) a haze, atmospheric pollution, and healthcomponent that determines the intensityand composition of emissions from forestfires, and their impacts on human health;and

(e) an ex post monitoring component thatassesses the damage caused by fires andhaze.

Early Warning

Early warning is an essential component ofany fire and haze monitoring program. Anappropriate early warning system is requiredto alert authorities of the need to intensifypreventive measures, and when appropriate, todeploy fire suppression resources to areas ofheightened risk.

This is performed by an assessment andevaluation of the contributory factors such astemperature, humidity, wind speed anddirection, vegetation dryness, fuel load andactivities in the neighborhood; by generatingforecasts of long-term changes in climatologicalvariables; and monitoring short- to medium-term changes in the meteorological variablesthat provide data inputs into the operation ofthe region’s FDRS.

Early warning of fire and atmosphericpollution hazards may involve locally-generatedindicators, such as local fire-weather forecastsand assessment of vegetation dryness, oradvanced technologies that rely on remotelysensed data, evaluation of synoptic weather

Monitoringgreatly increasesthe efficiency ofmeasures aimedat reducing theimpacts of fires

and haze

134 THE PROGRAM

information, and international communicationsystems (Goldammer 1997b). Forest fire modelsgenerally concentrate on determining if weatherconditions offer the possibility of starting andspreading forest fires, supported by studies onproperties of forest combustible matters, theinfluence of combustion, and investigations onthe geometry of forest fire spreading.

There are two levels of early warning: long-term early warning mainly linked to climatefactors; and medium- to short-term earlywarning, which considers other fire precursorsfor fire danger rating.

The Climate Factor

Despite their coarse spatial and temporalresolution, global climate models (GCMs)provide the best means currently available topredict future climate and fire danger (and henceearly warning) on a broad scale. Regional climatemodels (RCMs), with much higher resolution,are under development and will permit moreaccurate regional-scale climate projections.

The Canadian Fire Weather Index

The Canadian Fire Weather Index (FWI) isan example that serves as a means of earlywarning. Noon measurements of temperature,relative humidity, windspeed, and precipitationfor different weather stations are used tocalculate the component codes of the FWI. DailyFWI values are converted to Daily SeverityRating (DSR) values using a techniquedeveloped in 1959 and modified by Van Wagner(1987). This severity rating technique permitsthe integration of fire severity over periods ofvarious lengths, from daily (DSR) throughmonthly (MSR) to seasonal (SSR) values.

The FWI System provides an assessment ofrelative fire potential based solely on weatherobservations, and does not take forest type intoconsideration.

The ENSO Index

The ENSO Index (ENSOI) has been foundto be a useful indicator for drought (andconsequently for potential fire) in Indonesia.ENSOI is a standard value of the pressuredifference between Tahiti and Darwin,Australia. This index is inversely correlated withsea surface temperature (SST) anomaly. A moresensitive (warmer) SST anomaly implies a morenegative ENSOI value, which in turn implies astronger ENSO occurrence.

ENSOs are associated with global scalevariations in sea surface temperature andpressure. Since there is good degree ofpersistence and predictability in some of theparameters, this offers possibilities for statisticalforecasting, at least three months in advance.

An extensive array of buoys, collectivelyknown as the Tropical Atmospheric Ocean(TAO) array,37 provides continuous monitoringof SST in the Pacific Ocean. The data fromthis array, combined with observations fromvarious other systems in the Global ClimateObserving System (GCOS),38 is analyzed byrenowned climate centers, such as the NOAAClimate Prediction Center. The analyzed dataare used for input to climate prediction modelsthat will predict global weather patterns threeto six months ahead. Institutions such as theInternational Research Institute (IRI), UnitedKingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO), andEuropean Center for Medium-Range WeatherForecasting (ECMWF) undertake climateprediction. Most of the climate centers maketheir forecast products available on the Internet(Goldammer 1997d).

Country-Level Capability

Most national meteorological services (NMS)have developed a certain level of capability inlong-range climate forecasting for them topredict ENSOs well in advance of their onset.

There are twolevels of early

warning:long-term earlywarning mainlylinked to climate

factors; andmedium- to

short-term earlywarning, whichconsiders otherfire precursors

for firedanger rating

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 135

They can therefore assist their respectivenational authorities directly in takingappropriate fire management and droughtprevention measures well in advance. Further,climate products by well-respectedmeteorological centers are available on theInternet that would provide further guidanceand support to NMS.

Developments in Forecasting

Meteorological Trends

Until recently, long-term forecasts could onlyprovide meteorological trends one to six monthsin advance. However, modern long-termseasonal and interannual climate predictionmodels are now available that can predictweather changes such as ENSOs up to one yearin advance with relative accuracy.

In addition to the long-term climateprediction models available, traditionalmeteorological statistics can be used to predictclimatological changes.

ASEAN’s early warning system shouldinclude capabilities for both long-term climateprediction modeling and long-rangeclimatological forecasts using traditionalmeteorological statistics.

In addition to generating long-term weatherforecasts, the ASEAN early warning systemshould also have the capability to perform short-to medium-term monitoring of weathervariables used as inputs into the operation ofthe region’s FDRS.

Fire Danger Rating

The danger that a forest will burn dependson the levels of fire hazard and fire risk. Firehazard is a measure of the amount, type, anddryness of potential fuel in the forest. Fire riskis a measure of the probability that the fuelwill ignite. The level of risk is usually relatedto careless human action, such as deliberately

burning something when the fire hazard ishigh. Fire risk can also be raised by naturalfactors, such as burning coal seams. Fire hazardcan be rated with a reasonable degree ofscientific accuracy, while assessing the level ofrisk is much more subjective because humanattitudes and motivation must be taken intoaccount.

FDRSs have been devised by fire authoritiesto provide early warning of conditionsconducive to the onset and development ofextreme wildfires. The factors that predisposea particular location to an extreme wildfirethreat change over time scales that are measuredin decades, years, months, days, and hours. Theconcept of fire danger involves tangible andintangible factors, physical processes, andhazards. By definition, “fire danger” is a generalterm used to express an assessment of constantand variable fire danger factors affecting theinception, spread, intensity, and difficulty tocontrol fires and the impact they cause (Chandleret al. 1983).

The constant factors in this definition arethose that do not change rapidly with time butvary with location: e.g., slope, fuel, resourcevalues, etc. The variable factors are those thatchange rapidly with time and can influenceextensive areas at one time. These are primarilythe weather variables that affect fire behavior.All the potential factors referred to in thedefinition must be present. If there is absolutelyno chance of ignition, then there is no firedanger. If fuels are absent or cannot burn, thenthere is no fire danger. If fires can start andspread but there are no values at risk as may beperceived for remote areas managed forecological diversity, there is no fire danger forvalues at risk.

FDRSs produce qualitative and/or numericalindexes of fire potential that can be used asguides in a variety of fire management activities

Climateprediction

models are nowavailable that canpredict weatherchanges such asENSOs up to

one year inadvance with

relative accuracy

136 THE PROGRAM

including early warning of fire threat. Differentsystems of widely varying complexity have beendeveloped throughout the world, reflecting theseverity of the fire climate and the needs of firemanagement. The simplest systems use onlytemperature and relative humidity to providean index of the potential for fire starts (e.g.,Chandler et al. 1983). FDRSs of intermediatecomplexity combine measures of drought andweather as applied to a standard fuel type topredict the speed of a fire or its difficulty ofsuppression (e.g., McArthur 1966, 1967;Sneeuwjagt and Peet 1985). The most complexsystems have been developed in Canada andthe United States (Deeming et al. 1978) thatcombine measures of fuel, topography,weather, and risk of ignition to provide indexesof fire occurrence or fire behavior, which canbe used either separately or combined toproduce a single index of fire load.

While a single fire danger index may beuseful to provide early warning of wildfireactivity over broad areas, it is impossible tocommunicate a complete picture of the dailyfire danger with a single index. Therefore, it isnecessary to break a fire danger rating into itsmajor components to appreciate where earlywarning systems for single factors fall into theoverall picture of fire danger rating. These,relating to fire precursors, fall into three broadcategories of (i) changes in fuel load; (ii)changes in fuel availability or combustion; and(iii) changes in weather variables that influencefire behavior (spread and intensity).

Warning Regarding Fire PrecursorsChanges in Fuel Load

In all fire danger ratings, fuel load is assumedto be constant although specific fuelcharacteristics may be formulated for specificvegetation types or for specific fuel models.These fuel models may overlook major shifts in

total fuel loads, which may be changing overperiods of decades or even centuries. Fuelchanges start immediately after the cessationof cultural or agricultural burning. This changeusually runs in parallel with increasedsuppression efficiency whereby small fires undermoderate fire danger conditions are suppressedearly in their life. In this situation, one may belulled into a false sense of security because thepotential for high-intensity forest fires is notmanifest except in extreme weather.

Thus, the first element of early warning fora potential fire risk is a major shift in the totalforest fuel complex toward denser forests, witha large build-up of surface debris and a changein vulnerability of the population by living moreintimately with these fuels.

Fuel Availability

The seasonal change in fuel availability asfuels dry out during the onset of the fire dangerperiod sets the stage for severe wildfires. Underdrought conditions more of the total fuelcomplex is available for combustion. Deep litterbeds and even organic soils may dry out andbecome combustible. Large fuels such asdowned logs and branches may burn completely.Drought stress on living vegetation not onlyreduces the moisture content of the green foliagebut also dried plant matter such as leaves andbark can be shed, adding to the total load ofthe surface fuel. In extreme droughts, moistareas such as swamps dry out and are no longera barrier to the spread of fires as might beexpected in a normal fire season. Long-termmoisture deficiency in itself cannot be used toforecast critical fire situations because if thesmaller fine fuels are wet or green, serious fireswill not occur at any time of the year.39

However, most devastating fires occur whensevere fire weather variables are combined withextreme drought.

It is impossible tocommunicate a

complete pictureof the daily firedanger with asingle index

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 137

Fire Behavior

The fire spread component of FDRSs isdesigned to combine the weather elementsaffecting fire behavior and provide a predictionof how fires will change hourly during the day.Most indexes use 24-hour rain, and dailyextremes or hourly measurements oftemperature, relative humidity, and wind speedto predict the rate of spread of forest fires. Insome systems, notably the US National FireDanger Rating System and the Canadian FireWeather Index System, indexes of fire spreadare combined with a long-term measure ofdrought to provide an index of the totalseverity of the fire. This is termed a BurningIndex in the United States system or a FireWeather Index in the Canadian system.

Fire spread indexes are essentially weatherprocessors (Andrews 1991) and the datarequired to provide early warning of severe fireconditions depend primarily on the ability toprovide adequate space and time forecasts ofthe weather.

The synoptic systems that are likely toproduce severe fire weather tend to be wellknown but the ability to predict their onsetdepend largely on the regularity of movementand formation of atmospheric pressure systems.In Australia, the genesis of severe fire weathersynoptic systems has, at times, been recognizedup to three days in advance; more often lessthan 24 hours warning is available before theseverity of fire weather variables can bedetermined. Extended and long-range forecastscontain greater uncertainty, and there is lessconfidence in fire severity forecasts at these timescales.

Even so, these forecasts are useful in firemanagement in that they can be used to developcontingency plans, that is, developing options,but not to implement them until the forecastsare more certain.

As improved fire behavior models forspecific fuel types are developed, there is anincreasing need to separate the functions of firedanger and fire spread (Cheney 1991). Aregional fire weather index based on either firespread or suppression difficulty in a standardfuel type and uniform topography is requiredto provide public warnings, set fire restrictions,and establish levels of readiness for firesuppression. At a local level, fire spread modelsthat predict the development and spread of afire across the landscape through differenttopography and through a number of fuel typesare required for prescribed burning,suppression planning, and tactical operations.However, these systems can be confusing on abroader scale by providing too much detail.They may be influenced by atypical variationof critical factors at the measuring site and maylose the broad-scale appreciation of regional firedanger that is required for early warningpurposes.

Different Variables and DifferentModelsThe basic variables used in virtually all FDRSsare rain, temperature, and humidity. Moresophisticated fire danger rating systems alsoincorporate data on fuel types, land-use patterns,and other variables.

A basic FDRS is indicated in the ORHAPfor the ASEAN region because of its cost-effectiveness and minimal data requirements.Moreover, nearly all large-scale fires in theregion are caused by direct human intervention.A blunt measure of fire danger rating is moreappropriate and cost-effective in this contextthan a sophisticated one.

Incorporating data on fuel types, land-usepatterns, and other variables significantlyincreases the cost of operating FDRSs, since itexpands data requirements and requires

Most indexes use24-hour rain,

and dailyextremes or

hourlymeasurements of

temperature,relative humidity,and wind speedto predict the

rate of spread offorest fires

138 THE PROGRAM

frequent updating of nonmeteorological data.The increased cost of a sophisticated FDRS isdifficult to justify in a context of deliberatesetting of fires, since the level of activity ofperpetrators closely tracks increases in drynessand temperature, which create conditions idealfor burning of biomass generated from land-clearing. In such a context, perpetrator activityis only distantly related to fuel type. As for land-use patterns, the only reliable relationshipbetween these and perpetrator activity is thatspecific geographic areas have been earmarkedfor land conversion. Obviously, such areas facea higher risk of deliberately set fires than doareas not slated for land clearing.

Data on the three important weathervariables required for operating a basic FDRSare routinely collected by ASEAN’s network ofground stations. The most cost-effective meansof investing in a FDRS for the region appearsto be to upgrade reporting of the data collected,and if appropriate, expand or upgrade theexisting network of ground stations. This wouldallow an operable and reliable regionwideFDRS to be put in place in the shortest possibletime. Upgrading the system to includeadditional variables such as fuel types and land-use patterns could be undertaken later, if this isdeemed appropriate in the face of changingcircumstances.

The Keetch-Byram Drought Index

There are several bookkeeping methods ofmonitoring the seasonal development ofdrought. The Keetch-Byram (1968) DroughtIndex (KBDI) is a number representing thenet effect of evapotranspiration and precipitationin producing a cumulative measure of moisturedeficiency in the deep duff and soil layers. It isa continuous index, which can be related to thechanges in fuel availability mentioned above andthe occurrence of severe fires. The index has

proven to be a useful early warning tool and isnow incorporated into the US National FireDanger Rating System (Pyne et al. 1996) andAustralian Forest Fire Danger Rating System(McArthur 1967).

ASMC currently generates short- to medium-range weather forecasts daily and compiles andupdates the regional rainfall data charts weekly.It can therefore forecast the location of dry spotsin the region that would potentially be subjectto heightened risk of forest fires. This data andinformation can be used in the operation of abasic early warning system, such as the KBDI,a simplified variant of which may serve the needsof the ASEAN region, given current conditionsand constraints.

Basic FDRSs based on the KBDI are alreadyin operation in two high-risk areas of Indonesia.

IFFM has institutionalized a KBDI-typesystem in East Kalimantan. KBDI also formsthe basis of the system used by FFPCP basedin Palembang, Sumatra. ASMC has beencalculating the KBDI for both Sumatra andKalimantan using rainfall data from selectedstations in Indonesia. Operation of KBDI-basedsystems in these pilot areas over several yearsdemonstrates that such a system can besustained in high-risk areas of the region(Schindler 1998b).

However, establishing and operating aKBDI-based FDRS on an ASEAN-wide basisis limited by two factors. First, the system mustbe adopted on a regionwide basis. Thisconstraint can be easily addressed under theumbrella of an ASEAN-wide agreement on firesand haze, provided it is agreeable to all of themember states. To be effective, such anagreement, including any provisions relatingto regional cooperation in operating the FDRS,would have to be unanimously adopted.

The second constraint is that data must beprovided on a regular and timely basis by

Data on the threeimportant

weather variablesrequired for

operating a basicFDRS areroutinely

collected byASEAN’s

network ofground stations

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 139

national-level government agencies. Theaccuracy of the regional FDRS would greatlydepend on timely reporting of weather data.All AMCs are now collecting data on the threebase meteorological variables required foroperating a KBDI-based system. However, theabsence of a satisfactory formal arrangementto ensure regular relaying of such data to ASMChas been a problem. This results in unevenreporting of data to ASMC, and wide variationin the timeliness of reports.

In the absence of data from verifiedobservations, ASMC must “fill in” the missingdata by interpolation or estimation. Thisproblem can be overcome by putting into placeformal arrangements for reporting of the relevantdata to ASMC.

Rainfall Deficit

Rainfall deficit is used as a local area earlywarning indicator. As the maximumtemperature and relative humidity in thetropical areas are almost constant, then theinformation content of any warning index isincreased minimally by incorporating thesemeasures. The most important and probablythe only important parameter will be rainfall.An alternative simpler index with moreinformation than KBDI would be the 30-dayrunning mean rainfall.

It is the variation from normal or averageconditions that signals when warnings needto take place.

Relative rainfall deficit would becomprehensible to the public as it takes intoaccount the environment of the area and itsbehavior. It relates to the community’sexperience of dryness and could be observedand calculated by simply having a rain gaugeand keeping records, thus opening up theprospect of grassroots participation andownership.

Other Indexes

Other similar drought indexes used elsewhereinclude the drought code component of theCanadian Fire Weather Index System, AustralianMount Soil Dryness Index (Mount 1972), andDrought Index used in France (Goldammer1997c).

Although drought indexes can be built intoa broader FDRS, they are most effective as anearly warning system when they are maintainedseparately and charted to illustrate theprogressive moisture deficit for a specificlocation. This allows the fire manager tocompare the current season with historicalrecords of past seasons. The fire manager canalso make associations between level of droughtindex and levels of fire that are specific to theregion. This overcomes the problems causedby variation of both forest and soil type, whichcan mask the recognition of severe droughtwhen a drought index is applied across broadareas.

Regular charting of bookkeeping-type systemssuch as KBDI or the Mount Soil Dryness Indexare particularly useful in monitoring the effectsof below-average rainfall during the normal wetor winter season. Moisture deficits from theprevious dry season may be carried over towinter. As the next fire season develops, highlevels of drought may occur early in the seasonwhen, under the normal seasonal pattern, largeand intense fires rarely occur. In some parts ofthe world, there are indexes that indicate thechanges in the global circulation patterns, whichmay provide warning as much as six to ninemonths in advance of dry conditions. One ofthese is the ENSOI.

Initiative on a FDRS for the Region

CIDA is reviewing the possibility ofsupporting establishment of a KBDI-basedFDRS.40 If adopted, the CIDA initiative could

Relative rainfalldeficit would becomprehensibleto the public as it

takes intoaccount the

environment ofthe area and its

behavior

140 THE PROGRAM

be a welcome means of extending the existingpilot KBDI-based systems (or a simplifiedvariant of them such as the Rainfall Debtproposed in the ADTA 2999 final report, whichtakes dryness41 as the predictor) to AMCs, bystages.

SRFA-Sumatra is a likely candidate for thelaunching of the systems. Training of themeteorological staff in the use of a commonindex will be a relatively easy affair (see alsoAppendix 4).

Large-Scale Fire Management Assistance

If a wildfire occurs in spite of the earlywarning system and the preventive measurestaken by the authorities, the monitoring systemshould then be able to detect the fire and begintracking changes in its status. The system shouldfirst determine the precise location of the fire,so that fire management resources can bequickly deployed to the fire site. The systemshould then track any spread of the fires andresulting haze, in order to assist national andregional authorities in managing the fire, andactivate any pre-established haze responsesystems.

The important technical assistance activitiesthat comprise an appropriate fire-and-hazedetection and tracking system include thefollowing.

Intensive Surveillance

Aerial surveillance can be used to detect forestfires when they are still too small to be pickedup via satellite imagery. Aerial surveillancerepresents a first line of defense. The majordrawback is its cost compared to other meansof detecting fires.

However, aerial surveillance can be cost-effective under certain circumstances,particularly when it is targeted to relatively smallgeographic areas facing the highest risk of fire.42

A pilot program of aerial surveillance wasconducted with UNEP assistance in Riauprovince of Indonesia, under the auspices of theSRFA-Sumatra. The use of SPOT imagery tofurther support SRFA-Sumatra’s aerialsurveillance program is being explored via aRHAP initiative supported by UNEP. It isplanned that the aerial surveillance program willbe further supported by ground surveillanceunder the pilot FSMP for SRFA-Sumatra. SRFA-Borneo is, meanwhile, considering its own aerialsurveillance program.

Ground surveillance, which would ideally beused to complement aerial surveillance, is oflimited effectiveness in some areas of theASEAN region, since it directly depends onthe availability of road or river transport.However, ground surveillance can be highlycost-effective in areas where transportinfrastructure is relatively well developed, orpopulation densities are high.

In addition to using satellite imagery,ASEAN’s monitoring system for detecting andtracking fires and haze should includeinformation from ground stations on weatherconditions (visibility, weather type, andtemperature), ideally reported at three- to six-hour intervals. These reports should also be usedto keep fire management authorities abreast ofchanges in the status of particular forest fires,and to help support confirmation from theground of hot spot and haze information derivedfrom satellite imagery.

An appropriate monitoring system for theregion would also detect, track, and predictmovements of haze generated from wildfires.The negative impacts of haze on human healthcan be greatly reduced if communities at riskare given even minimal advance warning ofhaze. For the region’s monitoring system to beable to give such warnings, it must be capableof performing haze transport modeling.

If a wildfireoccurs, in spite ofthe early warningsystem and the

preventivemeasures taken

by theauthorities, the

monitoringsystem shouldthen be able to

detect the fire andbegin trackingchanges in its

status

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 141

Transport Models

Haze transport modeling allowsmeteorologists to predict the areas likely to beaffected by haze, and the concentration (or insome cases, even the composition) of emissionsin downwind areas of large-scale fires. In orderto perform haze transport modeling, theregion’s monitoring system must possess twodistinct types of capability. First, it needs theexpertise and facilities to run the haze transportmodels; second, it needs high-quality data toensure accuracy of atmospheric diffusion models(e.g., wind velocity and direction, precipitation,rate of emission of pollutants, pollutant releaseheight, and particle size).

ASEAN’s capacity to perform haze transportmodeling is constrained by lack of suchcapabilities.

The WMO Workshop on RegionalTransboundary Smoke and Haze in SoutheastAsia, held in Singapore on 2-5 June 1998,recognized the need to enhance regionalcapabilities to provide improved predictions ofdaily smoke trajectories and dispersion forecastsby the use of atmospheric transport models(ATMs). This would help improve understandingof atmospheric pollution in the region. Sincemost ATMs have been developed in otherregions, models have to be adapted to AMCs.

Several aspects such as location of fires, andsource intensity characterization will have tobe improved.

During the haze of 1997-1998, ASMC usedATMs to generate smoke trajectory forecastsand distributed the forecasts to the AMCsthrough the ASMC Intranet. At the WMOmeeting, the need for AMCs to have a strongregional monitoring network for fires and haze,and an upgrading of ASMC and NMS, wasstressed. It was also highlighted that there hasto be improved capability for atmospherictransport modeling.

Atmospheric Pollution and Health Impact

of Haze

The nature and severity of the smokeemission, the direction and velocity of itsdispersion, its persistence and duration(atmospheric residence-lifetime), the height atwhich it resides, its impacts on the economyand society, and smoke attenuation areinfluenced by various factors and these formthe specifics of haze monitoring.

The nature and chemistry of the smoke, itsparticulate conversion ratio43 and carbonmonoxide/carbon dioxide ratio44 in haze as wellas its impact on visibility are influenced by thefuel type and the interaction of haze with otheratmospheric pollutants. These in turn definePSI/API.

Wind movement and velocity and otherclimatic factors decide the residence time ofhaze over the atmosphere.

But a considerable amount of research is stillneeded to fully understand the hazephenomenon.

The negative impacts of haze on humanhealth are closely related to the density andchemical composition of the emissions thatescape from large-scale fires. During and afterthe 1997 haze disaster, most AMCs carried outstudies of the health impacts on theirpopulations. Most of these studies matched airquality monitoring data with haze-relatedcomplaints of patients visiting hospitals,emergency rooms, or clinics during or shortlyafter the haze.

In addition to generating valuable data thatassist the formulation of haze response systems,the results of these studies provided a basis forestimating the economic, financial, and socialcosts of exposure to haze.

While this aspect of monitoring of fires andhaze may at first appear to be of secondaryimportance, it is ultimately the cost of these

The negativeimpacts of haze

on human healthare closely relatedto the density and

chemicalcomposition of

the emissions thatescape from

large-scale fires

142 THE PROGRAM

disasters to the region that justifies investmentsin fire prevention, management, andmonitoring. Estimating the costs of fire andhaze thus provides important information tothe region’s decision makers in determiningappropriate levels of investment to be made toprevent or reduce the impacts of such events.

Many of the data sets generated by thenational-level studies on the health impacts ofhaze are disaggregated by a wide range ofvariables (e.g., age, gender, occupationalcategory, income, days of work lost, and daysof healthy life lost). The data set generated bythe bilateral program of WHO in Indonesia isparticularly valuable, since it includes a largenumber of observations of haze-related healthcomplaints, some of which are derived fromgeographic areas considerably closer to thesource of emissions than those generated bystudies in other AMCs. Regionwidecomparison of the results of these studies wouldbe desirable, since this would improve theregion’s understanding of how the healthimpacts of haze change when it is transportedover relatively long distances. Such studies arecandidate initiatives under the ORHAP’smonitoring component, which would beundertaken by national- and regional-levelinstitutions.

Haze Warning System

A warning system for haze relies on theability to predict deterioration in visibility inany place for as long as weather forecastingskills will permit. The most basic forecastingtool is a box model that accepts the generatedsmoke into a fixed volume of air.

ASMC is the primary institution thatproduces regional haze prediction. The airquality monitoring capabilities of national-levelenvironmental protection agencies also enableAMCs to implement public health haze response

systems, or to inform affected communities ofappropriate steps to take in reducing thenegative health impacts during fires and haze.The capacity of the NMS to perform all of theabove roles allows them to directly support theirnational governments in implementing therespective NHAPs and any pre-established hazeresponse systems.

Air Quality and Pollution Indexes

Weather and atmospheric aspects are closelylinked, and there is an obvious relationshipbetween atmospheric changes and climaticchanges.

Among the many components under theGCOS program of WMO, there is one programknown as the Global Atmospheric Watch(GAW). The aim of this program is to providedata, scientific assessments, and otherinformation on the atmospheric compositionand related physical characteristics of thebackground atmosphere from all parts of theglobe.

The measurement program includesgreenhouse gases, ozone, radiation and opticaldepth, precipitation chemistry, chemical andphysical properties of aerosols, reactive gases,radionuclides, and related meteorologicalparameters. There is a GAW station located atBukit Koto Tabang, Indonesia.

In addition to the WMO-GAW station,another source of air quality data comes fromlocal environmental agencies. Many suchagencies in AMCs operate a local network ofmonitoring stations within their country,which measure standard pollutants. In somecountries, the measurements are automatedand online, which have improved the efficiencyof the data collection. The data are used tocalculate a pollution index, either the PSI orAPI.

PSI is based on a set of criteria devised by

Estimating thecosts of fire and

haze thus providesimportant

information to theregion’s decision

makers indetermining

appropriate levelsof investment to

be made toprevent or reduce

the impacts ofsuch events

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 143

the US Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). A PSI value of 100 equals legal air qualitystandard (or limit) and is based on risk to humanhealth (primary standard) or nonhuman health(animals, plants; secondary standard). Underthis system, the levels of key pollutants such assulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbonmonoxide, ozone, and respirable suspendedparticles (PM10) are used to come up with asingle index, the PSI. The PSI is a health-relatedindex, averaged over a 24-hour period, on ascale of 0-500 (see Box 8). API is a similarhealth related index being used in Malaysia. Theother AMCs use PSI.

Air quality data reported in standardizedformat using air pollution indexes assist theauthorities in implementing haze responsesystems. Even in the absence of pre-establishedresponse systems, air quality data provide aquantitative measure of risk that is easilyunderstood by the general population. Airquality data reporting should thus form anintegral part of the large-scale fire managementassistance component of ASEAN’s monitoringsystem. In some countries, e.g., Malaysia, theindex is also incorporated into the NHAP, whichstipulates appropriate action for different airquality levels.

Another potentially useful tool for analyzingfire-generated smoke sources, as detected ormonitored by space-borne sensors, is the rose-diagram technique (Brivio et al. 1997). Inconjunction with trajectory analysis, this spatialanalysis technique allows the establishment ofrelationships between smoke pollution andpotential sources, e.g., wildfires vs. industrialpollution (IDNDR 1997).

In view of the meteorological influences onhaze and their health impacts, WMO and WHOhave been actively associated with the measurestaken to mitigate the haze problem.

As a response to the 1997-1998 fires and haze,

WMO convened a Workshop on RegionalTransboundary Smoke and Haze in SoutheastAsia on 2-5 June 1998, to prepare aninternationally supported plan to enhance thecapabilities of national weather and hydrologicalservices in transboundary haze issues. TheWorkshop recommendations included thefollowing:

• enhance regional capabilities to provideneeded meteorological support in the formof improved predictions of ENSO andclimate variability, and daily smoketrajectory and dispersion forecasts fromATMs;

• improve the ability to characterize fireactivity and track the movement of smokeand haze by strengthening present satellite-usage capabilities;

• strengthen regional monitoring efforts toassess the effects of smoke and haze onhuman health, to evaluate ecosystemimpacts, to help validate atmospherictransport models, and characterizeemission sources;

• enhance the existing monitoring networksto measure smoke and haze-relatedquantities including aerosol mass (PM2.5,PM10), visibility, optical depth, andmeteorological parameters. Two levels ofobserving stations are envisaged, a baselevel comprising fewer measurementparameters but with a high level ofconsistency across the network, and asecond level with a more comprehensivemeasurement suite. At selected sites,targeted chemical quantities includingaldehydes and other trace pollutants,aerosol composition, and ultravioletradiation are to be measured;

• establishment of additional monitoringstations at areas not presently covered byexisting networks (e.g., Kalimantan);

Air quality datareported in

standardizedformat using airpollution indexes

assist theauthorities inimplementinghaze response

systems

144 THE PROGRAM

• promotion of the development of the nextgeneration of satellites. The need fordedicated fire satellites to monitor firesmore precisely, and the use of space-borneradar for burned area and vegetationdryness assessment and of lidar45 systemsto measure the vertical distribution of tracegases and aerosols was underlined; and

• improve the management of smoke, haze,and other transboundary pollution throughenhanced efforts directed at improvedinformation exchange and coordination.Transboundary issues related to haze

pollution, among others, require studies on thenature and intensity of haze, nature of pollutants,and their effects; surveillance of incidences ofdiseases; health assessment studies and medicalemergency services; dissemination ofinformation; policies on haze mitigation; andregional cooperation and coordination ofactivities.

Ex Post Monitoring

Ex post monitoring documents the impactsand damages of fire and haze. Once the fireshave been extinguished, and haze pollutionindexes have fallen to more normal levels, expost monitoring is used to assess all the impactsof the fires and haze

Ex post monitoring of the impacts of fireincludes assessing the extent of land and forestarea burned. The least-cost means of estimatingthis is by using vegetation indexes derived fromsatellite imagery.46

From the assessment of total area burned,rough estimates of the economic and social costof the direct destruction resulting from the firesand haze can be made. Although the type andextent of ex post monitoring undertakendepends on the objective of the exercise,virtually all information produced is of use inmanaging future fires and haze. The major value

of ex post monitoring is that it assists decisionmakers in determining appropriate levels ofinvestment in fire management, monitoring,and prevention of the effects of fire and haze,and in rehabilitation initiatives, such asreforestation programs, that in part reverse theimpacts of these occurrences.

Different Initiatives

Several ex post monitoring initiatives relatingto the impacts of the 1997-1998 forest firesand haze are either underway or have beencompleted. The most extensive of theseinitiatives is a phased, three-year studyorganized jointly by CIFOR and ICRAF, bothlocated in Bogor, Indonesia. Financial assistancefor this study is being provided by the US, withcofinancing by the European Community andJapan.

The CIFOR/ICRAF initiative will usesatellite and (possibly) aerial digital photographyto determine the extent and distribution of theareas burned.

It will combine this information withsocioeconomic data collected by the twoorganizations to address the underlying causesof the fires. The study’s analysis of the causesof the fires will explore a number of areas,including forest policy, valuation of forestresources, fiscal incentives for forest conversion,and the adequacy of emergency responsecoordination.

A comprehensive assessment of the impactof the 1997-1998 fires in Indonesia has beencompleted by the ADB-financed ADTA inIndonesia. The results of this study werediscussed in Chapter 2.

Because the results of the ongoing andproposed studies are expected to be widelyapplicable, no additional investments by AMCgovernments in assessments of this type aredeemed necessary.

Once the fireshave been

extinguished, andhaze pollutionindexes have

fallen to morenormal levels,

ex postmonitoring is

used to assess allthe impacts of the

fires and haze

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 145

Improved Information Flow forMonitoringA detailed treatment of information needs offire and haze management is given later in thesection on Institutions. The purpose here is onlyto flag the crucial importance of precise andreliable information for effective monitoring offires and haze.

The ORHAP has assigned ASMC the leadrole in long-range climatological forecasting,early warning activities, and detection andmonitoring of fires and haze. As part of itsresponsibilities, ASMC must communicate theoutputs of these functions to the NMS.Conversely, many of ASMC’s activities rely onthe NMS for data inputs collected at thenational level. The NMS thus form an importantpart of the region’s monitoring systemnetwork. For these reasons, efficient flow ofinformation between ASMC and the NMS isnecessary.

The ASMC intranet, which was establishedin early 1998, is the focal point for informationexchange between ASMC and NMS. Over thepast two years, ASMC has made long-rangeclimate forecasts with the support of the NMS,and the results of these forecasts have been puton its intranet. ASMC regularly obtains long-range climatological forecasts from internationalclimate centers, updates the NOAA satelliteimages and hot spot information (if any) on adaily basis, and also places this information onthe intranet. In addition, ASMC provides windforecasts and trajectory tracks of pollutantsduring periods when large-scale fires threatenthe region.

While the ASMC intranet is capable ofmeeting the information requirements of eventhe upgraded version of the ASEAN-wideregional monitoring system proposed in theORHAP, its use is constrained by the high costinvolved. User access to the ASMC intranet is

currently via ordinary dialup telephone lines,which means that users must pay internationalcall rates in order to access the facility. Whendigitized, most of the satellite images are to beaccessed from large computer files, in somecases requiring a full hour to download.

The above constraint is being overcome asASMC upgrades its intranet to allow user accessvia an Internet link instead of dialup telephoneservices. Recent advances in Internet securitytechnology will allow ASMC to lower the cost ofNMS’ access to its products withoutcompromising computer security. This willgreatly reduce the cost of using the ASMCintranet, and encourage expansion of its use.

Monitoring Linkages

Once the ASMC intranet is upgraded to allowuse of the Internet instead of dialup access, allSRFA member countries will immediately haveaccess to all of the outputs of the ASEAN-wideregional monitoring system, making the linkagebetween the regional and subregional levelscomplete.

The linkages of monitoring activitiesbetween the subregional and national levels areimportant and have been discussed in the contextof the FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra. This is intendedto be used as a template for other such plans atthe subregional (and even the national) level,so the linkages involved would be similar.

Monitoring under the FSMP of

SRFA-Sumatra

In the process of formulating the FSMP forSRFA-Sumatra, complementary monitoringactivities to be carried out at the SRFA levelwill be identified and integrated into the plan.

To maximize the chances of the success ofthe FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra, several monitoringactivities should be carried out. First, pollutionindexes across SRFA-Sumatra member

The ASMCintranet, which

was established inearly 1998, is the

focal point forinformation

exchangebetween ASMC

and NMS

146 THE PROGRAM

countries should be harmonized. Since allAMCs use PSI as the standard (apart fromMalaysia, which uses API), standardization ofthe PSI and API will not only benefit the SRFA-Sumatra member countries, but the entireregion.

Harmonization of pollution indexes is not thesame as standardization. Standardization impliesthat all SRFA-Sumatra (or ASEAN) membercountries adopt the same air pollution index.Standardization is, therefore, a much morestringent action than harmonization.Harmonization would merely involve creationof a table of equivalent values for PSI and theAPI, so that each given value on the PSI wouldhave a corresponding equivalent value on theAPI. This could be accomplished at a relativelylow cost.

To ensure that the FDRS estimates the riskof large-scale fires and haze in the region asaccurately as possible, an internationalagreement may be necessary in order to providethe legal basis and mandate for sharinginformation in a systematic and timely manner.The absence of this remains a serious constraintto the establishment of an effective monitoringsystem.

Finally, the algorithms used in the satellitedetection of hot spots should be harmonized,both for the ASEAN region as a whole, as wellas for existing (and future) SRFAs. Since atpresent, the algorithms used in hot spotdetection differ (e.g., the threshold temperatureat which a red-color hot spot indicator appearson the monitor), their harmonization wouldallow the region’s various satellite-based large-scale fire detection systems to be fully integrated.This would enhance hot spot detection andtracking capability at both the ASEAN andSRFA levels. The end result would be improvedefficiency in the positioning of fire managementresources on the ground in the region’s most

fire-and-haze prone areas. This in turn wouldreduce both the prevalence of, and the cost of,managing forest fires and haze in the ASEANregion.

Regional Monitoring Network

The centerpiece of the ORHAP’s monitoringprogram is a network of national- and regional-level institutions that include ASMC, the AMCs’national meteorological agencies, and relatedagencies such as the national-level aerospaceand technological agencies. Together, theyreceive and collect the latest information on firesand transboundary haze; where local capabilitiesare available, they will undertake analysis andprocessing of the data; and finally disseminatethe outputs to concerned agencies and nationalauthorities for appropriate action. Under themonitoring program, upgrading of the national-level agencies will occur, with emphasis beingplaced on communication links with ASMC,for enhancing two-way exchange of data andinformation.

One of the most critical areas of managementof fire and haze information is data exchangeand coordination. This is particularly true forinstitutions such as ASMC, which processinformation for the region. It is equallyimportant that output products of ASMC beefficiently disseminated to the NMSs. TheWMO Workshop held in Singapore, 2-5 June1998, recommended the enhancement of thesystem for dissemination of data products andother relevant information, through the use ofthe Global Telecommunication System (GTS)for meteorological data and gridded modeloutputs, and the Internet or intranet systemsfor nonstandard products. It also recommendedthat there be an increased exchange of criticalinformation on fires and haze, especially rainfalldata, air quality data, trajectory and dispersionforecasts, hot spot data, and climate forecast

An internationalagreement maybe necessary in

order to providethe legal basis

and mandate forsharing

information in asystematic andtimely manner

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 147

information. It also suggested that suchproducts be harmonized to support effectivereal-time decision making.

While ASMC will be the regional center forfire and haze information and forecasts, thereis an option for NMSs to seek input from otherRegional Specialized Meteorological Centers(RSMCs) through bilateral arrangements. Inthis way, NMS can further enhance informationexchanges by linking up with other national,regional, and international organizations andscientific programs, sharing common interests.

Role of ASMC

ASMC plays a lead role in detecting andmonitoring large-scale fires and haze in theregion. Its mitigation assistance activitiesinclude detecting and locating large-scale firesand haze, and predicting and tracking theirmovements using satellite imagery and itsexisting haze transport model. Once ASMCenhances its modeling capability further byusing a more advanced model, its role in large-scale fire management assistance will beconsiderably expanded.

In carrying out its large-scale firemanagement assistance activities, ASMC usesa suite of satellites for detecting and locatinghot spots and smoke plumes. The two NOAAsatellites currently in use orbit the earth aroundthe north and south poles. Upgrading of ASMC’ssystem to allow it to combine GIS techniqueswith its current hot spot detection capability isunder consideration. Relaying the exactcoordinates of detected fires to fire managementcommand posts on the ground would allowthem to be positioned for maximum efficiency.

In addition to the NOAA satellites, ASMCalso uses GMS, which produces an image ofthe same location every hour. This is useful totrack the spread of haze in the region. ASMCand other agencies are at present exploring

possibilities for using the DefenseMeteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)satellite, which can image nighttime fires invisible light.

Satellite imagery is the primary tool that ASMCuses to detect and locate fires, but this is only apart of the mitigation program. The other aspectis locating, tracking, and predicting themovements of haze resulting from large-scalefires.

To perform this task, ASMC must be capableof performing atmospheric transport modeling.This capability would also allow it to monitorthe concentration of the particulate matter thatmakes up haze pollution, which is whatultimately has an impact on human health. Butupgrading of ASMC’s capability in hazetransport modeling and monitoring will onlyproduce maximum benefits if complementarycapabilities at the national level are alsoupgraded.

Strengthening of ASMC

Successful implementation of the ORHAP’smonitoring component requires a strongregional network of national-levelhydrometeorological institutions. Prior tocommencement of ADB’s RETA Project, asignificant amount of progress had already beenachieved by ASEAN in formulating andestablishing this network. ASMC had alreadybeen designated as the institution to serve asthe hub of this network and as the regionalmonitoring center for land and forest fires andtransboundary haze. It has computing resourcesand systems available to perform a range ofmonitoring activities, from detecting land andforest fires using satellite imagery to forecastingthe spread and development of thetransboundary haze in the region using ATMs.To enable ASMC to disseminate these processedproducts to the AMCs, it has set up an intranet

While ASMC willbe the regional

center for fire andhaze information

and forecasts,there is an optionfor NMS to seekinput from other

RegionalSpecialized

MeteorologicalCenters through

bilateralarrangements

148 THE PROGRAM

system. The project activities, therefore,included a program for further strengtheningASMC.

In order to upgrade ASMC’s capability, asignificant amount of donor support has beencatalyzed, particularly in three key areas: long-range climatological forecasting, monitoring oftransboundary haze pollution, and haze transportmodeling.47 PARTS has been an effective vehiclefor upgrading the links of ASMC with nationallevel hydrometeorological institutions.

ASMC’s access to the supercomputer at theMeteorological Service of Singapore wouldtheoretically allow it to run any computer-basedmeteorological model in existence. However,the center has yet to use such models. Thiscapability will be improved via one of thesubprojects under the US-funded SEA-EI.Under this subproject (Climate ImpactForecasting—Climate Information System forSoutheast Asia), a state-of-the-art regionalclimate change model will be installed at ASMC.On-the-job training at ASMC, secondments, andexchange visits of ASMC staff to the facilitiesof NOAA, which is the agency implementingthe subproject, have been proposed.

ASMC already has the capability to forecastlong-term weather variations (e.g., ENSO)from analysis of statistics. No upgrading of thestatistical forecasting capability is thereforerequired for the region to produce long-rangeforecasts of this type.

For its own part, ASMC will extend itstraining program for staff from nationalmeteorological institutions of AMCs.

Strengthening of NMSs

The NMS have varying capacities to carryout collection, processing, and dissemination ofinformation on fires and transboundary haze.Basically, each NMS is responsible for collectingfire and haze data in its own country. This is

usually performed through institutionsestablished by WMO, which sets guidelines andbasic requirements of systems needed to exchangedata between its member countries. At thenational level, each member country establishesits own weather-observing network to fulfil itsneeds. As a result, the more advanced NMS inthe region, such as that in Thailand, have anefficient system to collect meteorological datainclusive of ground and satellite data. Thecountries with lesser developed NMS, e.g., theLao PDR, have a limited capacity to collectmeteorological data from its network of landstations and no means of reception of satellitedata. There is a need to strengthen the capacitiesof the NMS to provide timely warnings andforecasts needed to anticipate fires and haze, andthus to assist decisions made to carry outappropriate action plans.

As remote sensing to detect land and forestfires provides an invaluable source of fireinformation, NMS have called for the settingup of backup facilities in the event of failure oftheir systems.

In addition to remote sensing informationon fire and haze, it is also necessary to collectrelevant information from the ground. Groundmeasurements provide an indication of theexposure of the population to haze pollution,affecting their health. The ground measurementsalso serve as a basis for the issuance of lowvisibility warnings for land transport, seanavigation, and air travel. Other reasons includethe usage of such data for validating ATMs aswell as verifying of remotely sensed parameters.

The information gathering capacity supportsthe NMS’ initiatives to forecast smoke and haze.There are three types of forecasts: long-,medium-, and short-term. Long-term forecastsare associated with improved predictions of ENSOand climate variability. Medium-term forecastsrefer to monthly or quarterly forecasts. Short-term

In order toupgrade ASMC’s

capability, asignificant

amount of donorsupport has been

catalyzed,particularly in

three key areas:long-range

climatologicalforecasting,

monitoring oftransboundaryhaze pollution,

and hazetransportmodeling

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 149

forecasting is linked to daily smoke trajectory anddispersion forecasts from ATMs and thecorresponding Numerical Weather Prediction(NWP) models that provide the input data forthe ATMs. While there is no capacity in the regionto run climate models, regional NMS see thepotential for developing customized local medium-and long-term climate products to predict effectsof ENSOs on their country. One suggestion is toestablish climate centers within AMCs to producemore frequent updates of the climate forecastsand disseminate them through the Internet.

NMS have expressed interest in runningATMs to produce their own short-term forecastsof smoke and haze trajectories and dispersion.However, the accuracy of such forecasts islinked with the accuracy of the NWP inputwinds that drives the ATM. To improve theperformance of the ATM, it is desirable to useNWP input winds from a high-resolution LocalArea Model (LAM). Currently, ASMC producestrajectory and dispersion forecasts using windsfrom a LAM that it runs daily at the center.

The importance of ensuring national-levelcapability for monitoring forest fires and hazehas already been underscored in several contexts.The need is to improve the capability,emphasizing a system that can cover vast areassimultaneously. The geographic andadministrative division of the country isimportant in this regard.

Provincial Level

Provincial level monitoring capabilityshould be aimed at decision makers. At thislevel, monitoring should be more accurate,and relayed faster. It will often be difficult toconduct monitoring directly at the provinciallevel due to vast areas involved. In nationaland provincial levels, use of NOAA satellitereceivers supplemented by GMS and LandSatis feasible.

Local Level

Monitoring at the local level is divided intotwo categories, based on assignment ofresponsibility: local village communities and firecontrol groups. In the first, monitoring isemphasized as a community effort in preventingfires. To carry out monitoring at the local level,the following are required: basic data (detailedtopographic map of 1:50.000 or smaller scale);an observation tower to locate fire position;ground positioning system to find and map thefire location; flags and appropriate equipmentto determine speed and direction of wind atthe fire location; and the necessary skills toanalyze fire behavior.

Program Support

The ORHAP’s monitoring programprovides for strengthening capacity of NationalMeteorological Institutions by sponsoring andfinancing training programs. NMS’ informationmanagement capacity needs to be expanded toprovide weather forecasts as an essential partof a National Early Warning System (NEWS).

These capacities include (i) its extensivenetwork of weather stations; (ii) its linkageswith international meteorological organizationsinvolved in global weather forecasting; (iii) itsnetwork of radiosonde (sound radio) soundingstations; and (iv) its research and climatemodeling capabilities.

Because of its recent fire and haze problems,Indonesia needs to strengthen institutions suchas BMG.

Further, there is need for a network ofprovincial fire management centers withcomputer facilities able to access and analyzeweather and fire information derived fromnational and international sources. Eachprovince should maintain a “Provincial FireDanger Index” and regularly inform the publicof fire danger conditions.

While there is nocapacity in theregion to run

climate models,regional NMS seethe potential for

developingcustomized local

medium- andlong-term climate

products topredict effects ofENSOs on their

country

150 THE PROGRAM

Consultative Group on Satellite Detection

of Fire

This regional group consists of remotesensing experts from MACRES, LAPAN,CRISP, ASMC, UNEP, NOAA, andrepresentatives from WMO andUN-ESCAP. They meet regularly to discuss anddevelop applications using new remote sensingtechnologies to detect land and forest fires inthe region.

Two meetings of the group were held inASMC and issues discussed included theharmonization of hot spot algorithms, alayperson’s definition of hot spot, anddevelopment of a GIS for a fire danger ratingindex.

Focus of International Assistance

One of the main international assistanceprograms to strengthen fire and hazemonitoring is PARTS, which materialized inresponse to a request by the Subcommittee onMeteorology and Geophysics of the ASEANCommittee on Science and Technology (see alsoInternational Assistance in Chapter 3).

Under its first component, relating to satelliteusage, NOAA will help to upgrade thecapabilities of ASMC and regional NMSthrough technology transfer and training. Thiswill strengthen present capabilities and preparethe region for the use of the next generation ofsatellite products. First, it will provide softwareand training on the Automated Biomass BurnAlgorithm (ABBA) to ASMC to do hot spotanalysis using data from the NOAA AVHRR.In addition, it will provide software compatiblewith the new Japanese Multi-functionalTelecommunication Satellite (MTS), when itis launched. NOAA will also make availabledata from the Defense Meteorological SatelliteProgram (DMSP), which has the capacity todetect fires. This will include software and

training. In addition, it will develop softwareto measure optical depth using NOAA AVHRRdata for input into the ATMs.

Under its second component—modeling oflong-range transport of smoke, haze, and otherpollutants—NOAA will install ATMs, inparticular the HYSPLIT model, in ASMC andportable versions in selected NMS.

The aim is to help ASMC and NMS toacquire the capability to better utilizetransport and trajectory models to estimatepollution dispersion, deposition, and weather.Activities include a workshop on long-rangetransport modeling, installation of operationalmodels at ASMC and selected NMS, atraining workshop for NMS on the use ofthese models, and a short course in thegeneral area of air quality modeling andatmospheric chemistry.

Under the third component48 —monitoringstrategy for regional smoke, haze, andtransboundary pollution for ensuring meaningfulinputs into long-range transport models—it isnecessary to select appropriate sites and identifyvariables for monitoring. One importantvariable is the optical depth. To address this,NOAA’s Air Resource Laboratory (ARL) willinstall portable optical depth devices at selectedNMS.

In addition, WMO will launch a GAW49

aerosol program within AMCs. The regionalIGBP START Secretariat in Bangkok providesa location to focus some of the activities. Thebasic elements of the Aerosol Project in SoutheastAsia include the following.

(a) measurement of PM associated withhaze and health concerns (e.g., PM2.5

and PM10), with chemical compositionat a number of sites, taking advantageof existing GAW stations in the region;

(b) measurement of aerosol optical depthusing shadow-band radiometers; and

One of the maininternational

assistanceprograms to

strengthen fireand haze

monitoring isPARTS

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 151

(c) augmented measurements of gas phasecomponents (e.g., sulfur dioxide, ozone,carbon monoxide, etc.) using passivesamplers (with analysis carried out atexisting laboratories involved inprecipitation chemistry analysis) to helpinterpret the aerosol data, and to helpcharacterize the chemical compositionof the haze.

Yet another assistance project, outside ofPARTS, is of the USAID Office of ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA) supportingADPC in Thailand, to improve access toclimate-related information to be used bydecision makers, program designers, andimplementers for improved disastercontingency planning.

Activities include the development of aclimate information system that will improveclimate forecasting and access by regionalinstitutions in Asia to help them either tomitigate negative impacts or take advantage ofpositive impacts of climate variations. Theprogram will also include training specific toclimate variability impacts.

A project on environmental monitoringfunded by USAID and implemented by the EPAincludes the provision of technical assistanceand training to regional governments to developan early warning system to predict air qualityproblems.

It will also include the development of apollution index as a common standard formeasuring air quality in the region (PSI/API).This will help with data exchange of air qualityindexes between AMCs and enhance publicawareness of air pollution.

All these efforts will help to improve theregional understanding of atmosphericpollution and promote collaboration betweenASMC, ASEAN NMS, and internationalinstitutions.

International Involvement in Haze and

Health

Initiatives on the monitoring of haze areeither taking place or planned under theORHAP. Several international organizations areengaged in initiatives relating to health impactsof haze that will ultimately benefit the region.WHO has formulated guidelines (WHO HealthGuidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events)on transboundary atmospheric pollution for useworldwide, which may be applicable to theregion in formulating haze response systems atthe national, subregional, or regional levels.

Other donor agencies are directly analyzingthe health impacts of transboundary haze thataffected the ASEAN region during 1997. Oneof the subprojects under the US-financedSEA-EI will advance regional understanding ofthe chemical composition of transboundaryhaze produced during 1997, particularly withrespect to the negative impacts of the haze onhuman health, and analyze the risk factorsassociated with adverse health impacts. This isa cooperative effort linking the national ministriesof health in a number of AMCs, the MalaysiaInstitute of Medical Research, and the IndonesianNational Institute of Health Research andDevelopment, with the CDC (US). A particularfocus is to identify respiratory and cardiacconditions warranting further investigationwithin the participating countries.

Under its bilateral program, GTZ isundertaking an initiative to analyze the healthimpacts of the 1997 fires and haze in Indonesia.This study has since been linked with the healthimpacts of haze project sponsored by the ImpactsCenter for Southeast Asia in Bogor, Indonesia.

A three-year study funded by the AustralianGovernment and carried out by theCommonwealth Scientific and IndustrialResearch Organisation (CSIRO) will analyzethe composition of emissions from the

WMO will launcha GAW aerosolprogram within

AMCs

152 THE PROGRAM

transboundary haze generated during 1997, andtheir impacts on human health. This analysiswill form one part of a broader initiative thatincludes other sources of emissions such aspower and industrial plants, motor vehicles, andopen burning. Although the study is still in itsearly stage, CSIRO expects that the results,which will focus on Malaysia, will also beapplicable to other AMCs.

Because of the number of initiatives, as wellas likely downstream financing that will resultfrom these, no additional investments inmonitoring of health impacts of haze are deemedto be required. What is required is to ensurethat the results of these studies are linked withex post monitoring initiatives that estimate thecost of recurrent fire and haze problems in theASEAN region. In aggregate, the estimatesfrom the ex post monitoring initiatives willprovide a rough guide to an appropriateminimum level of investment in preventing ormitigating the impacts of fires and haze in theregion. They will also indicate the investmentrequired to undo the negative impacts of thefires themselves (to the extent possible) viarehabilitation programs.

InstitutionsImportance and ScopeInstitutions and institutional instruments arevital for ensuring efficient conduct of plans,programs, and activities at all levels. Weakinstitutions lead to failures and unaccomplishedmissions.

A recent International Forum on Forest FireManagement in Southeast Asia found thatinstitutional weaknesses are a paramount factorcausing inefficiencies in forest fire management(BAPPENAS/JICA/ITTO 1999). The situationcalls for several measures to reorient andstrengthen institutions and institutionalinstruments to ensure integrated and sustainable

forest fire management, covering organizationalarrangements, regulatory and legal instruments,capacity building, donor collaboration andpartnerships, system or planning, andinformation management.

While the focus of this chapter is theinstitutional arrangements for the satisfactoryimplementation of the ORHAP, some of therelated concepts are discussed to indicate thescope and need for further institutionalenhancement.

Organizational Arrangements for theORHAPThe ORHAP is an “instrument” of ASEAN toaddress the environmental hazards repeatedlyfacing the region arising from fires and haze.

ASEAN is a formal and legal regional entity,an association of 10 Southeast Asian countries,with its own institutional arrangements—policies, legal instruments, organizationalstructure, coordinating mechanisms, definedroles and responsibilities for members, andsubregional groups. Therefore, any discussionof arrangements and assigning of responsibilitiesfor ORHAP will revolve around ASEANinstitutions and institutional instruments.

Responsibility for Forest Fires and Haze

While most countries have fire services orbrigades to attend to fires in cities, wharfs, andairports, etc., forest and land fires are attendedon a routine basis by a section (or subsection)of the Forest Service or National DisasterAgency. The meteorological and healthdepartments, meanwhile, are the ones mostconcerned with the haze and atmosphericpollution. But the system governing this hardlyexists or is extremely weak.

In regional organizations such as ASEAN,where countries are the members, it is oftennot possible, for practical reasons, to have

No additionalinvestments inmonitoring of

health impacts ofhaze are deemedto be required

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 153

elaborate sectoral units to correspond to thesystem of administration in member countries;and business is transacted through designatedfocal points, representing the institutionsresponsible for environmental management(including fires and haze).

Niche of the ORHAP within ASEAN

The structure of ASEAN and the system ofcombating fires and haze within itsorganizational structure are detailed below.

The ASEAN Secretariat

The ASEAN Secretariat was established in1976 to provide secretarial services to variouscommittees of ASEAN as well as to serve as acentral administrative machinery to coordinateand carry out ASEAN programs, projects, andactivities.

The Functional Coordination Bureau

The Bureau of Economic and FunctionalCooperation (BEFC) is one of the four majorbureaus that constitute the ASEAN Secretariat.The other bureaus include the Bureau of Trade,Industry and Services; Bureau of Investment,Finance and Surveillance; and Bureau ofProgram Coordination and External Relations.BEFC is headed by a Director who reports tothe Secretary General through the DeputySecretary General responsible for operations.The Director of BEFC is assisted by fiveAssistant Directors, one each for Agriculture,Food and Forestry; Environment; SocialDevelopment; Culture and Information; andScience and Technology. The AssistantDirectors are assisted by senior officers andother support staff. BEFC covers a widespectrum of activities coordinated by thefollowing five committees: ASOEN, ASEANCommittee on Social Development (ACSD),ASEAN Senior Officials on Drugs (ASOD),

COST, and ASEAN Committee on Culture andInformation (COCI).

COST and ASMC

COST is responsible for coordinating effortsin the field of science and technology. ASMC isunder the Subcommittee on Meteorology andGeophysics of COST and was established on2 January 1993, following an endorsement ofthe proposal for COST by the ASEAN StandingCommittee. It is colocated with the SingaporeMeteorological Services (SMS). A wide rangeof computer and information processingfacilities are available at ASMC. Facilitiesinclude the computer network of the SMS,UNIX graphics workstation, network stationand mainframe computer, and supercomputer.ASMC also shares a library, conference room,training room, and data archives with SMS.Since its establishment, ASEAN scientists haveconducted research and development work inASMC.

ASOEN and HTTF

ASOEN coordinates resource conservationand environmental protection, including suchaspects as environmental management; natureconservation and terrestrial ecosystems; industryand environment; urban environment; marineenvironment; environmental economics;transboundary pollution; environmentaleducation; training; and information.Established in 1989, ASOEN had six workinggroups to help coordinate regional programsand projects under its purview: (i) NatureConservation; (ii) ASEAN Seas and MarineEnvironment; (iii) Transboundary Pollution;(iv) Environmental Management; (v)Environmental Economics; and (vi)Environmental Information, Public Awareness,and Education. ASOEN reports to the ASEANEnvironmental Ministers Meeting, and in

Since itsestablishment,

ASEAN scientistshave conducted

research anddevelopment

work in ASMC

154 THE PROGRAM

parallel through the ASEAN StandingCommittee to the ASEAN Foreign Ministers.

In September 1998, ASOEN wasreorganized around three Working Groups andone Task Force:

• Working Group on Nature Conservation(chaired by the Philippines);

• Working Group on Marine and CoastalEnvironment (chaired by Thailand);

• Working Group on MultilateralEnvironment Agreements (chaired byMalaysia); and

• HTTF (chaired by Indonesia).The information services and products

generated by ASOEN consist of its periodicreports on its regular and informal meetings,and the reports of its Working Groups and TaskForces, including those of SRFAs.

Putting the ORHAP into operation andformulating a system for monitoring progress hasbeen left to HTTF, which has been given a widelatitude in interpreting the ORHAP document,and in shaping the region’s infrastructure forpreventing and monitoring forest fires and haze,and mitigating their impacts.

HTTF organizes its work around the threeORHAP programs: prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring. Prevention activities arecoordinated by HTTF-Malaysia. while HTTF-Indonesia is tasked with coordinating themitigation activities.

Monitoring activities are coordinated byHTTF-Singapore. HTTF has establishedWorking Groups on Subregional FirefightingArrangements—one for Sumatra and the otherfor Borneo.

Arrangements at the National Level

Institutional arrangements for variousfunctions relating to protection, mitigation, andmonitoring of forest fires and haze varyconsiderably among the AMCs.

Indonesia

Three separate national-level organizationsmanage forest and land fires in Indonesia.BAKORNAS PB (the National CoordinationAgency for Disaster Management), anintersectoral agency chaired by the CoordinatingMinister for Public Welfare, coordinates firemanagement when fires reach a magnitude atwhich they are declared national disasters (suchas those during 1997-1998). Inclusion of forestand land fires into the overall responsibility ofBAKORNAS PB is under consideration. Sofar, BAKORNAS PB has addressed all types ofdisasters other than fires. BAKORNAS PB alsohas counterpart agencies at the provincial anddistrict levels (SATKORLAK PB and SATLAKPB, respectively).

An interdepartment organization, theTKNPKHL (the National Coordinating Teamfor Land and Forest Fire Control Management)was established by the State Minister ofEnvironment. The membership of the team issimilar to that of BAKORNAS PB.TKNPKHL operates only at the national level,and is not mandated to operate at either theprovincial or the district level. BAPEDAL (theNational Environmental Impact ManagementAgency), which functions as the secretariat forthe TKNPKHL, used BAPEDALDA(BAPEDAL’s provincial-level counterpart) as itscontact point during the 1997-1998 fires.

The third fire organization,PUSDALKARHUTNAS (National Center forForest Fire Control) of MOFEC was establishedin 1995, following the large-scale fires of 1994.PUSDALKARHUTNAS mobilizes firefightersat the provincial, district, and field levels. Atthe provincial level, forest fire management istasked to PUSDALKARHUTLA, which fallsunder the responsibility of the ProvincialGovernor. At the district level, forest firemanagement is tasked to SATLAK

Putting theORHAP intooperation andformulating a

system formonitoring

progress has beenleft to HTTF

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 155

KEHUTANAN (District Forestry ResponseTeam for Fire Control), which falls under theresponsibility of the Bupati (regent).Membership at the provincial and district levelsis similar to that of the units under BAKORNASPB.

The absence of a single line organizationfor fire management in Indonesia has made firesuppression ineffective and inefficient.Suggestions have been put forward that anintegrated fire management system could bedeveloped under a single line organization thatis given the responsibility, authority, andadequate funding for fire suppression. AsMOFEC already has a significant degree of firemanagement capacity, it would seemappropriate for that agency to function as thecoordinating organization for agencies involvedin fire suppression at all levels.

Malaysia

Responsibility for fire management inSarawak, Malaysia, is distributed among threeagencies, whose efforts are closely coordinated:the Sarawak Forest Department (forest fireprotection measures, rehabilitation of fireburned areas); the Sarawak Natural Resourcesand Environment Board (NREB) (forimplementation of regulations under theNatural Resources and EnvironmentOrdinance); and the Fire and RescueDepartment of Malaysia (fire suppression).The distribution of responsibility (to take thelead role) is based on the technicalspecialization of the respective agencies.

The Natural Resources and EnvironmentOrdinance (amended up to 1 March 1998)specifies that open burning of refuse or othercombustible materials and use of any land todeposit refuse without permission are offenses.The relevant provision reads: “Any person who,without the written permission of the

Controller, cuts, destroys and burns vegetationin any area which is not a Native CustomaryLand, shall be guilty of an offence. Penalty: afine of thirty thousand ringgit and imprisonmentfor three years.”

The fire permit granted will specify the periodand extent covered, nature of permit, and theconditions to be complied with: e.g., thephasing of burning and the area to be burnedeach week, period within which burning is tobe completed, reduction of flame, precautionsto be taken, etc.

The Fire and Rescue Department is informedof all the fire permits granted. The Board itselfhas no trained firefighters. During 1997, a fewhundred fire permits were granted, coveringan area of 2,429 ha.

NREB monitors open burnings on a dailybasis to prevent their spread. It also monitorsthe level of atmospheric pollution. There arethree API machines installed in the border areasof Sarawak. In due course, the Board willestablish a fire danger warning system.

Other ASEAN Countries

The fire management structures in BruneiDarussalam, Philippines, and Singapore havedirect-line organizational structures. BruneiDarussalam has a specialized fire organization,the Brunei Fire Service. Other AMCs entrustfire responsibility to a department or a ministry.The Singapore Civil Defense Force (SCDF)under the Ministry of Home Affairs is thenational emergency authority providingemergency fire, rescue, and ambulance servicesall levels.

In the Philippines, forest fire managementfalls under the Environment Management Bureau(EMB) at the Department of Environment andNatural Resources (DENR). DENR staff arerepresented at all levels of government from thenational down to the community level.

The absence of asingle line

organization forfire managementin Indonesia has

made firesuppression

ineffective andinefficient

156 THE PROGRAM

Thus, in the AMCs, there are no separate firemanagement agencies. Since several agenciesshare the responsibility, coordination becomes aserious problem. As yet, there are noarrangements for single window coordination.

Proposals for Strengthening National

Organizations

At the national level, institutional weaknessesare a big factor causing inefficiencies in forestfire management. The situation calls formeasures to reorient and strengthen theinstitutions and institutional instruments forensuring integrated and sustainable forest firemanagement. Measures needed include:

• policy reforms for assigning appropriatepriority to forest fire management. Clearpolicies relating to land management andland clearance that take into account theland requirements for various purposes isan important aspect in this regard;

• revision/reformulation of laws, and theireffective implementation;

• informed and organized participation ofthe community;

• organizational reforms for effective andefficient functioning of sustainable forestmanagement, which would call fordefinition of clear functions, devolutionof responsibility and authority, meaningfuldecentralization, and smooth and speedyflow of information;

• NHAP to be in the form of acomprehensive and integrated NationalFire Plan within the overall framework ofa National Forest Program;

• adequate (and additional, as required)provision of funds for fire management isan important requirement and can beachieved through innovative measuressuch as objective-oriented taxes/charges,and targeted funding facilities;

• establishment of a national firemanagement unit, with wider scope andresponsibility, within the existing (orreformed) system of public forestadministration and/or a single-windowcoordinating mechanism, capable ofaddressing all situations; and

• national fire management guidelines andmanuals for component activities such asfire protection, prescribed burning,equipment maintenance, and firefightingoperations.

National Fire Management Institutions

Institutional development has been identifiedas the cornerstone of any efficient firemanagement system.

Organizational structure and linkages ofcomponent units, and decentralization of rolesand responsibilities, should be clearly defined.It should be capable of involving (and obtainingconstructive cooperation of) people. Whiledecentralization in the form of delegation ofauthority and decision powers to the local unitsis effected, it should also ensure that there is anadequate number of staff active at thedecentralized level. The potential and feasibilityof establishing a system of honorary firewardens with a reserve fire protection forceprovided with training and periodic upgradingof skills should be investigated.

Funding for fire-management-relatedactivities (as in the case of many other forestryactivities) should be available on an adequatescale and in a timely manner. A cost-effectivemanagement is not necessarily a low budgetplan. In Indonesia, forest fires and haze shouldbe a prime candidate for the use of thereforestation fund/tax on timber extracted.

Often, a distorted incentives system can workcounter to the objectives envisaged. Theunnecessarily large size of forest concessions, lack

At the nationallevel, institutionalweaknesses are aparamount factor

causinginefficiencies in

forest firemanagement

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 157

of adequate control over the way the concessionsare operated, lack of attention to the hardshipscaused to people by tenurial inequities, andconflicts are some of the details that require closeattention. An additional incentive component iscreation of income earning opportunities for thelocal community. What is needed is to ensure thatpeople do not cause fires due to indifference andignorance, or intentionally to registerdissatisfaction or a social protest.

Coordination is an important institutionalfunction. National and regional activities of theORHAP will require a high degree ofcoordination because of the multisectoral andmultilevel approach involved and to ensureeffective liaison between the government,nongovernment, and international agencies andthe private sector.

The inadequacies of the present coordinationarrangements are well recognized. Indonesiais in the process of working out newarrangements specifying the authority andresponsibility of involved institutions. Theimportance of this initiative cannot beoverstressed. It is necessary to have a single,rationally decentralized, coordinatingorganization with special skills and capable ofworking professionally at central and provinciallevels to prevent and mitigate forest fires.

From PMU to CSU

Project Management Unit

During the period when the RHAP wasbeing put into operation through ADBassistance, a PMU was established in theASEAN Secretariat for day-to-dayadministration and management of the technicalassistance. The PMU was headed by theDirector of BEFC, assisted by a ProjectManager and an international Senior TechnicalAdviser, supported by an Assistant ProjectManager and staff. The PMU also included four

individually recruited consultants from AMCs(a forest fire management specialist, a policyand legislation specialist, a meteorologist, andan information management specialist).

Most of the field operations under the RETAProject were concluded by the end of September1999. The responsibility for implementation ofthe ORHAP has also been handed over to theASEAN Secretariat. Accordingly, the PMU wasterminated and CSU took over the coordinationand support functions effective 1 October 1999.The period of transition started from April 1999with PMU and CSU working side by side, andCSU progressively taking over more functionsto phase out PMU by the end of September1999. Since CSU was installed only toward theend of the Project, the initial six-year programof the ORHAP was prepared by PMU.

Coordination and Support Unit

CSU is a unit within the ASEAN Secretariatthat now fulfills the support functions forORHAP implementation. These functionsinclude day-to-day support to HTTF, AMMH,and SRFA meetings, preparation of relevantdocuments (e.g., memorandums ofunderstanding [MOUs]), and otheradministrative tasks necessary for ensuring theORHAP’s smooth implementation. Whilemany of the activities undertaken by the RETAProject operationalizing the RHAP were of astartup nature, others will have to be sustained.

The central role of CSU is to formulate anORHAP implementation strategy over six years,using the generic guidelines laid out in theORHAP document, and to present its resultsto HTTF and AMMH for consideration. AllCSU activities are derived from this six-yearrolling ORHAP.

CSU will further assist HTTF and AMMHin donor coordination, ensuring that programsare undertaken efficiently.

National andregional activitiesof the ORHAPwill require a

high degree ofcoordinationbecause of the

multisectoral andmultilevelapproachinvolved

158 THE PROGRAM

To ensure proper sequencing and timing ofdonor-assisted activities, funding agencies mustbe made aware of upcoming changes inimplementation strategy, in order to give theirprincipal organizations time to adjust their ownprograms to reflect the changes.

It is the intention of ASEAN and its partnersthat CSU act as a clearinghouse for programssponsored by bilateral and multilateral assistanceagencies that help prevent and mitigate forestfires and transboundary haze pollution. Fundingagencies are expected to put in extra resources,by providing technical advisors, to strengthenCSU.

Regulatory and Legal InstrumentsIn the ORHAP context, regulatory and legalarrangements work at three levels: regional,subregional, and national. In terms of contentand nature of enforcement, the regulatory andlegal instruments may vary at these differentlevels.

The instruments may be categorized aspolicies and legal arrangements.

Policies Relating to Fire and Haze

There are as yet no separate policies (orlegislation) relating exclusively to forest firesand haze in any of the AMCs. Some of thepolicy aspects relevant to the issues of fire andhaze are referred to, cursorily, in other policydocuments. This is true at all levels, nationaland supranational. There are new moves,however, as a consequence of the recentdisasters caused by fires and haze, toward clearand definite policies covering all aspects offire management.

Existing policies with special reference tofire management are those concerned withfactors influencing or contributing to fireoccurrence (e.g., agriculture, industry, land use,land tenure) or of those sectors affected by fires

and haze (e.g., forests, environment, tourism).ADB’s RETA Project reviewed national andinternational policies and regulations impactingon forest fires and air pollution in the ASEANregion. It identified their strengths andweaknesses, to determine where improvementis required. The desirable features of thesepolicies, which contribute to a healthy fireregime within the all-embracing criteria ofenvironmental conservation and economicefficiency, can be brought together ascomponents of the fire policy. Such a fire policyshould include other relevant aspects on whichthere is a policy vacuum (e.g., incentive system,public participation, international/regionalcooperation). It is encouraging that severalcountries are now taking action to formulatefire policies consistent with other nationalpolicies. An important objective of the firepolicies should be to establish a sustainable andfunctional system of fire management.

Lessons from Indonesia

A number of policy and regulatory acts inIndonesia mention fires—e.g., Basic ForestryAct No. 5/1967, Conservation of NaturalResources and Their Ecosystem Act No. 5/1990, Act No. 5/1994 on Acknowledgementof the UN Convention on Biodiversity, andEnvironmental Conservation Act No. 23/1997.A note provided to an ITTO Mission byMOFEC (GOI/MOFEC 1998c) listed 23technical and procedural guidelines relating tovarious aspects of fire management: fireprevention and mitigation, controlled burning,Center for National Fire Control, land uses andforest fire suppression, use of forest firesuppression equipment, forest fire mitigationsupplies, forest fire signposts, safety in forestfire suppression, forest fire suppressioncommand systems, land clearing withoutburning, and alertness and safety.

It is the intentionof ASEAN andits partners that

CSU act as aclearinghouse for

programssponsored bybilateral andmultilateralassistance

agencies that helpprevent and

mitigate forestfires and

transboundaryhaze pollution

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 159

Reports indicate that these guidelines werenot adequately complied with by the partiesconcerned (the public, concessionaires,landowners) during the 1997-1998 fires andhaze, in spite of warnings about fire risk. Thereis no adequate machinery to enforce theguidelines/instructions relating to zero-burningland preparation, maintenance of firebreaks,conduct of prescribed burning, andestablishment of water storage dams.

Lessons on Incentives—The Philippine Case

Incentives, if rationally used, can be aneffective tool of fire and haze management. Aneffective fire prevention incentive mechanismcan ensure that a forest resource is maintained,protected, enhanced, and expanded. ThePhilippine example of the No-Fire Bonus Plan,employed in the Mountain Province, isinstructive. Before it was enacted, the plan andits objectives were fully discussed at provinciallevel.

The Mountain Province, categorized as oneof the 20 poorest provinces in the country, hadobtained commitments from local and nationalleadership to focus development activities inthese areas under the administration’s SocialReform Agenda. Included in this program aresustainable development strategies and humanecological security. The socioecological aspectsof development had to be considered as the mainfactor in carrying out development projects,especially in a province with rugged andmountainous terrain. Details of the plan wereas follows:

General Objectives:The following general objectives were

decided upon:• to motivate and encourage people’s

participation in forest conservation/protection measures against fireoutbreaks;

• to organize and strengthen communitymembers to enable them to work towarda common goal;

• to strengthen the political will of thecommunity and the local government unitstoward conservation and protection offorest resources; and

• to incorporate forest conservation andprotection initiatives within the developmentattempts at the community level.

Specific objectives:To attain the general objectives, specific

objectives were set as follows:• to limit or prevent, if not eradicate, forest

fires in every barangay of the province;• to regulate the use of fire as a tool by

farmers through the issuance of a permitto burn plant residues and debris so thatcontrol measures are ensured;

• to regularly monitor and record theoccurrence of fire in each barangay; and

• to continuously investigate the causes offire and recommend policies to concernedagencies for implementation.

Implementation strategy:The plan aims to provide a coordinated effort

between and among local government units,other government agencies concerned, and thecommunity toward achieving the objectives. Toattain these, the political leadership in theprovince shall provide the following:

• coordinate development funds;• determine from the barangay development

plans where project funds shall be utilized;• mobilize all barangay communities to

participate in the plan;• the provincial government of the Mountain

Province to set up a committee to selectrecipient barangays for the No-Fire-Bonus-Plan. The committee formulates its owncriteria and guidelines; and

• award projects to winning barangays.

Incentives, ifrationally used,

can be aneffective tool of

fire and hazemanagement

160 THE PROGRAM

As an absolute requirement, barangays thathave not had any forest fires in their respectiveareas during the dry season, nor forestdestruction through illegal logging and illegaloccupation, shall be awarded developmentprojects worth P200,000 (about $4,000). Theprogram adopts community-based involvementin decision making relating to the identification,planning, and implementation of projects underit. The projects shall include, but are not limitedto, environment-related projects such as garbageand waste disposal, water impounding projects,and erosion control measures.

Suggestions Regarding Fire and Haze

Policies

Previous chapters have highlighted theurgent need for clear and comprehensivepolicies at the national (and correspondinglyalso at the regional) level, covering all aspectsof prevention and mitigation of forest fires andhaze. Such a policy should spell out theprinciples and imperatives (e.g., efficiency,social equity, people’s involvement, andsustainability); development objectives andoperational goals; policy measures andstrategies (e.g., coordination, programming,and planning; resource mobilization andcapacity building).

The present policy approach to wildfires andland-use fires is often an ad hoc reaction to asituation that has already developed, rather thanproactive mitigation before the emergency arises.Policy development often does not consider theunderlying causes of fire incidence and spread,which may lie outside the forest sector, such asrural poverty and deprivation, or the effects ofother public policies related to land use andincentives. Sometimes, forest fires may be causedby ill-conceived forest management policies, inparticular, policies of total fire exclusion that haveled to fuel accumulation.

Policy objectives and measures need to beclearly articulated, and in tune with the nationalenvironmental and socioeconomic policies.Forest fire laws and regulations should bedeveloped and translated realistically into action,linking to the overall environmental and forestlaws. There should also be mechanisms withadequate capability and powers to deal withenvironmental crimes relating to fire. Adequatefire management involving prevention,mitigation, and monitoring should beincorporated into the criteria and indicators ofSFM.

In this regard, it is imperative that the peopleare consulted regarding their needs and concernsabout forest fire regulations. Forestrehabilitation, a post-fire activity, is also a vitalaspect. Other policy concerns includerationalization of shifting cultivation,optimizing size of timber concessions, localparticipation, and integrated planning for firemanagement.

Public policy on fire should be a dynamicpolitical manifestation of the people’s concernsfor their environment, health, and social welfare,and their trust in the system of resourcegovernance. Their trust should not be betrayed,and policymakers will have to take advantageof the science and technology relating to firemanagement as well as lessons learned fromhistorical experience.

At the national level, there should be a leadcoordinating agency to deal with all aspects offorest fires, with a concomitant and coordinatedassignment of other tasks to other appropriategovernment bodies. Because most fires occurwithin the forest estate and plantation sector,the lead agencies must have the legal authorityto issue and to enforce all necessary rules andregulations for preventing and suppressing offires. It must also have the capacity to operateeffectively from the center down to the village.

The presentpolicy approachto wildfires andland-use fires isoften an ad hoc

reaction to asituation that has

alreadydeveloped, rather

than proactivemitigation before

the emergencyarises

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 161

In the case of Indonesia, the ITTO project,National Guidelines on the Protection of ForestsAgainst Fire, has drafted a national policy forfire protection and management along withother ideas concerning institutionalstrengthening.

The proposal highlights zero-burning for landpreparation, control over the forest and estatecrops, and improvements in eight vital aspects:i.e., personnel, organization, facilities andinfrastructure, fire prevention and suppression,funding, law enforcement, research anddevelopment, and rehabilitation of fire-affectedareas.

Other recommendations tackleorganizational structure of the central forest firemanagement organization, a fire incidentmonitoring and reporting system, a nationalnetwork for communication, a nationalstandard to guide the fast burning system, anational standard for forest fire equipment, anational and regional coordination guide toprevent and suppress forest fires involvingrelated agencies and local people, and a nationalforest fire prevention education program(ITTO-IPB-MOFEC 1999).

Based on studies and relatedrecommendations, Indonesia is carrying outmajor policy reforms. Possibilities for far-reaching changes are now being debated at alllevels, nationally and locally. It is out of thisdebate that future policies will emerge. Somebroader level aims and imperatives are alreadyclear—regional autonomy and politicaldemocracy, decentralization and devolution ofauthority (greater functional and budgetaryauthority to the provinces in the use of naturalresources), economic liberalization, increasedopportunities to small- and medium-sizedenterprises and local communities, participationand social audit, and focus on sustainabledevelopment.

Legal Instruments

A viable and efficient legal system isimportant for translating policies into action.Any failure in the implementation of rules andregulations is a major institutional weakness.Various factors combine to stall environmentallaws or blunt their power.

Fire and Haze-Related National Legal

Instruments

The legal (and institutional) instruments foraddressing fires and haze in the AMCs need tobe mutually compatible, and consistent with thecommon needs of ASEAN. ADB’s RETAProject carried out a review of the situation inthe AMCs in this regard and the outcome wasgenerally satisfactory.

Brunei Darussalam. The legal framework foraddressing forest fires is well developed. Ignitingfires is a serious offence in the country. Inresponse to the 1997-1998 fires in the ASEANregion, the mandatory fine for deliberatelyigniting a fire without a permit was raised fromB$20,000 to B$120,000, a sixfold increase.

Indonesia. At the national level, policy andlegal instruments relating to the use of fire forland-clearing purposes is in a state of disarray.MOFEC has issued a directive that all land willbe cleared using mechanical means, and thatthe use of fire to clear land is therefore illegaland will not be tolerated. At the same time,there exists a directive that allows open burning,so long as a permit has been granted, but noprocedure for obtaining such a permit has yetbeen put into place.

None of the directives, decrees, legislation,or policies at the national level have much impactat the provincial level where actual land clearingtakes place.

Operationally, plantation firms are free touse open burning to clear land with impunity.In the few instances in which firms using open

At the nationallevel, there

should be a leadcoordinating

agency to dealwith all aspects of

forest fires

162 THE PROGRAM

burning to clear land have been brought to thecourt, none has been convicted.

Indonesia’s institutional framework foraddressing fires and haze is too fragmented tobe effective. No fewer than 24 differentgovernment agencies are responsible forcontrolling land and forest fires and haze. Withresponsibility so widely scattered, effectivecontrol is an organizational nightmare. Theexisting legal instruments are without adequatecapability to enforce compliance. Substantialupgrading of Indonesia’s capacity to formulateand enforce legal instruments will be necessaryfor it to fully support the ORHAP.

Malaysia. Malaysia’s legal framework forcontrolling forest fires and haze pollutionincludes strict fines for open burning without apermit, although these are not always enforcedin remote areas. The roads and communicationinfrastructure that serve the areas to be clearedare of relatively high quality, complementingMalaysia’s existing enforcement capacity.

Given that Malaysia is in the process ofstrengthening its enforcement capacity toprevent open burning without a permit, andthat the country is nearing the end of the landconversion process, both its legal andinstitutional framework for addressing forestfires and haze pollution are commensurate withthe threat of forest fires the country faces. Thereappear to exist no inconsistencies between itslegal and institutional framework for addressingforest fires and haze pollution.

Philippines. The legal and institutionalframework of the Philippines for addressingforest fires and haze pollution is adequate, giventhe fact that the country has essentially completedthe land conversion process. The only area inwhich sufficient virgin forest for land conversionremains is in Palawan, the frontier province.

The Philippines has a well-developed firemanagement infrastructure, the foundation of

which is community-level (informal) FSMPs.Since these community-level informal plans alllink with one another, the overall firesuppression effort automatically increases, asthe threat of a spreading forest fire increases.Finally, at the national level, any forest fire thatexceeds 25 ha in total area is declared a nationaldisaster, allowing personnel from the militaryand additional financial resources to be used insuppressing such fires.

Singapore. A highly urbanized country,Singapore’s natural forest is limited to only afew hectares. Most of Singapore’s firemanagement infrastructure is geared tostructural rather than wildland firefighting.With regard to its legal framework relating tofire prevention, open burning without a permitis strictly prohibited in Singapore and anyonecaught contravening relevant statutes is swiftlybrought to justice.

Thailand. Two decades of improving firemanagement infrastructure and institutionalarrangements have left the country capable ofmanaging the threat of forest fires and hazepollution. Thailand has, for the most part,completed the process of land conversion, sothe country’s legal and institutional frameworkrelative to the threat of forest fires and hazepollution is adequate.

The Assessment. The RETA Projectconcluded that except for Indonesia, the legaland institutional frameworks for addressingforest fire and haze pollution in the AMCsreviewed are consistent with one another andwith the needs of ASEAN as a whole to enablefull implementation of the ORHAP.

Forest Fires and Haze-RelatedSupra-National Legal Instruments

International Environmental Agreements

Many environmental problems crossinternational political boundaries and their

Indonesia’sinstitutional

framework foraddressing firesand haze is too

fragmented to beeffective

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 163

solution requires cooperation between countrieson an unprecedented scale. In most cases, theapproach to tackle problems of transboundaryenvironment issues has been throughinternational agreements. Through theinitiatives of UNEP, more than 170 multilateralagreements pertaining to the environment havebeen signed.

The success of any agreement depends onhow it is formulated and what it contains. Themost difficult part is in its implementation. TheAchilles heel of most of these agreements is theaction to be taken if the signatory countries failto take the necessary steps. Since many of themare “soft” instruments, there are no effectiveenforcement mechanisms.

Even if they cannot have powers of statutorysanction, often they exert considerable moralinfluence.

The ASEAN Situation

At the regional level, ASEAN’s response tofires and haze has included resolutions,declarations, communiqués, and MOUs. Theseinstruments have increasingly focused on thetransboundary haze pollution issue. From thelonger-term perspective of regional cooperation,these documents collectively constitute a legalframework for concerted action by membercountries.

Key among these documents are thefollowing:

• 1985: Agreement on the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources;

• 1990: Kuala Lumpur Accord onEnvironment and Development;

• 1992: Singapore Resolution onEnvironment and Development; and

• 1994: Bandar Seri Begawan Resolutionon Environment and Development.

The meetings that spawned theseinstruments also led to the endorsement of two

“action plans” relating to fires andtransboundary haze pollution, which includedlegal principles relating to ASEAN RegionalCooperation on Environmental Issues:

(i) the Long-Term Integrated Forest FireManagement Strategy for Indonesia,which was one of the outputs of theBandung (Indonesia) Conference of1992; and

(ii) the ASEAN Cooperation Plan onTransboundary Pollution, an ASEAN-wide plan of action adopted at theASEAN Meeting on the Managementof Transboundary Pollution held inKuala Lumpur in June 1995.

However, since no specific operationalmeasures were identified for these, theyultimately had little impact on fires or hazepollution; and ASEAN faced moretransboundary pollution in 1997.

ASEAN’s current legal and institutionalframework is weak for the following reasons:

• the regional legal framework consistssolely of “soft-law” agreements that statean intent to cooperate, with no sanctionsimposed against member states that failto comply;

• other than commitments to act as “lead”countries in fire prevention, mitigation,and monitoring under the ORHAP, and astatement that all AMCs are preparingNHAPs, no definitive commitments havebeen made to take specific actions toaddress forest fires and haze either nowor in the future; and

• the regional and subregional institutionalarrangements for jointly responding to fire-and-haze emergencies are simplyexpressions of intent to allow jointresponses, and as such, contain nooperational details or commitments toundertake any action.

At the regionallevel, ASEAN’sresponse to fires

and haze hasincluded

resolutions,declarations,

communiqués,and MOUs

164 THE PROGRAM

Analysis of ASEAN Legal Instruments on

Fire and Haze

Supported by ASEAN/UNEP/ADB, asignificant amount of background legal analysisconnected with ASEAN’s regional andsubregional legal framework was carried outby the Indonesian Center for EnvironmentalLaw (ICEL), and it provided considerableinsight about the situation.

Soft Laws and Hard Laws. Experienceindicates that states are not legally committed toobserve the principles and provisions of the softlaws. If states are to be legally bound to thoseprinciples, they must be incorporated into a hardlaw50 such as treaties or conventions.

The 1979 ECE Convention on Long-RangeTransboundary Air Pollution is an example ofan effort to make an international principlework. This Convention was the first treaty thataddressed transboundary atmospheric pollution.Because it was a framework agreement thatmerely sets out the principles to guide futureaction, and because it did not formulatemeasures to which the parties must comply, itwas not possible to implement its provisions.Therefore, the Convention did not change thestatus quo. The most affected parties theninsisted on the formulation of emissionstandards. The Secretariat of the Conventionlater proposed, and the parties to the Conventionapproved, the 1985 Sulfur Protocol, 1988 NOxProtocol, and 1991 Volatile OrganicCompounds Protocol.

The experiences from the Conventionillustrate the correlation between principles ina declaration as a soft law on the one hand, andconventions and protocols as a hard law on theother.

Alternatives for ASEAN. ASEAN hasintroduced a wide range of environmental legalinstruments. These notwithstanding,transboundary atmospheric pollution continues

to occur. It may be argued that the Agreementon Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources is not specifically about air pollution.If that argument is true, then an agreementdealing with transboundary air pollution maybe the answer to the problem. But it willcertainly take a long time to have any effect.

Apart from this disadvantage, the argumentfor a new agreement is basically flawed. Article19 of the Agreement on Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources specifically stipulates thestate’s obligation not to generate transboundaryair pollution, which is accepted as aninternational principle. The actual problem isthat the Agreement does not contain measuresor standards that are useful in preventing thepollution. Accordingly, the conclusion of aprotocol under the Agreement is likely to bethe most possible and practicable solution tothe growing transboundary atmosphericpollution in the AMCs. In addition, Article 24of the Agreement on the Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources stipulates that in orderto implement the Agreement, the state partiesmay adopt protocols. If this is related to Article19, which obliges countries to preventtransboundary air pollution, then a protocol tocope is the most possible and practicable wayforward.

At this moment, however, it is not possibleto conclude protocols because the Agreementhas no legal effect (Brunei Darussalam,Malaysia, and Singapore have not ratified it).

If for any valid reason, three countries or atleast one of them still do not want to ratify it,the preparation of an independent motheragreement and its protocol becomes a must.One of the disadvantages of having to go for anew mother agreement and protocol is thenegotiation process, which will be morecomplex with an increased number ofmembers. Nevertheless, one of the advantages

The experiencesfrom the

Conventionillustrate thecorrelationbetween

principles in adeclaration as asoft law on theone hand, and

conventions andprotocols as a

hard law on theother

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 165

is the opportunity for AMCs to have a focusedand specialized agreement concerningtransboundary haze pollution in the regionfollowed by comprehensive, detailed protocols.The other advantage is the opportunity for theAMCs to develop new and stronger provisionsthat were not addressed in the 1985 Agreement(Santosa et al. 1999).

Required Changes

If ASEAN is to improve its capacity toaddress fires and haze, several changes to thecurrent supranational legal and institutionalframework are required.

The existing “soft-law” documents can,however, serve as a basis for a strengthenedregional legal framework for addressing forestfires and transboundary haze pollution. Thiswould consist of (i) a “mother document,” toprovide a mandate for international agreementsto be concluded for specific purposes such asaddressing transboundary pollution; and (ii) aseries of supporting international agreementsrelating to the operational aspects of addressingforest fires and transboundary haze pollution—e.g., common system of fire danger rating,sharing of meteorological information,establishment of ASEAN-wide fire monitoringnetwork, and regional training arrangements.

The “mother document” would ideally takethe form of an ASEAN Framework Agreementon Transboundary Pollution, which would bebroad enough to subsume any number ofsubagreements on its various aspects such astransboundary haze pollution from forest fires.Agreements relating to, say, marine pollutioncould be just as easily included in the “motherdocument.” The subagreements to address thevarious aspects of transboundary haze pollutionwould include:

(i) a set of detailed agreements specifyingthe roles, rights, and responsibilities of

the various parties sharing firesuppression resources acrossinternational boundaries under SRFAs;

(ii) an agreement officially harmonizing(but not necessarily standardizing) theair pollution indexes used in AMCs;

(iii) an agreement specifying a commonterminology for fire management and acommon ASEAN standard specificationfor tools and equipment used in jointfire suppression within ASEAN;

(iv) an agreement specifying a commoncore curriculum for training of firemanagement personnel at the basic level(to promote subregional sharing of firemanagement personnel);

(v) an agreement endorsing universaladoption of a common FDRS andallowing universal sharing of all datanecessary for operation of the systemon an ASEAN-wide basis; and

(vi) an agreement on the roles andresponsibilities of specialized regionalcenters such as ASMC.

The Current Initiative

Promoted by ADB’s RETA Project, UNEPand the ASEAN Secretariat are collaboratingin developing a legal framework to addresstransboundary air pollution, in particular hazepollution. Based on various documentsprepared by UNEP and the ASEAN Secretariat,ASOEN/HTTF and AMMH at their meetingsin Singapore on 25-26 August 1999 organizeda feasibility study to be prepared for a singleASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution. In practical terms, this feasibility studywill prepare for the negotiation of such anagreement.

The Ministerial Meeting also decided toestablish a Working Group of Legal andTechnical Experts (WGLTE) to serve as a

If ASEAN is toimprove itscapacity to

address fires andhaze, several

changes to thecurrent

supranationallegal and

institutionalframework are

required

166 THE PROGRAM

negotiating forum. Another decision stipulatedthat the negotiation of the agreement shouldbe completed within two years. UNEP wasrequested to assist in the preparation of thefeasibility study and in subsequent action. Aftercompletion, the feasibility study shall besubmitted to the AMMH for endorsement andnegotiation of the agreement may start shortlyafter that.

The Ministers agreed to proceed with thenegotiation for the development of an ASEANAgreement on Transboundary Haze as soon aspossible (quoted from the Joint Press Statementof the 8th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting onEnvironment [6-7 October 2000, KotaKinabalu, Malaysia]). Based on the experienceof environmental negotiations of similarmagnitude, five sessions of WGLTE would berequired to complete the negotiations. Thedeliberations of WGLTE shall be governed byprocedural rules based on the ASEAN Protocoland Practices. Observers from selected donoragencies and regional organizations may beinvited to the meetings of WGLTE. TheASEAN Secretariat will serve as the Secretariatof WGLTE. UNEP has agreed to provideWGLTE with legal assistance, including helpin preparing the consecutive drafts of theagreement, and will serve as Legal Counsel.WGLTE shall report on progress of its work toHTTF and AMMH.

The primary objective of this initiative is toenable AMCs to develop and adopt a legally-binding agreement to combat and mitigatetransboundary haze pollution. In the longerterm, such an agreement may evolve into awider legal regime addressing transboundaryair pollution in the Asian and Pacific region.

The negotiation and adoption of the ASEANAgreement on Transboundary Haze Pollutionwill not preclude from widening the scope ofthe legal framework to address transboundary

air pollution beyond haze pollution. The ASEANhaze agreement may be complemented by amore general Framework Convention onTransboundary Air Pollution to be negotiatedand adopted at a later stage. This conventionwould consolidate gains achieved by the hazeagreement and could also provide a parentalframework to it. Establishing a parental linkwould require transformation of the ASEANhaze agreement into a Protocol to theFramework Convention, which can beaccomplished through technical revision of theagreement by the parties. The frameworkconvention would allow for development ofmore protocols addressing other issues oftransboundary air pollution. Further, it couldbe made open for accession by states outsidethe ASEAN region, widening not only thesubstantive but also the geographical scope.Thus, a comprehensive and coherent system oflegal instruments could be created, expandingfrom ASEAN to the rest of the region.

Capacity BuildingCapacity building promotes the improvementof efficiency. Improved capacity is reflected ineffectiveness of action. As a program area, thiswould cover research and developmentinvolving basic and applied research;technology acquisition and transfer;establishment of a database; skills developmentin all aspects of fire and haze management andrelated education and training needs; publiceducation and extension; improved capacityfor planning, evaluation, and monitoring;updated and strengthened system ofinformation; reorientation and strengtheningof institutional instruments; infrastructuredevelopment; and coordination to ensureproactive responses. This is a broader conceptand includes all factors that would add to thecapacity and effectiveness of institutions.

The ASEAN hazeagreement

may becomplemented

by a moregeneral

FrameworkConvention onTransboundaryAir Pollution to

be negotiated andadopted at alater stage

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 167

Since some of the components of capacitybuilding have been separately dealt with, theemphasis here will be on the two core aspects:research (science and technology development),and human resource development (educationand training).

Research and Development

Research promotes technological innovation,which has a strategically important dimension.

Development of science and technology onfire and haze management includes severalrelated aspects. Examples are tools andtechniques of fire control, prescribed fires,optimal fire regimes, beneficial uses of fire,land conversion methods without the use of fire,fire behavior, monitoring systems, fire-relatedclimate models, emission characteristics of fires,and socioeconomic and health impacts of haze.An important area is epidemiological studieson short- and long-term effects of haze on health,including effects of exposure to known andpotentially harmful substances such as PM10,sulfur dioxide, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, andsolvent extractable compounds in haze aerosols(Abraham 1998).

With an increased number of fires(damaging hitherto safe areas such as rainforests and wetlands), and greater intensity oftheir impacts, it has become necessary to meetthe challenge on a scientific basis. Forest fire-related research has been neglected in the pastand efforts must be made to improve thesituation, including provision of funds, facilities,and expertise to undertake research.

A related consideration is acquisition oftechnology from outside, suitably balanced tothe situations in a country. A considerableamount of forest fire research has beenconducted in temperate countries. It has beenestimated that more than 100,000 publications(books, scientific papers, and meeting reports

on fire-related subjects) exist. It should bepossible to adapt some of this knowledge fortropical countries.

The tendency to concentrate on hightechnology inputs should be avoided, as it leadsto the neglect of equally (if not more) importantfield actions such as fire protection measures.

Education and Training

Fire Management Training

The scope of training covers in-countrytraining (upgrading, refresher courses), externaltraining, and exchanging. General aspectscovered in training include land and forest firedetection using satellite data, GIS, imageprocessing techniques, hot spot algorithms,regional climate prediction, climate forecasting,methods and applications of disaster prediction,satellite monitoring, atmospheric transportmodeling, atmospheric monitoring, Internetand intranet use, aerial surveillance, use of sitenavigation tools, and fire suppression andmitigation techniques. Training is required atall levels.

Several studies were undertaken by ADB’sRETA Project resulting in suggestions toimprove training methodology, course design,program delivery, and training levels forimplementing the ORHAP. In this regard, threecategories of training are required. (i)firefighter training, (ii) train-the-trainertraining, and (iii) incident managementtraining. A need has also been identified fortraining the public, including volunteers, forestcommunities (including loggers andconcessionaires), and army and policepersonnel.

Situation Assessment and Improvement

Forest Firefighter Training. Forestfirefighter training falls into two categories. Thefirst is where the primary responsibility is

A comprehensiveand coherent

system of legalinstruments

could be created,expanding fromASEAN to all

countries in theAsian and Pacific

region

168 THE PROGRAM

carried out by forestry service-based agencies,as is the case in Indonesia, Philippines, andThailand. The second is where it is carried outby professional firefighting and emergencyservices as is the case in Brunei Darussalam,Malaysia, and Singapore (although in theMalaysian state of Sabah, the forestry servicealso plays a significant role).

The first category requires the greatestdegree of development, particularly inIndonesia. In the second category theprofessional fire and emergency services possessthe resources to deliver training to meet theirown needs. However, they are often yet toacquire and develop broad-based institutionaland personnel expertise in forest firefighting.

With the exception of RFD in Thailand, theSabah State Forestry Service in Malaysia, and anumber of donor-assisted projects in Indonesia,forest firefighter training within the region isgenerally limited in scope.

There tends to be a paucity of trained andexperienced personnel at all levels; and there islittle in the way of national programs that canmeet the regions’ needs for future hazemitigation operations.

Thailand has developed unparalleledexpertise within the region in the field of forestfirefighting over the past 20 years.

It has devised systems, structures, andtraining programs based on best practice seenaround the world, which it has adapted to wetand dry tropical environments. In addition tothe basic fireline levels, the agency also conductstraining in the more specialized techniquesincluding Remote Area Fire Teams (RAFT),helicopter insertion teams (HeliTack), andaircraft fire attack.

The systems in use by RFD for forest firemitigation, suppression, and training have beendeveloped primarily to meet national andagency needs. They offer a good model for

developing or enhancing firefighter training inother AMCs.

Directions for Regional Forest FirefighterTraining. The right atmospheric andenvironmental conditions for another incidenceof transboundary haze are likely to occur before2002. This would require firefighting personnelfrom the various national agencies of the AMCsto work alongside one another. There is anurgent need for a common approach tofirefighter training, at least at the most basiclevels, to combat this.

The same basic forest firefighter training isconducted throughout the region, despite therebeing no collaboration in this regard. Thegeneral scope and content of this training isalso quite similar to that carried out in countriesconsidered to face a consistently high annualforest fire threat and which maintain large,structured firefighting organizations (e.g.,Australia, Canada, and United States).

Taking into account the existing degree ofcommonality in forest firefighter trainingthroughout the region, a common corecurriculum can be designed and implementedby all AMCs. Such a common core curriculumshould not replace the existing trainingprograms, but should rather be used as thenucleus curriculum for enhancing existingprograms.

In addition to the regular forest fire crew,training in forest firefighting should be givento voluntary fire forces, police and military, fireand rescue services, and staff of the privatesector and NGOs.

For the most part, training at the level of thefireline team—the basic component in the chainof mitigation action—is more efficient whencarried out locally; and this does not offer scopefor centralization at the regional level.

Train the trainer and incident managementtraining. Training of this nature is carried out

Forest firefightertraining withinthe region is

generally limitedin scope

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 169

through short courses, workshops, study tours,orientation programs, and fellowships.

Fire management skills occur at two levels:(a) operational level, and (b) management level.Training at the operational level imparts skillsnecessary for physically performing firemanagement and suppression. Training at themanagement level imparts the skills necessaryfor efficiently organizing operational-levelactivities.

Given that fire suppression techniques aresimilar among AMCs it would seem desirableto centralize at least some aspects of training offire management personnel. Most economiesof scale occur at the management rather thanthe operational level.

In the case of training for fire managementtrainers, the question of whether sufficient scaleeconomies exist at the subregional level can beanswered only as programs for this develop inthe region.

Strengthening Existing Training Programs

ADB’s RETA Project made a number ofrecommendations to improve firemanagement training programs in theASEAN region, with particular reference toIndonesia, as follows:

• develop national competency-basedtraining standards and implement these atall levels;

• increase the number of qualified fireinstructors at all levels and locations. Thiswould allow more local and volunteerfirefighters to be trained;

• organize volunteer fire brigades andprovide training to them;

• increase the number of training centers atthe provincial level as a means of ensuringtraining under local conditions and toreduce travel costs. Establish a center forpeat fire management training and

research in one of the universities inKalimantan, possibly at the University ofPalangkaraya;

• determine how military personnel andequipment could be used in firesuppression efforts;

• encourage intra-ASEAN joint trainingcurricula or programs for efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and for cross-bordermobilization of personnel, especially underthe auspices of SRFAs; and

• develop and implement regional trainingprograms via exchange visits,secondments, and joint training exercises.

Applied Study on Training and Research

There are several ongoing or planned firesuppression training programs at the national,subregional, regional, and international levelsaimed at improving ASEAN’s capability tomitigate future large-scale fires in the region.Efforts are now underway to integrate all ofthese programs into a regional fire suppressiontraining and research package. An initial stepin formulating this package is the AustralianGovernment-financed Applied Study onFormulation of a Regional Fire SuppressionTraining and Research Program. This study issurveying and inventorying all the firemanagement training programs in the ASEANregion. The overall purpose is to ensure thatindividual training programs avoid overlaps andthat they collectively provide the ASEAN regionwith appropriate training in fire managementat all levels. The study is also assessing ASEAN’scapacity to provide fire management personnelin adequate numbers to support the ORHAP’smitigation program. Since the proposedRegional Research and Training Center forLand and Forest Fire Management at theUniversity of Palangkaraya could function asthe apex institution for any regional fire

Given that firesuppression

techniques aresimilar amongAMCs it would

seem desirable tocentralize at leastsome aspects oftraining of firemanagement

personnel

170 THE PROGRAM

management training program, its suggesteddevelopment path is also being closely examinedby this study.

Regional Fires Research and

Training Center

Following meetings of HTTF in 1998,ASEAN decided that a regional research andtraining facility should be established atthe University of Palangkaraya in Kalimantan,Indonesia.

The idea of establishing the center itself grewout of a grassroots approach to adapting peatfire suppression technology to local conditionsin Indonesia’s Central Kalimantan province,under conditions of severely constrainedfinancial and technical resources. Thisnotwithstanding, a substantial amount ofresearch relating to peat forests and firemanagement is being conducted at theuniversity in association with recognizedinternational institutions.

Considering that the proposed center meetsthe criterion of economy of scale, the ORHAPsupports its establishment and will actively playa part in initiatives aimed at achieving this goal.

There was concern that the concept for aregional training facility may have been that itwould conduct primary fireline training on aregional basis. This is not considered to be aviable training concept at the regional level forlogistical, financial, and practical reasons. Aregional training center would need to conducttraining and more particularly research aimedat a higher level of fire management than simplyfirefighter training. Accordingly, modificationswere made to enhance the scope of the center.The Hanoi Plan of Action approved by the sixthASEAN Summit on 16 December 1998confirmed that the “ASEAN Regional Researchand Training Center for Land and Forest FireManagement” will be established by the year

2004; and AMMH requested HTTF to preparea plan of action to implement the proposal.ADB’s RETA Project supported the preparationof the implementation plan.

Donor Collaboration and PartnershipsFunding agencies have made a vitalcontribution to addressing the impacts ofrepeated forest fires and haze, providing asubstantial amount of funding to short-termsuppression actions. While this has no doubtbeen appreciated by AMCs, sustained fundingof short-term fire suppression over an indefiniteperiod is neither feasible, nor would it be anefficient use of scarce donor or affected-countryresources.

The challenge now is to use the periodbetween the last ENSO and the next to putinto place an institutional framework that willprepare the region for subsequent periods ofvulnerability to forest fires and haze. Thispreparation should be such that ASEAN willnever again have to resort to crisis managementas it did during the 1997-1998 fires and haze.

Accomplishing this will require donor fundsto be used as efficiently as possible. Whileassistance projects play vital roles, it is crucialto ensure that they are fully owned by the AMCsand integrated into the ORHAP, such that theactivities can run on effectively even after theexternal assistance is terminated. The role ofdonors in addressing the fire-and-haze issue willalso have to be redefined. In short, theirresponses will have to be integrated throughexplicit partnerships, rather than each of thedonors simply becoming aware of other donors’involvement.

A start has been made by integrating alldonor activities directly into the ORHAP-DIP.When used as intended, the DIP places theonus of developing an integrated operationalplan for confronting the fire-and-haze issue

The challengenow is to use theperiod betweenthe last ENSOand the next to

put into place aninstitutional

framework thatwill prepare the

region forsubsequentperiods of

vulnerability toforest fires and

haze

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 171

directly on to the AMCs and ASEAN itself.Once ASEAN has determined what actions areneeded, the financial costs can be estimated, andthe areas where gaps between available AMCresources and requirements exist can be identified.International organizations should determinewhich of these gaps each can most efficiently fill,given their particular area of expertise.

In order to underpin implementation of theORHAP, RETA 5770 promoted partnershipsbetween international agencies, HTTF, andAMMH. At the outset of the ORHAP, anInformal Meeting of Donors was convened toinform them of the opportunities to forgepartnerships with ASEAN. At that meeting,several donor partnerships were formalized anda number of others agreed in principle.

The process of partnership formation anddiscussions about the tasks facing partnershipsformalized earlier followed, and this process isstill continuing, through informal contacts anddiscussions at SRFA, HTTF, and AMMHmeetings, and at workshops and specialdiscussion sessions (see Box 14 andAppendix 5).

System of Continuous PlanningPlanning is an institutional responsibility, andpreparation of a plan involves severalinstitutional players, and inputs from expertsand stakeholders.

The Plan Design

Conceptually, the ORHAP has all theimportant characteristics of a formal plan, orspecifically of an action plan. But the natureand emphasis of certain levels of actions mayvary when compared to a sector plan or adevelopment plan.

However, the ORHAP can and doesfunction within the confines of a broaderplanning framework.

Being operation-oriented, the ORHAP hasno long-term or perspective design. The plan isdivided into three operational programs with anadditional component of institutionalarrangements supporting these. The componentsand subcomponents of programs are verticallylinked. Spatially, there are 12 geographic entities:nine component national plans (NFAPs), twosubregional plans, and one plan covering theentire ASEAN region.

The subdivisions within a national plan willbe the responsibility of the country concerned.At the lower national levels, (e.g., districts,subdistricts, villages) an FSMP is regarded asan integral part of the haze action plan.Implementation is based on a DIP of programsand program components (and each geographicunit has a DIP). The DIP contains details ofactivities and actions to be taken by majorprograms.

The consideration for inclusion of an activityin a DIP is the availability (or commitment) offunds. Such a commitment can be on the partof national governments, ASEAN, or a partner,particularly funding agencies. Accordingly, theDIP can be modified or updated continuously,

• ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment• ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze• ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment• Haze Technical Task Force• HTTF-Indonesia (Mitigation)• HTTF-Malayasia (Prevention)• HTTF-Singapore (Monitoring)• Working Group on SRFA-Borneo• Working Group on SRFA–Sumatra• ASEAN Secretariat–Environment Unit• ASEAN Secretariat–Agriculture and Forestry Unit• ASEAN Secretariat-Information and Library Unit• ASEAN Secretariat–Computer Unit• ASEAN Secretariat-Culture and Information Unit• ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC)• Dialogue Partners/Collaborative Partnerships• NGOs/Private Sector

BOX 14 Institutions Responsible for the ORHAP

172 THE PROGRAM

as and when resources become available orcommitted. The various programs and spatialcomponents are linked by an appropriatecoordination mechanism. The changes to DIPat the ASEAN regional level are monitored andendorsed by HTTF and AMMH.

Defining of Activities

The strategic formulation for action planswith objectives that can be reached only in themedium and the long term share a commonarchitecture. The elements of this architectureand the sequence in which these are executed,are as follows. First, the problem to be addressed(or the objectives to be achieved) is stated.Second, the vehicle for fulfilling the plan’sobjectives is determined. Third, the parametersof the strategy (or pathway) for achieving theplan’s objectives are formulated. Fourth, theoutputs (intermediate goals or milestones) inachieving the plan’s objectives are identified.Fifth, the tasks required for achieving theoutputs are detailed. Finally, the inputs requiredto perform the tasks are derived from the tasks.

Even though activities in the ORHAP arescheduled for implementation in the short tomedium term, the objectives to be achieved areof a medium- and long-term nature. Thischaracterizes ORHAP as a strategic plan, toaddress a perceived environmental problem,i.e., forest fires and haze.

The ORHAP assumes that implementationof the plan can succeed only if all the concretemeasures incorporated into it are described inexact detail, including the following variables:

(a) the exact action to be undertaken,including its major parameters,

(b) the organization taking the lead inundertaking the action,

(c) the position designation of the personultimately responsible for ensuring thatthe action is undertaken,

(d) the complete financial cost ofundertaking the action,

(e) the time frame during which the actionis to be undertaken or completed, and

(f) the monitoring variable that is triggeredwhen the action has been (or is being)successfully implemented.

Prioritization of Activities

Implementation of the ORHAP is to becarried out in a balanced manner, with dueemphasis on the relationship of developmentand short-term objectives, and assigningappropriate priority to the program activities.

Normally, the priority provided to a plannedaction is based on its level of net contributiontoward achieving the objectives with least costand within a minimum time. For pragmaticreasons, the ORHAP assumes that the level ofpriority attached to a particular action is solelydetermined by whether or not funding for theaction under consideration has been secured(this probably is a good enough proxymeasure).

Thus, a country’s priorities in addressing thethreat of fire-and-haze disasters are to bedetermined solely by the level of funding itattaches to particular actions.

In the most general sense, there are,therefore, only two levels of priority that canbe attached to actions relating to fires andhaze: those that are funded, and those that arenot.

By default, unfunded actions are deemed tohave received zero priority.

The implications are that an additionalvariable g must be added to the list a-f givenearlier, and it is the source of funding.

This variable often comprises twocomponents: the portion of the cost of the actionthat is funded by the government and theportion that is funded by other sources.

Once ASEANhas determinedwhat actions are

needed, thefinancial costs

can be estimated,and the areaswhere gaps

between availableAMC resources

and requirementsexist can beidentified

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 173

Detailed Implementation Plan

The core of the ORHAP is a DIP containingthe provision for actually carrying out theactivities. DIPs are prepared based oncommitments from ASEAN, membergovernments, assistance agencies, and donorcountries, and also of NGOs, communitygroups, and other voluntary organizations.

In addition to detailing the organizationresponsible for each action (and the designationof the person responsible in that organization),DIPs also present a detailed matrix of thebudget, source of funding, time frame forimplementation of action, and a monitoringvariable to determine whether or not the actionhas been (or is being) successfully implemented.Inclusion of the monitoring variable allows theDIP matrix to function also as a vehicle formonitoring RHAP implementation.Transparency in monitoring is assured by real-time dissemination of the entire DIP matrix toall parties concerned via a restricted-access (i.e.,password-required) intranet.

While the ORHAP details the steps thatASEAN itself is to take (donor assistance onlysupports the steps taken by ASEAN), the fullcomplement of concrete measures that are tocomprise the implementation strategy also needto be laid out.

Since the actions are undertaken at threedifferent levels (regional, subregional, andnational), the DIP is divided correspondinglyinto three. The DIPs relating to the variouslevels together comprise the ORHAP-DIP,which collectively forms the detailed “to-do”list that guides implementation over a six-yearperiod. The DIP developed and/or modified(by CSU), is presented to the HTTF andAMMH for approval. Once approved, it getsincorporated into the formal DIP matrix, andimplementation is monitored. The actionsrequired to support ORHAP implementation

may change over time and these changes are tobe reflected in the DIP.

DIPs have been prepared for each of the nineNHAPs, and for each of the two SRFAs. Anumbrella DIP has also been prepared formeasures to be taken at the regional level.Donor-sponsored or initiated programs,projects, or initiatives incorporated into theORHAP are also integrated into the appropriateDIPs. For example, a donor project thatpromotes the ORHAP at the regional level isincorporated into the regional-level DIP,whereas a project that supports implementationof a particular NHAP51 is integrated into theDIP for the country concerned.

Of the three levels of DIPs, the national-levelDIPs tend to be the most extensive. This isunderstandable, since the national-level plans(NHAPs) form the foundation for all resource-sharing arrangements and actions cooperativelyundertaken at the subregional or regional level,without which the entire ORHAP mechanismwould be ineffective. A substantial amount oftime and resources has thus been devoted tothe preparation of the NHAP-DIPs, which arecollectively subsumed by the overall ORHAP-DIP.

Efficient implementation of the ORHAPdemands that all parties involved (AMCs,subregional groupings, ASEAN itself, and theinternational agencies concerned) have accessat all times to the entire list of actions beingor to be undertaken under the ORHAP.

Thus a “working” version of the ORHAP-DIP used by authorized members is thecontinuously updated, online, intranet version.The online up-to-date version of the RHAP ata particular point can be obtained as a printout.

The DIP Matrix

The format used for presenting theORHAP-DIP is that of a matrix, in which each

The core of theORHAP is a DIPthat contains the

provision foractually carryingout the activities

174 THE PROGRAM

of the variables identified above appears as acolumn heading. Each action, along with theinformation corresponding to variables, appearsas one row of the ORHAP-DIP matrix, referredto as an “action line.”

All updates and changes to a particularportion of the DIP are received by the CSU viathe ORHAP intranet. CSU then updates themaster ORHAP-DIP, and immediately placesit on the intranet, making it available to allauthorized persons. While monitoring theimplementation of the ORHAP-DIP isultimately the responsibility of the HTTF, anyuser with ORHAP intranet access can monitorimplementation at will, and can (via HTTFrepresentatives) raise implementation issues atmeetings of HTTF. Donor organizations canuse the ORHAP-DIP matrix to determine howtheir contribution could complement ongoingor planned actions by AMCs or other donors,based on the amount of their financialcontributions serving as a rough proxy for thescope and coverage of the various actions.

Moreover, any particular country, subregionalbody, or donor organization can specify anaction that it has decided to undertake insupport of the ORHAP and the six-yearprogram. As long as the other relevantinformation is also specified, and the desire tohave this action included in the ORHAP-DIPis communicated to HTTF, then thisinformation will be inserted as an action lineinto the ORHAP-DIP matrix in the appropriatesection. This action line becomes, in essence,a “contract” or a promise to undertake theparticular action, during the time framespecified, with the organization and personnamed being responsible to see that actionthrough to completion. All other persons orbodies with intranet access to the ORHAP-DIPmatrix will then be made immediately aware ofthe commitment to undertake this action.

The computer software used to manage theORHAP-DIP matrix gives all users withintranet access to the ORHAP-DIP the abilityto sort out action lines by any variable they wish.For example, any user could query the matrixfor actions that have not been undertaken withina time frame specified. The system would thenreturn a list of all actions from all sections ofthe ORHAP-DIP that fulfill this condition.

Organic Link between ORHAP and DIP

All of the details of the individual actionscontained in the DIP are summarized in theOperational Plan for Implementing RHAP. Thisshort, written summary is convenient for HTTFand AMMH since it states, in an abbreviatedform, the core initiatives that ASEAN itself isto undertake.

For example, one of these core initiatives isthe formulation of FSMPs for the two SRFAs.Successfully completing this initiative willrequire many actions (e.g., negotiation ofinternational agreements, deciding howpersonnel and equipment are to be mobilized,who pays for the mobilization anddemobilization, etc.). All of these actions forsuccessfully completing this initiative arecontained in the SRFA-level DIPs. Each of theactions must be implemented by a particularagency or organization. Each action has a costestimate associated with it; so it must have anidentified source of funding. Each action alsomust have attached to it a monitoring variable.However, in order to be able to manage all ofthis at HTTF and AMMH meetings, anabbreviated (and aggregated) statement at thecore initiative level was required. This is theOperational Plan for Implementing RHAP.

In the case of donor-funded projects, thedonor agency itself is the organizationresponsible for ensuring that the projectactivities and related actions are fulfilled.

In the case ofdonor-fundedprojects, the

donor agencyitself is the

organizationresponsible for

ensuring that theproject activities

and relatedactions are

fulfilled

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 175

Actions to be undertaken by the donors thatsupport implementation of the ORHAP aretherefore treated in exactly the same way asactions to be performed by ASEAN or thenational governments. Since the DIP issegregated into prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring, each donor action is inserted intothe section of the DIP that corresponds to theparticular ORHAP component to which itrelates.

Monitoring and Evaluation of ORHAP

Implementation

The main objective of monitoring andevaluation is to refine the implementation ofplans, projects, and activities. While monitoringshows achievements and failures, evaluation goesinto the contributing factors or causes and howthe problems can be solved. It thus provides anefficient feedback loop for improving andupgrading the systems and procedures ofimplementation. Evaluation is a simultaneousprocess to analyze the factors that had contributedto the monitored outcome. It is designed totrigger management action at critical points.

Monitoring and evaluation is associated withspecified C&Is (e.g., of sustainable forestmanagement). C&Is provide standards to judge(as well as ways to measure) the performanceand progress toward achieving the stated goals.Apart from helping to judge the results,quantitatively and qualitatively, C&Is practicallyserve to enhance the design of programcomponents and actions, adding a newdimension to strategic planning.

Status of ORHAP Implementation

In order to provide the greatest chance ofsuccessful preparation for future fires and haze,regardless of when they occur, the ORHAPwill remain a continuing process. While theORHAP document, and even some of its

conceptual content, may undergo changes, itsimplementation can proceed uninterruptedly viathe ORHAP-DIP. Based on the experience ofabout the first two years, it is possible to givean interim report on the progress of theORHAP, and to give some idea of the directionit will take in the future.

Overall, the progress achieved has beensubstantial. The scope and range ofcollaborative activities is impressive. However,progress has been uneven across the ORHAP’sthree programs (prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring) and their components.

Uneven Progress

By far, progress has been the most rapid inthe program components of monitoring, in partbecause this has been a major focus of donorinitiatives. Progress in the prevention programhas been less rapid, and mitigation has laggedbehind prevention.

This outcome was to be expected. Given thecentralized and relatively technology-intensivenature of monitoring, as well as the donorsupport for this component, it was clear fromthe beginning that this program would progressquickly. The magnitude of the task ofimplementing the mitigation program is muchgreater, given that this requires formulating andimplementing FSMPs at the national andregional levels. It was also expected thatprevention would unfold at a slower pace thanmonitoring, as this needs a somewhat moreflexible timescale, and in some cases wouldrequire radical policy shifts that are impossibleto achieve in the short run.

Once this unevenness in the progress ofimplementation became apparent, HTTF andAMMH took swift action. Since members ofboth these bodies are drawn solely fromnational-level environment ministries, animmediate priority was to expand the pool of

Progress has beenthe most rapid in

the programcomponents ofmonitoring, in

part because thishas been a majorfocus of donor

initiatives.Progress in the

preventionprogram has

been less rapid,and mitigation

has laggedbehind

prevention

176 THE PROGRAM

prevention and mitigation expertise availableto both bodies. This is being achieved by thecreation of a panel of national experts inprevention and mitigation who will work with,and advise, their respective HTTF and AMMHmembers in accelerating the pace of progressin the implementation of these programs.

ASEAN Haze Fund to Implement the ORHAP

A study to determine the feasibility, purpose,concept, and alternative financing vehicles toestablish an ASEAN Haze Fund was carriedout under ADB’s RETA Project. It alsoidentified various management and institutionalarrangements, including operational guidelines.The study concluded that the creation of theASEAN Haze Fund is not only feasible, buturgent in order to finance ORHAP-relatedactivities, particularly fire suppression andmitigation operations. This can be conductedthrough a cohesive and integrated framework,drawing on the resources of AMCs and othersources of funding.

Purpose of the Fund

The main purpose of the fund is to providequick and emergency access to a pool of fundsthat will enable AMCs to implement their FSMPsto suppress forest fires that result in, or threatento create, a significant degree of transboundaryhaze.

This assumes efficient, effective, and cost-effective FSMPs and SRFAs. In the medium tolonger term, the fund could be used forupgrading FSMPs, preventive measures, andmonitoring, when the level of its resources haveincreased over time.

Guidelines on trigger levels would need tobe created in order to invoke access to the fund.Factors to be taken into account include airpollution indexes, FDRSs, haze transportmodeling, and size and location of affected areas.

Constant monitoring should be emphasized forearly and less costly action.

Conceptual Options

The study has identified two conceptualoptions for consideration. Elements in OptionA include equal contribution from AMCs; fundsto be provided to the requesting transboundaryhaze source country; and periodic contributionsfrom AMCs to replenish the fund.

Elements in Option B include AMCs’contribution to the fund varying according torisk; part of the funds provided to thetransboundary haze source country for firesuppression operations to be returned, interest-free; private polluters should be made liable fortheir acts; and where necessary AMCs will berequired to replenish the fund.

Other Proposed Features

The study has proposed measures forexpanding the financial sources of the fund (e.g.,linking it to ASEAN economic schemes,obtaining company sponsorships andcontributions from private interests, and invitingdonor [dialogue partner] contributions). Thestudy also has provided suggestions for fundmanagement, including institutionalarrangements, procedures for invoking the useof the fund, expenditure and financialguidelines, and investment guidelines.

Consideration of, and a decision on, the hazefund proposed in the study is pending.

Information ManagementAn effective information system is an open-ended system, with continuous add-on capability.The system, depending on its nature and scope,can vary from simple and crude methods tohighly sophisticated ones involving computernetworks, the Internet, and web sites with thecapability of online information exchange and

A study todetermine the

feasibility,purpose, concept,

and alternativefinancing vehicles

to establish anASEAN Haze

Fund was carriedout under ADB’s

RETA Project

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 177

updating facilities. Still, those near the fires incomparatively underdeveloped areas often donot have access to such new systems ofcommunication.

Some of the important problems relating tofire information management identified duringthe1997-1998 fires and haze are as follows:

• data are spread out in various institutionsthat are often reluctant to provideinformation. If available, data are not incompatible format, are of low quality, andexpensive;

• data cannot be communicated in timewhen needed because telecommunicationsare not adequate;

• reliable human resources to gather andprocess data are limited. Data on the1997-1998 fires were mostly monitoredby three foreign-funded satellite-monitoring projects operated by foreignexperts; and

• data processing was not adequate toproduce information to support firemanagement.

Assessment of the Information System

The information system involves severalinterrelated actions to deliver the required datato the users: data collection and generation,processing and analysis, development of usefulinformation, updating of information,communication, and dissemination.

ADB Study on Information Management

Systems

ADB’s RETA Project, as part of its TOR,carried out a Study on Assessment ofInformation Management Systems on ForestFire and Transboundary Atmospheric Pollutionat the ASEAN Secretariat and Related ASEANInstitutions. A key objective of the study wasto assess the information network of the

ORHAP, and to recommend an appropriateinformation management system.

The study conducted several activities.• Reviewed available documentation related

to fires and haze in the ASEANSecretariat.

• Reviewed the types of data and informationcollected by the ASEAN Secretariat.

• Established categorization of theinformation to be included in the Internetand intranet site structure.

• Reviewed data processing anddissemination procedures in the ASEANSecretariat’s units.

• Assessed the information flow in andbetween relevant ASEAN bodies and theASEAN Secretariat.

• Assessed the institutional capacity andfunctional skills required for fire and hazedata collection, processing, anddissemination.

• Assessed the facilities (including hardwareand software) for fire and haze datacollection, processing, and dissemination.

• Assessed the ASEAN Secretariat’srelationship and coordination activitieswith other institutions.

Apart from the assessment of fire- and haze-related information management systems(IMS), the output of the study included otherassessments such as establishment of the public-access web site; formulation andimplementation of training programs for staffin the use and maintenance of the web site; arestricted-access intranet for parties directlyassociated with implementing the ORHAP; andstaff training programs.

Information Management Capability

of NMS

The NMS have varying capacities to carryout collection, processing, and dissemination

Data processingwas not adequate

to produceinformation to

support firemanagement

178 THE PROGRAM

of information on fires and transboundary haze.Basically each NMS is responsible for collectingfire and haze data in their own country.Capability in this regard varies from country tocountry.

During the 1997-1998 ENSO-induceddrought, NMS played a limited though criticalrole in the response and management of theregional and national smoke and haze problem.They contributed through: (i) weathermonitoring and forecasting; (ii) monitoring andsurveillance, including hot spot identificationusing satellite imageries, haze trajectorymodeling, compiling monthly and seasonalclimate prediction information, and activitiesrelated to air quality monitoring; and (iii)effective and prompt dissemination ofinformation to environmental and otheragencies engaged in fire and haze response andmanagement, and to the public, through theInternet and news releases.

The NMS’ capacities need to bestrengthened to better provide timely warningsand forecasts to anticipate the risks of fire andhaze, and assist decision makers in takingappropriate action.

Information Management Function of

HTTFs and SRFAs

The HTTFs of Indonesia, Malaysia, andSingapore and SRFAs do not yet have a clearlydefined information management function; norare formalized or nonformalized referenced datasets maintained.

At the regional level, inventories andassessments of fire management andsuppression capability were carried out underthe auspices of the ORHAP, initially to establisha benchmark.

These are to be repeated periodically, to keepHTTF and AMMH abreast of any changes ina particular AMC’s fire management capacity.

The results of the assessments, as well as updateswill be posted on the restricted-access intranet,which will be maintained by CSU.

ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre

The ASMC has been designated as a regionalinformation center for compiling, analyzing,and disseminating information derived fromsatellite imagery and weather data necessary todetect and monitor land and forest fires andthe occurrence of smoke and haze. In line withthis, ASMC operates an intranet for NMS toaccess fire and haze products. The productsavailable on the intranet include trajectoryforecasts, regional climate forecasts, latest hotspot maps and satellite data, latest forecast ofwinds, visibility information, air quality, andhaze analyses. Other information servicesgenerated by ASMC for the ORHAP consistof its periodic reports to the HTTF and SRFAmeetings.

Role of the ASEAN Computer Unit

While the computer unit of the ASEANSecretariat does not operate and maintain fire-and-haze related information managementsystems per se, its resources and infrastructureare an essential vehicle in internalcommunications, given the LAN’s broadcastingand messaging abilities.

In addition, Internet technologies such asE-mail and web development tools areexpanding the communication potential beyondthe LAN. To this end, the computer unit jointlymanages the ASEAN web site with the officeof the Secretary-General.

Information Flow Analysis

An analysis of the current information flows,products, and services revealed several issuesthat will require attention in establishing anintegrated IMS. These include the following.

The NMS’capacities need tobe strengthenedto better providetimely warningsand forecasts toanticipate the

risks of fire andhaze, and assistdecision makers

in takingappropriateaction plans

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 179

• The processing of cross-sectoralinformation products in the ASEANSecretariat needs strengthening. ASEAN-wide information flows run vertically andare highly sectoral. Within the ASEANSecretariat, the units responsible forprocessing cross-sectoral flows of internalinformation are: (i) Public InformationUnit of Office of the Secretary-General(OSG); (ii) the Library and PublicationsUnit; (iii) the Culture and InformationUnit; and (iv) the Computer Unit.Together these units comprise the internalASEAN Secretariat “Information Nexus,”or key points in the information flow thatprovide value-added processing of variousinformation products. However, no unithas a clear role in assigning priority tocross-sectoral information, largely due tothe absence of a clear information strategy.There is thus a need to better define rolesand responsibilities of the units to optimizepublic information activities. There is alsoscope for tightening this arrangementeither by designating a central unit orreducing the number of units involved inprocessing information.

• There is a lack of consistency in themaintenance of data sets. The data setsmaintained by each ASEAN Secretariatunit are largely limited to decisions ofsectoral meetings and projectimplementation status. Further, the datasets are maintained in different andsometimes incompatible electronicformats. The introduction of a universaldata model for the data set should beexplored to provide consistency, ease ofaccessing, and to facilitate databasemanagement.

• There is a need for an ASEAN SecretariatCommunications and Information Plan.

The ASEAN Secretariat can developinformation materials and communicateto the public through news releases.However, this capacity should besupplemented with an ability to developeffective communications and strategicplans to assist the appropriate units,particularly those comprising theinformation nexus, in more effectivelymaking use of information services andresources.

Other Findings of the Study

Several findings and issues emerged duringthe ADB study on information managementsystem, relating to forest fires andtransboundary haze pollution.

• Scattered Information Resources on Fires andHaze. The current ORHAP informationmanagement system is comprised ofdiscrete and largely independentinformation subsystems thatpredominantly address service-orientedfunctions and inadequately address theother information management functions,i.e., planning and policy, and regulatoryand technical aspects.

• Fire-and-Haze Policy and PlanningInformation System required. There is aneed for an integrated informationmanagement system to address the policy,planning, and program developmentfunctions of the ORHAP implementation.The targeted users for such a system wouldbe AMME, AMMH, and ASOEN.Similarly, a database on fire-and-haze-related international and regionalagreements and protocols would greatlyhelp in carrying out the ORHAP. HTTFand the Asia-Pacific Centre forEnvironmental Law (APCEL) would bethe main beneficiary of such a system.

The data setsmaintained byeach ASEAN

Secretariat unitare largely limited

to decisions ofsectoral meetings

and projectimplementation

status

180 THE PROGRAM

Currently, the management andsupervisory levels of the ORHAP relyalmost entirely on information compiledand collected by the respective nationalagencies.

• Emergency Response MobilizationInformation System required. There is aneed for a centralized regulatory andtechnical service information system forthe ORHAP to help in the activation ofemergency response and mobilizationsystems, including monitoring of the DIPs.The targeted users would be the HTTFChairperson; the HTTF membercountries; the lead countries responsiblefor ORHAP’s prevention; mitigation, andmonitoring components; and collaborativepartners.

• Programs and Projects Informationrequired. A database of programs andprojects of regional and national initiatives,including those supported and catalyzedthrough collaborative partnerships, is animportant requirement for the ORHAP.The establishment of a data set on hazeprograms and projects is required to workin conjunction with a database on DIPs.

• ORHAP Information System on SupportingServices required. There is a need for aninformation system that addresses the areasof technical services and support. Such asystem would incorporate the firefighting,training, and public awareness programsand activities. The end-users for suchsystems would be ASMC, the ASEANRegional Research and Training Centerfor Land and Forest Fire Management inPalangkaraya, national firefightingservices, and public information agencies.

• Institutional Cross-Sectoral CoordinationMechanism needed. Several ASEANbodies are undertaking initiatives that have

potential impact on policy, planning, andprogram development of ORHAPimplementation. Therefore, there is a needto develop a mechanism to monitor cross-sectoral activities to ensure internalconsistency, particularly in ASEANapproaches to agriculture, forestry, culture,and information areas. HTTF and theASEAN Secretariat would be the principalend-users for such a system.

• Need for an Integrated Fire-and-HazeCorporate Data Model. Each substantiveunit in the ASEAN Secretariat possessesits own project database system, whichuses standard, off-the-shelf software suchas Microsoft Word and Access. There is,however, no standardized corporate datamodel for such critical information. Theresulting disparate data sets and databasemanagement systems therefore requirerationalization and integration.

• Need for an ASEAN Secretariat Fire-and-Haze Information Strategy. The flow ofinformation resources among thesubstantive units within the ASEANSecretariat should be strengthened. Thismay be done through the introduction ofan information management strategy onfire-and-haze data collection anddissemination. As a first step, furtherintegration of information resources wouldbe improved by coordinating andsynchronizing the development of relateddatabase management systems. There isalso a need to closely follow reorganizationand restructuring plans at the ASEANSecretariat as these may affect unitshandling fire-and-haze information.

ORHAP Information Systems Architecture

The study on IMS by ADB’s RETA Projectidentified four broad categories of information

There is a needfor a centralizedregulatory and

technical serviceinformation

system for theORHAP to helpin the activationof emergencyresponse andmobilization

systems,including

monitoring ofthe DIPs

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 181

management functions: (i) policy, planning, andprogram development; (ii) regulatory andtechnical services; (iii) administrative servicesand support; and (iv) internal informationmanagement, which together formed theORHAP information systems architecture.

The purpose was to summarize theinformation packages and database to supportthese broad categories and their informationmanagement functions.

These information databases were developedand integrated into the ORHAP informationmanagement system—the ASEAN Haze ActionOnline Internet and intranet systems. Throughthe ASEAN Haze Action Online web site theseinformation databases can be exchanged anddisseminated among ORHAP institutions andthe public.

Information Packages and Databases

The information packages provided beloware arranged according to information systemarchitecture given above.

Policy, Planning, and Program Development

The databases that support this informationmanagement function are as follows:

ORHAP/SRFA/NHAP Status MonitoringSystem. This information system is a higher-level search and query engine (index server)that accesses all the other information systemsin the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internetand intranet web site (see Appendix 6). Datamaintenance of the site index is performedautomatically by the index server as soon asnew data are added to the system.

Detailed Implementation Plan InformationSystem. This information system manages theentire DIP data set at ORHAP, SRFA, andNHAP levels. This system fulfills the need foran ORHAP monitoring system sinceinformation concerning the status of actions at

each of the DIP levels will be continuouslyavailable. The data maintenance of the DIPinformation system is assigned to the respectivefocal points, designated bodies, and personnelassigned by ORHAP institutions responsiblefor carrying out a specific action. DIPs will beperiodically published and distributed separatelyas hard copy.

Collaborative Partnerships Program andProjects Information System. This informationsystem provides the vehicle to manageinformation on all funding agency, NGO, andprivate sector programs and projects, and is atool to better coordinate development assistanceby matching specific needs to assistancepriorities. A full range of functions—searching,querying, reporting—is available for planning,implementation, and monitoring of fundingagency-assisted projects. The maintenance ofthis database will be assigned to the respectivefunding agency (along with the CSU) and thecoordinator of the assistance project.

Agreement and Protocol MonitoringSystem. The Document Center DatabaseSystem maintains the data set on agreementsand protocols to enable ORHAPimplementation. Data maintenance of thisinformation system will be carried out by CSUat the ASEAN Secretariat.

Regulatory and Technical Services

The functions of the ASEAN-CSU underthe ORHAP include management of technicalservices and support relating to the ORHAP,SRFAs, and NHAP-DIPs. An importantfunction is servicing and maintaining the fire-and-haze Information Clearinghouse, andmaintaining the Internet and intranet. The tasksalso include reviewing, analyzing, and processinginformation from fire-and-haze related web sitesfor possible incorporation into the ASEAN Fireand Haze web site (see Appendix 6). This

DIPs will beperiodically

published anddistributed

separately as hardcopy

182 THE PROGRAM

ORHAP information management functionwould require the following information systems:

Mobilization and Response InformationSystem. This system is intended to helpmaintain information and data sets on field-level fire suppression, in particular on facilitatingthe formulation of FSMP documents,maintaining the detailed inventory and trackingsystem, and formulation of the TEWT, inconjunction with the Firefighting ResourcesInventory Tracking System. Data maintenanceof the system is carried out by CSU. Futuredevelopment of the system will include a statustracking system to monitor FSMP in each ofthe targeted regions and subregions.

Administrative Services and Support

The functions under this category include:ORHAP monitoring support to, and secretariatsupport for, the HTTF; recording anddocumenting haze-related meetings; maintainingand updating the regional inventory of firemanagement capability; and monitoring theregional fire-and-haze response system. ThisORHAP information management functionwould require the following information systems:

Firefighting Resources Inventory TrackingSystem. This information system contains thedata set on the firefighting suppressionpersonnel, and suppression andcommunications equipment. This system willkeep track of the fire suppression resources atthe regional, subregional, national, andprovincial levels. The firefighting agencies atthe national and subregional levels will beresponsible for keeping this database up-to-date.

Contact Information System. The ASEANHaze Action Online Contact informationDatabase maintains data of all persons andinstitutions concerned with ORHAPimplementation. This database is maintainedby CSU.

ASMC and NMS Information System. TheIMS of the ORHAP would require a linkagewith key information and disseminationactivities carried out by the ASMC and affiliatedNMSs. This linkage is available in theMonitoring Section of the ASEAN Haze ActionOnline web site. At present, this section containshyperlinks to the web sites of various institutionsspecializing in monitoring of fires and haze (seeBox 15). Hyperlinks/linkages in this sectionare maintained by CSU.

Training and Skills Information System. Aninformation system on training and skills ofprevention, suppression, and monitoringpersonnel would be required to indicate thecapacity of regional human resources. Thissystem is implemented in the ASEAN HazeAction Online—Firefighting ResourceInventory System, Document Center, andCalendar. The Firefighting Resource InventorySystem keeps track of firefighting personnelwith the skill level information; the DocumentCenter maintains the available training and skillsdocumentation; and the Calendar Systemprovides the schedule and venue of all past,present, and future training activities.

Internal Information Management

The system is concerned with informationmanagement functions, which are internal toORHAP implementation. These include:

AMME/AMMH and HTTF/SRFADecisions and Report Tracking System. TheORHAP IMS should also provide the meansto maintain, archive, and access decisions andreports by AMME, AMMH, HTTF, and SRFA.This system is incorporated in the ASEANHaze Action Online Document Center Modulethat keeps track of all reports produced byORHAP institutions and meetings. CSUcarries out data maintenance of the DocumentCenter.

The ASEANHaze Action

Online Contactinformation

Databasemaintains data ofall persons and

institutionsconcerned with

ORHAPimplementation

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 183

General Documentation and ReferenceSystem. The ORHAP’s IMS also comprises aninformation system that maintains otherdocumentation and referencing required forORHAP implementation. This system is alsoincorporated in the ASEAN Haze ActionOnline Document Center that keeps track ofall documentation and referencing required forORHAP implementation.

Data maintenance of the Document Centeris carried out by CSU.

Regional Information Center and

Clearinghouse

Based on the assessment of the IMS, a regionalinformation center and clearinghouse wasestablished at the ASEAN Secretariat. It includes:real-time satellite imagery; a continuously-updated inventory of relevant funding agency-assisted initiatives; information on past, present,and future meetings, workshops, seminars, andtraining programs relating to transboundary haze;and numerous other features.

Training programs in the operation andmaintenance of the public-access web sites wereformulated and conducted by RETA 5778.Trainees included ASEAN Secretariat staff whowould maintain the web site’s content, as wellas staff from the Secretariat’s Computer Unit,who would be responsible for integrating theweb site into the ASEAN Secretariat’s overallnetwork of computer users. Separate trainingprograms were conducted for staff who supportthe work of HTTF members to ensure that thelatter would have continuous access to theinformation posted on the ORHAP intranet.

• http://www.unifreiburg.de/fireglobe• http://smd.mega.net.id/iffm• http://www.neotecinc.com/wildfire• http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~bibex• http://www.iffm.or.id/>• http://www.mtv.sai.jrc.it/projects/fire• http://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/fireatlas/fires.html• http://www.anu.edu.au/Forestry/fire/firenet.html

BOX 15 Some Important Fire and Haze Web Sites

184 THE PROGRAM

Notes29 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire

Prevention and Drought Management, 1998.30 The application of market-based

instruments to environmental issues wasoriginally developed to address problemssuch as pollution and traffic congestion.The intention is to use the market systemto reduce negative factors or social cost. Atradable pollution permit is a market-basedinstrument.

31 The factors determining the choice oftechnique are (i) terrain and topographicalfeatures, and (ii) the crop involved. Thetechniques in use in the region are thewindrow method, the skyline method, andthe bunching method. In situ chipping andaccelerated decomposition are technicallyfeasible, but financially not yet viable.

32 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for FirePrevention and Drought Management, 1998.

33 Phase I of the Immediate Action Plan—Field Training Exercise for Prevention andControl of Land and Forest Fire and Hazein Riau Province, Sumatra (1999/2000),funded by UNEP is ongoing.In addition the MOU for Immediate ActionPlan—Field Training Exercise forPrevention and Control of Land and ForestFire and Haze in West Kalimantan, (2000/2001) between ASEAN and Australia wassigned on 28 January 2000 at the ASEANSecretariat, Jakarta. The Field TrainingExercise is designed to assist localgovernment officers and the community inWest Kalimantan, Indonesia, to develop acomprehensive action plan for forest firemanagement and their capacity in forestfirefighting. It also aims to monitor forestfires to prevent them from getting out ofcontrol during the dry season and to developa Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan in

West Kalimantan. Australia’s contributionis $173,000. BAPEDAL will implementthe monitoring and prevention components,while MOFEC will develop the mitigationcomponent. RHAP-CSU of the ASEANSecretariat will serve as the coordinator forthe project.Riau and West Kalimantan are regardedas the first priority areas. Similar FieldTraining Exercises will also be conductedfor other haze-prone areas in Sumatra andKalimantan.

34 The two SRFAs currently in place are SRFASumatra, whose membership comprisesIndonesia (lead country), Malaysia, andSingapore; and SRFA Borneo, whosemembership comprises Brunei Darussalam(lead country), Indonesia, and Malaysia.The idea of forming a third SRFA for theGreater Mekong subregion (SRFA-GMS)has been mooted. SRFA-GMS has yet tobe officially formed, because the impetusfor this (i.e., extensive large-scale fireswithin the GMS) has not yet arisen. SRFA-GMS would group all ASEAN membercountries through which the Mekong Riverflows (Cambodia, the Lao PDR, Myanmar,Thailand, and Viet Nam). Its formationwould leave the Philippines as the onlyASEAN country not a member of an SRFA.This deficiency could easily be repaired bythe Philippines joining SRFA Borneo,which would be fitting, due to thePhilippines’ geographic proximity to theisland of Borneo.

35 The best case time frame required forcompleting an individual FSMP exercise is18-24 months (Appendix 3).

36 In East Kalimantan alone, where it has beenestimated that some 95,000 ha of industrialplantations were burned in the 1997-1998fires, replanting costs have been estimated

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 185

to be around $20 million (personalcommunication from Alastair Fraser,10 September 1998).

37 The TAO array consists of about 70 buoysin the tropical Pacific Ocean, measuringoceanographic and meteorological data inreal-time via the Argos satellite system.

38 The objectives of the GCOS program ofWMO include providing the data requiredto meet the needs of the climate systemmonitoring, climate change detection,research toward improved understanding,and modeling and prediction of the climatesystem.

39 Lyons and Weber (1991) developed asimple burning test to estimate fuelmoisture. The test consists of lighting asingle dead leaf or pine needle, etc.,representative of the fuel that will burn.The leaf is held horizontally to be ignitedand then pointed down or up until theextinguishment angle is found. This test isrepeated a few times to obtainrepresentative results and the fuel moistureis related to the angle. Such a simple test ifshown to be valid would be cheap and couldbe easily conducted by landholders andforest rangers.

40 Canada is also considering another project,a “Fire Danger Rating System forIndonesia: An Adaptation of the CanadianFire Behaviour Prediction System.” It willbe an important contribution towardimproving the basic knowledge on weather-fuel-fire and fire behavior relationships.

41 Dryness maps can be easily and inexpensivelyprepared from rainfall data. The rainfall debtindex uses the deficit between average andcurrent rainfall levels as the sole variable forassessing the risk of fire.

42 It may also be possible to reduce the costof aerial surveillance by using ultralight

aircraft in some circumstances. Theadvantages of this approach are lowoperating and maintenance costs, and thefact that such aircraft may be able to bemanufactured locally. The greatestdisadvantage of ultralight aircraft is theirlow average airspeed, which lengthens theflight time of patrols relative to faster, morecostly aircraft. In some ASEAN countries,government regulations require that aircraftused for aerial surveillance be powered bya minimum of two engines. This effectivelyrules out the possibility of using ultralightaircraft for aerial surveillance, since virtuallyall of them are powered by a single engine.

43 Particulate conversion ratio (PCR) is theproportion of fuel mass that becomes totalsuspended particulates. The ratio is oftenmeasured by the relationship: PCR = 1.83c/d, where 1.83 represents the constantthat relates to the carbon content of thefuel that is converted to carbon dioxide, cis the mass of carbon dioxide in 1 m3, andd the mass of total suspended particulatesin 1 m3.

44 CO/CO2 Ratio: The ratio CO/CO2

provides information about the nature ofthe combustion generating haze. Forexample, if the ratio is 0.04, it is consideredthat flaming combustion is involved. If theratio is 0.25 then smoldering combustionis involved.

45 A meteorological instrument usingtransmitted and reflected laser light fordetecting atmospheric particles andpollutants.

46 An appropriate index for use in the regionis the Normalized Difference VegetationIndex (NDVI), which is derived from asimple formula that uses data generatedfrom two satellite channels, one that recordsinfrared (i.e., heat) information, the other

186 THE PROGRAM

recording light (i.e., visual) information.The NDVI provides a crude estimate ofvegetation health, which makes it anappropriate means of monitoring changes invegetation health and cover over time. NDVIis considered the most appropriate for theAMCs, given the recurrent nature of firesand haze in the region.

47 Haze transport modeling relates tonumerous issues in addition to themovements of haze pollution such as thelikely composition of the haze when it arrivesat a particular predicted destination point.Haze transport modeling thus encompassesthe formation, movement, and dispersionof haze pollution, as well as its chemicalcomposition and density, both of whichdetermine its human health impacts.

48 Component I of PARTS is being fundedby the Australian Government.Components 2 and 3 are being funded bythe US Government under two of the 10subprojects that compromise SEA-EI.

49 The purpose of WMO’s GlobalAtmospheric Watch program is to providedata, scientific assessments, and other

information on the atmosphericcomposition and related physicalcharacteristics of the backgroundatmosphere from all parts of the globe. Themeasurement program includes:greenhouse gases, ozone, radiation andoptical depth, precipitation chemistry,chemical and physical properties ofaerosols, reactive gases, radionuclides, andrelated meteorological parameters.

50 Hard-law international instruments arelegally binding in that they includeprovisions for sanctions (e.g., tradeboycotts or monetary compensation) in theevent they are contravened. Soft-lawinternational instruments such as principlesand declarations include no suchprovisions. Their purpose is simply toformally state the intent on the part of thesignatories to take concerted action towarda mutually agreed goal at some point inthe future.

51 While NHAPs form part of the overallsystem of the ORHAP, the responsibilityfor their formulation rests with therespective national governments.

CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 187

188 THE PROGRAM

IntroductionHaving formulated the ORHAP for ASEAN,covering the period 1999-2005, one mightassume that the way ahead is clear and effortless;and what is required is to carry out the activitieslisted under prevention, mitigation, andmonitoring programs, as far as possible.

The situation is not that simple orstraightforward. The concept of the RHAP wasformally approved by AMMH in December1997; and the ASEAN/ADB efforts to put theRHAP into operation through the ADB-fundedRETA Project continued from April 1998 toDecember 1999.

The RETA Project registered significantachievements, in the short term, most of whichare of a startup nature. It calls for a considerable

amount of work to consolidate the gains and toinstitutionalize a system in order to sustaindevelopment.

The Way to be NegotiatedThe path to be negotiated toward achievingthe objectives of the RHAP, i.e., an effectiveand efficient system of fire and hazemanagement in the region, is not easy or clearof hurdles. Most of the assumptions relating toinfrastructure, institutions, and institutionalinstruments would require enormous effort andinvestment to materialize.

The ORHAP, for now, having been definedfor a period of only six years, represents thefirst (or the first few) steps of a long journey.To start implementing the ORHAP and carryit forward as long as is required through all theimaginable constraints would require constant,consistent, and cooperative efforts by theinvolved parties and partners—national,regional, and international.

The TransitionThe DIPs have given details about the activitiesto be carried out under expected core fundingfrom ASEAN and AMCs, donor assistancecatalyzed by ADB’s RETA Project, and othersources, as well as areas where there are fundinggaps. Timely mobilization of resources fromall sources is vital if the ORHAP is to showpositive results.

The Way Ahead

[This chapter looks into the important actions required to consolidate the initiatives so far undertakenand to promote appropriate forest fire management in the ASEAN region, to support rational land useand development.]

CHAPTER 6

Firm action will beFirm action will beFirm action will beFirm action will beFirm action will beneeded to prevent aneeded to prevent aneeded to prevent aneeded to prevent aneeded to prevent arecurrence of therecurrence of therecurrence of therecurrence of therecurrence of thefires and haze-fires and haze-fires and haze-fires and haze-fires and haze-producing smokeproducing smokeproducing smokeproducing smokeproducing smokefrom the 1997from the 1997from the 1997from the 1997from the 1997conflagration inconflagration inconflagration inconflagration inconflagration inIndonesia.Indonesia.Indonesia.Indonesia.Indonesia.

Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo:Photo: IntegratedForest FireManagement Project,Indonesia (Courtesy:Ludwig Schindler)

CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 189

The RETA Project has been formallyterminated and the onus for carrying forwardthe implementation of the ORHAP now restswith CSU. However, it was agreed the RETAProject would fund some actions to promote asmooth transition. These include (i) $50,000for implementation of the IAP Field TrainingExercise for Prevention and Control of Landand Forest Fire and Haze in Sumatra, Phase 2(Phase 1 at an estimated cost of $50,000 wasfunded by UNEP); (ii) Support to the ASEANRegional Haze Fund Study, estimated to costabout $20,000; and (iii) a feasibility study foran ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution, to be cofinanced with UNEP andother donors.

To obtain a better vision of what is to becarried out, it is useful to go over some of therelevant lessons from past experience.

Lessons and ExperienceThe land and forest fires that ravaged large areasof Sumatra and Kalimantan in 1997-1998 addeda new urgency to the issue of forest fireprevention and management, because this wasthe fifth time in 15 years for such an occurrence.The emergency caused by the forest fires andthe associated transboundary haze problem isfor the time being over. The damage andnegative impacts caused were considerable andtheir scars remain. Investigations carried outso far on the underlying causes, consequences,and constraints provide reasonable insight intothe serious lapses of the past and the potentialfire threat looming over the future. Actions areurgently required to avoid not only furtherrecurrence of the devastation from forest fires,but also the complacency and lack of compliancewith regulations in the past.

Multidisciplinary investigations on thedifferent aspects of forest fires and hazeworldwide have confirmed that concerns about

the global impact of forest fires, in the form oftransboundary pollution, climate change, andloss of biodiversity, are very real.

Being prepared for future forest fires andhaze should consist of a balanced package ofmeasures to prevent unwanted fires, to controland suppress fires when they occur, to monitorall developments relating to fires (includingpredisposing, feeding, impact-generating, andpost-event factors), and to establish an effectiveinstitutional mechanism to manage the package.

An all-embracing lesson from the last 20years of experience with forest fires and haze isthat the combined effects of causes, constraints,and contributory factors tend to come togetherand conquer, unless an adequate defense force(a combination of policies, strategies, systems,technology, and human resources) is maintainedin prime condition to provide readiness.

General Lessons

The weaknesses and failures identified eachtime fires and haze occur in the region resurfaceagain and again—followed by resumption ofabandoned remedial attempts that will be laterdiscarded yet again. Can we expect that therewill be a change in the “touch-and-go” trend?Will there be drastic action to address theweaknesses and failures, and an institutionalsystem (instruments, organizations,coordination mechanisms) to carry it throughin a sustainable manner? As long as there isinadequate understanding and appreciation ofdecision makers about (i) the impacts of firesand haze on society, economy, and theenvironment; and (ii) the positive relationshipof the benefit of the disaster averted to the costinvolved in fire and haze management, it willbe difficult to maintain a sustained assault.

The urge to make private gains by floutingthe policies and regulations relating to landclearance has been found to be an important

Actions areurgently requiredto avoid not only

furtherrecurrence of thedevastation fromforest fires, but

also thecomplacency and

lack ofcompliance withregulations in the

past

190 THE PROGRAM

factor in the spread of fires. If there is noeffective, efficient, and impartial enforcementmechanism, policies and regulations will notbe of much use in addressing fires and haze.

An assumption that past failures will not berepeated in the future needs to be based onfirm and timely action to remove theinstitutional, social, cultural, and other factorsthat have led to failure.

Globally, there is a trend of shrinkinggovernment budgets for forest protection, whilemany nations are not able to support a well-functioning fire management organization. Thestandards required by the initial agreements ofIDNDR are not met in most signatorycountries. Can they be in the future?International sharing of fire managementexpertise and resources may provide a solution,at the same time demonstrating solidarityamong nations to protect forest and othervegetation resources. There is considerableinternational interest to address the situationthat needs to be channeled in a coordinatedmanner. More than seeking financial grants andmaterial support from donors, mechanisms forappropriate and sustained internationalcollaboration and with a long-range perspectiveneed to be established and maintained.

Specific Lessons

Regional collaboration and sharing ofresources across national boundaries (e.g., inSRFAs) to address forest fires and haze havebeen accepted, in principle, as a feasible andefficient approach. In the outbreaks of 1997-1998, and in the pilot trial runs later in Sumatra,it has become evident that there are severalpractical problems covering legal, procedural,logistic, and diplomatic aspects, involvinginstitutions representing different sectors. Legalagreements are essential to ensure smoothfunctioning of joint activities, including:

• harmonization of air pollution indexes;• standardization and enhancement of fire

management training curricula;• immigration and customs preclearance

procedures for cross-border sharing of firesuppression personnel and equipment;

• supranational administrative arrangementsand joint firefighting teams;

• data sharing among weather monitoringagencies; and

• access to the airspace of neighboringcountries for aerial surveillance of fires todetermine optimal fire suppressionstrategies.

These should be addressed thoroughly,systematically, and expeditiously.

It is to be underlined that, formal agreementsapart, the pervading spirit of cooperation is anattitudinal development that comes throughcontinuous attunement.

Even within countries, policy andinstitutional changes are slow to emerge andslower still to be put into practice, unless thereis adequate political will to see them through.Earlier, the need for several policy changes washighlighted, such as introducing market-basedinstruments for promoting mechanical landclearing. These are of vital importance. Inactiondue to a lack of political will can lead to seriousconsequences.

Transboundary haze pollution in the ASEANregion is primarily caused by large land-clearingfires deliberately set by commercial scalecompanies and others. Experience from ADB’sRETA Project suggests that this causessmallholders, individuals, and communitygroups to often develop a sense of acceptanceof periodic haze caused by large-scale landclearing, since they feel powerless to alter suchoccurrences. Integrating public awarenessprograms into the FSMP exercise can help toempower these persons and groups, rather than

If there is noeffective, efficient,

and impartialenforcementmechanism,policies and

regulations willnot be of much

use in addressingfires and haze

CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 191

simply providing them with additionalinformation, as long as they are complementedby relevant policies and systems favoringrational land tenure and land use. Withoutwilling participation of the people, publicpolicies and programs cannot succeed inachieving the objectives.

Policy conflicts within countries are oftenreflected at the regional level through theirimpacts. For example, land use in manycountries, historically, has been rife withconflicts—putting individuals, families,communities, and resource users constantly atloggerheads with each other and creating anatmosphere of hostility, social tension, andunsocial acts. Conflict resolution based on equityand fairness should be a necessary componentof any program associated with resource useand management.

The RETA Project has pointed out twoaspects that need to be assigned priority if theregion is to have sufficient capacity to alter thelevel of transboundary haze pollution duringsubsequent ENSOs.

First, the process of implementing FSMPsfor the most haze-prone areas of the region mustbe brought soon to fruition. This involves farmore than formulation of FSMP documents. Itencompasses building fire management capacityat the community through district levels towhich ASEAN- and donor-provided firesuppression resources can link. The impact ofother activities such as ground surveillance andmonitoring would also be magnified by theirbeing directly integrated into the FSMPexercise.

Second, the need to adequately meet thechallenge of formulation and implementationof the FSMPs for the SRFAs is urgent. Theexperience so far in cooperative fire suppressioninitiatives in the region is that most of theconcrete details on how to carry them out (e.g.,

the extent of assistance, how regional assistanceis to be financed, and the responsibilities of theproviding and the receiving countries) have yetto be hammered out. This is the purpose of theSRFA-level FSMPs. So far, little emphasis hasbeen placed on initiating the FSMP formulationand implementation exercise for the SRFAs.This process must be accelerated if theSRFAs—which were established as firesuppression organizations—are to function asintended during subsequent ENSOs.

The magnitude of the task involved isenormous, calling for focused attention in theperiod ahead.

Monitoring (also some other elements of firemanagement) has two broad componentscomplementing each other: (i) remote level, hightechnology-based and (ii) local level, manual orlow-technology-based. Extreme care isnecessary to establish a proper balance betweenthese two aspects, and not to be enamouredsolely by one. The 1997-1998 fires and hazeshowed that overreliance on satellite monitoringand neglect of local surveillance andcommunication systems can produce seriouslyadverse results. Further, the experience of theRETA Project with regard to implementing theORHAP’s monitoring component is that it canbe relatively easy and quick to formulate, design,and implement.

The monitoring component of the ORHAPhas seen relatively rapid progress. A related issueis that in the future, emphasis should shift fromthe regional level to upgrading the capacity ofthe national-level weather institutions. In themedium term, particular attention should bepaid to reducing the differences in monitoringcapacity among the various AMCs. Basic-levelcommunication facilities (e.g., access to ASMC’sintranet) should be assured for all member-country weather institutions. Here againcommitment is a prime condition.

The magnitudeof the taskinvolved isenormous,calling for

focused attentionin the period

ahead

192 THE PROGRAM

The most popular view holds that for severalyears in the future, population growth andpressure on natural resources will keep the firesand associated haze a live issue.

Influence of Climate Change Convention

The UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) on land use and land-usechanges may indirectly influence forestprotection, positively or negatively. Ifdeforestation is effectively controlled, reducedimpact logging is seriously practiced, and forestfire management measures are intensified, forestfires and haze will, in all likelihood, be reducedin number and intensity. In this regard, it isnecessary that forest and forest fire managersfollow the evolution of climate change policyto assess its implications on fires and haze.

People’s Participation

In strategic planning, a participatory processenvisages that consultations should take placeat all stages, so that the plan will be owned byall those involved, which in turn will help inthe effective achievement of objectives.Participation should continue in implementationof the plan, particularly at local levels. This willbring dynamism into the planning process, andwill ensure that planning will be made moreeffective and responsive to real needs.

Participation is a process of social action andsocial change. Millions of people living in ruralareas, in and around forests, depend on forestsfor their livelihood. Often, their aspirations fora more decent, secure, and equitable way oflife are tied up with forestry development.Organized and informed participation of thesepeople can help all parties involved to findsolutions to their problems.

Local membership organizations such ascooperatives, tenant leagues, and women’sgroups constitute a third sector, balanced

Forest Fire andHaze Outlook in theASEAN RegionFuture Forest Fires and HazeExperience tells us that forest fires are likely aslong as there are forests. However, the numberand intensity of fires can be reduced throughrational and balanced managementinterventions.

Fire risk modeling in expected future climatechange scenarios and other influencing factorsindicate that within the next three to fourdecades, the destructiveness of human-causedand natural wildfires will increase. Due to themultidirectional and multidimensional effectsof fire on the different vegetation zones andecosystems, and the manifold cultural, social,and economic factors involved, suitable firemanagement strategies will have to be evolvedto counter the predicted situations.

Influence of Demographic Changes

Human population growth can make a badsituation worse by putting ever more pressureon available land and other resources.According to the UN’s middle estimate amongseven fertility scenarios, the human populationwill rise (from the present six billion) to 9.4billion by the year 2050, then to 10.8 billion by2150 before leveling off at the end of the 22ndcentury. The collective impact of this growthwill be overwhelming. The impact, however,cannot be measured simply by populationfigures. It will be a product of three variables:population size, consumption level, andtechnology. High consumption increases theimpact of a given population; whereastechnological developments may eitherexacerbate (by excessive exploitation) ormitigate it (by improving efficiency). In anycase, more people will need more total land.And, possibly, more open fires to clear the land.

Participationshould

continue inimplementation

of the plan,particularly at

local levels

CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 193

between the public and private sector, to ensurethat the group’s problem is appropriatelyconsidered in the development planning process(Esman and Uphoff 1982). Grassroots groupswill have to interlock with governments, privatecompanies, and NGOs as a strategic alliance.

Participation and intensive consultationstrengthen the planning process by encouragingtransparency, improving access to informationand ideas, helping in conflict resolution andfeasible choices, and enabling generalacceptance of decisions.

People’s participation in formulating andimplementing FSMPs will be a feasible anduseful approach. If smallholders, communitygroups, and local NGOs are also parties to theinteragency agreements that define the roles andresponsibilities of those undertaking the FSMPs,it will provide a forum to sort out conflicts.But, in most cases, in forestry, participation isperipheral and symbolic, more to legitimize theprocess than to produce results.

Nonmaterial motivation, through allowingparticipation in discussions, though laudable,is not a practical system; improvement in socialconditions and living standards is the basic urgethat drives people to participate. Under thesecircumstances, participation should involveproductive engagement.

The Larger Context

ASEAN is a rich region in terms of naturalflora and fauna, timber, and NWFPs. In itslarger context, fire and haze management inAMCs is also an issue of environmentalsecurity covering resource development,biodiversity conservation, sustainablemanagement of forests, food security,employment, related institutions, andinfrastructure. The need for a holistic approachto address forest fires and haze is, therefore,evident.

Strengthening RegionalCollaborationThe way ahead to achieve the ORHAP’sobjectives should be by unflagging efforts tocontinuously strengthen regional collaborationand cooperation. This can be achieved throughjoint activities, fine-tuning of policies, adoptingcommon standards and approaches, establishinglegal instruments on important aspects ofregional collaboration, effectivelyinstitutionalizing management of forest fires andhaze, formulating a long-term framework andperspective plan for fire management, andensuring proper balance of the programstructure. It is also necessary to provideincreasing clarity to the functions of the differentASEAN bodies concerned with fire and hazemanagement.

Joint ActivitiesJoint activities suitable for the different contextsand circumstances are an important means ofstrengthening the regional approach. Policystudies, research and development, specializedtraining, remote sensing and satellite-basedmonitoring, and SRFAs are some of theactivities on which cooperation has beeninitiated. This cooperation needs to be furtherstrengthened. As and when conditions becomemore conducive, and if economy and efficiencywarrant it, more and more activities relating tofire management can be brought under theregional preview.

Continuation and Completion of Ongoing

Activities

Several activities have been initiated by theORHAP under the auspices of ADB’s RETAProject. Some activities have been started andare ongoing, some are in a nascent stage, andothers are still in the form of a plan awaitingapproval for funding. Some activities are of

The way ahead toachieve theORHAP’s

objectives shouldbe by unflagging

efforts tocontinuouslystrengthenregional

collaboration andcooperation

194 THE PROGRAM

considerable magnitude, some are complex innature; some are of short-term, and others areof medium-term implication.

An important task ahead is to carry theseforward, enhance their functioning or completethem as necessary in order to realize the goals.There are various activities to be seen through.These include completing the network ofFSMPs, linking village units all the way up tothe subregional (SRFA) level; increasing andimproving the monitoring capacity of AMSCand establishing an effective monitoring systemnetwork; pursuing and completing the workon policy changes involving introduction ofmarket-based instruments, a system ofresponsible land clearance bonds, mechanicalland clearing, and model codes of practice;starting training programs on firefighting, firemanagement and monitoring; and establishingthe Regional Research and Training Center forLand and Forest Fire Management.

Some of the areas where focused attentionis required in the short term would includeworking toward common standards andapproaches (e.g., haze pollution indexes, firemonitoring standards, and capability); andestablishment of an ASEAN Haze Fund.

There is a clear need for properdocumentation of fires across the ASEANregion. While general occurrence of fire andfire-generated smoke at regional level is known,there is still a lack of information on seasonaland spatial distribution of fires in the variousland-use systems and wildlands. Fire monitoringon a regional scale is not necessarily aimed atfirefighting operations. They must be arrangedwithin the individual countries. Regional fireactivity monitoring should include the evaluationof archives with historic satellite data in orderto identify possible changes of fire regimes.

Another issue, relating to implementationof the monitoring program, is that in the future,

the emphasis should shift from the regional levelto upgrading the capacity of national-levelmeteorological institutions. In the mediumterm, particular attention should be paid toreducing the differences in monitoring capacityamong the various AMCs. Basic-levelcommunication facilities (e.g., access to ASMC’sintranet) should be assured for all AMCmeteorological institutions.

Consultation and New ActivitiesA means of strengthening regional collaborationis through regular consultation among theAMCs to review the implementation of theORHAP and to assess the need for programmodification, including new activities. Someideas have already come up.

• A proposal is being considered regardingpublication and distribution of an ASEANForest Fire Bulletin on a regular basis todisseminate information on occurrenceand extent of fires, estimated impacts,research results, technologicalbreakthroughs, experience withapplication of specific technologies,information on weather patterns, policydevelopments, etc., from within andoutside ASEAN.

• Considering the commonality of forestfire-related issues and problems, apartfrom cost-effectiveness, AMCs can gainconsiderable advantages by establishingpan-ASEAN fire centers orstrengthening existing ones, whilesharing facil it ies, knowledge andexperience in aspects such as fire scienceand technology, and fire managementplanning. These can be linked to theRegional Research and Training Centerfor Land and Forest Fire Management.

• The ORHAP at present does not includeactivities relating to the effects of forest

There is a clearneed for properdocumentation

of fires across theASEAN region

CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 195

fires and haze on public health, andmeasures to mitigate such impacts. TheNHAP (draft) of Malaysia hasincorporated public health warning andmitigation measures in its activities. Itwould be appropriate to acknowledge therelevance of it, through incorporating acorresponding activity in the ORHAP,even if on a token scale.

• There are no separate entities dealingwith fire weather, nor are therededicated satellites for fire monitoring.A recommendation has been made at theWMO Workshop (2-5 June 1998) heldin Singapore to develop dedicatedsatellites for fire monitoring that willhave better spatial and temporalresolution than existing satellites. It wasalso suggested that the next generationfire satellites should provide for bettercharacterization of fire temperature andresulting gaseous and particulateemission measurements. The latterinformation can be used to initializeATMs that can forecast the developmentand dispersal of pollutants in the region.This idea needs to be pursued.

Fine-Tuning of PoliciesThere are no separate forest fire policies in theAMCs. Fire-related policies are included asclauses or provisions in other related policies;e.g., in a forest policy, environmental policy, orland development policy. Separate regulationscorresponding to these policy clauses are oftenissued. These lead to inconsistencies and evenconflicts as far as forest fire- and haze-relatedpolicies are concerned. There is need to fine-tune fire-related policy provisions by removinginconsistencies and providing for appropriatefocus. Better still, a separate policy statementon forest fires and haze can be formulated—

following accepted procedures involving policyarticulation and formulation.

Promoting policy changes relating to the useof fires that cause atmospheric pollution isdifficult. This is a medium-term task that isbeing undertaken by some countries withbilateral support from international donors.

ASEAN Regional Framework Policy

An ASEAN regional framework policy onforest fires and associated haze can serve as amodel for the AMCs to formulate their ownpolicies (or modify the existing policyprovisions) to suit their needs.

No single policy formula can cover the widerange of ecological, socioeconomic, and culturalconditions found in AMCs. But there are certainbroad principles common to all situations,including:

• the need for formulation of policiesspecifically addressing forest fires and hazeautonomously or as an integral componentof land-use policies;

• flexibility in policy implementation, andthe capability to review and revise fire-related policies;

• clear and measurable policy objectives andimplementation strategies; and

• involvement of all stakeholders in policydevelopment, especially through devolvedor community participatory approaches.

Formulating and promulgating a policy doesnot necessarily guarantee that it will be followed.Policy implementation needs to be ensuredthrough strict enforcement.

Common Standards and ApproachesFor joint efforts, as envisaged in the ORHAP,to succeed, common standards and commonapproaches are required. The need forharmonization of haze pollution indexes,standardization of the FDRS and hot spot

An ASEANregional

framework policyon forest firesand associated

haze can serve asa model for the

AMCs toformulate theirown policies

196 THE PROGRAM

algorithms, a common curriculum for firemanagement training, standard terms anddefinitions, and a common/harmonized systemof weights and measures exemplify theimportance of common standards.

Similarly, there are several aspects (e.g.,policy and regulations) where commonapproaches will help to strengthen regionalcooperation. Methods of land clearance andpreparation, reduced-impact forest harvesting,use of market-based instruments, and landclearance bonds, and institutional arrangementsare cases where common approaches andguidelines can be applied.

Before common adoption by all AMCs, themerits and demerits of the standards andapproaches should be discussed in speciallyorganized workshops to clarify issues andimplications and to make necessarymodifications. Training for staff, includingdemonstration of the use of common standardsand approaches, should be provided.

Legal System for RegionalCooperationA legal system for the ORHAP will involvevarious levels and types. ASEAN’s legal systemmay be sufficient to cover some of theORHAP’s general aspects (e.g., personnel,financial control). In the case of fire and hazemanagement involving more than one country,specific agreements are needed, enabled by asuperior instrument such as a protocol or amother agreement.

The different levels in the legal system of theORHAP will roughly be as follows: regional-level convention or a mother agreement; specificprotocol(s) (e.g., on transboundary hazepollution control); agreements relating to aspecific situation (e.g., an agreement for sharingweather information); and SOPs for actionsfalling within the purview of specific agreements

(such as cross-border transfers of firefightingequipment).

Instrument for Transboundary Haze

Pollution Control

For international agreements to be drawnup covering various aspects of the ORHAP, itis necessary to have an enabling legalinstrument. Sustained implementation of theORHAP would significantly be helped by amother agreement or a comparable legalinstrument that embodies the variousagreements at the bilateral, subregional, andregional levels. The ASEAN Regional Agreementon Transboundary Haze Pollution Controlinitiative needs to be pursued as a priority.

Other Legal Aspects

Some of the other important activities thathave a legal dimension include the following:

• ASEAN Haze Fund to support theORHAP, and its legal status;

• partnership agreements with donors forspecified support; and

• the ORHAP’s claim to be qualified forcoverage under the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM).

CDM and Forest Fire Management

The eligibility of land-use activities for theCDM is a gray area. Forest fire management,rehabilitation of fire-affected areas, and hazepollution control are, at present, not qualifiedfor CDM support. The interpretation is thatonly fossil-based emission reduction activitiesare allowed.

Institutionalizing Forest Fire andHaze ManagementThe sustainability of human-made systems (suchas forest fire and haze management) dependson how effectively it has been institutionalized

For internationalagreements to be

drawn upcovering various

aspects of theORHAP, it is

necessary to havean enabling legal

instrument

CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 197

with appropriate mission, structure, and controlsfor continued and efficient functioning. Theinstitutional framework has to be sound andcapable of systematic enhancement.

ADB is finalizing an advisory and operationaltechnical assistance for institutionalization offorest fire and haze management in Indonesia.

The objectives of the technical assistance areto assist Indonesian institutions to develop anddesign appropriate policies, legislation,guidelines, structures, and procedures toinstitutionalize prevention, mitigation, control,and monitoring of land and forest fires andassociated haze pollution. It will also determinethe need for capacity building at various levelsof government and related NGOs; and developa nationwide extension and education program.This would require identification of a single leadinstitution that would have the authority and beaccountable for all operations dealing with landand forest fire management. The lead institutionwould establish legally binding coordination andcollaboration mechanisms and relationships withother institutions in the country for effectivemanagement. The process can, as appropriate,be extended to other AMCs.

A Perspective Frameworkfor the ORHAPThe emphasis of the ORHAP is onimplementation and action. As a rolling six-year plan, its horizon is short. While this hasmerits from the short-term operational pointof view, its lack of a long-term perspective hasserious disadvantages, particularly affecting theconsistency of approach and direction. This willcause the planners’ bias to be reflected in theadd-on plans—potentially leading to unsteadyor lack of progress.

On the other hand a long-term perspectiveplan (of which the ORHAP will be a part) hasthe advantage that it can better rationalize the

program structure and balance, to achieve thegoals in the shortest possible time. As theperspective plan, by definition, will be closelylinked with other related sectors, it also helpsto obtain a holistic understanding of theecological and human aspects of forest fires andhaze. This is an aspect to be considered in thefuture and acted upon.

Program Status for Institutional

Strengthening

In spite of the ORHAP principle thatASEAN’s fire and haze problem cannot be fixedbut should be managed, there is the danger thatit may still concentrate on technical aspects.However, the most important impediment infire and haze management has been institutionalweaknesses. The three programs of theORHAP (prevention, mitigation andmonitoring) are technical programs; it may beworthwhile to add institutions (or institutionalstrengthening) as another.

Upgrading of CSU

The ORHAP’s success in the years to comewill depend on CSU’s dynamism. It must beprovided with adequate resources and skills/expertise, in view of its singularly vital role.

ConclusionThe ORHAP has been designed as a people-oriented, public-interest-propelled system thataims to defend the human environment, andparticularly to prevent transboundary hazepollution. Through its mission to manage forestfires and associated haze, the ORHAP can andshould serve as a stabilizing force to supportland- and forest-based development in theregion. The laudable commitment of ASEANin this regard needs to be kept undiminished.Complacency should be avoided if thiscommitment is not to be blunted.

The threeprograms of the

ORHAP(prevention,

mitigation andmonitoring) are

technicalprograms; it maybe worthwhile toadd institutions(or institutional

strengthening) asanother program

APPENDIXES 199

Appendixes1 Glossary—Local and Technical Terms 200

2 Regional Haze Action Plan 207

3 Procedure for Formulating and Implementing

Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans 212

4 Fire Danger Rating Systems 215

5 Donor and Partnership Activities 219

6 Outline of the Haze Action Online and

Aspects of the Design Standards 225

200 PART II: THE PROGRAM

Glossary—Local and Technical TermsAPPENDIX 1

Aerial fuels The standing and supported forest combustibles not in directcontact with the ground and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs,branches, stems, bark, lianas, and other vines. In general,they easily dry out and may carry surface fires into the canopy.

Afforestation Establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area fromwhich forest vegetation has always or for a long time beenabsent.

Agroforestry Land use system in which woody perennials are grown and/or used on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals,in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.

Alang-alang Imperata grass (in Indonesia and Malaysia).Atmospheric mixing depth The vertical depth of atmospheric mixing (usually away from

the surface) determined mainly by the atmospheric temperatureprofile.

Backfire A fire set along the inner edge of a control line to consumethe fuel in the path of a forest fire and/or change the directionof force of the fire’s convection column. Note: A small-scalefire with closer control, in order to consume patches ofunburned fuel and aid control-line construction, is distinguishedas “burning out,” “firing out,” or a “clean burning.”

Barangay Village, organized community (in the Philippines).Biodiversity The variety and abundance of plants, animals, and

microorganisms as well as the ecosystem and ecologicalprocesses to which they belong. This includes diversity withinspecies, between species, and of ecosystems.

Broadcast burning Allowing a prescribed fire to burn over a designated areawithin well-defined boundaries for reduction of fuel hazard,as a silvicultural treatment, or both.

Center firing A method of broadcast burning in which fires are set in thecenter of the area to create a strong indraft; additional firesare then set progressively nearer the outer control lines asindraft builds up so as to draw them in toward the center.

Closed forest Forest with stand density greater than 20 percent and thecrowns approaching general contact with one another.

Controlled burns Fires started purposely to achieve specific objectives.Control a fire To complete a control line around a fire, any spot fires

therefrom, and any interior islands to be saved, and cool downall hot spots that are immediate threats to the control line,

APPENDIXES 201

until the line can reasonably be expected to hold underforeseeable conditions.

Convection Vertical exchange of air parcels, sometimes resulting in cloudformation.

Counterfire Fire set between main fire and backfire to hasten spread ofbackfire. Also called draft fire. The act of setting counterfiresis sometimes called “front firing” or “strip firing.”

Crown fire A fire that advances from top to top of trees or shrubs moreor less independently of the surface fire.

Deforestation To remove, kill, or destroy all or most of the trees of a forestso that reproduction is impossible except by artificial means.

Drip torch A hand-held apparatus for igniting prescribed fires andbackfires by dripping flaming fuel on the materials to beburned. The device consists of a fuel fount, burner arm, andigniter. The fuel used is generally diesel or stove oil withgasoline added.

Early burning Prescribed burning early in the dry season before grass, treeleaves, and undergrowth are completely dry, or before theleaves are shed; as an insurance against more severe firedamage later on.

Ecosystem An ecological system, the basic functional unit in ecology, adynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganismcommunities and their associated nonliving environmentinteracting as an ecological unit.

El Niño Southern Oscillation A fluctuation in interpolitical pressure, wind, sea surface temp-(ENSO) erature, and rainfall and an exchange of air between the southeast

Pacific subtropical high and the Indonesian equatorial low.Environmental services: Includes the maintenance of biodiversity, protection of soil

and water resources, moderation of climate, influencing ofrainfall, sequestering of carbon dioxide, providing habitat forwildlife, and maintenance of the earth’s natural balance.

Fine fuel The component of the biomass that, when burning, contributesto the flame front. (Forest fires have a flame height and flamedepth that are approximately equal. The flame front movesthrough the fuel matrix with a speed of propagation thatdepends on the dryness of the fine fuel, the wind speed, andthe quantity of fine fuel. Thick fuels burn after the passage ofthe flame front. Fine fuels are usually defined in terms of thethickness of the thinnest dimension. A leaf that may be2.5 mm thick, 100 mm long, and 40 mm wide would beclassified as a 2.5 mm fuel. Fine fuels usually range between0 t per ha (for freshly burned country) to 4-10 t per ha for

202 PART II: THE PROGRAM

grasslands, 5-25 t per ha for dry forests, and up to 45 t per hafor wet forests.

Firebreak Any natural or constructed discontinuity in a fuelbed utilizedto segregate, stop, and control the spread of fire; or to providea control line from which to suppress a fire; characterized bycomplete lack of combustibles down to mineral soil (asdistinguished from fuelbreak).

Fire climax Vegetational climax maintained by occurrence of fires at regularintervals (also known as pyric climax).

Fire danger rating A component of a fire management system that integrates theeffects of selected fire danger factors into one or morequalitative or numerical indexes of current protection needs.

Fire hazard A fuel complex, defined by volume, type, condition,arrangement, and location, that determines the degree bothof ease of ignition and of fire suppression difficulty.

Fire intelligence All infrastructures, communication, base data, and other hard-and software that provide the inputs to an information anddecision support system in fire management.

Fire intensity The quantity of heat liberated in the flame front for everymeter of fire width. It is calculated by the Byram Line IntensityIndex (I megawatts per meter where I = HWR. H is thecalorific value of the fuel and can be taken as 17 megajoulesper kilogram, W is the fuel concentration in kilograms persquare meter, R is the rate of spread in meters per second).

Fire retardant Any substance except plain water that by chemical or physicalaction reduces the flammability of fuels or slows their rate ofcombustion, e.g., a liquid or slurry applied aerially or fromthe ground during a fire suppression operation.

Fire risk Measure of the likelihood that a wildfire will be ignitednaturally or through human action.

Flame depth The distance from the leading edge of the flame front to thepoint at the back of the flame front just outside the flame mantle.

Forestry The scientific management of forests and trees for thecontinuous production of goods and services. Forestry hasevolved to include, in many countries, groups of scatteredtrees, agroforestry plots, urban tree planting, small woodlots,and also wildlands that do not support tree populations. Infact, forestry has evolved from tree management to themanagement of complex ecosystems, and their utilization.

Forest influences All effects upon water supply, soil, climate, and health resultingfrom the presence of forests.

APPENDIXES 203

Forest residue The accumulation in the forest of living or dead, mostly woody,material that is added to and rearranged by human activitiessuch as forest harvest, cultural operations, and land clearing.

Forest type A descriptive term used to group stands of similar characterwith regard to composition and development due to certainecological factors by which they may be differentiated fromother groups of stands.

Fuel All combustible organic material in forests and other vegetationtypes, including agricultural residue.

Fuelbreak Generally wide (20-30 m) strips of land on which either lessflammable native vegetation is maintained and integrated intofire management planning, or vegetation has been permanentlymodified so that fires burning into them can be more readilycontrolled as distinguished from firebreak. Some fuelbreakscontain narrow firebreaks that may be roads or narrower hand-constructed lines. During fires, they can quickly be widenedeither with hand tools or by firing out. Fuelbreaks have theadvantages of preventing erosion, offering a safe place forfirefighters to work, low maintenance, and a pleasingappearance.

Genetic resources Actual or potential characteristics of plants and animals thatare transmitted genetically and may include disease resistance,rapid growth, yield or quality factor, or the presence or absenceof a chemical. These characteristics, i.e., genetic diversity,reside in the germ plasm of different cultivars, races, andvarieties of a species.

Greenhouse warming A possible increase in global temperatures associated withchanges in atmospheric trace gases.

Ground fire A fire burning in organic terrain, e.g., dried tropical swampsand peat layers.

Hadley circulation A north-south circulation of air in low latitudes, with air risingin the intertropical convergence zone and sinking in theadjacent subtropical zone.

Intertropical convergence zone The zone of persistent convergence of trade wind airflow inthe lower troposphere in low latitudes.

Kabupaten Regency (subdivision of a province, in Indonesia).Kecamatan Subregency (district, in Indonesia).Ladder fuels Fuels that provide vertical continuity between stratums. Fire

is able to carry from surface fuels into the crowns of trees orshrubs with relative ease and help assure initiation andcontinuation of crown fires.

204 PART II: THE PROGRAM

Land-use capability The production capacity or usefulness of soil based upon itsquality with reference to nutrient status, climatic factors,drainage, degree of slope, etc.

Mass fire A fire resulting from many simultaneous ignitions. These firesgenerate high levels of energy output.

Mesoscale A spatial scale for weather systems with typical horizontaldimensions of ~10-1,000 km.

Nonwood forest products Consist of goods of biological origin other than wood, as wellas services, derived from forests and allied land uses.

Pioneer species A plant species capable of establishing itself in a bare or barrenarea and initiating an ecological cycle.

Preattack planning Fire planning within designated blocks of land, covering thefollowing items: locations of firelines, base camps, watersources, helispots, transportation systems, probable routes oftravel, constraints of travel on various type of attack units,determining of construction of particular firelines, the probablerate of line construction, topographic constraints on lineconstruction, etc.

Prescribed burning The controlled application of fire to wildland fuels in eithernatural or modified state, under specified environmentalconditions that allow the fire to be confined to a predeterminedarea and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat andrate of spread required to attain planned resource managementobjectives.

Prescribed fire A fire burning within prescription. The fire may result fromeither planned or unplanned ignitions.

Presuppression planning All measures of fire intelligence and preparedness for firesuppression actions.

Primary forest Unlogged forest.Productivity The relationship between the output of goods and services

and the input of resources (factors of production) used toproduce them.

Production forest Forest designated for the sustained production of timber andother forest products, often with protection and/or natureconservation as recognized secondary objectives, chosenbecause of their potential to provide a yield of high-qualitytimber in perpetuity. This category may also include degradedareas appropriate for reforestation. In general usage, the termcovers natural forests, forest plantations, woodlots, agroforestryplots, homestead forests, etc.

Protection forest An area wholly or partly covered with woody growth, managedprimarily for its beneficial effects on water, climate, or soil

APPENDIXES 205

rather than for forest products or services, and involving fragilelands, critical soils, catchment areas, steep slopes, and land athigh altitudes. Controlled sustainable extraction of nonwoodforest products is often allowed in protection forests.

Quasi-biennial oscillation An (approximately) two yearly reversal in wind direction thatoccurs in a number of parts of the earth’s atmosphere.

Radiosonde A balloon-borne device allowing upper air measurements oftemperature, humidity, pressure and/or height, wind speed,and direction.

Rate of speed The speed that a fire front travels ranges up to 25 kilometersper hour (km/h) for grasslands to about 12 km/h for forests.Most fires travel at much slower speeds and typical speeds areusually less than 1 km/h for grasslands and 0.5 km/h for forests.

Reforestation Restocking and/or replanting of an area that has been clearedof its forests earlier.

Rotation The period of years required to establish and grow forestcrops to a specified condition of maturity.

Seasonal forest A closed deciduous forest, or an open forest with continuousgrass cover, distinguished from other tropical forests bydistinct seasonality and low rainfall. Includes closed forestsmade up of deciduous hardwoods that shed their leaves duringthe dry season and woody and/or tree savannahs.

Secondary forest A forest subjected to a light cycle of shifting cultivation or tovarious intensities of logging but still containing indigenoustrees or shrubs.

Shaded fuelbreak Fuelbreaks built in forest areas where the trees on the breakare thinned and pruned to reduce the fire potential, yet retainenough crown canopy to make it possible to control surfacefires more easily.

Shifting cultivation Farming system, carried out in the forest areas, in which theland is periodically cleared, farmed, and then returned to fallow.

Slash-and-burn agriculture Farming, (usually small-scale), in which plots are prepared bycutting and burning off vegetative cover.

Smoke management The application of knowledge of fire behavior andmeteorological processes to minimize air quality degradationduring prescribed fires.

Stand An aggregation of trees or other growth occupying a specificarea and sufficiently uniform in composition, age arrangement,and condition so as to be distinguishable from the forests orother growth on adjoining areas.

Succession The gradual supplanting of one community of plants by another.Inherent in the definition are three considerations:

206 PART II: THE PROGRAM

(i) succession is orderly, directional, and therefore predictable;(ii) succession can occur when the community itself modifiesthe physical environment so that other populations can beestablished; and (iii) succession culminates in a relative stablecommunity.

Surface fire Fire that burns only surface litter, other loose debris of theforest floor, and small vegetation.

Sustainable forest management Forest management for multiple uses (including biodiversitypreservation, timber harvesting, extraction of nonwoodproducts, soil and water conservation, tourism, recreation,and enjoyment of natural amenities) based on an ecosystemconcept that allows utilization of forests without underminingtheir use by present and future generations. Different systemsof management would be required for each category of forestsdepending on the intended output.

Sustained yield As applied to policy, method, or plan of forest management,implies continuous production with the aim of achieving atthe earliest time an approximate balance between net growthand harvest, either by annual or somewhat longer periods.

Sustainable yield: The measure of material that a resource can yield annually orperiodically in perpetuity.

Swidden See “slash-and-burn agriculture.”Trade wind Low-level tropical easterly winds representing the lower

component of the Hadley circulation.Troposphere The lowest part of the atmosphere, where temperatures

generally decrease away from the surface.Vegetation fires Fires in all vegetation types including forests, grasslands,

scrublands, and agricultural lands.Walker circulation A thermally driven east-west cellular circulation extending

across the Pacific Ocean, from Indonesia to close to thePeruvian coast.

Wildfire Any fire occurring on wildland except under prescription.

APPENDIXES 207

Regional Haze Action Plan(Approved in December 1997)

A. Introduction1. Smoke haze affected Southeast Asian countries during the dry seasons in 1991, 1994,

and 1997. From July to October 1997, members of the Association of Southeast AsianNations (ASEAN), in particular Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore,were badly affected by smoke haze caused by land and forest fires. The Philippines andThailand were affected to a lesser degree. The severity and extent of the smoke hazepollution were unprecedented, affecting millions of people across the region.

2. The economic loss suffered by countries during this environmental disaster was enormousand has yet to be fully determined. Several economic sectors, including air, water andland transport, shipping, construction, tourism, forestry, and agriculture, were severelyaffected. The haze pollution also resulted in a considerable health impact on the people ofthe countries affected; the long-term health effects have yet to be determined.

3. In June 1995, ASEAN Environment Ministers agreed on an ASEAN Cooperation Planon Transboundary Pollution. The Cooperation Plan contains broad policies and strategiesto deal with transboundary pollution. In light of the latest haze experience, the ASEANEnvironment Ministers agreed on a Regional Haze Action Plan (Action Plan), whichsets out cooperative measures needed among ASEAN member countries (AMCs) toaddress the problem of smoke haze arising from land and forest fires in the region.

B.B.B.B.B. ObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectives4. The primary objectives of the Action Plan are to:

(i) prevent land and forest fires through better management policies and enforcement;(ii) establish operational mechanisms to monitor land and forest fires; and(iii) strengthen regional land and forest firefighting capability and other mitigating

measures.

C. Preventive Measures5. AMCs recognize the need to strengthen national policies and strategies to prevent and

mitigate land and forest fires. While some AMCs have already developed their nationalpolicies and strategies, others are in the process of advancing them based on their owndevelopment needs, priorities, and concerns.

6. AMCs will develop national plans to encapsulate their policies and strategies to prevent andmitigate land and forest fires. The plans should contain the following common elements:

(i) policies to curb activities that may lead to land and forest fires and controlemissions from mobile and stationary sources, including the prohibition of openburning and the strict control of slash-and-burn practices during the dry period;

APPENDIX 2

208 PART II: THE PROGRAM

(ii) strategies to curb activities that may lead to land and forest fires and control emissionsfrom mobile and stationary sources, including the following:(a) formulation of air quality management legislation to prohibit open burning;(b) strict enforcement of laws and legislation;(c) implementation of air quality monitoring and reporting regimes, and setting up

surveillance on local sources of emissions, both mobile and stationary;(d) establishment of a national task force and/or committee to develop strategies

and response plans to deal with fires and smoke haze; and(e) utilization of information technology to provide haze-related information to

relevant agencies to prevent and control spread of fire, and to enhance publicawareness on the haze situation;

(iii) guidelines and support services to discourage activities that can lead to land andforest fires;

(iv) operating procedures for the early mobilization of resources to prevent the spread offires; and

(v) development of markets for the economic recovery and utilization of biomass (e.g.,briquette) and appropriate methods for the disposal of agricultural waste.

7. These national plans were completed by March 1998. An ASEAN workshop was conductedin April 1998 to facilitate cross-comparison of the National Plans and exchange ofinformation, including the exchange of legal experience in managing land and forestfires.

C. Regional Monitoring Mechanisms8. The Action Plan will strengthen the region’s early warning and monitoring system to

provide an alert of the first outbreak of land and forest fires, an assessment of meteorologicalconditions, a prediction of the spread of smoke haze, a systematic tracking of the controland spread of fires and haze, and the necessary data to support enforcement action. Aspart of this effort, the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC) will be furtherstreamlined and strengthened. ASMC will serve as a regional information center for compiling,analyzing, and disseminating information derived from satellite imagery and meteorologicaldata necessary to detect and monitor land and forest fires and the occurrence of haze.

9. ASMC will operate by March 1998 an intranet among the relevant ASEAN meteorologicalservice and environmental agencies to improve communications and enhance theeffectiveness of existing early warning and monitoring systems. Information that will bemade available on the intranet will include the following: satellite imagery, wind charts,visibility information, air quality information, and other meteorological and environmentalinformation useful for haze monitoring.

10. In early 1998, the ASMC will conduct a regional workshop involving meteorologicalexperts from within and outside ASEAN to discuss climate prediction for the region in1998-1999. In the longer term, ASMC will further enhance the intranet system by includingthe following: seasonal climate prediction, haze dispersion modeling products, and aforest fire danger rating index.

APPENDIXES 209

D. Firefighting Capability11. National and regional land and forest firefighting capability will be strengthened through

the following measures:(i) Complete by March 1998 the ongoing preparation of the inventory of land and

forest firefighting capability of each country (agencies, human resources, equipment,available land and forest fire hazard maps, and other resources) and identify resourcesthat can be made available for regional firefighting efforts.

(ii) Formulate by March 1998 a program to strengthen the firefighting capability ofindividual countries and the region, and compile a list of equipment and technicalexpertise that is needed at the regional level to tackle land and forest fires.

(iii) Identify by March 1998 the sources of technical assistance for within and outsideASEAN and, if required, formalize an assistance program with each donor country.Technical assistance may include forest firefighting equipment, aircraft such as waterbombers, and high-tech equipment and experts for command post operations.

(iv) Establish by June 1998 an operating procedure to activate the deployment of thefirefighting resources in each country for regional firefighting operations.

(v) Establish by June 1998 a mechanism in each country to provide, in the event of anoutbreak of land and forest fires, regular updates to the Haze Technical Task Force(HTTF) on progress made in efforts to fight the fires. The updates would includethe number of hot spots and their locations, analysis of fire types, problemsencountered, adequacy of deployed resources, and effectiveness of enforcement andground operations.

E. Detailed Scope of Technical Assistance12. ADB’s assistance was sought to provide consultancy services in support of the Action

Plan. The scope of the technical assistance is as follows.13. The following short-term measures will be completed within three months of

commencement:(i) Compile and analyze ongoing national and regional fire and haze prevention programs

with a view to sharing relevant experience, improving coordination, and avoidingduplication of effort. Based on the findings, make recommendations how nationaland regional fire and haze prevention measures can be improved in the short andmedium term.

(ii) Inventory existing fire management and suppression capabilities in the affected AMCs,and develop technical assistance programs and partnerships within and beyond theregion to strengthen these capabilities. (Several international and bilateralorganizations had expressed interest during the 1997 fires and haze to offer assistancein this area).

(iii) Strengthen the capacity of the ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN Senior Officials onEnvironment (ASOEN), the working group on transboundary pollution, and theHaze Technical Task Force (HTTF), in the effective delivery of their functions infire and haze prevention and mitigation.

210 PART II: THE PROGRAM

(iv) Improve information management and dissemination in the ASEAN Secretariat relatedto fire and haze prevention and mitigation, including the sharing of knowledge andexperience, dissemination, coordination, and monitoring of national, regional, andinternational initiatives with institutions concerned in the region. This includes theestablishment and maintenance of an intranet between institutions in the region and apublic information service through the ASEAN worldwide web home page.

(v) Compile initial results of ongoing studies on the impact of transboundary atmospherichaze pollution on affected ASEAN countries, collect additional information whererequired, and compile a comprehensive impact assessment covering all economicsectors concerned as well as social (including health related), and environmentalimpacts. Detailed assessment would be carried out over the medium term.

(vi) Compile and analyze existing policies and legislation in countries concerned regardingsustainable land-use practices with and without the use of fire for land clearing, andrecommend appropriate changes.

(vii) Compile experience within and beyond the region with fire prevention and control,including land-clearing fires and wildfires, mitigation strategies, etc., and documentrelevant lessons learned.

(viii) Based on the outcome of the above items (i-vii), provide assistance to the HTTF infinalization of the Action Plan, identification of institutions responsible for variousimplementation actions, including institutionalized monitoring and review of policies,strategies, legislation, guidelines, early warning pertaining to fire danger and potentialpollution hazard, personnel mobilization for prevention of spread of fires, and otheraspects of the Action Plan; and providing regular updates to members concerned onthe progress of actions taken or pending and need for follow-up actions.

14. The following medium-term measures will be completed within 12 months (several ofthese measures will be initiated concurrently with the short-term measures):(i) Strengthen the capacity of ASMC in Singapore to compile and analyze available

ground, atmospheric, and remotely sensed data on land and forest fires, haze, relatedclimate and weather patterns, and other relevant environmental parameters, incollaboration with national meteorological agencies, and to disseminate theinformation, including early detection and warning through established institutionalarrangements with national agencies concerned. The collaboration with nationalagencies is particularly necessary to compile data from a larger geographical area.

(ii) Compile available information within and beyond the region regarding the use andmarketing of biomass and logging residue products, such as briquettes, mulch, andcompost. This includes a study of market-based instruments to promote such productsand thereby stimulate mechanical land-clearing methods.

(iii) Taking due account of various national and regional initiatives, evaluate the existingand proposed systems pertaining to fire danger rating, and fire detection andmonitoring: based on these initiatives and the information thus generated, promotethe development of land and forest fire hazard maps, and standardized national andregional fire danger rating and fire detection and monitoring systems.

APPENDIXES 211

(iv) Develop regional training programs, exchange visits, secondments, partnerships,joint training exercises, in fire management, remote sensing of fires and haze, theapplication of geographic information systems (GIS), and other priority subjects.

(v) Compile the results of ongoing studies on the impact of transboundary atmosphericpollution on affected AMCs, collect additional information where required, andcompile a comprehensive impact assessment covering all economic sectors concernedas well as social (including health related) and environmental impacts. The assessmentwould include the results from the national impact assessment in Indonesia financedunder the complementary advisory technical assistance. It would compare the impactof the 1997 fires and haze with that of previous episodes, and would provide scenariosof possible future impact according to the level of concerted preventive action takenby affected AMCs.

(vi) Develop technical assistance programs and partnerships to undertake scientific studiesto improve the monitoring and prediction of transboundary atmospheric pollution,including analysis of the chemistry of emissions, climate, and meteorological patternsaffecting pollution formation and dispersal. Such programs would likely involveASMC, national institutions in AMCs, and partner institutions within and beyondthe region, including the World Meteorological Organization and interested bilateralorganizations. This would be based on an inventory and analysis of ongoing andplanned scientific studies related to forest fires and haze. The project would financiallysupport selected studies to improve the knowledge of haze formation and distribution.One such study could gather information on the chemistry of emissions of land-usefires, to support the haze transport modeling being undertaken by ASMC.

15. Based on the outcome of the above items ( i-vi), and in support of and complementary tothe earlier developed Action Plan, develop a comprehensive time-bound plan for prevention,monitoring, mitigation, and institutional strengthening, identifying required investments,both at the national and at the regional levels.

16. HTTF will meet monthly to review the progress of implementation of the Action Plan.The ASEAN Environment Ministers will meet regularly to provide guidance onimplementation of the Action Plan.

212 PART II: THE PROGRAM

Fourteen Steps for Implementing FSMPs1. The first step in the exercise is formulation of the initial FSMP document. This requires

dispatching a team of fire management specialists with expertise in FSMP drafting to thegeographic area to which the FSMP relates. The FSMP drafting team must at the minimummeet with all agencies, organizations, and groups that might cooperate in fire suppressionactivities in the area. These are likely to comprise local representation of governmentagencies, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), civic organizations, religious groups,and virtually anyone wishing to cooperate in community-based fire suppression activities.

2. Agreement in principle must at this stage be achieved by all parties that have agreed tocooperate in implementing the FSMP. Without their later support, fire suppressionactivities will most certainly be compromised. During this step, FSMP formulationcomprises the writing out of all resources (personnel, fire suppression tools,communications equipment) available for mobilization in the geographic area to whichthe particular FSMP relates. The model FSMP is used as a template for this purpose.

3. The output of this step is an initial draft of the FSMP document. Initial FSMP documentsare rarely “complete,” in the sense of describing all of the implementation details of upgraded firemanagement capacity in the geographic area to which they relate. The initial FSMP documentinstead describes how existing fire suppression resources could most efficiently bemobilized. The actual procedures for organizing and mobilizing fire suppression resourcesin the geographic area in question are sorted out as part of the overall FSMP exercise.The sorting out of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for mobilizing existing resourcesin the most efficient manner possible takes place during the FSMP exercise. As theseSOPs are sorted out, the initial FSMP document is amended to reflect the SOPs andother measures for improving efficiency of fire suppression activities in the geographicarea to which the FSMP relates.

4. The initial FSMP could therefore correctly be thought of as a vehicle for arriving at a destination(i.e., efficient fire suppression operations using existing resources), rather than as a destinationin and of itself. In short, FSMPs are meant to evolve as the exercise proceeds, rather thansketching out in advance a description of the evolved fire suppression capacity that is the goalof the FSMP exercise. Thus, while a base time frame for formulation of an initial FSMPdocument would be somewhere of the order of 2-20 weeks, a best-case scenario time framefor completing the FSMP exercise would be a minimum of 18-24 months.

5. The second step in the FSMP exercise is to put into place an iron-clad, detailed inventoryingand tracking system for all equipment and personnel that will be mobilized when the

Procedure for Formulating andImplementing Fire SuppressionMobilization Plans

APPENDIX 3

APPENDIXES 213

mobilization plan is activated. This system must be sustainable without outside support.The recording system to be used in the Borneo and Sumatra cases should assume acomplete lack of computer facilities. Manual recording should thus be assumed to be thebasis of the inventorying and tracking system.

6. While at first glance such a system might seem technologically unsophisticated, this isthe system used successfully for inventorying and tracking equipment and personnel inseveral countries with advanced wildland fire suppression capability. Until recently,computer-based systems were used as an adjunct to such manual recording systems.Manual-recording-based inventorying and tracking systems can function efficiently, andare often the best means of mobilizing resources from neighboring jurisdictions.

7. Computerized or not, all inventorying and tracking systems must—at the minimum—include the following information for each piece of fire suppression equipment: description,model number and specification; current status (available, unavailable, or committed);exact location; and most important, the contact information for the person authorized torelease the piece of equipment in question. A similarly-detailed inventorying and trackingsystem must be put into place to catalogue contact information for personnel.

8. Once the inventorying and tracking systems for equipment and personnel have been putinto place, the third step is undertaken, which is to conclude simple, written interagencyagreements among all parties that have agreed to participate in the plan. This is perhapsthe critical step in the FSMP exercise, since the details of how each agency cooperates infire suppression activities must be agreed upon and specified in writing well in advancebefore addressing any fire emergency the FSMP is to address.

9. The fourth and fifth steps comprise the formulation and execution of a desktop mockdrill, or Tactical Exercise without Troops (TEWT [pronounced “toot”], to use the correctfire suppression terminology). Formulating a TEWT is a more extensive process thanexecuting a TEWT, and therefore is likely to require external expertise (either from aSubregional Firefighting Arrangement [SRFA] member country or an international firemanagement agency). The purpose of the TEWT is to test the adequacy of the FSMP,and to determine how it should be revised so as to strengthen it. TEWTs are preferred toreal-world mock drills in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) setting,since they can adequately point out weaknesses in existing FSMPs.

10. Following execution of the TEWT, the sixth step is undertaken, which is revision of theFSMP, so as to address any weaknesses uncovered by the TEWT. The seventh step isthen ratification of the TEWT. The eighth step comprises formulating and implementingan annual review of the FSMP.

11. The 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th steps pertain to formulating a program for upgrading of firesuppression capability under the auspices of the FSMP to an objectively-defined, predeterminedlevel. The ninth step involves determining the personnel and training requirements for executingthe upgrading program, while the 10th and 11th steps comprise determining the equipmentand communications requirements for executing the upgrading program.

12. The 12th step is formulation of the upgrading program, which requires time, since all detailsof procurement, payment, inventorying, training must be transparently stated in the program.

214 PART II: THE PROGRAM

13. The 13th step is the execution of the upgrading program, which includes the assimilationof all new equipment and training into the inventorying and tracking systems for equipmentand personnel.

14. The 14th and final step is incorporating provisions for sustaining the FSMP over time.(A summary outline of generic FSMP is given as Attachment 1)

Attachment 1

Summary Outline of Generic FSMPSection 10 Objectives, Overall Procedures, and Participating Agencies

11 Objectives12 Overall Procedures13 Participating Agencies

Section 20 Administrative Procedures21 Terminology22 Scope of Operations23 Levels of Coordination

23.1 Communications Procedures23.2 Reporting Procedures23.3 Procedures Governing the Use of Satellite Imagery

24 Dispatch Procedures24.1 Mobilization24.2 Safety24.3 Accident and Incident Reporting24.4 Requests for Assistance24.5 Financial Procedures24.6 Demobilization Procedures

25 Incident Priorities26 Aircraft Operations

26.1 Procedures Governing Aircraft Operations26.2 Communications26.3 Funding Arrangements

Section 30 OrganizationSection 40 Cooperation

41 Cooperative ArrangementsSection 50 DirectorySection 60 PersonnelSection 70 Equipment

71 Fire Suppression Equipment72 Radio Equipment73 Specialized Equipment

Section 80 Aircraft Inventory (if any)

APPENDIXES 215

IntroductionThere are several fire danger rating systems (FDRS) available globally. They are, however, notbeing proposed for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region and will not beconsidered here. It is sufficient to say that most of these systems are fairly complex systemsdesigned for the fuel types, soil behavior, and atmospheric conditions characteristic of theirregions. Furthermore, some systems would require specific inputs that may not be readily availablein the region or may entail additional measurement techniques.

The purpose of a FDRS is to alert the relevant authorities to a buildup of a seasonal fire riskso that appropriate preventive measures can be taken to reduce fires. In the tropics, the singlemost important factor that can lead to a buildup of fire risk is a deficit of rainfall. Vegetation thatis moist is not susceptible to fire or does not burn easily. However, in the absence of rainfall,vegetation will start to dry out and fire risk increases. The extent of the drying out of thevegetation should be conveyed by a suitable fire risk index. Factors that can also affect the dryingout process are temperature, wind, and humidity. In the tropics, these three factors do not varysignificantly and may not add new information to a fire risk index.

An appropriate FDRS for this region needs to be:1. simple and intuitive,2. easy to implement,3. economical to maintain,4. requiring minimal input data,5. yielding easy classification of fire risks, and6. flexible for further development and expansion.

Canadian Fire Danger Rating System

The Canadian system is a comprehensive FDRS consisting of five components. It is also themost complex system that is proposed and comprises five subsystems:

1. Fire Weather Index system,2. Fuel Classification and Maps,3. Fire Behavior Prediction system,4. Wildfire Threat Assessment, and5. Fire History.Although there are five subsystems, the first component is considered the most important

module of the whole system and can adequately perform as a stand-alone system. The inputs tothis component are temperature, relative humidity, wind, and rainfall. (Refer to the flow chartoverleaf for calculation of the fire weather index.)

The flow chart suggests that three important fuel types contribute to the computation of thefinal index. However, these fuel types are probably not applicable to the region and the appropriatefuel components need to be identified for the index to work properly. It could be a lengthy

Fire Danger Rating SystemsAPPENDIX 4

216 PART II: THE PROGRAM

exercise to determine moisture characteristics of tropical forests, plantations, peatswamps, etc.,for the region. If it is recognized that the majority of forest fires are due to human activities, sucha study while useful in the long term, may not address the immediate needs of the region.

The implementation of the index requires investment in new computing resources and extensiveadaptation studies of the index to the region. Furthermore, the maintenance of the system withinthe Indonesian or ASEAN context may not be feasible.

Keetch-ByramThe Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) was originally developed to describe the dryness offuels in the southeastern United States. It is basically a cumulative or bookkeeping index. To usethe index requires heavy rainfall exceeding 200 millimeters when the index is set to zero.Subsequently, on a daily basis, an amount is subtracted (to represent drying by evaporationduring the last 24 hours from a look-up table) on a no-rain day or the rainfall equivalent is addedif there has been rain during the last 24 hours. The other meteorological inputs are maximumtemperature and relative humidity.

The advantage of the KBDI is its simplicity of usage and familiarity among fire managers.The KBDI has been used by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)for East Kalimantan for some years already. The ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre(ASMC) is testing a trial system of the KBDI for Sumatra and Kalimantan.

The disadvantage is that there has not been any rigorous validation or calibration of the KBDIeither in the tropics or elsewhere outside the region of the southeastern United States. It assumes

Source: RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution Draft Final Report.

Flow Chart of Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System

TemperatureRelative Humidity

WindRain

FFMCFine Fuel

Moisture Code

TemperatureRelative Humidity

Rain

DMCDuff Moisture

Code

Wind

ISIInitial Spread Index

FWIFire Weather Index

TemperatureRain

DCDrought Code

BUIBuild-up Index

MeteorologicalObservations

Fuel MoistureCode

Fire BehaviorIndexes

FIGURE 5

APPENDIXES 217

a maximum of 2,000 for the index and drying factors of the fuel, forest type, and soil structuresimilar to those of the southeastern United States. This is not strictly correct since the dryingforce of a dry and arid environment would be different from the moist and hot environment ofthe tropics. Without a proper recalibration of the drying tables, the KBDI will seriouslyoverestimate the fire risk in the tropics. However, some compensation has been incorporated inthe KBDI by having different drying tables based upon average rainfall, assuming that morehumid environments have a higher rainfall.

Despite its weaknesses, it is a simple and intuitive index. The input meteorological parametersare readily available to ASEAN National Meteorological Services and can be easily computedwith existing resources. ASMC can extend the KBDI to other parts of ASEAN when the trialshave been completed.

Rainfall DebtThe Report of the ADTA INO 2999 recommends the use of a rainfall debt as an early warningindicator of fire risk. In the tropics, where maximum temperature and relative humidity do notvary significantly from day to day, the information content of an index is not substantially increasedby incorporating these two parameters. Similar arguments apply to wind and other classicparameters of a fire danger model.

The most important parameter is the last 24-hour rainfall. Solar radiation as expressed throughcloudiness may affect evaporation rates to some extent and should be evaluated for its contributionto the rainfall debt.

The calculation of this simpler index consists of subtracting the 30-day running rainfall totalagainst the normal monthly mean rainfall. This rainfall deficit can then be expressed as a percentageof the normal monthly mean rainfall. Thereafter, this value is to be known as rainfall debt.

Rainfall debt is an intuitive concept and relates to the relative dryness of a region with respectto its monthly mean rainfall. At selected rainfall debt levels, fire risk warning levels can betriggered and relevant authorities can take the appropriate action. Such a value can be easilycalculated as long as one has daily rainfall measurements in the region.

The rainfall debt concept is still in its developmental stage for the region and has to beevaluated for its appeal and effectiveness as a fire risk indicator. The rainfall debt values can beevaluated for a period of several months prior to the haze in 1997 until several months after thehaze in 1998. The exercise could determine the rainfall debt levels appropriate to triggerheightened fire risk level warnings to be set in place.

RecommendationsThe recommendations of the ADTA and RETA 5778 are for the KBDI and Rainfall Debt to beimplemented concurrently. The KBDI is readily acceptable to fire managers and is already beingoperationally implemented in East Kalimantan by GTZ. ASMC is evaluating the KBDI againstthe haze of 1997 and 1998 for the regions of Kalimantan and Sumatra.

Simultaneously, a trial is being carried out to operationally calculate the KBDI forKalimantan and Sumatra using daily meteorological data. ASMC has carefully selected a listof stations on Kalimantan and Sumatra that have available daily rainfall and maximum

218 PART II: THE PROGRAM

temperature data to compute the KBDI. The number of stations will be expanded whenmore data become available.

Rainfall debt is a new suggestion but the concept is simple and practical. It is likely to gainacceptance in the region because it is easy to implement and economical to maintain. Further,fire risk associated with rainfall deficit is intuitive as well as common knowledge. ASMC canevaluate the rainfall debt for the haze of 1997 and 1998 in order to assess its suitability as a firerisk indicator. If the evaluation is positive, the rainfall debt can be first implemented by ASMCfor Kalimantan and Sumatra. At a later stage, the rainfall debt computation can be expanded toother ASEAN member countries (AMCs).

Technical Expertise and Training Requirements

Both KBDI and Rainfall Debt can be easily implemented by national meteorological services.The meteorological data required is already available on a daily basis, and past climatologicaldata can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the indexes in each country. ASMC can providebasic training, if any is necessary, to help set up the capability in individual AMCs.

Source: RETA 5578: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution Draft Final Report.

APPENDIXES 219

Donor and PartnershipActivities

APPENDIX 5

There has been a general concurrence throughout the Operationalized Regional Haze ActionPlan (ORHAP) process that the fire-and-transboundary-haze issue confronting the Associationof Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region is a problem that is so large that no single agencycan address it. Funding agencies have been equally aware of this fact throughout the fires andhaze that have impacted the region over the past two decades. In fact, donors have provided asubstantial amount of funding to short-term suppression activities. While this has no doubt beenappreciated by the ASEAN member countries (AMCs), sustained funding of short-term firesuppression over an indefinite period is neither feasible, nor would it be an efficient use of scarcefunding or affected-country resources.

The challenge now is to use the intervening period between the end of the recent El Niño andthe onset of the next to put into place an institutional framework that will prepare the ASEANregion for subsequent periods of vulnerability to fires and transboundary haze. This preparationshould enhance ASEAN’s capability to manage periods of heightened risk of large-scale fireswithout resorting to a crisis management mode of response, as it did during the 1997-1998 fire-and-haze disaster.

Accomplishing this will require funds to be used as efficiently as possible. This means that the roleof the funding agencies in addressing the fire-and-haze issue will also have to evolve. In short, fire-and-haze-related activities must now be integrated via explicit partnerships, rather than simply becomingaware of “what other funding agencies are doing about the fires and haze.”

A start has been made in this direction by integrating funding agencies’ activities directly intothe RHAP Detailed Implementation Plan (DIP). When used as it was intended, the DIP placesthe onus of developing an integrated operational plan for confronting the fire-and-haze issuedirectly on to the AMCs and ASEAN itself. Once the ASEAN region has determined the actionsit needs to take to address fires and transboundary haze, the financial costs of these actions canbe determined, and the areas where gaps between available AMC resources and requirementsexist can be identified. At this point, it is appropriate for funding agencies to determine which ofthese gaps they can most efficiently fill, given their particular emphasis or area of expertise. Thescenario described directly above is the manner in which the funding agencies can most effectivelymake use of the RHAP DIP.

Because of the urgency of the fire-and-transboundary-haze issue, RETA 5778 temporarilyperformed the dual role of operationalizing the concept of DIP as a planning tool, andsimultaneously catalyzing integration of fire-and-haze-related funding agency activities directlyinto the emerging ORHAP DIP. Once the plan is fully operationalized, it is more important tomanage the information necessary for funding agencies to be able to use the ORHAP DIP astheir own planning tool.

Several funding agencies have become directly involved and integrated into the ORHAP DIPprocess. The activities of these donors are briefly described (in alphabetical order by donor

220 PART II: THE PROGRAM

name) below, in order to make funding agencies new to the ORHAP DIP process more conversantwith the roles that those already involved are playing, and how these roles fit into the overallORHAP DIP.

* * *Australia announced a contribution of A$660,000 to the ASEAN fire-and-transboundary-hazeinitiative in late July 1998. These funds were to be used to support three separate components.First, a contribution of $100,000 equivalent will be used to directly support the ADB RETAProject’s program of activities, and will include funding for three applied studies: (a)Operationalization and Refinement of AMC National Haze Action Plans, with particular referenceto Indonesia; (b) Formulation of a Fire Mitigation Training Program for the ASEAN Region;and (c) Formulation of an operating procedure for activating fire suppression resources in AMCs,with particular reference to Indonesia (other outputs, including formulation of possible long-term solutions to the fire-and-haze issue, and a broad-brush plan for upgrading Indonesia’scommunication infrastructure for fire suppression, will also be generated by this study).

The second component of Australia’s contribution will support component 1 of the Programmeto Address Regional Transboundary Smoke (PARTS), which was formulated by the WorldMeteorological Organization (WMO). PARTS component 1 will increase ASEAN’s capability inusing satellite monitoring to prevent, detect, and track fires and haze in the region. Support forthis component will be channeled through the United Nations Economic and Social Commissionfor Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP). The third component of the Australian contribution (nowbeing programmed) will support fire mitigation activities, or more likely, training of firefighters.

* * *BIOTROP-GCTE Impacts Center for Southeast Asia (IC-SEA) is now actively studying themany facets of the link between national level economic and natural resource policy with the useof fire as a tool for land-clearing or a weapon. Three studies of this type are ongoing and a fourthstudy on the health impacts of haze will integrate the work that Deutsche Gesellschaft fur TechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have done in this area.

* * *The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is preparing a system forimplementation of its Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) in the region. This system, whichincludes fire risk mapping, will initially be implemented in three AMCs: Indonesia, Malaysia,and Singapore. In order to ensure AMCs’ ownership of the system, counterpart funding willaccount for about half of total direct implementation costs.

* * *The European Union (EU) is linking activities under its ongoing Forest Fire Prevention andControl Project with activities of the SRFA-Sumatra. This project operates at community leveland includes training, satellite monitoring, early warning and fire danger rating, and otheractivities. The early warning and/or fire danger rating system is being integrated with CIDA’sFDRS described.

* * *GTZ has an ongoing Integrated Forest Fire Management Project (IFFM) in East Kalimantanthat includes numerous components, one of which is fire danger rating. Like the EU early

APPENDIXES 221

warning system, the GTZ system is being integrated with CIDA’s FDRS. GTZ is also activelyinvolved with the Consultative Group on Indonesian Forestry in numerous forestry policy areas,and has ongoing work on the health impacts of haze in Indonesia.

* * *Hanns Seidel Foundation (Germany) is directly supporting the activities of RETA 5778 by

providing the costs of air transport and sponsorship for three German interns (two to six person-months each) that will work together with the Project Management Unit (PMU) specialists inthe areas of forest fire management, information management, and policy and legislation analysis.

The newly-established Southeast Asia Fire Monitoring Center (University of Freiburg, Germany)is planning to link up with ASMC and activities of the ORHAP.

* * *Japan International Cooperation Agency has a satellite monitoring initiative based in Kalimantan,and a community-based Forest Fire Prevention and Management Project (FFPMP) in Indonesia.

* * *The United Nations Environment Programme is supporting a number of activities relating tooperationalization of the RHAP via its Emergency Response to Southeast Asian Fires Project.Major components supported by this $750,000 project include: (a) funding agencies’ coordination,(b) an international meeting for organizing short-term fire suppression activities, (c) aerialsurveillance operations under the SRFAs, (d) training for firefighters, (e) public awareness, and(f) early warning and/or fire danger rating. Component f will complement and be integratedwith the CIDA FDRS.

* * *United States is supporting operationalization of the RHAP via its Southeast Asian EnvironmentInitiative (SEA-EI). The SEA-EI includes two components: (a) a regional component that willsupport 10 subprojects, for a total amount of $4 million, and (b) an Indonesia-only component,for a total amount $2 million.

The SEA-EI’s regional component, each of which will be implemented by a US Governmentagency, includes the following subprojects: (1) upgrading of ASMC’s capacity in climatologicalforecasting (US National Oceanic and Aeronautics Administration [NOAA]); (2) upgrading ofASMC’s capacity in haze transport modeling (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]); (3)upgrading of ASMC’s capacity in haze monitoring (EPA); (4) analysis of the health impacts ofhaze (EPA); (5) guidelines on the health impacts of haze (Center for Disease Control and Prevention[CDCP]); (6) technical assistance on peat fire suppression (US Forest Service); (7) technicalassistance on coal seam fire suppression (Office of Mines, US Department of the Interior); (8)reduced impact timber harvesting (to make logged forests less vulnerable to fire) (US ForestService); (9) support to the Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok (US Office of ForeignDisaster Assistance); and (10) analysis of the impact of the 1997-1998 Fires and Haze (partialfunding to a project undertaking this work that will be performed by the Centre for InternationalForestry Research in conjunction with the International Center for Research in Agroforestry,both located in Bogor, Indonesia). The regional component also supported provision of a forestfire management expert from the US Forest Service directly to the PMU, who worked togetherwith the regional technical assistance forest fire management specialist.

222 PART II: THE PROGRAM

WHO prepared Guidelines on the Health Impacts of Haze, which will be valid worldwide for allhaze generated by large-scale land and forest fires.

* * *WMO has formulated PARTS (described above), and is actively involved in numerous activitiesthat support upgrading of the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC). These activitiesinclude a series of workshops on transboundary atmospheric pollution, the first of which was heldin Singapore on 2-5 June 1998.

* * *The World Bank has rechanneled $300,000 in unused funds from an earlier project with theBAPEDAL, Indonesia. These funds will now be used for three initiatives relating to fires andhaze, one of which is formulation of a proposal for an ASEAN-wide Firefighting Training andResearch Center at the University of Palangkaraya, Indonesia.

* * *The wide-ranging support described above is clear evidence of funding agencies’ commitment toaddress the problems related to the forest fires and associated transboundary haze. It augurs wellfor the ORHAP. Nevertheless, numerous gaps still remain, as is apparent from even a casualanalysis of the DIP. This would point to the need for enhanced and targeted funding agencysupport and collaboration. As all participating funding agencies will ultimately have access to theintranet version of the ORHAP, the opportunities available and the roles each can play willbecome increasingly apparent (see Attachment 1).

Attachment 1

Updated Position of Funded Projects in DirectSupport of ORHAP Implementation (catalyzedby the Asian Development Bank Regional TechnicalAssistance Project)

AusAID1. Three-component program of support to ASEAN in addressing fires and transboundary haze

(A$660,000);• $100,000 (A$160,00) direct to RETA-PMU to support:

– Study on Formulation of Operating Procedure for Activating Forest Firefighting Resourcesin the ASEAN Region with Particular Reference to Indonesia. (Mitigation)

– Study on Training in Fire Management in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation)– Applied Study on Formulation of National Haze Action Plans with Particular Reference

to Indonesia. (Mitigation)• A$200,000 direct support to training in fire management (with option to switch these

funds to the component directly below. (Mitigation)• A$300,000 direct support (via UN-ESCAP) for implementation of PARTS component 1.

(Monitoring)

APPENDIXES 223

2. Direct support (provision of one forest fire management specialist) to the Inventory andAssessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN region. (Mitigation)

CIDA1. Funding of a feasibility study on a Fire Danger Rating System for the ASEAN Region.

(Prevention)2. Direct support (provision of one forest fire management specialist) to the inventory and

assessment of fire management capacity in the ASEAN region. (Mitigation)3. Funding of implementation of the Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF)-endorsed Fire Danger

Rating System for the ASEAN Region. (Prevention)

EU1. Direct support in the form of backstopping to the Inventory and Assessment of Fire

Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation)2. Direct support in the form of backstopping to the formulation of Prototype Fire Suppression

Mobilization Plans for critical districts in Riau and South Sumatra Provinces. (Mitigation)

GTZImplementation of a study on the health impacts of haze in Indonesia. (Prevention)

Hanns Seidel FoundationCatalyzing of interns from the University of Passau that provided direct general support toRETA PMU, and direct support in the form of backstopping to the Inventory and Assessmentof Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation)

WHOConvening of a Workshop on the Health Impacts of Transboundary Haze Pollution in the ASEANregion. (Prevention)

WMOConvening and cofinancing (with RETA 5778) of a workshop on Transboundary AtmosphericPollution in the ASEAN Region. (Monitoring)

UNEPProvision of experts in international legal instruments relating to negative environmental effects.These experts wrote the concept paper for a Framework Agreement on Transboundary Pollutionin the ASEAN Region, as well as terms of reference for a feasibility study on Formulation of aFramework Agreement on Transboundary Pollution in the ASEAN Region. (Prevention)

USAIDImplementation of the Southeast Asia Environment Initiative, which included 10 subprojects asfollows:

224 PART II: THE PROGRAM

Related to Prevention Program of ORHAP

• Strengthening Capacity in Disaster Readiness in the ASEAN Region (with the Asian DisasterPreparedness Center).

• Analysis of the Human Health Impacts of Transboundary Haze in the ASEAN Regionduring the 1997-1998 fires and haze (US EPA).

• Identification of a further research agenda on the Human Health Impacts of TransboundaryHaze in the ASEAN Region (US CDCP).

Mitigation Program of ORHAP

• Technical Assistance to Development of Techniques for Coal Seam Fire Suppression in theASEAN Region.

• Technical Assistance to Development of Techniques for Peat Fire Suppression in the ASEANRegion.

• Strengthening Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region (three components).– Direct support to RETA-PMU in the form of assistance to the RETA Forest Fire

Management Specialist.– Funding and provision of six senior fire management experts for the Inventory and

Assessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region.– Funding and provision of six senior fire management experts for the formulation of

Prototype Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans for critical districts in Riau and SouthSumatra Provinces.

Monitoring Program of ORHAP• Provision of financing and technical expertise for implementing PARTS component 2 (US

NOAA with ASMC).• Provision of financing and technical expertise for implementing PARTS component 3 (US

NOAA with ASMC).• Study on the formation, transport, and dispersion of transboundary haze pollution in the

ASEAN region (US NOAA with ASMC).• Study on strengthening the monitoring of transboundary haze pollution in the ASEAN region

(US NOAA with ASMC).

APPENDIXES 225

Outline of the Haze Action Online andSome Aspects of the Design Standards

APPENDIX 6

Part I. Outline of the Haze Action Online

IntroductionThe Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP) is a complex undertaking. Apartfrom the regional level plan, it involves implementing the nine (soon to become 10) NationalHaze Action Plans (NHAPs) and two (and possibly more) Subregional Firefighting Arrangements(SRFAs). Separate Detailed Implementation Plans (DIPs) (12 soon to become 13) have beencorrespondingly formulated to supplement each action plan and to help determine the minimumimplementation strategy of actions, activities, and funding and investment requirements necessaryto implement the ORHAP. While the various Action Plans and their corresponding DIPs providea medium-term accounting and projection of efforts required to mobilize the ORHAP, a six-yearimplementation program has also been established to strengthen regional fire suppression capacity,principally through Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans (FSMPs) and SRFAs.

Three high-level Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) bodies (ASEAN MinisterialMeeting on Environment [AMME], ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze [AMMH], and ASEANSenior Officials on Environment [ASOEN]) are accountable for ORHAP implementation, whilespecialized ASEAN agencies and subgroupings (the ASEAN Secretariat, the Haze TechnicalTask Force [HTTF], the three HTTF lead countries, the HTTF Working Groups of SRFA-Borneo and SRFA-Sumatra, and ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre [ASMC]) areresponsible for technical implementation of the ORHAP. Also included are the nationalmeteorological services (NMS), the national fire suppression agencies, the national disastercoordination authorities, funding agency collaborative partnerships, nongovernmentorganizations (NGOs), and private sector organizations. Within the ASEAN Secretariat alonethere are six different units that collect and disseminate fire-and-haze-related information.

The key informational materials of this operational structure and framework comprise thefollowing constituent elements:

• RHAP umbrella document;• ORHAP document elucidating the general strategy and guidelines for RHAP implementation

along with a six-year operational program;• DIP of the ORHAP;• DIPs for the SRFAs (Borneo and Sumatra);• DIPs for the NHAPs (for all ASEAN member countries);• Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans (FSMPs);• Inventorying and Tracking System for Fire Suppression Resources;• ASMC-Centered Monitoring and Hydrological-Meteorological Information System;

226 PART II: THE PROGRAM

• collaborative partnership programs and projects; and• framework of international agreements and protocols.The documents and informational materials can be categorized into formalized (dynamic

and static), nonformalized referenced, and nonformalized, plus other information and datasets. The complexity of the ORHAP operational framework necessitates a carefully plannedand designed information technology solution. For this purpose, the establishment of anInformation Management System (IMS) is highly necessary and feasible. The IMS will be atthe core of the Regional Information Center and Clearinghouse. Details of the requirementanalysis, logical and physical design, conversion requirements, and implementation areprovided.

Requirement Analysis

External connectivity through the Internet allows for the exchange of data interactively. TheInternet is recognized as a reliable medium to share data of all types. It is also possible to utilizethe Internet for secure data transmission cost-effectively by utilizing the “intranet” aspect (ADB/ASEAN 1999).

Feasibility of Intranet Utilization

The term intranet defines a computer network, or the sum of several networks in a certaingeographical area, which runs on the Internet protocol. This approach enables the use of thesame type of data servers and data browsers used for the World Wide Web for internal applicationsdistributed over a Local Area Network (LAN), or Wide Area Network (WAN). Because intranetsare based on the Internet protocol, they are platform-independent. Hence Windows, Macintosh,Novell, and UNIX networks can all share information by overlying TCP/IP on their existingnetwork transmission protocol. In economic terms and because of this feature, intranets aregenerally inexpensive to implement. The majority of HTTF member countries, their focal points,key supporting agencies, and the ASEAN Secretariat have Internet connectivity, making the useof the Internet as a way of networking, broadcasting and transmission, and database managementhighly feasible. All information, data sets, and databases of the IMS could be adopted to suitInternet technologies.

Logical Design

The IMS study of RETA 5778 recommends the bifurcation of the IMS into a publicly accessibleInternet system and a virtual private network utilizing the Intranet. Internet technologies make itpossible for such a system to reside in one web site. The focus here is on the requirements for anintranet system, which will be the most vital component in direct ORHAP IMS implementation.

To implement an intranet within any organization it is important to distinguish between twodistinct components: content and transport. The term “content” describes the actual data distributedthrough the intranet, while the “transport” is the mechanism that carries the data from its originto its destination(s). Virtually all the information systems identified can be computer-automated,but certain systems comprise of, or are supplemented by, a manually driven system.

APPENDIXES 227

Physical Design

There are several design options in linking the ASEAN bodies responsible for ORHAPimplementation. These are summarized in the following table:

Design Options

Type

Dedicated connection(leased line circuitbetween Secretariatand other countries)

Internet connection

Internet connectionwith tunneling protocol

Advantages

High level of security; high speed

Good security with secure-serversoftware; low cost

Security almost at same level ofdedicated connection; low cost.

Disadvantages

Very high cost

Lower speed than dedicated connections (dependson country access speed, in most case acceptable)

Lower speed than dedicated connection (depends oncountry access speed, usually acceptable)

The table shows the most common solutions. Initially, the system can be operated by restrictingexternal users access through user name and/or password requirements. Once the intranet is inplace, external users can access the information and update database forms through a log onprocess. This is usually secure enough for piloting purposes. After the system is stabilized, theLAN manager can install a tunneling protocol for additional security. A tunneling protocol is aset of data transmission rules that establish a virtual “pipe.” Data can then be securely movedinside the pipe between two points. Although the pipe itself is not considered secure, the data itcontains are accessible only from the originating and destination points. Tunneling protocol isused today to establish inexpensive Private, Virtual Networks (PVNs) using regular InternetService Provider (ISP) networks.

A specialized ASEAN Internet and intranet web site without a tunneling protocol, based on aWindows NT operating system (and the related Microsoft Internet information services andother Internet network services that the Windows NT offers) named “ASEAN Haze ActionOnline” has already been established.

Implementation

ADB’s RETA Project had installed for its Project Management Unit (PMU) and Coordinationand Support Unit (CSU) a Sub-LAN Windows NT operating system for networking the projectamong staff and consultants within the ASEAN Secretariat. This system has been upgraded withthe appropriate Internet technology into a full-service web server for the enhanced IMS of ORHAPwith the site address: www.haze-online-or.id

CSU will be responsible for the content of the web site, that is, the overall “look and feel” ofthe intranet site, and for keeping the information fresh and well organized, This requires updatingthe material to the site on a daily basis, or sometimes continuously through the day. It is alsonecessary to establish “entry points” throughout the ORHAP institutional arrangement to input

TABLE 6

228 PART II: THE PROGRAM

data directly into the Intranet. CSU should also be responsible for maintaining a logical, coherent,and easily navigable menu structure. Other CSU responsibilities include the creation of hypertextmarkup language (HTML) pages, the creation of the forms used in formulating and returningdatabase queries, and sometimes even the programming of the query mechanism itself. Competenceand training in the following areas are required:

• HTML language;• use of graphic applications and image manipulation;• scanning techniques;• database technology; and• office procedures and archival schemes.

Part II. Design Standards

Based on the regional fire and haze information and web design techniques available to date, thefollowing design standards have been compiled for designing the ASEAN Haze Action Onlineweb site. When designing or redesigning a web site, each of these guidelines should be appliedwhere appropriate.

Background and ObjectivesOperationalizing the RHAP ultimately depends on an efficient flow of information among thevarious parties, agencies, and countries implementing the Plan at the national, subregional, andregional levels. The information management system is the means by which implementation ofeach action defined in the DIP at each of the levels is monitored.

The heart of the ORHAP information management system is a computerized retrieval systemthat can be accessed through the Internet. The Intranet Information System also provides up-to-date information to help in decision making.

ASEAN Haze Action Online allows the sharing of knowledge and experience, and coordinationand monitoring of national, regional, and international initiatives with institutions in the region.This includes an intranet linking institutions in the region and a public information service.

The establishment of the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internet/intranet information system isbased on one of the RETA 5778 terms of reference components to develop, establish, andoperationalize an improved information management, exchange, and dissemination system inthe ASEAN Secretariat related to fires and haze prevention and mitigation.

The objectives of the establishment of the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internet/IntranetInformation System are to:

1. provide a medium for information exchange between institutions at the regional andnational levels;

2. support and monitor implementation of regional, subregional, and national haze actionplans;

3. provide a link to ASMC’s products;

APPENDIXES 229

4. support and monitor implementation of the ASEAN Regional Fire SuppressionMobilization Plan;

5. provide a database and/or inventory of equipment, firefighters, fire experts, and addressesof contact persons and institutions at regional and national levels;

6. provide information on meetings and events, a calendar, and scheduling;7. provide a library of information and/or document center related to fires and haze;8. provide linkages to all of the available fire and haze information sources on the

Internet;9. provide comprehensive, accurate, and up-to-date information on all funding agency

projects that are supporting the regional, subregional, and national haze action plans;10. provide funding agencies with a full range of project coordination functions to better

target development assistance by matching specific needs to funding agency priorities;11. provide the ASEAN Secretariat with an alternative medium for public awareness,

education, and outreach programs on fire-and-haze-related information; and12. provide the ASEAN Secretariat with a medium for internal awareness and outreach

program on fire-and-haze-related information.

Target UsersIn order to create compelling and useful content and applications, target users should be defined.Once the site is implemented, user feedback and analysis of user log files generated by the webtracking system should be used both to fine-tune the site and to confirm the users.

The ASEAN Haze Action Online web site will target the following:• AMME;• AMMH;• HTTF;• government agencies responsible for the fire and haze prevention, monitoring, and mitigation

activities;• ASEAN Secretariat:

– Environment Unit,– Information and Library Unit,– Culture and Information Unit,– Agriculture and Forestry Unit,– Computer Unit, and– Coordination Support Unit;

• collaborative partners; and• the general public.Any addition to the web site should be tailored to these users.

230 PART II: THE PROGRAM

Site Structure

Users need predictability and structure with clear functional and graphic continuity betweena site’s sections and subsections. Below is the structure of the ASEAN Haze Action Online website and a short description of the major sections. Any new content to be added to the web siteshould fit into this structure.

• ASEAN Haze Action Online Homepage: www.haze-online.or.id• Search: Search ASEAN Haze Action Online web site.• Site Index: Table of Contents to quickly locate information within the site.• Help Center: Help on how to access and/or navigate through the site.

Section 1 drill-downs

• About: A brief introduction to ASEAN transboundary haze initiatives and the RHAP• Intranet: Registered users (HTTF members, partners) can access the following RHAP

information management tools:– DIP information system,– information on donors’ collaborative partnership program and projects,– RHAP Document Center,– contact information databases for all persons and institutions concerned with RHAP

implementation,– Calendar of Events and Activities database, and– Firefighting Resources Inventory System and Intranet Discussion Forum.

• Monitoring Links: Hyperlinks to the web sites of institutions specializing in monitoring offires and haze in the region.

• Mobilization Plan: Information on ASEAN regional FSMP initiatives.

Site Structure

About Intranet MonitoringLinks

MobilizationPlan Inventory Haze

NewsHaze

ForumCalendarof Events

Fire andHaze Links

Help Center

Site Index

Search

ASEAN Haze ActionOnline Homepage

Section 1st drill-down

FIGURE 6

Source: ASEAN, RHAP-C54.

APPENDIXES 231

• Inventory: Information on the regional inventory and assessment of fire managementcapability.

• Haze News: New reports, press releases, situation summaries, links to the online version ofthe International Forest Fire News, and other information about the current fire-and-hazesituation in the region. Users can also use this feature to suggest additional fire-and-hazehyperlinks.

• Haze Forum: An electronic forum allowing users to post their views and opinions on fire-and-haze-related issues, and to discuss them with other users.

• Calendar of Events: This feature gives the schedule and venue of all past, present, and futurefire-and-haze-related events including seminars, workshops, training classes, and otheractivities.

• Haze Links: Links to other fire-and-haze-related web sites. Users can also use this featureto add Uniform Resource Locator (URL) links to the fire-and-haze-related web sites.

Supported BrowsersThe ASEAN Haze Action Online web site is designed for the latest release versions of theNetscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers. The reasoning for this decisionis as follows:

• Cost: The more browsers that are supported, the greater the cost to develop the web site.• Popularity: Netscape and Microsoft clearly lead the Internet browser market.• Supported features: Both Netscape and Microsoft’s browsers support many advanced

technology features (i.e., Java, Shockwave, etc.). These companies are pushing each otherto add functionality, which is causing their products to converge.

The ASEAN Haze Action Online web site is not implementing features that are not commonto the identified browsers. If a feature is supported by one of the identified browsers and not bythe other (i.e., VBScript), it should not adversely affect the look and feel of the site when viewedin the unsupported browser. And as Internet Explorer and Navigator converge, this issue willbecome negligible.

[Note: For details on Standard Page Design, HTML Coding Standards, System Architecture, etc., see the

Final Report of ADB’s RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate

Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution.]

232 PART II: THE PROGRAM

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