Fire Safety Challenges of ‘Green’ Systems and Features ... · PDF file2014 ICC...
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2014 ICC Annual Conference 8/14/2014
(c) Brian Meacham, WPI, 2014 1
Fire Safety Challenges of ‘Green’ Systems and Features in BuildingsBrian J. Meacham, PhD, PE, FSFPE, CEng, FIFireEAssociate Professor, Fire Protection Engineering, WPI
2014 ICC Annual Conference, Education Session
Green Construction and Energy Production’s Potential Impact on Fire and Firefighter Safety30 September 2014
Overview
• Objective─ Provide an overview of potential fire safety issues that could
be associated with the increasing transition to a ‘green’ and sustainable built environment
• Approach─ Overview of 2012 FPRF project that raised issues http://www.nfpa.org/research/fire-protection-research-
foundation/reports-and-proceedings/building-and-life-safety/general-life-safety-issues/fire-safety-challenges-of-green-buildings
─ Brief overview of follow-on work, a 3-year, $1M research effort supported by DHS, Award EMW-2012-FP-01336
Overview
• Part 1: FPRF funded project (2012)─ Green / sustainability objectives─ Research problem aims and objectives─ Potential fire concerns with green buildings─ Overview of information search─ Categorization of green elements and attributes and
potential fire concerns─ Presentation of relative risk/hazard/concern─ Issues with fire and green rating schemes─ Conclusions and recommendations
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Green / Sustainable Objectives
• Green / Sustainability Objectives─ Limit impact on environment Limit impact to environment due to toxic releases into air,
water and soil Lower overall carbon emissions Slow pace of climate change Better utilize natural resources
─ Promote new technologies, materials and methods to facilitate the above
Green / Sustainable Objectives
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-488982/One-million-terrified-residents-flee-ravaged-Malibu.html
Green / Sustainable Objectives
http://www.herts.police.uk/about/buncefield_incident.htm Windsor Building, Madrid, Spain
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Green / Sustainable Objectives
Green / Sustainable Objectives
• Lower carbon footprint─ Construction
materials Structure Façade Interior finish
─ Operational energy usage Lighting Heating, cooling,
ventilation
http://www.pewclimate.org/global-warming-in-depth/all_reports/buildings
http://www.pewclimate.org/global-warming-in-depth/all_reports/buildings
Green / Sustainable Objectives
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FPRF Study: The Concern
• Green buildings are now a global focus. Several green building rating schemes and green building codes exist; however, the extent to which fire safety considerations are addressed within theses systems, and whether potential fire hazards may be created by green building elements and features, has not been systematically studied.
FPRF Study: Aims and Objectives
• Identify documented fire incidents in the built inventory of green buildings,
• Define a specific set of elements in green building design, including configuration and materials, which, without mitigating strategies, increase fire risk, decrease safety or decrease building performance in comparison with conventional construction,
FPRF Study: Aims and Objectives
• Identify and summarize existing best practice case studies in which the risk introduced by specific green building design elements has been explicitly addressed,
• Compile research studies related to incorporating building safety, life safety and fire safety as an explicit element in green building indices, identifying gaps and specific needed research areas. http://projects.bre.co.uk/frsdiv/smokes
hafts/
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FPRF Study: Approach
• Global information search – web & surveys─ Incidents, research studies, best practice case studies,
related efforts
• Identify green building elements / attributes• Identify risk / hazard / performance factors• Consider how fire addressed in green building
rating schemes• Present ways to communicate concerns
Examples of IncidentsTable 1. Representative Fire Incidents
Commercial Photovoltaic Panel Fire
383 kW roof PV system fire, Target Store, Bakersfield, CA, April 2009
http://nfpa.typepad.com/files/target‐fire‐report‐09apr29.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
PV roof fire, France warehouse, January 2010
http://www.aria.developpement‐durable.gouv.fr/ressources/fd_37736_valdereuil_jfm_en.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Roof PV system in Goch, Germany, April 2012.
http://www.feuerwehr‐goch.de/index.php?id=22&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=596&cHash=982afcd5c431b7299f67de4af397cc43 (last accessed 10/21/12)
1,208kW roof PV system, Mt. Holly, NC, April 2011
http://www.solarabcs.org/about/publications/meeting_presentations_minutes/2011/12/pdfs/Duke‐Webinar‐Dec2011.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
PV roof fire, Trenton, NJ, March 2012
http://blog.nj.com/centraljersey_impact/print.html?entry=/2012/03/trenton_firefighters_battle_ro.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.nj.com/mercer/index.ssf/2012/03/solar_panels_source_of_fire_at.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
Residential Photovoltaic Panel Fire
PV Fire: Experience and Studies, UL, 2009
http://www.solarabcs.org/about/publications/meeting_presentations_minutes/2011/02/pdfs/Arc‐PV_Fire_sm.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
PV fires, FPRF report, 2010 http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/pdf/research/fftacticssolarpower.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
PV fire, San Diego, CA, April 2010
http://www.nctimes.com/article_8a32fb03‐9e3f‐58ca‐b860‐9c7fe1e28c7e.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
PV fire, Stittingbourne, UK, March 2012
http://www.kentonline.co.uk/kentonline/news/2012/march/30/solar_panels.aspx (last accessed 10/21/12)
Battery Storage and UPS Fire
Battery fire, Data Center, Taiwan, February 2009
http://indico.cern.ch/getFile.py/access?sessionId=8&resId=1&materialId=0&confId=45473 (last accessed 10/21/12)
https://solarjuice.com/blog/buildings-and-pv/solar-panels-and-fire/
http://www.coffscoastadvocate.com.au/news/warning-solar-panel-owners/1256986/
Examples of IncidentsTable 1. Representative Fire Incidents
Residential Spray Foam Insulation Fire
Foam insulation home fire, North Falmouth, MA, May 2008
http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080520/NEWS/805200318/‐1/rss01 (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/green‐building‐news/three‐massachusetts‐home‐fires‐linked‐spray‐foam‐installation (last accessed 10/21/12)
Foam insulation, Woods Hole, MA, February 2011
http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20110211/NEWS/102110323 (last accessed 10/21/12)
Foam insulation fire, Quebec, May 2010
http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/green‐building‐news/nze‐project‐tragic‐fire‐and‐will‐rebuild (last accessed 10/21/12)
Residential Foil Insulation, Fire / Shock Hazards
Home Insulation Program (Australia)
http://www.climatechange.gov.au/government/initiatives/hisp/key‐statistics.aspx (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/974027/ (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.wsws.org/articles/2010/feb2010/insu‐f22.shtml (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/garretts‐roofing‐fire‐admission/story‐e6frg6n6‐1225829880090 (last accessed 10/21/12)
Sandwich Panels / Structural Integrated Panel (SIP) with Combustible Foam Insulation or Coating
Borgata Casino, Atlantic City, NJ, Façade Fire (2007)
http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2010/05/modern‐building‐materials‐are‐factors‐in‐atlantic‐city‐fires.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
Apartment Façade Fire, Busan, Korea
http://koreabridge.net/post/haeundae‐highrise‐fire‐busan‐marine‐city‐burns (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://view.koreaherald.com/kh/view.php?ud=20101001000621&cpv=0 (last accessed 10/21/12)
Apartment Façade and Scaffold Fire, Shaghai, China
http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/11/shanghai_apartment_fire.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world‐asia‐pacific‐11760467 (last accessed 10/21/12)
High‐Rise Façade Fires, UAE http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/emergencies/fire‐breaks‐out‐at‐sharjah‐tower‐1.1014750 (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://article.wn.com/view/2012/05/02/Tower_cladding_in_UAE_fuels_fire/ (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://article.wn.com/view/2012/05/01/Experts_shed_light_on_how_fires_spread_in_towers/ (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/green-building-news/three-massachusetts-home-fires-linked-spray-foam-installation
http://koreabridge.net/post/haeundae-highrise-fire-busan-marine-city-burns
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Examples of Research StudiesTable 2. Fire Safety Concerns in Green Buildings: Selected Resources
Overall Concerns
BRANZ ‐ Building Sustainability and Fire‐Safety Design Interactions (2012)
http://www.branz.co.nz/cms_show_download.php?id=716733515027fe4626188881f674635d51e3cfb0 (last accessed 10/21/12)
BRE – Impact of Fire on the Environment and Building Sustainability (2010)
http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/planningandbuilding/pdf/1795639.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Bridging the Gap: Fire Safety and Green Buildings, NASFM 2010
http://firemarshals.org/greenbuilding/bridgingthegap.html (last accessed 10/21/12)
Photovoltaic / Energy systems
Fire Fighter Safety and Emergency Response for Solar Power Systems
http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/pdf/research/fftacticssolarpower.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Firefighter Safety and Photovoltaic Installations Research Project, UL 2011
http://www.ul.com/global/documents/offerings/industries/buildingmaterials/fireservice/PV‐FF_SafetyFinalReport.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Lightweight Wood Structures
Lightweight structure fire, NFPA http://www.nfpa.org/publicJournalDetail.asp?categoryID=1857&itemID=43878&src=NFPAJournal&cookie%5Ftest=1 (last accessed 10/21/12)
Improving Fire Safety by Understanding the Fire Performance of Engineered Floor Systems and Providing the Fire Service with Information for Tactical Decision Making, UL 2012
http://www.ul.com/global/documents/offerings/industries/buildingmaterials/fireservice/basementfires/2009 NIST ARRA Compilation Report.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Architectural
Performance of double‐skin façade http://www.bse.polyu.edu.hk/researchCentre/Fire_Engineering/summary_of_output/journal/IJEPBFC/V6/p.155‐167.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
Fire Hazards of Foam Insulation
Toxicity of Flame Retardants in Foam Insulation and Other Products
Brominated flame retardants and health concerns http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241790/ (last accessed 10/21/12)
Toxicity of flame retardants and impact on fire fighters http://www.nist.gov/el/fire_research/upload/4‐Purser.pdf (last accessed 10/21/12)
http://firemarshals.org/greenbuilding/bridgingthegap.html
http://www.ul.com/global/eng/pages/offerings/industries/buildingmaterials/fire/fireservice/lightweight/
Possible Technology Concerns
• Green / sustainability objectives are driving changes in building design and technology─ Double-skin façade─ New insulation materials, construction, …─ Green roofs, green interior spaces, … ─ Photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, cogeneration, hydrogen
fuel cells, …─ More natural lighting, natural ventilation, …
Double-Skin Facade
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Natural Ventilation
• Natural ventilation vs. smoke management─ 1 Bligh Street, Sydney
https://www.asme.org/kb/news---articles/articles/energy-efficiency/down-under-a-highly-sustainable-high-rise
Buoyancy-Driven Ventilation
• Driven by density difference between interior/exterior due to temperature differences
Wind Driven Natural Ventilation
• Forced convection through a compartment
• Highly dependent on external conditions
• Some designs have sensitive control algorithms
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Natural Ventilation
http://www.nzsses.auckland.ac.nz/conference/2004/Session5/45%20Potangaroa.pdf
Natural Ventilation
─ Federal Building in SF ─ Uses the thermal
mass of the floors for night cooling
─ Narrow floor plate to allow cross ventilation and a localized double façade shaft on the leeward side of the building
http://www.nzsses.auckland.ac.nz/conference/2004/Session5/45%20Potangaroa.pdf
Exterior Materials / Insulation
• Material properties─ High thermal insulation vs.
flammability New materials as interior
lining, façade, insulation, within sandwich panel and more – increased fuel load, distribution, flame spread, smoke spread…
High thermal insulation vs. effect on compartment temperatures in a fire
http://koreabridge.net/post/haeundae-highrise-fire-busan-marine-city-burns
http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/green-building-news/three-massachusetts-home-fires-linked-spray-foam-installation
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Exterior Materials / Insulation
• Combustible exterior insulated panel systems
http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2010/05/modern-building-materials-are-factors-in-atlantic-city-fires.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yQLIlIetDM
Exterior Materials / Insulation
(Z)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Perc
enta
ge (
%)
Year
Principal Type of Exterior Wall Material of New Single-Family Houses (Unted States)
Brick
Wood
Stucco
Vinyl
Fiber
Other
Exterior Materials / Insulation• Combustible siding and insulation
http://ulfirefightersafety.com/category/projects/study-of-residential-attic-fire-mitigation-tactics-and-exterior-fire-spread-hazards-on-fire-fighter-safety/
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Exterior Materials / Insulation
Installation Types• Batts and Blankets• Loose-Fill
Insulation• Structurally
Insulated Panels• Spray Foam
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
1992 2001 2006 (1)
U.S. Insulation Demand, by Type (Million Pounds) (1)
Fiberglass
Foamed Plastic
Cellulose
Mineral Wool
Other
Indoor Air Quality / Flammability
• Material properties─ Toxicity (IAQ) vs. fire retardant
qualities Chemical additives in foam insulation
and other materials – toxicity under fire and non-fire conditions? o Polystyrene foam insulation used in
building insulation (both XPS, such as Styrofoam, and EPS) is treated with hexabromocyclododecane, (HBCD), a persistent, bioaccumulating, and toxic fire retardant
http://www.noburn.com/intumescent-paints-fire-retardant-coatings
http://www.hoffmaninsulation.com/Products.html
Reduced Material
• Reduced and/or natural material vs. reduced strength or fire protection─ Lightweight
engineered lumber ─ High strength
concrete─ Combustible interior
finishes
http://www.ul.com/global/eng/pages/offerings/industries/buildingmaterials/fire/fireservice/lightweight/
Courtesy MSU
http://www.nhit-shis.org/bamboo-wall-interior-design-by-kengo-kuma-associates/02-great-bamboo-wall-interior-design/
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Reduced Material
2”x 4” or2”x 6”
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)
Engineered Wood I-Joist
Structurally Insulated Panel
Engineered Wood
Structural Failure Time
Experimental Count
Maximum (Min:Sec)
Minimum (Min:Sec)
Average (Min:Sec)
Standard Deviation
Dimensional Lumber 10 20:40 7:04 15:01 4:10
Engineered I-Joist 8 23:10 2:20 8:17 3:54
Castellated I-Joist 3 8:10 6:50 7:23 0:42
Hybrid Trusses 3 6:00 5:30 5:50 0:17
Steel I-Joist 2 10:08 6:11 8:10 2:48
MPC Wood Trusses 2 6:08 3:28 4:48 1:53
Joist without Fire Resistant Protection Failure Time Comparison
Reduced Material
Copyright Underwriters Laboratories
Joists without Fire Resistant Protection Failure Times versus Fire Department Response Times
Reduced Material
Copyright Underwriters Laboratories
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Reduced Material
Window Performance
Window Performance
Types of Window Frames• Aluminum or Metal• Composite Frames• Fiberglass Frames• Vinyl Frames• Wood Frames
Types of Window Glazing• Gas Fills• Heat-Absorbing Tints• Insulated• Low-Emissivity Coating• Reflective Coatings• Spectrally Selective
Coatings
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0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 2009
Win
dow
Sal
es (
Mill
ions
)
Residential Prime Window Sales, by Frame Type Aluminum (2) Wood (3) Vinyl Other
Window Performance
Window Performance
Copyright Underwriters Laboratories
Living Building
• Green exterior / interiors vs. fuel load
http://directory.leadmaverick.com/Southern-Botanical-Inc/DallasFort-WorthArlington/TX/10/15993/index.aspx
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Living Building
• Green exterior vs. fuel load and FF access
http://inhabitat.com/flower-tower-380-potted-plants-line-parisian-apartment-facade/
Green Roof
• Green / alternate energy roof vs. fire fighter access
Photovoltaic Panels
• Green / alternate energy roof vs. fire fighter access
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Photovoltaic Panels
• PV panels on roof vs. fire hazard
https://solarjuice.com/blog/buildings-and-pv/solar-panels-and-fire/
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4aDrmtur6fw
http://www.feuerwehr-goch.de/index.php?id=22&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=596&cHash=982afcd5c431b7299f67de4af397cc43
PV & Combustible Roof/Insulation
• Recent fires with combination PV and combustible insulation on roof decks
http://abclocal.go.com/wpvi/gallery?section=news/local&id=9226626&photo=1
PV & Combustible Roof/Insulation
• Recent fires with combination PV and combustible insulation on roof decks
Courtesy of NJ State Fire Marshal Office Courtesy of National Fire Protection Association
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Lack of Water Supply
• Water conservation vs. fire-fighting water─ Reducing overall water use vs. having sufficient water
capacity when needed Result of global climate change – as regions become drier,
will fire suppression systems design for one level of water supply work as less water is available?
─ Relying on manual suppression to fight large fire vs. employing earlier suppression
http://www.homefiresprinkler.org/images/FM-Global-Environmental-Study.pdf
Unrecognized Sprinkler Benefit
Unrecognized Sprinkler Benefit
http://www.homefiresprinkler.org/images/FM-Global-Environmental-Study.pdf
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High Density Building
• High density housing, smaller streets, …
Combination
• Combination of high density housing, LEL systems, combustible insulation, smaller streets, water conservation, …
Competing Objectives?http://firemarshals.org/greenbuilding/bridgingthegap.html
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Context
• 80 Green Building Elements / Attributes─ Structural Materials
and Systems (9)─ Exterior Materials and
Systems (13)─ Façade Attributes (4)─ Interior Materials and
Finishes (9)─ Interior Space
Attributes (10)─ Building Systems &
Issues (12)─ Alternative Energy
Systems (9)─ Site Issues (14)
Context• 22 Fire Risk / Hazard
Attributes─ Presents a potential hazard E.g., ignition, electrical shock,
explosion, toxicity─ Hazard attributes E.g., readily ignitable, burns
readily once ignited, contributes more fuel / increased HRR, etc.
─ Failure potential E.g., shorter time to failure,
failure affects burning characteristics or smoke spread or…
─ May impact building FP system or feature E.g., smoke/heat venting,
suppression effectiveness, apparatus access, firefighter access & operations…
Poses potential ignition hazard
Poses potential shock hazard
Poses potential explosion hazard
Poses potential toxicity hazard
Readily ignitable
Burns readily once ignited
Contributes more fuel / increased heat release rate (HRR)
Material affects burning characteristics
Fast(er) fire growth rate
Significant smoke production/hazard
Potential for shorter time to failure
Failure affects burning characteristics
Failure presents smoke spread concern
Failure presents flame spread concern
Material presents flame spread concern
May impact smoke/heat venting
May impact occupant evacuation
May impact fire‐fighter (FF) water availability
May impact suppression effectiveness
May impact fire apparatus access
May impact fire‐fighter (FF) access and operations
May impact containment of runoff
Green Element / Hazard Matrix
Poses potential ignition hazard
Poses potential shock hazard
Potential explosion hazard
Poses potential toxicity hazard
Readily ignitable
Burns readily once ignited
Contributes more fuel / increased HRR
Material affects burning characteristics
Fast(er) fire growth rate
Significant smoke production/hazard
Potential for shorter time to failure
Failure affects burning characteristics
Failure presents stability concern
Failure presents smoke spread concern
Failure presents flam
e spread concern
Material presents flam
e spread concern
May impact sm
oke/heat venting
May impact occupant evacuation
May impact FF water availability
May impact suppression effectiveness
May impact fire apparatus access
May impact FF access and operations
May impact containment of runoff
Exterior Materials and Systems
‐ Structura l integrated pane l (SIP)
‐ Exterior insula tion & fini sh (EFIS)
‐ Rigid foam insulation
‐ Spray‐applied foam insulation
‐ Foi l i nsulation systems
‐ High‐performance glazing
‐ Low‐emiss i vi ty & reflecti ve coa ting
‐ Double‐skin façade / cavity wa ll
‐ Bamboo, other ce l lulos ic
‐ Bio‐polymers , FRPs
‐ Vegetati ve roof sys tems
‐ Insulating materia l
‐ Thi cknes s
‐ Type of vegetation
‐ PVC ra inwater catchment
‐ Exterior cable / cable trays
‐ Extended solar roof panel s
‐ Awnings / exterior solar shades
‐ Exterior vegetative covering
Façade Attributes
‐ Area of glazing
‐ Area of combustible materia l Copyright FPRF, 2012
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Green Element / Hazard Matrix
Poses potential ignition hazard
Poses potential shock hazard
Potential explosion hazard
Poses potential toxicity hazard
Readily ignitable
Burns readily once ignited
Contributes more fuel / increased HRR
Material affects burning characteristics
Fast(er) fire growth rate
Significant smoke production/hazard
Potential for shorter time to failure
Failure affects burning characteristics
Failure presents stability concern
Failure presents smoke spread concern
Failure presents flam
e spread concern
Material presents flam
e spread concern
May impact smoke/heat venting
May impact occupant evacuation
May impact FF water availability
May impact suppression effectiveness
May impact fire apparatus access
May impact FF access and operations
May impact containment of runoff
Relative risk level
Exterior Materials and Systems
‐ Structural i ntegrated panel (SIP)
‐ Exterior insulation & finish (EFIS)
‐ Rigid foam i nsulation
‐ Spray‐appl ied foam i nsulation
‐ Foi l i nsulation sys tems
‐ High‐performance glazing
‐ Low‐emiss ivi ty & reflective coating
‐ Double‐skin façade / cavity wal l
‐ Bamboo, other cel lulosi c
‐ Bio‐polymers , FRPs
‐ Vegetative roof sys tems
‐ Insulating materia l
‐ Thickness
‐ Type of vegetation
‐ PVC ra inwater catchment
‐ Exterior cable / cable trays
‐ Extended solar roof panels
‐ Exterior solar shades / awning
‐ Exterior vegatati ve covering
Façade Attributes
‐ Area of glazing
‐ Area of combustible materia l
Risk Ranking Key
Low or N/A Presents a low risk when unmitigated or is not applicable to the listed attributes
Moderate Presents a moderate risk when unmitigated.
High Presents a high risk when unmitigated.
Copyright FPRF, 2012
Element/Concern/MitigationMaterial / System / Attribute Hazard Concern Level Potential Mitigation Stratgies
Exterior Materials and Systems
‐ Structura l i ntegrated panel (SIP)
I f fa i l , i nsulation can contribute to fl ame
spread, smoke production and fuel l oad. High
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . As sure proper sea l ing
of panels . Take care during i nsta l lation, including
retrofits , rel ative to potentia l sources of ignition.
‐ Exterior insulation & fini sh (EFIS)
I f fa i l , i nsulation can contribute to fl ame
spread, smoke production and fuel l oad. High
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . As sure proper sea l ing
of panels . Take care during i nsta l lation, including
retrofits , rel ative to potentia l sources of ignition.
‐ Rigid foam i nsulation
Can contribute to flame spread, smoke and
toxi c product development and fuel l oad. High
Fire res is tive barri er (e.g., fire rated gypsum).
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . Flame retardants .
Sprinklers .
‐ Spray‐appl ied foam i nsulation
Can contribute to flame spread, smoke and
toxi c product development and fuel l oad. High
Fire res is tive barri er (e.g., fire rated gypsum).
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . Flame retardants .
Sprinklers .
‐ Foi l insulation sys tems
Can contribute to shock hazard for i nsta l lers .
Can contribute to flame spread and fuel load. High
Fire res is tive barri er (e.g., fire rated gypsum).
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . Sprinklers .
‐ High‐performance glazing
Can change thermal characteri s ti cs of
compartment for burning. Can impact FF
access .
Moderate
Sprinklers . Assure adequate FD access . Assure
mechanism for FD smoke/heat venting. Approved /
l i s ted materi a ls .
‐ Low‐emiss ivity & refl ective coating
Can change thermal characteri s ti cs of
compartment for burning. Can impact FF
access .
Moderate
Sprinklers . Assure adequate FD access . Assure
mechanism for FD smoke/heat venting. Approved /
l i s ted materi a ls .
‐ Double‐skin façade
Can change thermal characteri s ti cs of
compartment for burning. Can impact FF
access . Can present 'chimney' for vertica l
smoke and flame spread i f not properly fi re
s topped.
Moderate
Appropriate fire stop between fl oors . Sprinklers may
have some benefi t (sprinklered bui lding). Assure
mechanism for FD smoke/heat venting. Approved /
l i s ted materi a ls .
‐ Bamboo, other cel lulos icCan contribute to flame spread, smoke
development and fuel load.Moderate
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . Flame retardant
treatments . Sprinklers .
‐ Bio‐polymers , FRPsCan contribute to flame spread, smoke
development and fuel load.Low
Approved / l i s ted materi a ls . Flame retardant
treatments . Sprinklers .
‐ Vegetati ve roof systems
Can contribute to fire l oad, spread of fi re,
impact FF operations , impact smoke and heat
venting, contribute to stabi l i ty i s sues .Moderate
Manage fire ri sk of vegetation. As sure use of fire
tested components . Provide adequate area for FD
acces , smoke/heat venting, and other
operations .Approved / l i s ted materi a ls .
‐ PVC ra inwater catchment Can contribute additiona l fuel l oad. Low Limi t volume.
‐ Exterior cable / cable trays Can contribute additiona l fuel l oad. Low Limi t volume.Approved / l is ted materia l s .
Façade Attributes
‐ Area of glazing
Can present more opportunity for breakage
and subsequent fire spread and/or barri er to
FF access depending on type.
Moderate
‐ Area of combustible materi a lLarger area (volume) provides increased fuel
l oad.High
Limi t volume.
‐ Awnings Impacts FF access . Low
‐ Exterior vegetative coveringCan impact FF access and present WUI is s ue.
LowLimi t volume.
Copyright FPRF, 2012
Review of Rating Schemes
• More than 2 dozen schemes and codes available world-wide─ Primarily voluntary
• Looked at subset─ LEED (homes, retail)─ BREEAM (new buildings)─ GREEN MARK (residential, non-residential)─ IgCC
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(c) Brian Meacham, WPI, 2014 20
Review of Rating Schemes
• Do green building rating schemes include fire safety objectives?
• Are there benefits for green points which could result in fire concern?
• How best to illustrate outcomes for a wide ranging audience?
Review of Rating Schemes
• None of the schemes or IgCC were found to have explicit fire safety objectives─ Schemes voluntary: assume fire safety addressed by
mandatory code requirements
• Two schemes with some fire objectives─ Fire protection benefit in German Sustainable Building
Council (DGNB) (http://www.dgnb-system.de/dgnb-system/en/system/criteria/)
─ Fire risk reduction attributes in BREEAM-in-USE (http://www.breeam.org/page.jsp?id=373)
Conclusions – FPRF Effort
• There are currently no fire incident reporting systems in the United States or other countries surveyed which specifically collect and track data on fire incidents in green buildings or on items labeled as green building elements or features. Unless changes are made to reporting systems such as NFIRS, it will be difficult to track such fire incident data.
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Conclusions – FPRF Effort
• Fires associated with photovoltaic (PV) panels and roof materials, fire and safety hazards attributed to increased energy efficiency aims in residential buildings (primarily insulation related), fire involving insulating materials, fires associated with exterior cladding that contains combustible insulation materials or coatings, and fire performance of timber frame buildings with lightweight engineered lumber (LEL).
Conclusions – FPRF Effort
• None of the schemes reviewed were found to have explicit fire safety objectives
• Two schemes with some fire objectives─ Fire protection benefit in German Sustainable Building
Council (DGNB) (http://www.dgnb-system.de/dgnb-system/en/system/criteria/)
─ Fire risk reduction attributes in BREEAM-in-USE (http://www.breeam.org/page.jsp?id=373)
Outcomes – FPRF Effort
• Moving toward a risk analysis approach─ A comprehensive list of green building site and design
features / elements / attributes has been compiled─ A list of fire-related hazards and risk factors, associated
with green building elements, has been compiled─ A set of matrices relating green attributes and potential fire
risks / hazards was developed─ An approach for illustrating the relative fire risk or hazard,
or decreased fire performance, associated with green building elements, was developed
─ Potential mitigation strategies for addressing the relative increase in fire risk or hazard associated with the green building elements and features have been identified
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Recommendations
• To address the lack of reported fire experience with green buildings and green building elements, especially in buildings which have a green rating or certification, a modification is required to fire incident data reporting systems as NFIRS.
• To address the lack of analysis on fire ‘risk’ associated with green building elements, it is suggested that a more extensive research project is needed to review existing studies and reports on fire performance of green building elements, even if not explicitly identified as such (e.g., LEL).
Recommendations
• To explore the extent to which current standard test methods are appropriate for evaluating both green and fire safety criteria, and result in adequate mitigation of fire risk / hazard concerns, investigation into level of fire performance delivered by current standard test methods and into the in situ fire performance of green building elements is recommended.
• To address the lack of studies which have investigated incorporating building safety, life safety and fire safety as explicit elements in green building indices, joint research efforts between the FPRF and the USGBC could be explored.
Recommendations
• To address the lack of published case studies in which increased fire risk or hazards associated with green building elements have been specifically addressed, groups such as SFPE, NFPA, AIA and the USGBC can be encouraged to hold symposia on these topics and encourage publication of case studies.
• To facilitate better collection of relevant data on fire safety challenges with green buildings in the future, a fire & green building data repository could be set up. This could build on an existing effort (e.g., http://www.firemarshals.org/programs/greenbuildingsandfiresafetyprojects.html) or be supported by others.
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Overview – DHS Effort
• Follow-on work ─ Research effort supported by grant from the US
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Assistance to Firefighters Grant program, award EMW-2012-FP-01336
─ Program overview Scope and objectives Project team 3-year research plan
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• The goal of this effort is to reduce firefighter injuries and deaths associated with unknown or unanticipated fire environments and structural responses associated with green building elements.
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• The goal of this effort is to reduce firefighter injuries and deaths associated with unknown or unanticipated fire environments and structural responses associated with green building elements.
• Our objectives are to understand, quantify and address fire performance challenges of green building elements as they might impact firefighter safety during fire ground operations.
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Research Plan – DHS Effort
• We aim to fulfill these objectives by:─ Beginning to quantify fire impacts of green building
features through research into fire loss history, conducting fire experiments, and performing fire and smoke simulations
─ Developing a screening tool to aid in identifying risk-significant green building features and suitable mitigation options
─ Investigating appropriate tactics for fighting fires in buildings with green elements
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• Team─Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) Brian Meacham, PI and Nicholas Dembsey, Co-I Matt Yin, Drew Martin, Young-Geun You, Student RAs
─ University of Maryland (UMD) Michael Gollner, Co-I and Andre Marshall, Co-I
─ Fire Protection Research Foundation (FPRF) Casey Grant / Project Technical Panel
─ National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Dr. Rita Fahy, Marty Ahrens, and Dr. John Hall Jr.
─ Massachusetts Department of Fire Services (DFS) Timothy Rodrique
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• Project Areas─ Increase fire incident data capture for domestic fires
involving green building features and elements─ Quantify fire hazards and risks associated with green
building features─ Develop hazard and risk assessment framework and tools ─ Develop recommended changes to tactics, training, codes
and standards
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Research Plan – DHS Effort
• Key Year 1 Objectives─ Establish review panel and stakeholder groups─Review NFIRS/MFIRS/NIOSH data/reports,
extract relevant fire data, assess how data reporting could change to capture more
─Review reports on fire tests of green elements to benchmark and set experimental parameters
─Select structure for risk / hazard screening tool and conduct risk characterization exercises with stakeholder groups
─Scope Year 2 physical and modeling experiments
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• Key Year 2 Objectives─Undertake fire experiments on targeted building
assemblies / configurations─Undertake physical and numerical smoke
movement simulation for naturally ventilated configurations and double-skin façade configurations
─Develop hazard/risk assessment screening tool─ Identify tactical issues associated with fires in
buildings with green features and elements
Research Plan – DHS Effort
• Key Year 3 Objectives─Analyze impact of studied issues on firefighter
safety and tactics─Refine risk/hazard assessment tool─Apply / test risk/hazard assessment tool─Assess current tactical responses and suggest
changes where needed─Develop education and training materials for
fire service on green building issues─Recommend changes to codes and standard
where warranted
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Historical and Experimental Data
Fire Incidents DataSequence in Locating Target Incidents
Green Building Features & Structural Collapses & Residential Fires
Property Use E.g. Code: 419 1-or 2-family dwelling; 429 Multi family dwelling
Green Building Features & Structural CollapsesFire Suppression
Factors E.g. Code: 112 Roof collapse; 141 Floor Collapse
Green Building FeaturesFire Suppression
FactorsE.g. Code: 182 Composite plywood I-beam
construction
NFIRS (2007-2011)
Fire Suppression Factor Code
Factor Related to Green Building Features
Factor Raw Data in NFIRS
Factor National Estimates Not in NFIRS
Total Target Incidents
182 Composite plywood I-beam construction
19 100 42
183 Composite roof/floor sheathing construction
32 149 N/A
185 Wood truss construction
267 1333 N/A
186 Metal truss construction
3 20 N/A
• NFIRS Incidents Data Collection Summery Table X. NFIRS Data Collection based on both Raw Data and National Estimates
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MFIRS (2001-2013)• Sequences in Locating Target Incidents
Green Building Features & Structural Collapses & Residential Fires
Property Use E.g. Code: 419 1-or 2-family dwelling; 429 Multi family dwelling
Green Building Features & Structural Collapses
Fire Suppression Factors
E.g. Code: 112 Roof collapse; 115 Holes or openings in walls or ceilings
Green Building Features
Fire Suppression Factors E.g. Code: 115 Solar Panels
Figure X. MFIRS “Green” Residential fires with Structural Collapse Collecting Approach
MFIRS (2001-2013)
Fire Suppression Factor Code
Factor related to Green Building Features
Incidents having this Factor
Incidents also having Structural Collapse
Incidents are also Residential Property
Total Target Incidents
115 Solar Panels 0 0 0 0182 Composite
plywood I-beam construction
6 2 1 1
183 Composite roof/floor sheathing construction
21 1 0 0
185 Wood truss construction
40 8 3 3
186 Metal truss construction
6 1 0 0
Total 73 12 4 4
FIDO (2003-2013)
Residential Fires with Structural Collapses having Green Building Features
Extracting Green Building Features
NFPA Fire Report Form, News Clips, Fire Service Report
Residential Fires & Structural Collapses
Incident list for each year starting from 2013 to 2003
• Sequences in Locating Target Incidents
Figure X. FIDO “Green” Residential fires with Structural Collapse Collecting Approach
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FIDO (2003-2013)
Year Residential Collapse Fires Identified Green Fires Suspected Green Fires
2013 28 1 2
2012 48 1 6
2011 50 3 8
2010 46 1 9
2009 52 3 4
2008 58 1 6
2007 41 2 5
2006 34 3 4
2005 19 0 3
2004 20 0 4
2003 15 0 3
Total 411 15 54
Table X. FIDO Green Residential Structural Collapse Fires Collection Summery (2003-2013)
FIDO (2003-2013)
• Green Building Features ─ Structural Materials and Systems Lightweight Wood Lightweight Concrete FRP elements
─ Exterior Materials and Systems Solar Roof Panels Vinyl Siding
─ Modular Home
Identified FIDO Green Residential Structural Collapses Incidents Details
Year Property Use Year Built Green Building Elements Structural Collapse
F.F Injuries
F.F Fatalities
2013 Single Family 1989 Solar panels, Wind spires Roof 0 0
2012 Single Family 1977 Lightweight Wood Roof 0 0
2011 Single Family New Large Void Space, Lightweight Wood, FRP
Ceiling 12 1
2011 Multi APTs Lightweight Wood Roof 0 1
2011 Multi APTs Lightweight Concrete Floor 2 0
2010 Multi APTs Lightweight Wood, Insulated Vinyl Siding
Floor 7 0
2009 Multi APTs Lightweight Wood, OSB Roof 0 0
2009 Multi APTs 1999 Lightweight Wood Roof 2 0
2009 Single Family Lightweight Wood Floor 3 0
2008 Modular 2005 Modular Home Roof 0 0
2007 Single Family 2004 Lightweight Wood Floor 3 1
2007 Single Family Lightweight Wood, Insulated Vinyl Siding, OSB
Roof 1 1
2006 Single Family 2004 Lightweight Wood, Insulated Vinyl Siding
Floor 3 1
2006 Single Family 1999 Lightweight Wood Floor 2 1
2006 Single Family Lightweight Wood Floor 0 0
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Identified FIDO Green Commercial Structural Collapses Incidents Details
Year Green Building Incidents Suspected Green Building Incidents Total Number of Incidents
2013 0 0 2
2012 0 6 15
2011 1 4 21
2010 0 3 13
2009 0 0 0
2008 0 0 0
2007 0 0 0
2006 1 0 1
2005 0 0 1
2004 1 0 1
2003 1 0 2
Total 4 13 57
Identified FIDO Green Commercial Structural Collapses Incidents Details
Year Property Use
Year Built Green Building Elements Structural Collapse
F.F Injuries
F.F Fatalities
2003 Mercantile Lightweight Metal Roof Collapse
Roof 0 2
2006 Retail 1963 Lightweight Wood Collapse Awning 0 1
2010 Church Lightweight wood/joists Ceiling 0 0
2011 Laboratory Lightweight Wood, Metal Roof Walls & Roof
0 0
2011 Foundry 2002 Lightweight Wood Framing Walls 0 0
2011 Church 1991 Lightweight Wood, blown in Insulation
Roof 0 1
2012 Movie Theater
Lightweight Wood Roof 0 1
Experimental Data CollectionGreen Building Elements No. of Fire Experiments Reports
Lightweight Wood 11Lightweight Concrete 70Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) 75Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) 65Exterior Insulation & Finish (EIFS) 24High-performance Glazing 2Double Skin Facade 3Rigid Foam Insulation 1Spray-applied Foam Insulation N/ABamboo 2Nano Materials N/APhotovoltaic Panels (PV) 6
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Recommendations
• More data, new forms, identify ‘green’ elementsTypes of Construction Wood Concrete Metal Brick
T1 Heavy Timber W1 Dimensional Lumber
C1 Traditional Concrete M1 B1
T2 Ordinary Wood Frame
W2 Plywood C2 Lightweight aggregate concrete
M2 B2
T3 Lightweight Wood Truss
W3 Engineered I‐Beam
C3 Foamed concrete M3 B3
T4 Concrete W4 Engineered I‐Joist C4 Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)
M4 B4
T5 Lightweight Concrete
W5 Oriented strand board (OSB)
C5 M5 B5
T6 Brick W6 Parallel strand lumber (PSL)
C6 M6 B6
T7 Metal Truss W7 laminated timber C7 M7 B7
T8 Modular Home
T9 Mobile Home
‘Green’ vs ‘Traditional’ Construction
Green vs Traditional
• The fire performance of the green building features should be compared to the fire performance of a baseline.
• A traditional building feature as a baseline should be based on following standards. ─ It should be widely used in the U.S. ─ It should be comparable with green building features. ─ It should have similar shapes with green building
features.
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Traditional building
• Building Materials and construction methods have changed over time.
• Framing method has switched from balloon to platform frame technique.
• Boards have been mostly replaced by engineered wood structural panels (OSB and plywood)
• Dimensional lumber have been mostly replaced by engineered wood products (engineered wood I-Joist)
• Use of vinyl sidings has increased while use of wood has decreased.
Exterior Finish
(Z)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Perc
enta
ge (
%)
Year
Principal Type of Exterior Wall Material of New Single-Family Houses (Unted States)
Brick
Wood
Stucco
Vinyl
Fiber
Other
Structural Building Elements (Wood)
2”x 4” or2”x 6”
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)
Engineered Wood I-Joist
Structurally Insulated Panel
Engineered Wood
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Comparison between 2”x 4” and 2”x 6”
Windows Framing
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 2009
Win
dow
Sal
es (
Mill
ions
)
Residential Prime Window Sales, by Frame Type Aluminum (2) Wood (3) Vinyl Other
Ventilation Effects on Fire
Kerber S (2009) Impact of ventilation on fire behavior in legacy and contemporary residential construction. UL, Northbrook
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Insulation
Installation Types• Batts and Blankets• Loose-Fill Insulation• Structurally Insulated
Panels• Spray Foam
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
1992 2001 2006 (1)
U.S. Insulation Demand, by Type (Million Pounds) (1)
Fiberglass
Foamed Plastic
Cellulose
Mineral Wool
Other
Key Factors
StructuralFeature Structural Components Modern/Green Materials
and MethodsConventional/TraditionalMaterials and Methods
Fire-related Issues in GreenMaterials and Methods
Walls
Studs
2x6 wood framing spaced 24inches on center (or withadditional 2x3 horizontalstrapping)
2x4 or 2x6 wood framing spaced16 inches on center
Potential for shorter time tostructural failure.
Sill 2x6 stud 2x4 or 2x6 stud
Corner Post Two stud corners Three stud corners
Potential for shorter time tostructural failure.
Potential for shorter time toignite.
Framing support membersaround opening
Minimum use of Jack Studsand Cripple
Multiple use of Jack Studs andCripple
Potential for shorter time tostructural failure.
Plate Single top plates Double top plates
Sheathing (Outside)Rigid foam sheathing,
OSB or plywoodOSB or Plywood (Rigid foam sheathing) Burns
readily once ignited.
Building Paper
SidingInsulated vinyl siding or
vinyl siding
Vinyl siding or
wood siding (fastening into studsevery 16 inches)
Burns readily once ignited. (Insulated vinyl siding) Contributes more fuel/increased HRR.
Wall Insulation
Spray-applied foam insulation,
Rigid Foam
Glass wool, rock wool Burns readily once ignited.
Sheathing (Inside) Drywall Drywall, plaster
Floors and Ceilings
GirderGlued-laminated members
Solid lumberSolid lumber
Joist
I-Joist, structural compositelumber (SLC), gluedlaminated timber (Glulam) at24 inches center
Solid wood joist
Potential for shorter time tostructural failure.
Burns readily once ignited.
BridgingCross bridging
Metal cross brace
Solid or Cross Bridging
Metal cross braceSubfloor OSB, plywood OSB, plywoodFinish Flooring Carpet or wood Carpet or woodCeiling Gypsum wallboard Gypsum wallboard
Windows and Doors
Window
Double or Triple Glaze,
Low E glass,
Gas filled
Single Glaze
Heat from fire cannot be released as easily as in conventional glazes, resulting in fast fire growth.
Window Frame Vinyl Frame Wood FrameReadily ignitable.
Burns readily once ignited.
Window Sash Vinyl Sash Wood SashReadily ignitable.
Burns readily once ignited.Header Single Header Double or Triple HeadersWindow Casing (Trim) Wood, composite material Wood
Door Composite Hollow Core Solid Core, Hollow CoreReadily ignitable and burnsreadily once ignited compared toconventionaldoors
Door Frame Wood, composite material Wood
Stairs
TreadAPA panel tread or
OSBSolid lumber
Burns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
RiserAPA panel riser or
OSBSolid lumber
Burns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
Stair Stringer 2x4 lumber Solid lumberNewelStair Rail
Roof
RidgeWood Truss
Solid lumberBurns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
Ridge BoardWood Truss
Solid lumberBurns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
Rafters
Wood Truss
Engineered I-Joist Rafter at24 inches on center Solid lumber
Burns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
Collar Beam (Rafter tie) Wood Truss Solid lumberBurns readily and lost itsstructural integrity easily onceignited
Ceiling Insulation Spray-applied foam insulation Or Rigid Foam Glass wool, rock wool
Roof Sheathing OSB or plywood OSB or plywood
Roofing
Green roof, Built-up roof,
A recycled rubber and plasticslate
Shingles, shakes
• New configurations of traditional lumber with ‘advanced framing’ techniques
• Use of SIPs• Increased vinyl siding
and increasing insulation
• New window glazing and framing
• Unclear system performance
Efforts in Risk Assessment
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Risk on Fire Service
Consequences
Firefighters Operation
Structure Fire Performance
Material Fire Performance Short time to Failure
Potential to Collapse
Defensive Attack
Fire Growth
Keep Searching
Injuries or Fatalities
Trapped
Injuries or Fatalities
Figure X. Risk of Lightweight Construction Failure on Fire Service
Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis
• Screening Tool for construction features failure and fire spread
• Identify hazard/risk issues and performance criteria
• Completed using─ Fire Incident Data─ Scientific Literature─ Analysis of Physics
Function Component Failure Mode
Failure Mechanism
Failure Effects•Local•Regional•End•Firefighter
Severity Class
FMECA
• Broken up into Function Group─ Structural System─ Connections─ Interior System
• Broken up into Components─ Truss System─ Connections
• Severity Class
Local Effects Next Higher Level End Effects Firefighter Effect
Lightweight wood
Truss structural failure
Loss of stability of
Floor, danger to
firefighters on floor
Walls connected to
floor system at greater
risk, greater
oportunity for flame
and smoke spread
Floor Collapse will
lead to building
collapse
Firefighter injury or fatility
possible, firefighters move
to defensive positions
outside structure 1
Lightweight wood
Truss connection
failure
Loss of stability of
Floor, danger to
firefighters on floor
Walls connected to
floor system at greater
risk, greater
oportunity for flame
and smoke spread
Floor Collapse will
lead to building
collapse
Firefighter injury or fatility
possible, firefighters move
to defensive positions
outside structure NA
Sawn Wood Truss
Failure
Loss of stability of
Floor, danger to
firefighters on floor
Walls connected to
floor system at greater
risk, greater
oportunity for flame
and smoke spread
Floor Collapse will
lead to building
collapse
Firefighter injury or fatility
possible, firefighters move
to defensive positions
outside structure 2
Sawn Wood Truss
Connection Failure
Loss of stability of
Floor, danger to
firefighters on floor
Walls connected to
floor system at greater
risk, greater
oportunity for flame
and smoke spread
Floor Collapse will
lead to building
collapse
Firefighter injury or fatility
possible, firefighters move
to defensive positions
outside structure NA
Severity Class
(1,2,3,NA)
Failure EffectsFailure Mechanism
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(c) Brian Meacham, WPI, 2014 35
Experimental Program – Domestic Structure Performance (Year 2)
Structure: Test Plan
• Compartment Fires─ Test Connections─ Test Effect of Insulation─ Test Effect of Interior fire to Exterior Spread Through
window
• Exterior Spread─ Test Exterior Walls Vinyl EIFs
─ Test Effect of Exterior Spread to Interior Spread Through window
Structure: Test Rig Design
• Standard Room Fire Test used as a guide for standard framing
• BRE modular construction test as a guide for SIPs
• Rig to be designed to adapt to typical framing and SIPs
• Exploring full-scale room type, and reduced scale, full building type configurations
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Structure: SIP Connections
Structure: 2x4 & 2x6 Configurations
Structure: Test Focus Areas
• Connection performance• Window breakage• External / internal fire spread• SIP performance
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Natural Ventilation – Issues
Buoyancy-Driven Ventilation
• Driven by density difference between interior/exterior due to temperature differences
Wind Driven Natural Ventilation
• Forced convection through a compartment
• Highly dependent on external conditions
• Some designs have sensitive control algorithms
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Double-Skinned Façade
• Add stack or air barrier to encourage heating/ cooling
• Potentially lose separation• Operable windows
The Gherkin in London. Windows open on the outer skin to allow air to enter the cavity between the inner and outer skin.
Potential Fire movement in Façade – Simon Lay, Presentation to NFPA Green Building Symposium, Chicago, Il, 2012.
Natural Ventilation Configurations
• Wind Only
• Internal Stack
• Internal + External Stack
• Internal Stack + Wind
• Internal + External Stack + Wind
Issues
• Dependent on external conditions─ Temperature─ Wind Velocity & Direction
• Highly sensitive to changes─ Opening or closing windows/doors
• No guidelines on how to respond─ Positive Pressure Ventilation─ Open Windows/Doors or allow automatic function
• Potential for unexpected consequences
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Construction Review
Buoyant Natural VentilationSan Diego Children’s Museum
Wind Driven VentilationSan Francisco Federal Building
Large Atria, Plaza of the Americas in Dallas, Texas.
Double skin Façade, Agbar Tower Barcelona
Glass Solar ChimneyManitoba Hydro Building, Canada
Research Focus
• Model smoke movement in naturally-ventilated enclosures including─ Wind-Driven Configurations─ Buoyancy Driven Configurations Especially Sloped Ceilings
─ Double-Skinned Facades
• Develop simple engineering models to─ Anticipate external effects on smoke movement─ Highlight dangerous scenarios/configurations
• Translate this into better firefighting practices and code recommendations
Experimental Program (Year 2) –Natural Ventilation
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Modeling Challenge
• Building ventilation is determined by─ Complex building geometry─ Internal dynamics
• Unrealistic computational power needed to compute all scenarios
• A laboratory scaling approach is necessary
UMD Experimental Facility
Experimental Technique
Fire Experiments
Fire Source
Smoke
Experimental TechniqueSaltwater Experiments
Saltwater Source
Fresh Water
VentAcrylic Model
Salt Water
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Temperature/Scalar Measurements
Instantaneous PLIF image (left), Concentration tests comparison with Zukoski’s model (top) for an unconfined plume
Measurements allow fullknowledge of flow field to see notonly what is happening but why
Smoke Filling
Blue dye smoke filling experiment, UMD
Dimensionless smoke layer height vs. dimensionless time.
□m*=1.25e-6, ○m*=1.3e-5, Δ=Hagglund et.al.[38].
Velocity Measurements (PIV)
• Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)• Velocity Fields
Work shown for modeling of beamed ceilings – Department of Justice Study.
C.C. Siang, Characterizing Smoke Dispersion Along Beamed Ceilings Using Saltwater Modeling, Masters Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 2010.
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Imposed Wind/Plume Interaction
• Flow development over a building model• Enables “real” modeling of wind effects on smoke
transport in enclosures
Y.E. Ling, Wind-Driven Plume Dispersion Near a Building. Masters Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 2008
Ventilation: Test Plan
• Custom-built small-scale acrylic models • Sloped Roofs─ Common design with NO reliable validation data
• Solar chimneys• Glass building façades ─ Open windows on smoke movement and slatted facades.
• Effects of wind on natural ventilation─ Manual firefighter control effects on automatic systems
• Increased hazards over time due to potentially longer response and evacuation times.
Scale Model Configurations
Scale models proposed to test smoke filling dynamics of green building features including (a) a sloped roof atria configuration with a fire source in the lower right hand corner and (b) a combined solar chimney, two room, atria and slatted double-skinned façade configuration.
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Dissemination of Information
• Significant interest in the topic – only one year in, but several requests for preliminary findings─ 2014 NFPA Annual Conference (June 2014)─ FPRF Webinar (June 2014)─ 2014 ICC Annual Conference (September 2014)─ 2014 International Conference on Performance-Based
Codes and Firesafety Design (November 2014)─ Research referenced in magazines for architects,
engineers and fire service
Disclaimer
• The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security or other project sponsors.
Acknowledgements
• Team─ Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) Brian Meacham, PI and Nicholas Dembsey, Co-I Matt Yin, Drew Martin, Young-Geun You - Student RAs
─ University of Maryland (UMD) Michael Gollner and Andre Marshall, Co-Is Pietro Maisto – Student RA
─ Fire Protection Research Foundation (FPRF) Casey Grant / Project Technical Panel
─ National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Rita Fahy, Marty Ahrens, and John Hall Jr
─ Massachusetts Department of Fire Services (DFS) Timothy Rodrique
2014 ICC Annual Conference 8/14/2014
(c) Brian Meacham, WPI, 2014 44
Questions?
Website: http://wpi-fprf.wix.com/gbffsafety