United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Volumes 53-54No,11992-93

FireManagementNotes

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FireManagementNotes An international quarterly periodical

devoted to forest fire management

Contents

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

SVolumes 53-54NO.11992-93

3

to

14

Prescribed Burning of Ponderosa Pine Red Slash onthe Gila National Forest

Paul Orozco and Ruben Carrillo

Predicting Fire Behavior in Canada's Aspen ForestsMartin E. Alexander and Murray E. Maffey

Historic Wildfire CorridorsJerry Meehan

24

25

25

Class A Foam Videos and PublicationsPaul Schlobohm

Missoula Symposium: Fire's Natural Role inParks and Wildlands

Donna M. Paanonen

"Class A Foams, Generating Systems. and Tactics":A Bureau of Land Management Workshop

Paul Schlohohm20 Custer National Forest Incident Command System

Used in Urgent Nonfire ProgramsCur/is W. Bates and Sherry L. Milhurn

26 Author Index-Volume 52

27 Subject Index-Volume 52

Short Features

9 Spotlight on Safetyem-Bennett

9

13

Call for Smokey Bear Historical MaterialsDonna M. Paananen

"REMEMBER ... SMOKEY liAS FOR FIFTY YEARS"­

Smokey Bear's 50th Anniversary SloganEnid Hodes

Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the U,S. Department ofAgriculture. Washington. DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that thepublication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business requiredby law of this Department.

Subscriptions may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Send suggestions and articles to the Chief. Forest Service (Altn: Fire ManagementNOles). P.O. Box 96090, U.S, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20090-6090.

U.S. Department of Agriculture programs, services, and employment are open to all onthe basis of merit, without regard to race, color. sex, religion, national origin, age, ordisability. Any person who believes he or she has been discriminated against in any U.S.Department of Agriculture-related activity should immediately contact the Secretary ofAgriculture, Washington. DC 20250.

18

19

Property Accountability: What Do You Know'!Beverly Deem

Forest and Rural Fire Research in New ZealandResumed

Marlin E. Alexander

Mike Espy, SecretaryU,S, Department of Agriculture

F. Dale Robertson, ChiefForest Service

LA Amicarella. DirectorFire and Aviation Management

Francis R. RussGeneral Manager

Doris N. CelarierEditor

Enid HodesDonna PaananenContributing Editors

Front Cover: Smoldering combustion in a trembling aspen standimmediately following passage of the active flame front associated with anexperimental fire in Elk Island National Park, central Alberta, Canada,April 29, 1983. See the article by Alexander and Maffey, pages 10-/3.

2

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for theinformation and convenience of the reader Such use does not constitute an officialendorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individualauthors are responsible tor the technical accuracy of the material presented in FireManagement Notes.

Fire Management Notes

Prescribed Burning of Ponderosa Pine RedSlash on the Gila National ForestPaul Orozco and Ruben Carrillo

USDA Forest Service.fire management officer, Pike and San tsabel National Forest alldComanche and Cimarron Grasslands, Pueblo, CO. Gild fire management ofpeer, Gila NationalForest, Luna Ranger District, Luna. NM

Red Slash Fuel Reduction ThroughPrescribed Burning

Traditionally, in the Southwest.ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) redslash has not been treated with fire tomeet resource objectives until all slashhas fully cured, usually a 2-to-4-yearwait. Waiting for slash to cure is stillthe widespread practice on mostforests in the Southwest. The GilaNational Forest and several otherforests in the Southwest Region arenow burning red slash to reduce firehazard from heavy fuel loading,although other techniques continue tooccupy an important place in pre­scribed burning programs for theforests. Heavy fuel loads from anaccelerated timber harvest 2 yearsearlier pressed managers to find newsolutions to the old problem of firehazard from slash, In 1990 and 1991,the Luna Ranger District on the GilaNational Forest successfully burnedapproximately 1,700 acres (688 hal(400 acres (162 hal in 1990 and 1,300acres (526 hal in 1991) of red slashfrom timber sales.

The Luna Ranger District's InitialApproach to the PrescribedBurning of Red Slash

Ponderosa pine red slash, asdefined in the Southwest, is slash onwhich the needles have turned red butare still attached to branches. Theslash, usually less than I year old,burns at a greater intensity than curedslash because of its volatile chemicalcontent. Burning is conducted to meetsite preparation and fuel reductiontargets as well as other resource

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Treating red slash ponderosa pinethrough prescribed burning,although not a traditional fuelsreduction method in the Southwest,has successfully reduced tire hazardon the Luna Ranger District.

objectives. such as improving condi­tions for wildlife. recreation, grazing.and certain plant species.

A ()pica! example ofred slash le/i after logging.

Initially. we were careful in ourapproach to prescribed burning ofponderosa pine red slash, using aconservative wide-burning prescrip­tion that was not much different fromone that would be used to burn curedslash. We had limited experience withburning this type of red slash and werenot certain any available fuel modelswould correctly predict fire behavior.

We started test fires on what wethought would be the very wet side ofthe prescription. We knew that theslash would burn on this side, but wewere surprised to learn how well thefires burned while reducing 1- and 10­hour fuels. Our experiments not onlysupported (or did not disprove) ourassumptions about burning red slashbut also gave us some new ways ofthinking about the prescribed burningof red slash,

The Benefits of the PrescribedBurning of Red Slash

The prescribed burning of red slashwidens the window of opportunity forprescribed burning when largediameter fuels and duff are saturated.Under these conditions. the firemanager can treat the smaller more

3

hazardous portion of the fuelbedwithout serious risk of escape.

The Luna Ranger District realizedthe following benefits from theprescribed burning of red slash:

• Earlier Slash Treatment.Ponderosa pine slash can be treatedwithin several months of thecompletion of a project-normally4 to 5 months if the slash turns redduring the summer months.(Burning can start any time 100­hour or heavier fuels will not burnor hold fire. This usually occurs inthe Southwest after the summermonsoons are establ ished in theSouthwest and 3-plus inches (8 em)of rainfall have occurred, normallylate July or early August.)

• Easier To Control. In most cases,where heavy fuels and duff aresaturated. red slash burns are easyto control within a specified areawithout control lines. (If heavierfuels are saturated, fire will notcarry through an area; however, redslash 1- and lO-hour fuels burnwell.)

• Less Mopup or Patrol Required.Where heavy fuels and duff aresaturated, fine fuels will burn. butthe heavier fuels will not ignite orhold fire.

• Year-round Opportunities ToBurn. Jackpot burning (burning ofred slash concentrations but withno spread, allowing a prescribedfire to burn within well-definedboundaries) extends in the South­west from the summer months intothe winter months even with snowcover.

4

• Less Impact on Air Quality.Smoke is easily managed whenburning red slash since only 1- andIO-hour fuels burn. There is little orno residual burning of other fuels.

• More Duff Retained. Almost anyamount of duff can be left for soilproductivity.

• More Nutrients Available OverTime. After a prescribed burn ofred slash. more material is left todecompose naturally, while stilleffectively reducing the threat ofcatastrophic fire, than with curedslash burning.

Disadvantages of Red SlashPrescribed Burning

These are the drawbacks ofprescribed burning of red slash on theLuna Ranger District:• Increased Burning Costs. Burning

red slash can be labor intensive.when objectives call for jackpotburning of large areas with heavyfuel concentrations.

• Dependent on the Day-to-DayWeather. The burning window fora red slash fuelbed (fairly wet largefuels) is very narrow-s-normally 2to 8 days after rain. depending onamount of rain, cloud cover, andrelative humidity. when objectivescall for 75 percent or betterconsumption of 1- and 10-hourfuels.

• Increased Potential Damage. Ifburning occurs during the summerwhen trees are late in the growingcycle and before dormancy, theyare more susceptible to scorch.(Cured slash is normally burnedduring winter when trees aredormant.)

• Only Fine Fuels Consumed. Redslash burning is probably morelimited in accomplishing resourceobjectives that call for higherintensities of burning or higherconsumption than cured slashburning, because burning of redslash does not consume the largewoody material that burning curedslash does.

Burning Conditions

As illustrated in table I, burningbegan after there has been enoughrainfall (3-plus inches (7.6 em)usually) to saturate the heavier fuels.Normally. burning began 2 days afterrain (depending on cloud cover andrelative humidity) and was conductedfor 5 to 7 days before the burn becametoo hot.

Burning was successful in light rain(lasting only a short time) and snow­especially if 4 or 5 days had passedsince the last rain. If rain had occurredwithin a day or two. burning was alsosuccessful with little cloud cover andless than 30 percent relative humidity.

Ten-hour fuel moisture measure­ments taken from the field weatherstation were substituted for on-sitemeasurements. The 10-hour fuelmoisture burning range of 9 to 14percent is a good guideline formeeting the prescription objectives.

Total rainfall before burning (July1 through August 14) was 5.86 inches(14.88 em). Total rainfall during the46 days of burning (July 14 throughSeptember 28) was 3.68 inches (9.35em). The average dry temperature was66.6°F (19.5°C), and the averagerelative humidity was 49 percent.

Fire Management Notes

)

Table i-Weather conditions at the time cf the prescribed hurns Fuel Conditions

Number 10-hour Rela-of days fuel Time Wind Temper- live Fuel loadings generally ranged

Burn since mcis- of Eleva- direction- ature humid- Cloud from I I to 22 tons per acre (3 to 5 kg!date rain- lure record tion velocity dry-wet ity cover

m'). In one case. fuel loading ex-It mi-h OF(m) (km-h) (DC) % % ceeded 30 tons per acre (7 kg/rrr'). The

8-14-91 3 9 1400 7,500 W-D6 78 61 41 70red slash was scattered jackpots and

(2,286) (10) (26 16)fairly heavy. It was usually over 2 tons

8-19-91 2 14 0945 7,500 SW-D5 68 67 95 30 per acre (0.4 kg!m') in the 0- to l-inch(2,286) (8) (20 19) (0- to 2.5-cm) size class.

8-19-91 2 14 1035 7,500 SW-D5 66 55 53 50(2,286) (8) (19 13) Fire Behavior Characteristics

8-19-91 2 14 1230 7,500 SW-05 71 56 42 50(2,286) (8) (22 13)

Depending on fuel moisture8-20-91 3 11 1100 7,500 SW-D3 71 54 36 20(2,286) (5) (22 12) content, flame lengths generally were

8-20-91 3 11 1152 7,500 SW-D5 72 53 31 30 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 m) for 5 to 12(2,286) (8) (22 12) minutes immediately after ignition.

8-20-91 3 11 1432 7,500 Calm 80 57 26 50Rate of spread occurred within the red(2,286) (27 14)

8-26--91 2 14 1015 8,000 Calm-SW 59 55 80 90 slash only andvaried with the lighting(2,438) (15 13) technique used. Most slash was lit on

8-26--91 2 14 1100 7,500 SW-D5 67 56 54 60 the upwind side, resulting in a rate of(2,286) (8) (19 13) spread of less than I chain (20!m) per

8-26-91 2 14 1500 7,500 NE-D5 70 59 55 80 hour.(2,286) (8) (21 15)

8-27-91 3 13 0915 8,000 SW-D5 63 55 63 Clear(2,438) (8) (17 13)

8-27-91 3 13 1140 8,000 S-SE-06 70 57 48 50(2,438) (10) (21 14)

8-28-91 4 12 0930 8,000 Calm 55 53 89 100(2,438) (13 12)

8-28-91 4 12 1030 8,500 SW-D5 64 52 48 100(2,591) (8) (18 11)

8-28-91 4 12 1137 8.000 SW-D5 64 51 44 100(2,438) (8) (18 11)

8-28-91 4 12 1332 8,000 SW-5-10' 66 53 46 100(2,438) (8-16) (19 12)

9-D3-91 2 10 0945 8,000 S-0-5 68 55 47 10(2,438) (0-8) (20 13)

9-03-91 2 10 1130 8.000 S-0-5 75 54 28 20(2,438) (0-8) (24 12)

9-D3-91 2 10 1330 8,000 S-0-5 71 53 33 80(2,438) (O-B) (22 12)

9-D3-91 2 10 1500 8,000 S-0-5 66 53 66 100(2,438) (0-8) (19 12) Light rain

9-12-91 2 12 0950 8,000 SW-D-5 58 52 70 60(2,438) (0-8) (14 11)

9-12-91 2 12 1330 8,000 SW·0-5 69 54 41 50(2,438) (0-8) (21 12) After 10 minutes of burning 1- and 10-hour

fuels, flames were subsiding, except for theTable 1- continued on next page flame continuing up a green tree.

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1 5

Table I-Wellth('1" condinans of fhe time 0rlhe pH'.l"crihed iunns-s-continued

Number 10-hour Rela-

of days fuel Time Wind Temper- tiveBurn since mots of Eleva- direction- ature humid- Clouddate rain' ture record tlcn veracity dry-wet Ity cover

ft mi/h of(rn] (km/h) (0C) % %

9-16-91 3 11 1015 8,000 S-0-5 60 46 37 Clear(2,438) (0-8) (16 8)

9-16-91 3 11 1330 8,000 S-4-8 70 51 29 Clear(2,438) (0-6) (21 11)

9-17-91 4 10 1005 8,000 SW-0-5 60 46 37 Crear(2,438) (0-8) (16 8)

9-17-91 4 10 1346 8,000 SW-0-5 70 50 26 30(2,438) (0-8) (21 10) High thin clouds

9-18-91 5 9 0950 8,000 E-D-3 57 48 55 90(2,438) (0-5) (14 9)

9-18-91 5 9 1400 8,000 SE-0-5 63 50 43 100(2,438) (0-8) (17 10)

9-19-91 6 9 0930 8,000 E-SE-5-9 52 47 72 80(2,438) (8-15) (11 8)

9-19-91 6 9 1320 8,000 E-0-5 69 53 38 50(2,438) (0-8) (21 12)

9-25-91 3 9 1115 8,000 W-0-5 68 52 37 Clear(2,438) (0-8) (20 11 )

9-28-91 6"

'Data lor number 01days since last rain of or over a certain amount of precipitation was not collected."Completed burning. No weather recorded on the last day.'Use of dash indicates measurement of range in velocity

Since only fine fuels burned withlittle residual burning of heavier fuels,heat per unit area was estimated to below (compatible to heat per unit areafor grass fuel models). This output ofheat is measured in Btu/tt-. Firelineintensity was estimated to be in therange of a brush fuel model. since redslash burns much hotter than grass.

Little fire spread or creep occurredoutside of the red slash. What spreadthere was could have been due to thehot intensity of the burning red slashthat preheats fine fuels within 2 to 5feet (0.6 to 1.5 m) of the burning.

6

Fire Effects

In most cases, we observed anestimated 90- to IDO-percent con­sumption of the 1- to lO-hour sizeclass fuels. (Only limited fuel loadingsamples were recorded.) The limitedfuel loading sampling indicated asmuch as 50 percent overall fuelreduction in the lighter fuel loadings,ranging from II to IS tons per acre(2.5 to 3.4 kg/rrr'). As fuel loadingincreases, where loading is higher inthe IDO-hour and larger size classfuels, overall fuel reduction decreases.

We also observed. depending on fuelmoisture content (number of dayssince last rainfall, relative humidity,and cloud cover), a greater range infuel consumption in red slash burningthan in cured slash.

Scorch also varied depending uponburning conditions. Trees showed anincreased sensitivity to scorch ifburning took place during the summermonths. This sensitivity, due to saprising in the trees rather than fromheat, can be observed in the scorchingor waxing of the tree crown. Theresult is more an impairment of visualquality and setback in growth thanmortality if a large part of the crown isaffected. Scorch could be minimizedby burning with eye-level wind speedsover 6 miles (10 km/h) per hour.Scorch ranged from 4 to 20 feet (1.2 to6 m) high in taller trees and varied by10 to 50 percent in the living volumeof the crowns, Stand mortality wasminimal, estimated to be less than 1percent.

There was a range of removal ofthe duff layer. When burning at thehot end of the prescription, it ispossible to remove the duff layer inplaces where it is less than 1/2 inch(1.3 em). However. in most cases. theduff layer remained intact with onlysome light surface burning occurring.

Grasses, forbs, herbs. and even oakwere observed resprounng within theburns by the spring.

Cost Analysis

For the most part, cost estimatesexceeded the actual cost (table 2). Theburning over the last 2 years isestimated to have been accomplished

Fire Management Notes

Fuels reduction as a result ofhurning red slash. (Photo was taken after snowfall, which reducedheight of slash. Note the sprouting ofnew grasses.)

Tahle 2-Worl:shl'ef showing estimared crew and fuet casts

Supplies, equipment, and personnel

Crew1 GS-91 GS-71 G&-52 GS-4

Total crew cost per dayTotal crew cost ($488 x 14 burn days)

Fuel40 gallons (151 L) fuel per day($1.50/gal or $0.40/L)

Total for 14 burn daysPlanning costMiscellaneous-mileage cost

Total estimated project costsTotal project cost by acre

(1,300 acres)

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Cost

$ 130/day120/day110/day128/day

$ 488.00$ 6,832.00

$ 60.00$ 840.00$ 800.00$ 1,000.00$ 9,472.00$ 7.30

for less than $10 per acre 1$4/ha). Thistype of burning has proven to be veryeconomical, even though it is laborintensive. The cost savings result fromnot having to use any type of pretreat­ment 10 control the burn,

Generally, the objective was toreduce the fire hazard in timberharvest areas by reducing fine fuelsand charring heavier fuels. thusreducing fire hazard in rhearea. Thespecific fire objective was to reduce80 percent of the 1- and lO-hour sizeclass fuels and char 50 percent of theheavier fuels.

The site preparation objective wasto remove 1/4 to I inch (6.4 to 2.54em) of the duff layer, but in mostcases, this was not accomplished asexpected. We recognized the need toreduce the flashy fuels first and thencome back with another burn to fullyreach the site preparation objectiveswithout incurring undesirable standmortality.

In April and May of 1992, afollow-up burn was conducted. Withthis burn. all site prepar.ation objec­tives were fully met. These objectiveswere more easily attained during thesecond burn since duff was really theonly fuel burning, and fire control andmortality were easily managed. Inaddition, the higher-than-usual scorchand needle waxing associated with redslash burning caused new red needlesto drop on top of the fire, helping insome areas to carry the fire.

A Future for Red Slash PrescribedBurning

The successful red slash prescribedburning on the Luna Ranger District

7

offELPSMOKE.y

PREVatTRJR~FlR£S{

made an immediate significant impacton reducing the fire hazard created onthe district by an accelerated timberharvest 2 years ago. This type ofburning can be accomplished duringperiods when air sheds are not usuallysaturated with smoke and is useful incarrying out forestry managementgoals that encourage less slash andduff consumption.

The capability to effectively treatred slash, reducing fire hazard. hasalso expedited the completion oftimber sale projects. In less than 2years, 98 percent of all remaining"sale improvement and brush db­posal" work required in a timber salecontract has been completed, includ­ing the closing of roads.

8

Much work still needs to becompleted to develop a workableprescription for a broad range of users.A good rule of thumb is to observe theIO-hour fuel moisture content (9 to 14percent) for burning red slash toachieve a reduction of the 1- and 10­hour size class fuels without incurringintolerable stand damage. However,we need more precise information onfire intensity and heat per unit area tocontrol the fire effects better. Moreexperience with red slash burning canlead us to overcome the limitationsthat have kept us from using thismethod in the past. With improve­ments, red slash burning can be aneven more valuable part of firemanagement. •

Standard Fire Orders

F- Fight fire aggressively butprovide for safety first.

1- Initiate all action based oncurrent and expected firebehavior.

, R- Recognize current weatherconditions and obtainforecasts.

E- Ensure instructions are givenand understood.

O-Obtain Current information onfire status.

R- Remain in communicationwith crew members, yoursupervisor, and adjoiningforces.

D- Determine safety zones andescape routes.

E-- Establish lookouts in poten­tially hazardous situations.

R- Retain control at all times.S- Stay alert, keep calm, think

clearly, act decisively.

Fire Management Notes

Spotlight on Safety

Four-wheelers are becoming moreand more popular for activities onprescribed burns and wildfire. and e~tra

caution should be taken when operatingthem around heavy equipment.Kershaw County, South Carolina.recently was the scene of an accidentinvolving a four-wheeler and aCaterpillar dozer. The accidenthappened during a site preparationburn.

An experienced forestry servicescontractor was patrolling firebreaks ona Honda four-wheeler when heapproached his tractor operator whowas on a D-3 Caterpillar dozer. Thetractor operator was improving thefirebreak with the blade of the tractor.There was no fire plow on the machine.~s the tractor operator turned off the

'-Tirebrcak to push a blade of dirt into theburned area. the contractor driving thefour-wheeler attempted to maneuverpast the tractor. Unaware that anyonewas directly behind him, the tractoroperator shifted into reverse gear andbacked into the four-wheeler.

The track of the D~3 struck thedriver's left leg, breaking it below theknee and causing a large puncturewound ncar the break. The track'scleats tore into the four-wheeler,rupturing the fuel tank and drench.ingthe driver's injured leg with gasoline.The tractor operator heard a yell. eventhough he was wearing hearingprotection muffs, and immediately

stopped the tractor. .After sizing up the driver's injuries,

the tractor operator bladed a drivabletrail from the accident site to the closestroad so that the injured man could bepicked up by a vehicle and transportedto a hospital. Because of the remotelocation of the accident site. it was

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

nearly 4 hours before the injured manreceived hospital care. The timelagresulted in a blood clot forming andmoving to his lung, requiringimmediate surgery on his. arrival at theemergency room. Seven days later. heunderwent a second round of surgery toclose the open wound and set the leg.The man was hospitalized for I I days,2 of which he spent in critical conditionin the intensive care unit. Doctorsexpect him to eventually make a fullrecovery.

The tractor operator has run tractorsin forestry work sites for over 40 years.and the four-wheeler driver has been inthe forestry contracting business forover 20 years. This incident provesthat, no matter how much experiencesomeone has. accidents can stillhappen. Anyone who has workedaround tractors on prescribed bums orwildfires has taken chances by beingtoo close to the operating machine.Second-guessing a tractor operator'snext move is only one mistake that G\1l

be costly. The injured man considershimself very lucky. especially sinceburning brush was only a few feet awaywhile he was soaked in gasoline. If {hetractor operator had not heard the driveryell. only the worst could have beenexpected.

Several days after the accident- thecontractor" s burning crew wasconducting another site preparationburn. After the crew leader gave firinginstructions to each member, one crewmember ended the briefing saying, "...and don't get behind anything that canback up!" Simple. but very soundadvice.•

Billy Bennett. district ranger.South Carolina Forestry Commission.Spartanburg Ranger District,Spartanburg, sc.

Call for Smokey BearHistorical Materials

Smokey Bear's golden anniversaryis rapidly approaching. Yes. on August9, 1994. this fire prevention symbolwill have been reminding us to protectour wildlands for 50 years. To helpkick off the anniversary celebration ofSmokey Bear. there will be a specialissue of Fire Management Notes thisautumn.

If you have any high-qualitytransparencies (slides), glossy photos(color or black and white) or othermemorabilia of Smokey Bear that youcan lend to enhance the articles in thisissue, we'd be most grateful. Forexample. we'd like transparencies ofSmokey in the Rose Bowl Parade.Smokey with children in schools,Smokey at athletic events, and muchmore. But time is short, so send yourcontributions by April 6 or as soonafter as is possible.

Please write a caption for eachcontribution, naming anyone who is inthe picture. Also name thephotographer and who owns thematerial. Finally, include a shortsentence granting us authority topublish your contribution if it isselected and an address for the returnof materials.

Send your contributions to FrancisR. Russ. General Manager, USDAForest Service, Fire ManagementNotes, P.O. Box 96090, WashingtonDC 20090-6090, telephone 202-205­0891. •

Donna M. Paananen, tt'Chnicul

writer, USDA Forest Service, NorthCentral Station, East Lansing. MI

9

Predicting Fire Behavior in Canada'sAspen Forests1

Martin E. Alexander' and Murray E. Maffey

Respectively.fire research officer and fire research technician, Forestry Canada,Northwest Region. Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton, AB

1+1 ForestryCanada

ForetsCanada

Quantitative System Now Available

The development of the CanadianForest Fire Behavior Prediction (FBP)System represents the latest achieve­ment by Forestry Canada's FireDanger Group in practically applyingfire behavior knowledge and researchexperience for the general improve­ment of forest fire management inCanada (Alexander et al. 1984;Lawson et al. 1985; Stocks et al. 1989;Forestry Canada Fire Danger Group1992).

The technical derivation of the FBPSystem rests on a sound scientificbasis, developed from real-worldobservations of numerous experimen­tal fires conducted under fieldconditions and several selectedwildfires documented by ForestryC~nada fire researchers and others(e.g., Alexander 1982; Alexander andSando 1989; Quintilio et al. 1991).

Fuel Type Considerations

Currently there are 16 majorCanadian fuel types recognized in theFBP System. Fuel type D-I (leaflessaspen) is described in this way (fig. 1):

lThis brief article is basedon a poster paperpresented at the Aspen Management for the 21stCentury Symposium sponsored by the PoplarCouncil of Canada, Forestry Canada, andAlberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife,Edmonton, AB, November 20-21, 1990.

"Martin E. Alexander is currently completing al-year secondment as a visiting fire researchscientist with the New Zealand Forest ResearchInstitute (NZ FRI) at Rotorua, NZ, under theterms of an international agreement betweenForestry Canada and NZ PRJ.

10

... characterized by pure, semi­mature trembling aspen standsprior to "green-up" in the springor following leaf fall and curingof lesser vegetation in theautumn. A conifer understorey isnoticeably absent but a well­developed medium to tall shrublayer is typically present. Deadand down roundwood fuels are aminor component of the fuelcomplex. The principal fire­carrying surface fuel consistschiefly of deciduous leaf litterand cured herbaceous materialwhich are directly exposed towind and solar radiation. In the

Figure 1--An example of Canadian Forest FireBehavior Prediction System Fuel Type D-1(leafless aspen). This trembling aspen stand islocated near Hondo. Alberta, Canada, and wasphotographed in May 1988. The perceptionmarker shown here is composed ofa 30.x 30 cm(12.x 12 in) sign and a pole with markings at 30em (12 in) intervals.

spring, the duff mantle (F and Hhorizons) seldom contributes tothe available fuel for combustiondue to its generally high mois­ture content.

Four boreal mixedwood fuel types,which can 'contain varying amounts ofaspen, are also recognized in the FBPSystem.

System Structure

The FBP System allows users to geta quantitative prediction of spread rate,fuel consumption, and frontal intensityfor fires that are still accelerating orhave in fact reached an equilibrium

Figure 2---Fire spreading through a leaflessaspen stand in central Alberta during the springof the year. Free-hurningfires in the tremblingaspen fuel rype are typically low to moderatelyvigorous surface fires, even under relativelysevere burning conditions.

Fire Management Notes

Table I-Illustration ofestimating porentialfire behavior using rheCanadian Forest Fire BehaviorPrediction (FBP) System for four contrasting situations involving a trembling aspen stand during thespring fire season (FB? System Fuel Type D-J)

Calendar date: May 1Time of day: 1600 MOT

Geographical location: 53 °37'N, 112 °58'W (Elk Island National Park, Alberta, Canada)

Item Case A Case B Case C Case 0

InputsFBP System fuel type 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1Slope (%) 0 0 +20 +20Elevation (m MSL) 717 717 717 717

(tt MSL) (2,352) (2,352) (2,352) (2,352)Aspect level level south southFine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC)* 94 94 94 9410-m open wind speed (km/h) 10 10 20 20

(mi/h) (6) (6) (12) (12)Buildup Index (BUI)' 35 35 70 70Elapsed time since ignition (hr) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0Type of projection (point- or line-source) point line point line

OutputsInitial Spread Index (lSI)' 12,5 12.5 29.5 29.5Head fire rate of spread (m/min) 3.3 3.3 10.7 10.7

(ft/min) (10.8) (10.8) (35.1) (35.1)Fuel consumption (tlha) 7.1 7.1 10.8 10.8

(T/acre) (3.2) (3.2) (4.8) (4.8)Head fire intensity (kW/m) 711 711 3,469 3,469

(Btu/sec,tt) (206) (206) (1,003) (1,003)Type of fire surface surface surface surfaceHead fire spread distance (m) 170 200 550 640

(tt) (558) (656) (1,804) (2,100)Total flank fire spread distance (m) 140 N/A" 160 N/A

(tt) (459) (N/A) (525) (N/A)Backfire spread distance (m) 40 50 10 10

(tt) (131) (164) (33) (33)Elliptic.llength-to-bre.dth ratio (UB) 1.5 N/A 3.5 N/AElliptical fire area (ha) 2 N/A 7 N/A

(acre) (5) N/A 17 N/AElliptical fire perimeter length (rn) 560 N/A 1,220 N/A

(tt) (1,837) (N/A) (4,003) (N/A)Rate of perimeter growth [m/mln) 10.9 N/A 23.7 N/A

(ft/min) (35.8) (N/A) (77.8) (N/A)Backfire rate of spread (rn/rnin) 0.8 0.8 0.2 0.2

(ft/min) (2.6) (2.6) (0.7) (0.7)Flank fire intensity (kW/m) 296 N/A 511 N/A

(Btu/sec-tt) (86) (N/A) (146) (N/A)Backfire intensity (kW/m) 164 164 71 71

{Btu/sec-ft) (47) (47) (21) (21)

'Ocmponsnts of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index (FWI) System (see Van Wagner 1987).··NfA = not applicable because of the type of projection (ie., line source versus point source).

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

steady-state with their environment(table I). A general description of thetype of fire (fig. 2) is also given (forinstance, surface fire, intermittentcrowning, or continuous crowning).

A simple elliptical fire growthmodel (fig. 3) is used in estimating thesize and shape of fires originatingfrom a single ignition source asopposed to an established "line of

-­Winddirection

I' Breadth (B) 'I, "" Area burned by head fire..."' ... "' ..., , ,

D Area burned by flank fires

[llIII Area burned by backfire

Figure 3-Schematic diagram of a simpleelliptical fire growth model (after Alexander1985). The point of ignition is judged to be atthe junction of the four area growth zones, [i.e.,head, left and right flanks, and back).

11

Figure 4-A head fire ignition pattern is used during a prescribed burning operation in Elk IslandNational Park, central Alberta, Canada.

The Canadian Forest Fire BehaviorPrediction (FBP) System can beapplied to both fire protectionconcerns and fire use considerationsin managing Canada's aspenforests,

information is required in order todevelop more refined prescriptions forprescribed burning than existingguides provide (Sando and Alexander1990).•

Literature Cited

Figure 5-Tree hole charring in a leaflessaspen stand soon after afire. Direct.fire­induced mortality among trembling aspen isrelated to stem diameter and afire's frontalintensity. Determining the number ofaspensuckers following afire is considerably lesspredictable.

12

fire" (fig. 4). The FBP System'soperation is based on a small numberof readily available inputs, as table Ishows.

Implications for Fire Managers

The FBP System incorporates thebest available information on forestfire behavior in Canada (McAlpine etal. 1990). Canadian fire managers aretherefore in a good position to predictfire behavior with reasonable assur­ance for a wide range of burningconditions.

In managing Canada's aspenforests, the FBP System can beapplied to both fire protectionconcerns and fire use considerations.However, additional studies such asthose conducted by Alexander andSando (1989), Weber (1990,1991),and Quintilio et al. (1991) are neededto strengthen the link between thephysical characteristics of firebehavior and the biological orecological effects of fire (fig. 5). This

Alexander. M.E. 1982. Fire behavior in aspenslash fuels as related to the Canadian FireWeather Index. Canadian Journal of PorestResearch. 12(4):1028-1029.

Alexander, M.E. 1985. Estimating the length-to­breadth ratio of elliptical forest fire patterns.In: Donoghue, L.R.; Martin, R.£., eds.Proceedings of the eighth conference on fireand forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May2; Detroit, MI. SAF Pub!. 85--04. Bethesda,MD: Society of American Foresters:287-304.

Alexander, M.E.; Lawson, B.D.; Stocks, B.J.;Van Wagner. C.E. 1984. User guide to theCanadian Forest Fire Behavior PredictionSystem: rate of spread relationships. Interimed. Ottawa, ON: Environment Canada,Canadian Forestry Service, Fire DangerGroup. 73 p. and supplements. [Firstprinting July 1984; revision and secondprinting Sept. 1984.]

Alexander, M.E.; Sando, R.W. 1989. Firebehavior and effects in aspen-northernhardwood stands. In: Maclver, D.C.; Auld,A.; Whitewood, R., eds. Proceedings of thetenth conference on fire and forestmeteorology; 1989 ApriI17~21; Ottawa,ON. Ottawa, ON: Forestry Canada andEnvironment Canada: 263-274,

Forestry Canada Fire Danger Group. 1992.Development and structure of the CanadianForest Fire Behavior Prediction System. Inf.Rep. ST-X-3. Ottawa, ON: ForestryCanada. 63 p.

Fire Management Notes

Lawson, B.D.: Stocks, 8.L Alexander, M,E.:Van Wagner. CE. 1985. A system forpredicting fire behavior in Canada's forests.In: Donoghue, L.R,; Martin, R.E., eds.

Proceedings of the eighth conference on fireand forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May2: Detroit. MI. SAF Publ. R5-D4. Bethesda,MD: Society of American Foresters: 6-16.

McAlpine. R.S.: Stocks. B.1.; Van Wagner.CE.; Lawson, 8.D.; Alexander, ME;Lynham. T.J. 1990. Forest fire behaviorresearch in Canada. In: Proceedings of theinternational conference on forest fireresearch: 1990 November 19-22: Coimbra.Portugal. Coimbra, Portugal: University ofCoimbra: A 02: I-I 2.

Quiruifio. D.: Alexander. M.E.; Ponto, R.L.1991, Spring fires in a semimature tremblingaspen stand, in central Alberta, Inf. Rep.NOR-X-323. Edmonton, AB: ForestryCanada, Northwest Region. NorthernForestry Centre. 30 p.

Sando, R.W.: Alexander. M,E. 1990. Quantify­ing the physical aspects and impact of fire inaspen ecosystems. In: Adams, R.D .. ed.Aspen symposium '89, proceedings; 19W}July 25-27: Duluth, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep.NC-140. Sf. Paul. MN: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, North CentralForest Experiment Station:321-322.

Stocks, B.1.: Lawson. 8.0.: Alexander. M.E,:Van Wagner, CE,; McAlpine, R.S.;

Lynham. T.1.: Dube. D.E. 1989, The

Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System:an overview. Forestry Chronicle.65(6):450-457.

Van Wagner, C.E. 1987. Development andstructure of the Canadian Forest FireWeather Index System. For. Tech. Rep. 35.Ottawa. ON: Canadian Forestry Service.37 p.

Weber. M.G. 1990. Aspen management optionsusing fire or cutting. Inf. Rep. PI-X-IOO.Chalk River, ON: Forestry Canada.Petawawa National Forestry Institute. 12 p.

Weber. M.G. 1991. The effect of cutting andburning on browse production in easternCanadian aspen forests. InternationalJournal of Wildland Fire. I ( 1):41--47.

'6L1SC580

SMOKEY HAS FOR FIFTY YEARS

REM E M B E R...

"This anniversary sloganreinforces Smokey's classic wildfireprevention message.tkemember, onlyYOU can prevent forest fires.' Forthe past half century, generations ofAmericans have grown up withSmokey. Our anniversary celebrationwill bring back a lot of memories anddrive home Smokey's message of fireprevention to a new generation."

-ChiefF. Dale Robertson

Enid Hodes. editor. USDA ForestService, Public Affairs Office.Washington, DC

throughout the United States will

participate in local and statewide events

celebrating Smokey's golden

anniversary. The anniversary will wind

up with a celebration in Washington,

D.C.. on August 9. 1994.•

"REMEMBER ... SMOKEY

HAS FOR FIFTY YEARS"­

Smokey Bear's 50thAnniversary Slogan

Smokey Bear has reminded

Americans for nearly 50 years to

protect our Nation's forests from

carelessly caused fire. To celebrate the

Smokey Bear golden anniversary year,

the USDA Forest Service and the

National Association of State Foresters

announced a 50th year anniversary

slogan and logo for the famous bear.

The slogan. '·REMEMBER... SMOKEY

HAS FOR FIFTY YEARS," will be used

throughout the golden anniversary

campaign.

The Ohio Division of Forestry

submitted the new slogan, chosen from

among 3,400 entries in a nationwide

contest sponsored by the National

Association of State Foresters.

Working through The Advertising

Council, Foote, Cone & Belding, the

Smokey Bear volunteer advertising

agency for 50 years, designed the

anniversary logo.

Beginning in October 1993 until

August 1994, foresters and fire officials

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1 13

Historic Wildfire Corridors

Jerry Meehan

Firefighter specialist. Los Angeles Count}' Fire Department. Newhall, CA

Nearly every square mile of LosAngeles County, California (LACounty), has burned at least oncesince the beginning of organized fireprotection in the State. In fact. manyof the brush-covered canyons of LACounty have burned a half dozen ormore times in the past 70 years. Theareas that have burned at least oncebefore (under similar conditions) arereferred to as "historic wildfirecorridors." Historic wildfire corridorsare closely related to Santa Ana windcorridors-geographic locationswhere Santa Ana winds surface yearafter year.

According to George Boss and hisstaff at the LA County Mapping andEngineering Unit, there are severalhistoric wildfire corridors in thecounty. Boss is very familiar withareas of frequent bums because he hasbeen mapping fires from the air andground for more than 20 years. (Hisstaff is responsible for plotting everyfire of 100 acres (40 hal or more.) Henotes that the mountainous area of thewestern San Fernando Valley nearSanta Susana Pass has burned morethan any other area in the county. Inthe past 44 years, a total of 16 fires of300 acres (121 hal or more haveblackened these rocky slopes-the lastwas in 1988.

The Santa Monica Mountainsbetween Topanga Canyon in LACounty and Point Mugu in VenturaCounty also have prominent corridorsrunning across them. The Malibucorridor has seen no less than 13major wildfires since 1904. All thesefires started inland at or near what isnow the Ventura Freeway and werefed by Santa Ana winds, causing themto run to the coastline at Malibu

14

Beach. The most recent of thesewildfires was in October 1985.Perhaps the best known wildfire andSanta Ana wind corridor in southernCalifornia is located in the Cajon Pass,north of the city of San Bernardino inSan Bernardino County.

When topography, fuels, andweather combine to channel large anddamaging fires through a geographicarea time and time again, the wildfirecorridors and Santa Ana wind corri­dors are perfectly aligned. Whetherfirefighters work in the wildland­urban interface of southern Californiaor the forested lands of the PacificNorthwest, it's important for them tobe aware of and recognize historicwildfire corridors for two majorreasons: prevention and suppression.

Prevention

The LA County Fire Department'sVegetation Management Unit moni­tors wildfire corridors very closely. Inplanning prescribed bums, this unitidentifies these troublesome areas andthen plans burns across or in closeproximity to the corridors. Its intent isto reduce fuel loads in and near theseareas so that a fire in a lighter fuel willbe contained or completely halted.Fires in young fuel beds are lesstlammable and generally easier tocontrol than in old, decadent stands ofmature chaparral. Radtke et al. (1982)and others have shown that once anarea has burned. it will take 7 to 15years before the dead-to-live-fuel ratioincreases to a point of high flammabil­ity. In beds of Ceanothus spp. (whichconsist of about 80 shrubby speciesfound in the semiarid West), the highflammability stage may not be reached

for as many as 25 to 30 years. Anexception to this rule occurs whenfires are pushed by strong Santa Anawinds or an area has been stressed byextreme drought. Under such condi­tions, even the youngest fuels maycarry a fire that is difficult to control.

Suppression

The Vegetation Management Unithas prepared and distributed a set offire history quad maps to eachbattalion chief stationed in a brusharea. This set of maps identifies fuelage and past bums throughout thecounty. Fires are grouped into threevegetation ages:• 1- to 10-year-old fuel• 11- to 30-year-old fuel• 31-plus-year-old fuel

With this map set and an under­standing of fire behavior in a historicfire corridor (and perhaps personalexperience), fire managers can plansuppression activities accordingly. Forexample, the Incident Commander(IC) can plan a strategy based, in part,on vegetation fuel age. If the ICknows that a fire is running andspotting at a quick pace and is headedfor a relatively young stand of fuel, heor she knows that the fire will prob­ably begin to slow once it enters anarea burned in the past. The intensityof the fire will wane, and suppressionactivities can be stepped up.

Newhall Pass Corridor

Newhall Pass in the northern end ofLA County is a conduit for both SantaAna winds and large and damagingwildfires. Between 1964 and 1988,four fires originated at or near this

Fire Management Notes

Table I---Comparisoll offour aestructiveftrcs in Nl'wlwl! Pass Corridor, 1I historic \\'ildjlre-SullfuAna corridor in California

Fire name Date Temperature Humidity Wind speed Fuel age Acres Peak wind

(OF ("C)) (%) (mi/h (km/h)) (year) (ha) (milh (km/h))

Weldon 3-16-64 70 4 NE 47 45+ 3,050 73(21) (76) (1,234) (117)

Weldon 10-29-69 83 10 NE35 5-50+ 4,010 55(28) (56) (1,623) (89)

Clampitt 9-25-70 97 7 NE 45 1-51+ 107,163 65(36) (72) (43,369) (105)

Sesnon 12-09-88 77 11 NE 45 18-19 2,670 92(25) (72) (1,081) (148)

More than 370 structures hare hall damaged or destroyed ill the dangerous Newhall Pass Corridor.

location, destroying 370 structures andfatally burning four civilians. The firesfollowed similar paths and wereinfluenced by strong Santa Ana windsand topography such as north-southcanyons. In each case, the communi­ties of Granada Hills and Porter Ranchin the city of Los Angeles had to bedefended in firestorrn conditions. Notethe similarities in the wind speeds ofthe four fires (table I).

In the four-map set (fig. I), I'veidentified three reference points. Atthe top of each map is Newhall Pass,in the center is Mission Point, and atthe bottom, Porter Ranch.

In the 1964 Weldon Fire (map A),winds were predominantly from thenortheast. The fire took a southwest­erly course until it was checked inLimekiln Canyon after winds sub­sided. The 1969 Weldon Fire (map B)

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

began at the Gavin Rest Stop alongInterstate 5. This fire took a moresoutherly course. When the firecrossed the 1964 burn, it picked upmomentum and ran to the south-

Whether firefighters work in thewildland-urban interface ofsouthern California or the forestedlands of the Pacific Northwest, it'simportant for them to recognizehistoric wildfire corridors.

southwest until it was checked inAliso Canyon. The westward spreadof the fire was influenced by theearlier Weldon burn. However, themost graphic example of how youngfuel can influence the direction andspread of a wildfire in peak 65-mile~

per-hour (I 05-kmjh) winds was theClampitt Fire in September 1970 (mapC).

For firefighters, the worst possibleweather conditions existed for theClampitt wildfire, which erupted at theNewhall Refinery in Newhall Pass(see table I). The fire moved 2 miles(3 km) from its origin in less than \0minutes. The flames spotted across theeight-lane Interstate 5 and then randirectly into the 1969 Weldon burn.The entire east flank of the Clampitt

15

Figure I-Maps offour Newhall Pass Corridor fires: Map A-1964 Weldon Fire, map 8-1969 Weldon Fire,map C-1970 Clampitt Fire. and map 0-1988 Sesnon Fire (U.S. Geological Survey),

16 Fire Management Notes

"

In 1988, the Sesnon Fire raced up the slope in 80 mile-per-hour (/29 kmlh) winds, damaging ordestroying some 40 homes in this Porter Ranch neighhorhood. Porter Ranch has been defended ineach of these Newhall Pass Corridor fires.

patrolman to battalion chief, it'simportant that wildland fire personnelbecome familiar with the historicwildfire corridors in their jurisdictions.They've all burned at one time oranother; the only question is-whenwill they bum again? •

Literature Cited

Radtke, Klaus W-H; Arndt, Arthur M.;Wakimoto, Ronald H. 1982. Fire history ofthe Santa Monica Mountains. In: Proceed­ings of the Symposium on Dynamics andManagement of Mediterranean-typeEcosystems. 1981 June 20-26; San DiegoState University, San Diego, California.USDA Forest Service, Pacific SouthwestForest and Range-Experiment Station; GTRP$W-58:438--443.

,I

..

Fire was checked by the l-year-oldbum. Finally, the 1988 Sesnon Fire(map D) burned much the same areaas the Weldon Fire did 19 yearsearlier.

In LA County, we preplan ourprevention-suppression response inchaparral-covered canyons much thesame way as high-rise buildings orcommercial occupancies arepreplanned in our cities. We identifywhere the problems are going to occurbefore they happen. We know wherethe wildfire corridors are located,where the wind corridors are mosttroublesome, and how old our chapar­ral is. Such preplanning pays off. Forexample, the last time a fire ran downMalibu Canyon, we were able to stopit along Rarnbla-Pacifico Road withbackfires because we knew how thefire was going to behave. From

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Santa Ana-fedflames consume 18-year-oldfuelon Mission Point during the 1988 Sesnon Fire.

17

Property Accountability:What Do You Know?

Getting the Word Out: CreatingAwareness

The Property AccountabilityAwareness Group formed in lure 1991to help firefighters from the bottom tothe top focus on keeping track ofproperty used in fighting fire and todiscuss how to improve getting theword out on property accountability.The group sends this message to eachfirefighter: Be aware of yourresponsibilities in accounting forproperty and carry them out.

Obstacles Perceived

When the group first met. membersidentified important perceptions aboutproperty accountability. Some of thesetouched on weaknesses they saw in thesystem. and others, on attitudes thatstood in the way of a first-classperformance in accounting for property:• Position for tracking property not

clearly identified in the InteragencyCommand System.Law enforcement personnel notinvolved at the time loss is discov­

ered,• A fire-will-pay-for-it mentality.• New systems created to cover

performance problems.• Property, such as radios, cameras,

and calculators, indiscriminately

assigned.• Demobilization process docs not

ensure return of property,Inadequate emphasis on propertyaccountability in training sessions orworkshops,

• Property accountability not anelement for rating performance.Lack of onsite involvement by thecomptroller or property managementofficer reduces property accountabil­

ity.

18

Symbol of Property Accountability,The key-lock-chain-quill surroundingthe fire symbolizes what is needed inproperty accountability at a fireincident: Track and store propertyadequately, Jim Sorenson, RuralCommunity, Fire Protection,Prevention officer in the SouthernRegion (Region 8) designed thisproperty accountability symbol.

Recognizing what the perceivedobstacles me to top-notch accountabilityperformance and talking about them is anecessary step in making a change inbehavior.

Sharing Information and Experience

The Property AccountabilityAwareness Group is interested in yourperceptions, experiences. and most ofall your successes in accounting forproperty used on fires. If you haveinformation to share, contact BeverlyDeem by DG: B. Deem: W02A or bytelephone. FrS or commercial208-389-2608.•

Beverly Deem, administrative officer.USDA Forest Service, Nationallntcragencv Fir£' Center, Boise. If)

What Do We Mean byAccountable Property?

Accountable Property. Anyproperty received from agencysupport systems as well asproperty received directly fromthe General ServicesAdministration or commercialsources for useon fires.Categories of Property. TheInteragency Fire BusinessManagement Handbook, Chapter30. lists two categories ofproperty:• Nonexpendable. Property that

is complete in itself, retains itsidentity when placed in use,and has an expected servicelife of over 2 years. Examplesof nonexpendable property arecomputers, copiers. radios, andchainsaws. Sensitive property,nonexpendable accountableproperty valued at less than$300, is highly susceptible toloss or theft as determined bythe Forest Property Manage­ment Officer. Examples ofsensitive property are cameras,calculators, tape recorders.firearms, binoculars, andtypewriters.

• Expendable, An article of

property that is consumed orloses its identity when placedin use or has an expectedservice life of less than 2years. Examples of expendableproperty are canteens.waterbags. blankets. sleepingbags. tools, forest fireshelters, badges. keys. andprotective clothing,

Fire Management Notes

•

.,

•

'I

[I

'1

I.

Who's Responsible forProperty on a Fire?

Employee (every employee)-for the care. usc. andcustody of properly, for thereturn of property, and for thereporting of lost or damagedpropertySupervisor-for ensuringproperty procedures arcfollowed by employeessupervised and for informingemployees of their responsi­bilities

• Incident Commander-formaking sure a sound overallproperty management systemis in place

Forest and Rural FireResearch in New ZealandResumed

In April 1992, the New ZealandForest Research Institute (NZ FRI)reestablished a wildland fire researchprogram at its Rotorua campus.Although a number of factorscontributed to the need for such aprogram. mostnotable was the demiseof the New Zealand Forest Service in1987. which had acted as a national fireprotection organization. NZ FRI has notundertaken any wildland fire researchsince the late 1970·s.

Initially. a position for a permanentfire researcher was created, an advisorycommittee on forest and rural fireresearch established. and. under theterms of an international assignment

Property Managers:The Checkout-CheckoffChecklist

I have-

o Established an area 10 storeand protect property.

o Selected an employee to issueproperty and put in place aproperty tracking system.

agreement between Canada and NewZealand, Martin E. Alexander fromEdmonton. AB, a fire research officerwith Forestry Canada since 1976,began a I-year appointment with NZFRJ in Rotorua.

Visiting scientist Alexander and theNZ FRJ fire researcher H. Grant Pearcearc initially focusing on the following:• Technology and information

transfer activities pertaining to firedanger rating and fire behaviorprediction.

• A revision of the fire dangerclassification criteria currently usedin New Zealand.Demonstrations of the experimentalfire technique designed to furnishfire behavior date in selected fueltypes.

• A problem analysis on fire researchneeds.

o Selected an employee to

receive property and accuratelyand clearly record the return ofproperty.

D SCi up a system or made sure asystem has been sci up, underthe direction of the supply unitleader. for identifying ormarking property.

D Set up a system for propertyclearance during demobiliz­ation.

Alexander also is serving as a"mentor" to Pearce.

The funding for the fire researchprogram at NZ FRJ is being providedby the National Rural Fire Authority.the Foundation for Research. Scienceand Technology. the New ZealandForest Owners' Association. theDepartment of Conservation. and theMinistry of Forestry.

Further information about NewZealand's wildland fire researchprogram is available from LR. Tustin.Manager. Forest Technology Division.New Zealand Forest Research Institute,Private Bag 3020, Rotorua. NewZealand.•

Martin E. Alexander, visitingfireresearch scientist, New Zealand ForestResearch lnstinuc. Rotorua, NZ

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1 19

Custer National Forest Incident CommandSystem Used in Urgent Nonfire ProgramsCurtis W. Bates and Sherry L. Milhurn

Respecti\'('!y,foresf supervisor and public: affairs officer. Custer National Forest, Billings, MT

1The Incident Command System

(ICS), most often associated withsuppressing wildfires, has been usedin other disasters like floods. earth­quakes, volcanos, and oil spills. In allof these short-term catastrophicemergencies. the ICS has proven to bea highly successful tool for systemati­cally managing logistics. labor, andresources. Custer National Forestmanagers. impressed by ICS'track record in meeting naturalcatastrophies. decided to adopt thesystem to fight their own emer­gency-meeting hot new nonfircpriorities while maintaining a "mini­mum program" workload in all theirnormal resource areas. The challengewas to do it all with no increase inbudget.

Custer National Forest-Balancingon the Edge

On the Custer. as on many othernational forests. the normal. modern­day workload has often grown fasterthan its budget. For years. the Custertried to meet all its program demandsand maintain a balance betweenresource uses. Under these less-than­desirable conditions. the Custer kepiits head above water most of the timeby furiously treading water, It did justenough in each resource area to keepall the programs barely functioning.This precarious position was possibleto maintain as long as the variousresource capabilities and the puhlicdemands for those resource usesstayed in balance.

New forces brought change in1990. Two emerging issues-onefocusing on public rangeland manage­ment and the other on increasing

20

demands for oil and gas leasing­achieved national attention and tippedthe delicate balance on the Custer.

Oil and Gas Leasing, PublicRangeland Management Issues­Top Priorities

All national forests deal withrangeland and mineral resources, butthe Custer National Forest has, by far,the largest range management pro­gram and the largest workload in oiland gas leasing of any forest in theNation. Much of the workload inthese two resources is concentrated onthe 1.5 million acres (607,050 hal ofthe Little Missouri National Grasslandin North Dakota. However, theremainder of the lands administeredby the Custer National Forest in Northand South Dakota and Montana arenearly as significant in terms ofworkload dealing with grazing andmineral deposits.

Rangeland management and oil andgas leasing emerged as priority issuesas a result of a change in the public'sperception of what is acceptable onpublic lands. Numerous magazine andnewspaper articles. television andradio programs. and political andspecial-interest group campaigns havefocused interest on the environment ingeneral. and. specifically. on theissues of public land grazing and oiland gas exploration.

Opposition to public land grazinghas been building during the last 2 to 3years, and slogans like "No moo in'92" and "Cow free in '93" arenationally recognized expressions ofthis opposition. Public concern hasarisen from the opinion that rangelandis being damaged by livestock

grazing. That opinion has beenexacerbated by a recently completedGeneral Accounting Office (GAO)audit. which reported that a significantamount of the Nation's publicrangeland was overstocked, indeclining condition. or had resourceconflicts.

On a forest like the Custer where101,747 cows graze nearly 900.000animal unit months each year.outspoken public opposition to publicland grazing elicited significantconcern. This concern was elevated toa need for action when the recentGAO audit pointed out that 568 of theCuster's 703 grazing allotment plansneeded to be revised or completelyrewritten.

Based on the audit's findings,Custer National Forest managersestimated, under normal circum­stances. the workload generated by aneffort to bring that many allotmentplans into proper compliance wouldtake at least 20 years. This wouldnever be acceptable to the "Cow-free"community. Thus, the Custer'smanagement was faced with a need totake swift, significant action torespond to this issue.

At the same time the Nation' sawareness of the public land rangelandmanagement issues was beingelevated. oil and gas leasing on publiclands surfaced as a second issue. Thesudden increase in oil and gas leasingdemands came as no surprise. particu­larly considering the country wasexperiencing rising gasoline prices,the Nation was threatened with oilshortages and foreign oil dependency,and war was looming in the PersianGulf. Prompted by these factors andby increasing demands by the oil

Fire Management Notes

.'

..

,r

,>

'1

o

"

industry for more oil and gas leases onpublic lands. the Forest Service wasdirected, as part of its mission. to geton with evaluation of the public landsfor oil and gas leasing. The ForestService responded by developing a listof areas to be evaluated, prioritizingthose areas, and scheduling for thecompletion of evaluations.

Hidden beneath the Little MissouriNational Grassland in North Dakotaand the Beartooth Plateau of Montanamay be large oil resources. TheCuster National Forest, with its majoroi I resources, appeared high on thepriority list developed by the ForestService, and its managers wereexpected immediately to get on withthe analyses required to completethese evaluations.

These rearranged priorities trans­lated into something beyond "businessas usual" for the Custer. In fact, theytranslated into an urgent, majorundertaking-preparing at least threeenvironmental impact statements thatdealt with huge expanses of land, awide variety of environmentalconditions, and a myriad of resourcesand resource interactions.

rCS-A Way to Deal With"Burning" Issues and a Change inOperations

The substantial increases in publicfocus on public rangeland manage­ment and demands for oil and gasleasing forecast a drastically increasedworkload for the Custer NationalForest. The forecast of a surge inworkload was especially evidentbecause the two resources beingtargeted occur in such large propor­tions on this forest's lands. Moreover,

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Firefighters' Incident CommandSystem enabled the Custer NationalForest staff to deal with the "burn­ing" issues of public rangelandmanagement and oil and gas leasingwithout extra staff or budget.

managers were faced with the realitythat there would be no correspondingincrease in budget or staffing torespond to these issues.

Custer National Forest managersquickly recognized their ability to

respond to these issues would behindered considerably if they at­tempted to take on tlie added workloadwithout making significant reductionsin other areas. What the forest neededwas a complete change of focus, achange from ordinary ways of doingbusiness, and a change in the ordinarychain of command.

Where does ICS enter the pictureand why? It was obvious, faced withthe dilemma of having huge additionalworkloads imposed with no increasesin funding or personnel to respond tothese workloads, that "business asusual" would not handle the Custer'ssituation. Because Custer NationalForest employees collectively had agreat deal of tenure and lengthyexperience in fire suppression andbecause the forest supervisor had 10years of experience in ICS as a Type IIncident Commander, it seemed onlynatural to tum to using ICS as amethod of dealing with the two"burning" issues.

Forest managers proposed to treatthe issues, and the actions necessary torespond to them, as incidents. Theydecided to develop an ICS organiza­tion to manage them much in the way

firefighters mobilize to handle largefires. At the end of 1990. the CusterNational Forest did just that. Manag­ers superimposed an ICS organizationover the existing line-staff organiza­tion and placed an Incident Com­mander in charge of each incident.They protected the integrity of lineauthorities by placing the forestsupervisor, along with the ForestManagement Team, in the areacommand function and assigneddistrict rangers as operation sectionchiefs. Figure I shows this organiza­tional structure.

Each Incident Commander wasgiven a letter which delegatedauthority to that Incident Commanderfor a particular "incident," outlined thejob to be done. and established theboundaries or constraints that wentwith the job. These letters are theequivalent of the delegation ofauthority given an incoming team on alarge fire. The real "doing" pan of theeffort was delegated to the strike teamleaders, who report to the IncidentCommanders through the operationsection chief (district ranger) just asthey would on a real fire.

Getting the Job Done with rcs

Organizing in the ICS accom­plished several things for the CusterNational Forest. It established apriority for attaining two urgentobjectives-s-evaluating the CusterNational Forest and Grasslands for oil­and gas-leasing potential and makingstrides in compleling a significantnumber of allotment managementplans within a 2-year timeframe.Using ICS also provided the authorityfor a task-oriented organization to

21

Line OfficerRegional Forester

IArea CommandForest Supervisor

andManagement Team

II I I I I

Range Logistics Finance Planning Information Oil and GasIncident Resources Support Administrative Planning Program Public Affairs Incident

Commander Program Manager Officer Manager Officer Commander

Regional Office Liaison Regional Office Liaison

Operations .1 OperationsDistrict Ranger District Ranger

Oil and Gas LeasingAllotment Management Plans Environmental Impact Statements

.-/'--.. ~( ') ( ')

Strike Team Strike Team Strike Team Strike Team Strike Team Strike TeamLeader Leader Leader Leader Leader LeaderDistrict 1 Districts 2, Districts 6, District 2 Districts 6 and 7 Districts 7 and 8

3, and 4 7, and 8 (eastern half) (portions of each) (portions of each)

Flgure 1---C//,\1I'1" Ncttionat Fore.11 incident CO/I/II/(/IIII SYSII'III (Ies J Organization, KI'.\'. District I = Sticvennc Ranger District, District 2 = Beartooth

Ranger Di.llricr. lJisfric/3 = Sioux Rallgl''- Oi.l"friCf. District-l = Ash/alld Ranga District, Disfrict 6 = (11"(111(/ River and Cedar RiI'{'/" National Grasslands./Jistr;c-! 7 = Little: Missouri Nlilimlll/ (;I"II.I'.I"/alld (Medora). District <"I = Lirr!c Missouri National Grassland (McKen:ie!. There is 110 Dis/riel 5.

"

concentrate 011 accomplishing thosepriority objectives. While operatingunder ICS, each employee in the ICSstructure has no other duties. just asthough he or she were on fire assign­ment. When they were not needed bythe ICS. employees stepped out of theICS structure to accomplish normalforest business.

ICS also allowed functional anddistrict boundary barriers to beremoved. While in the ICS mode. the

22

Incident Commander and strike teamleaders operate without regard fornormal chain of command, functionalroles. or duty assignment. Theincident Commander has authority todirect any resource assigned to him orher for any purpose needed to accom­plish the task. When there is competi­tion between the two priority effortsfor the same forest resources, such aspeople. vehicles. or computer time. thearea command resolves the conflicts.

When faced with the task ofdeveloping three environmentalimpact statements for the oil- and gas­leasing program and doubling ortripling the numbers of allotmentmanagement plans and their subse­quent National Environmental PolicyAct documents in 2 years, there weretradeoffs. even using ICS. The forestmanagers anticipated tradecffs.particularly since there was to be noadditional funding or staff for the ICS

Fire Management Notes

"

"

'1

,I

"

effort. All programs except thoseneeded to accomplish the priorityprograms in minerals and range werereduced or eliminated.

To accomplish the shift of priori­ties, a minimum-level program foreach of the functions normallyperformed at the district and forestlevel was established. This minimumlevel represented the level belowwhich the organization was not willingor able to go without literally closingthe doors. Some targets would bemissed. some customer services wouldbe slighted, and many routine jobswould be dropped. it was recognized,but these were the tradeoffs the CusterNational Forest was willing to acceptfor a 2-year period in order to copewith the two priority programs. Thesetradeoff's were identified up front witha "will do" and "won't do" list.

It is doubtful much progress couldhave been made toward evaluatingpublic lands for oil and gas leasing orthere would have been a dent in thebacklog of allotment plans without thetotal change in program emphasis andthe use of ICS. Through ICS. theCuster National Forest managementwas able to focus on the proper tasksand give authority to accomplish thosetasks, regardless of district boundaries,former priorities. or traditionalmethods. ICS gave the staff theorganization and procedures formanaging an urgent situation thatotherwise would have been impos­sible.

ICS I Year Later

After I year of operating with theICS concept superimposed on thetraditional line-staff organization.

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

forest staff have achieved excellentresults in both of the priority pro­grams. Accomplishments have beenrealized that would not otherwise havebeen possible within a constrainedbudget.

The Custer National Forest did notprogress without some "growingpains." Early in the process. it becameclear that there were going to beongoing challenges because many ofthe people on the forest were fillingdual roles. one in the "regular"everyday forest programs and asecond in the ICS structure. Thisinvariably led to a delicate balancingof priorities and. in some cases. tosome temporary shifting of duties toothers so that both programs couldaccomplish what was needed to bedone.

At times. there were difficulties inestablishing the proper lines ofcommunication between employeesand supervisors in the traditional roles,and. at the same time. within the ICSstructure. For example. districtrangers in the traditional organization

report directly to the forest supervisor.Under the ICS structure. the districtrangers serve as operation sectionchiefs and report to the IncidentCommanders who. in both emphasisprograms. are the forest supervisor'soffice staff. It required some adjust­ments in thinking to cope with thecommunication problems. But. oncepeople were reminded 10 treat theincidents as though they were largefires on the unit being managed byoverhead teams. the communicationproblems tended to resolve them­selves.

Despite some early rough spots.there were many successes. District aswell as functional barriers werebroken. and direct lines of communi­cation were established between theIncident Commanders and all levels ofthe organization. ICS allowed theforest staff to refocus their energy.time, and dollars. Carrying over a firemanagement strategy to nonfiremissions will be an excellent choice ofstrategy to cope with future "burning"issues at the Custer. •

23

24

Class A Foam Videos andPublications

The National Wildfire CoordinatingGroup (NWCG) Fire EquipmentWorking Team is producing a series ofvideotapes on the usc of class A foamfor wildland fire management. Theseries introduces the basic principles offoam chemicals, explains the functionof mixing and foam generatingequipment, and demonstratessuppressive and protective applications.Four videotapes in the series have beencompleted. The team is also producinga "Foam vs Fire" series of threepublications (two were completed in1992) describing class A foam, its uses.and equipment and systems needed forits application.

In 1992, San Dimas Technology &Development Center (SDTDC)published two reports on compressedair foam systems and proportioners.

Videotapes

Tapes now available through thePublications Management System areas follows:• "Introduction to Class A Poam't-c­

Briefly introduces class A foamtechnology. discussing chemistry,generating equipment. and examplesof application. 1989, 13:00. VHSonly, NFES No, 20n

• "The Properties of Poumv-c­Explains how class A foamenhances the abilities of water toextinguish fire and to prevent fuelignition and presents basic foamconcepts including drain time.expansion. and foam type. 1992.15:00, VHS only, NFES No, 2219.

• "Class A Foam Propcrtioners't-c­Explains how common mixingsystems. including eductors anddirect injection devices. add ameasured amount of foam conccn-

tratc into a known volume of water;discusses advantages and disadvan­tages of the systems. 1992,23:10,VHS only, NFES No. 2245.

• "Aspirating Nozzles"-Explainshow aspirating nozzles work andintroduces the variety of nozzlesavailable. 1992, 10:13, VHS only,NFES. No, 2272.Tapes that will be available in 1993

include:• "Compressed Air Foam Systems"­

Explains the basics of compressedair foam systems; discusses optionsfor water pumps. air compressors,and power sources; and demon­strates safe operation. AvailableSpring \993.

• "Tactics I: Indirect Attack"­Discusses primary objective ofraising fuel moisture and demon­steates applicalions for protection ofvegetation and structures and forconstructing line from which toburn. Available FaB 1993.

• "Tactics It Direct Attack"­Discusses primary objective ofachieving the critical now rate anddemonstrates applications ofsuppression including flameknockdown, extinguishment, andmopup. Available Fall 1993.

Publications

NWCG Publications. The threepublications on "Foam vs Fire" are asfollows:

"Foam vs Fire: Primer"­Introduces for the firefighter thebasics on class A foam and itsapplication. October 1992. NFES227(1.

• "Foam vs Fire: Class A Foam forWildland Fires't-c-Covers in depththe theory. equipment, terminology.and guidelines for use of class Afoam and discusses its adaptabilityto present application equipment.June 1992, NFES 2246.

"Foam vs Fire: Aerial Applica­tions"-ExpJains the application ofclass A foam by aircraft. Scheduledpublication 1994.SDTCI> Reports. The two reports

on proportioners and compressed airfoam systems, written by Dan W.McKenzie, mechanical engineer atSDTDC. are as follows:

"Compressed Air Foam Systems forUse in Wildland Fire Applica­tions't-c-Covers equipment arrange­ments for compressed air foamsystems (CAFS) for use in wildlandfires, guidelines to be used whenacquiring CAFS units, and rules ofthumb for sizing, driving. andcontrolling the CAFS unit. Septem­ber 1992. 51DO-Fire Management9251 1203, SDTDC.

• "Proportioners for Use in WildlandFire Applications't-c-Coversmethods of proportioning foamconcentrate into water to make afoam solution that can be used withstandard nozzles, aspirating nozzles,or in a compressed air foam systemfor use in fighting wildland fires.September 1992, 5100-FireManagement, 9251 1204. SDTDC.Serial Publication. "Foam

Applications for Wildland & UrbanFire Management" is a serialpublication of articles on foamapplication and technology. NWCGFire Equipment Working Team's TaskGroup for lntemational/InteragencyFoams and Applications Systems,SDTDC.

Ordering Videotapes andPublications

NWCG videotapes and publications,except "Foam Applications forWildland & Urban Fire Management,"may be ordered from the BoiseInteragency Fire Center. The estimatedprice for each tape is $3.00 and the"Foam vs Fire" publications, $.50. To

Fire Management Notes

.'

"

III

order. mail or fax a purchase order orrequisition (no checks. money orders,or cash) to-

Boise Interagency fire Center,ATTN: Supply. 3905 Vista Avenue,Boise, ID 83705; FAX 208-389-2542

For the SDTDC publications and the"Foam Applications for Wildland &Urban Fire Management," write to­Publications, USDA Forest Service,

Missoula Symposium:Fire's Natural Role inParks and Wildlands

Can fire playa natural role in ourparks and wildlands without causingundesirable results? "Fire inWilderness and Park Management: PastLessons and Future Opportunities," asymposium, held at the University ofMontana, Missoula, MT. from March30-April 1,1993, explored manyaspects of this controversial issue.Occurring 10 years after Missoula'sfirst major wilderness fire conferenceand nearly 5 years after the extensivewildfires of 1988. it reexamined pastfire management programs andproposed new ones.

Each day, participants considered adifferent aspect of the topic:

"Are Goals and Policies BeingMetT'

• "Understanding and ManagingConstraints"

• "Implementing Programs andFuture Opportunities (Eastand West)""Over 50 men and women were on

the program as individual speakers.panel members, discussion leaders, and

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

San Dimas Technology andDevelopment Center, 444 East BonitaAvenue, San Dimas, CA 91773:Telephone 714-599-1267.

Paul Schlobohm,f()r('ster, U.S.Deportment ofthe Interior, Bureau ofLand Manogemem. Boise lntcrugcncvFire Center, Boise. ID

session moderators," reports JimBrown from the USDA Forest Service.who was chair of the steeringcommittee for the conference. "Theyincluded not only wilderness and parkmanagers from U.S. and Canadianagencies, but also environmentalists,economists, educators, ecologists,futurists. historians. journalists,politicians. preservationists, andscientists."

In addition, there were posterpresentations from researchers andmanagers on topics as varied as "firebehavior in western fuels" and "fire­related visitor safety." Commercialvendors also displayed products 10 helpwilderness and park professionalsmanage their prescribed fire andwildfire programs. According to DickMangan. USDA Forest Service, whowas chair of the commercial exhibits,"The displays included remote-sitesystems to monitor weather.Geographical Information Systems andGeographical Position Systems. andportable satellite transmissiontechnologies." •

Donna M. Paananen. technicalwnrer, USDA Forest Service, NorthCentral Station, East Lansing, MI

"Class A Foams,Generating Systems, andTactics": A Bureau of LandManagement Workshop

The Bureau of Land Management'sworkshop entitled "Class A Foam,Generating Systems. and Tactics"demonstrates the properties of waterand foam for tire suppression.examines proportioning and foamgenerating devices. and describesapplications and tactics. Case studiesfrom actual fires are used to suggesttactics for direct and indirect attack.mopup and overhaul, and structure andresource protection. Instruction is acombination of lecture. hands-ondemonstration. and live fire exercises.

The course is scheduled as follows:• April 20-22, IYY3• October 19-21. 1993

The sessions will be held at theBoise Interagency Fire Center, Boise.10. To place nominations. pleasecontact Ron Rochna, coursecoordinator, at 20~-3X9-2432 or writeto Boise Interagency Fire Center. :W05Vista Avenue. Boise, ID 83705.

A l6-hour class A foam S-course isalso under development for training.The course is expected to combinematerial from the videos. publications.and workshop exercises to enablestudents to successfully use foam forfire management. •

Paul Schlobohm•forester. U.S.Department ofthe Interior. Bureau ojLand Management. Boise lnterugcncvFire Center, Boise. If).

25

Author Index-Volume 52

Akers, Robert W. Wyoming

Smokebusters-a viable alternative.52(4):3-5

Bailey. Dan W. The wildland-urban

interface: Social and political implica­tions in the 1990's. 52( 1): II-IX

Beagle. Glenn A. Utah firefighter combinesfitness and fire training. 52( I}:32-33

Beighley. Mark. Rx for flexibility duringbudget unrest: Contract for an initialaction engine. 52(4):32-37

Biddison. Lynn R. The heavy-lift helicopter

and fire retardant drops at the StormyFire Complex. 52(2):40.....-43

Bonney, Byron J. Global Positioning

System: Uses in fire management on theClearwater National Forest 52(3):35-36

Brenner. Jim. Southern oscillation

anomalies and their relation 10 Floridawildfires. 52( I):2R-32

Brown. George M. Security surveys forwildland fire protection facilities.

52( I ):24-27Carlton, Donald W. Fire behavior train­

ing-a look at some upcoming changes,52(2):15-19

Celuricr. Doris N, Metrics, microdisks. andFire Management Notes. 52(4): 15

Cclarier, Doris N. The pine tree shield-s­

serendipitous design, enduring symbol.

51( 1):42Dozier. Alan: Bill Fyfe. Evaluation of the

Hanover" firefighter in the swamps of

Southeast Georgia. 52(4):2X-31Drake, Philip L. Fire mapping using

airborne global positioning. 52(3):25-27Dubois. Mark R.: Thomas J. Straka. An

analysis of a forest fire protectionsurvey for the Southern United States,

51(4):2(1-25Fort. John. Mark III aerial ignition: A field

perspective. 52(2):7-9Fuchs. Fred A. Aviation in fire manage­

ment: Its beginning in 1919 and today.

52(2):3-4Fuchs, Fred A. Retired fircfighting aircraft

go 011 display. 52(2):20-21

George. Charles W.: Fred A. Fuchs.Improving airtankcr delivery

26

performance. 52(2):30--39

Gleason. Paul. LCES-a key to safety inthe wildland fire environment 52( 4):9

Goss. Melanic: Gary Kellogg: NonnCarpenter. Human resource specialists

in action. 52( I ):22-23Hecht. John, Seven sharp Sherpas-c-t'new"

planes soaring in popularity. 52(2):5-6Hirsch, Stanley N. Forest fire detection

systems. 52(3):21-24

Hughes, Joseph R. New Jersey's initial

attack strategy-keep the little onessmall. 52(4): 16-19

Hutchins, Brian. Evaluating the Hummer".52(3):39-40

Jolly, Lane L. Clark County goes face-to­

lace with wildland-urban interface.52(3):31

Kalish. Elizabeth: Brenden Tu. Workforcediversity projects: Creativity inrecruitment. 52(2): 10----12

Kcnady. Reid M.: Laurie Perrett. Technicalfire management training, 52(2):27-29

Luepke, Douglas. Using the GlobalPositioning System in firefighting on the

Shorts Fire in the Okefenokee Swamp.51(3):1H-30

McCutchan. Morris H.: Bernard N,

Meisner: Francis M. Fujioka: John W,

Benoit: Benjamin Ly. Monthly fireweather forecasts. 52(3):4J-47

Mac Millen. Katie. A new way to keeptrack of fire employees, 52( I ):34-36

Mangan, Dick. Health hazards of smoke.51(2):29

Mangan. Dick. Meet your feet! 52( I):!O

Nelson. Dave. Field use of improvedairtankcrs and retardant tanks. 52{2):37

Nimlos. Tracey: Timothy Eldridge. A

tribute to xmokejumpcrs: Dedication of

the National Wildland FirefightersMemorial. 52(2):3H-39.

Phillips. Clinton B.: Charles W. George,Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,

solutions, and priorities as seen by firemanagers. 52( I ):3-10

Rasmussen, Eric J. Rebuilding FEPPengines: A Nebraska innovation

improves quality. 52(2):43

Riley, Douglas J, Wildland-urban fire-loss

mitigation: An ongoing problem forinsurance companies. 52( 1):27

Russ. Francis R, Federal Excess PersonalProperty information: Where to find it in

Fire Management Notes. 52(3):27Russ. Francis R. Keeping track of FEPP:

Internal conlroI.52(2):6Russ. Francis R. Ten-percent rule for FEPP,

52( I):36

Scott, James P. FIRE MOUSE TRAP use inthe Southern Region. 52(3):37-38

Swan, Larry: Charla Francis. Fire andarchaeology, 52( I ):21

Terry, Bill. Texas Forest Service callingDozer-One. 52(4):26-27

Tomascak. Wall. Improving a prescribed

natural fire program: The NorthernRegion's approach. 52(4):6-R

Trask, Arthur H. CDF's helicopter program:What's happening? 52(2): 13-14

ro. Brenden: Enid Hodes. Ted Putnamhonored for fire safety accomplishments,51(4):1 I

van Wagtcndonk, Jan W. The evolution of

National Park Service fire policy,52(4):10-15

Warren. John R.: Doris N. Celarier. A saluteto infrared systems in fire detection and

mapping. 520):3-15Warren, John R. Max Planck, infrared, and

quantum mechanics. 52(3):38

Warren, John R. Primer on Infrared. 52(3): 16-18Warren, John R. Selecting the "right"

infrared system for a fircfighting job.52(3): [9-20

West, Tammy 1. A new ordering system for

Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention(Smokey Bear) materials. 52(4):25

West. Tammy J. For exceptional forest fireprevention efforts: The Golden, Silver.

and Bronze Smokey Bear Awards.52(4):3R-39

West. Terry. The Forest Service and fire

control. 52( I): 19-20Wordell. Thomas A. A fire protection

analysis for the Beaver Creek Water­

shed: A technical fire management finalproject. 52(2):22-27

Fire Management Notes

(,

,

Subject Index-Volume 52

•

"

Aviation

Aviation in fire management: Its beginningin 1919 and today. Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):3-4

CDF's helicopter program: What'shappening? Arthur H. Trask.52(2): 13-14

Field use of improved airtankcrs andretardant tanks. Dave Nelson. 52(2):37

Fire mapping using airborne globalpositioning. Philip L. Drake.52(3):25-27

FIRE MOUSE TRAP use in the SouthernRegion. James P. Scott. 52(3)37-38

Global Positioning System: Uses in firemanagement on the ClearwaterNational Forest. Byron J. Bonney.52(3):35-36

The heavy-lift helicopter and fire retardantdrops at the Stormy Fire Complex.Lynn R. Biddison. 52(2):40-43

Improving airtankcr delivery performance.Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):30-39

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

Primer on infrared. John R. Warren.52(3):16-18

Retired fircfighting aircraft go on display.Fred A. Fuchs. 52(2):20-21

A salute to infrared systems in firedetection and mapping. John R. Warrenand Doris N. Celaricr. 52(3):3-15

Selecting the "right" infrared system for afirefighting job. John R. Warren.52(3): 19-20

Seven sharp Shcrpas-c-vnew" planessoaring in popularity. John Hecht.52(2):5-6

Using the Global Positioning System infire fighting on the Shorts Fire in theOkefenokee Swamp. Douglas Luepke.52(3):28-30

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Communication

Clark County goes face-to-face withwildland-urban interface. Lane L. Jolly.52(3):31

Federal Excess Personal Propertyinformation: Where to find it in FireManagement NOles. Francis R. Russ.52(3):27

For exceptional forest fire preventionefforts: The Golden, Silver. and BronzeSmokey Bear Awards. Tammy J. West.52(4):38-39

Max Planck. infrared, and quantummechanics. John R. Warren. 52(3):38

Metrics, microdisks. and Fire ManagementNOles. Doris N. Celarier. 52(4):15

Minimizing the risk of wildire: Asymposium on wildfire problems in thewildland-urban interface. 52(3):24

A new ordering system for CooperativeForest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy J. West. 52(4):25

The pine tree shield-serendipitousdesign, enduring symbol. Doris N.Celarier. 52( I ):42

Property: Where is it and how did it get'here" 52(1): 18

Retired fire fighting aircraft go on display.Fred A. Fuchs. 52(2):20-21

Security surveys for wildland fireprotection facilities. George M. Brown.52( I ):24-27

Summer conference: Forest Fire LookoutAssociation. 52(2): 19

Ted Putnam honored for fire safelyaccomplishments. Brenden Tu andEnid Hodes. 52( 4):31

A tribute to smokejumpers: Dedication ofthe National Wildland FirefightersMemorial. Tracey Nimlos and TimothyEldridge. 52(2):38-39

The wildland-urban interface: Social andpolitical implications in the 1990·s.Dan W. Bailey. 52(1):II-IX

Cooperation

An analysis of a forest fire protectionsurvey for the Southern United States.Mark R. Dubois and Thomas J. Straka.52(4):20-25

COP's helicopter program: What'shappening? Arthur H. Trask.52(21:13-14

Clark County goes face-to-face withwildland-urban interface. Lane L. Jolly.52(3):31

Federal Excess Personal Propertyinformation: Where to find it in FireMWWgl'II/CfI{ Notes. Francis R. Russ.52(3):27

For exceptional forest fire preventionefforts the Golden. Silver and BronzeSmokey Bear Awards. Tammy 1. West.52(4):3X-39

Improving airtanker delivery performance.Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):30-39

Keeping track of FEP?: Internal control.Francis R. Russ. 52(2):6

Minimizing the risk of wildfire: Asymposium on wildfire problems in the

wildland-urban interface. 52(3):24A new ordering system for Cooperative

Forest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy J. west. 52(4):25

Refired fircfighling aircrafl go on display.Fred A. Fuchs. 52(2):21~21

A salute to infrared systems in firedetection and mapping. John R. Warrenand Doris N. Cclaricr. 52(3):3-15

Seven sharp Shcrpas-c'ncw" planessoaring in popularity. John Hecht.52(2):5-6

Summer conference: Forest Fire LookoutAssociation. 52(2): 19

Ted Putnam honored for fire safetyaccomplishments. Brenden Tu andEnid Hodes. 52(4):31

Ten-percent rule for FEPr. Francis R.Russ. 52( I ):36

Texas Forest Service calling Dozer-One.Bill Terry. 52(4):26-27

27

The wildland-urban interface: Social andpolitical implications in the 1990's.Dan W. Bailey. 52( I): 11-18

Workforce diversity projects: Creativity inrecruitment. Elizabeth Kalish andBrenden Tu. 52(2): io-rz

Equipment

An analysis of a forest fire protectionsurvey for the Southern United States.Mark R. Dubois and Thomas J. Straka.52(4):20-25

Aviation in fire management: Its beginningin 1919 and today. Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):3-4

COP's helicopter program: What'shappening? Arthur H. Trask.52(2):13-14

Evaluating the Hummer". Brian Hutchins.52(3):19-40

Evaluation of the Hanovcr'" firefighter inthe swamps of Southeast Georgia. AlanDozier and Bill Fyfe. 52(4):28-31

Field use of improved airtankers andretardant tanks. Dave Nelson. 52(2):37

Fire mapping using airborne globalpositioning. Philip L. Drake.52(3):25-27

FIRE MOUSE TRAP use in the SouthernRegion. James P. Scott. 52(3):37-38

Global Positioning System: Uses in firemanagement on the Clearwater

. National Forest. Byron 1. Bonney.52(3):35-36

The heavy-lift helicopter and fire retardantdrops at the Stormy Fire Complex.Lynn R. Biddison. 52(2):40-43

Improving airtanker delivery performance.Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):30-39

Keeping track of FEPP: (nternal control.Francis R. Russ. 52(2):6

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

Meet your feet! Dick Mangan. 52( I): 10New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keep

the little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4):16-19

28

A new ordering system for CooperativeForest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy 1. West. 52(4):25

A new way to keep track of fireemployees. Katie Mac Millen.52( t ):34-36

The pioneers (some of them) and theirequipment (a lillie of it) in ForestService infrared fire mapping anddetection research and operations.52(3):32-33

Primer on infrared. John R. Warren.52(3):16-18

Property: Where is it and how did it getthere? 52( I): 18

Rebuilding FE?? engines: A Nebraskainnovation improves quality. Eric J.Rasmussen. 52(2):43

Retired firefighting aircraft go on display.Fred A. Fuchs. 52(2):20-21

Rx for flexibility during budget unrest:Contract for an initial action engine.Mark Beighley. 52(4):32-37

A salute to infrared systems in firedetection and mapping. John R. Warrenand Doris N. Celarier. 52(3 ):3-15

Selecting the "right" infrared system for afire fighting job. John R. Warren.52(3): 19-20

Seven sharp Sherpas-c-vnew" planessoaring in popularity. John Hecht.52(2):5-6

Ted Putnam honored for fire safetyaccomplishments. Brenden Tu andEnid Hodes. 52(4 ):31

Ten-percent rule for FEP? Francis R.Russ. 52( I):36

Texas Forest Service calling Dozer-One.Bill Terry. 52(4):2(}-27

Using the Global Positioning System infircfighting on the Shorts Fire in theOkefenokee Swamp. Douglas Luepke.52(3):28-30

Utah firefighter combines fitness and firetraining. Glenn A. Beagle. 52( I):32-3.3

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems.solutions, and priorities as seen by firemanagers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George. 52( I):3-10

Fire Behavior

The evolution of National Park Servicefire policy. Jan W. van Wagtcndonk.52(4): 10-15

Fire behavior training-a look at someupcoming changes. Donald W. Carlton.52(2): 15-19

Monthly fire weather forecasts. Morris H.McCutchan, Bernard N. Meisner,Francis M. Fujioka, and John W.Benoit. 52(3):41-47

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4):16-19

Southern oscillation anomalies and theirrelation to Florida wildfires. JimBrenner. 52( I ):28-33

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,solutions. and priorities as seen by firemanagers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George. 52(2):3-10

Fuels

The evolution of National Park Service firepolicy. Jan van Wagtendonk.52(4):10-15

A fire protection analysis for the BeaverCreek Watershed: A technical firemanagement final project. Thomas A.Wordell. 52(2):22-29

Improving a prescribed natural fireprogram: The Northern Region'sapproach. Walt Tomascak. 52(4):6-8

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4): 16-19

General Fire Management

An analysis of a forest fire protectionsurvey for the Southern United States.Mark R. Dubois and Thomas J. Straka.52(4):20-25

Fire Management Notes

".

,

!.Evaluating the Hummer". Brian Hutchins.

52(3):39-40

Evaluation of the Hanover" firefighter inthe swamps of Southeast Georgia. AlanDozier and Bill Fyfe. 52(4):2S-31

The evolution of National Park Service firepolicy. Jan W, van Wagtendonk.

52(4):10-15Fire and archaeology. Larry Swan and

Charla Francis. 52( I ):21Fire behavior training-a look at some

upcoming changes. Donald W. Carlton.52(2): 15-19

A fire protection analysis for the BeaverCreek Watershed: A technical firemanagement project. Thomas A.

Wordell. 52(2):22-27The Forest Service and fire control. Terry

West. 52( I): 19-20Hallie Daggett: First woman as Forest

Service fire lookout. 52(3):30Improving a prescribed natural fire

program: The Northern Region'sapproach. Walt Tomascak. 52(4):6-8

Keeping track of FEPP: Internal control.

Francis R. Russ. 52(2):6Minimizing the risk of wildfire: A

symposium on wildfire problems in the

wildland-urban interface. 52(3):24Monthly fire weather forecasts. Morris H.

McCutchan, Bernard N. Meisner,Francis M. Fujioka, and John Benoit.52(3):41-47

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4):16-19

A new ordering system for CooperativeForest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy J. West. 52(4):25

A new way to keep track of fireemployees. Katie Mac Millen.52( I ):34-36

A salute to infrared systems in fire

detection and mapping. John R. Warren

and Doris N. Cclarier. 52(3):3-15Security surveys for wildland fire

protection facilities. George M. Brown.52(1 ):24-27

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

Selecting the "right" infrared systems for afirefighting job. John R. Warren.52(3): 19-211

Self-paced forest and wildland firefightingcourse. 52( I ):33

Summer conference-Firefighter LookoutAssociation. 52(2): 19

Technical fire management training. ReidM. Kcnady and Laurie Perrett.52(2):27-29

Ten-percent rule for FEPP. Francis R.

Russ. 52(1 ):36

Texas Forest Service calling Dozer-One.Bill Terry. 52(41:26-27

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,

solutions, and priorities as seen by firemanagers. Clinton B. Phillips and

Charles W. George. 52( I):3-10

Workforce diversity projects: Creativity inrecruitment. Elizabeth Kalish andBrenden Tu. 52(2): 111-12

Wyoming Smokebusters-a viablealternative. Robert W. Akers. 52(4)3-5

Personnel

Fire and archaeology. Larry Swan andCharla Francis. 52( I ):21

For exceptional forest fire preventionefforts: The Golden. Silver, and Bronze

Smokey Bear Awards. Tammy J. West.52(4):3S-39

Hallie Daggett: First woman as Forest

Service fire lookout. 52(3):30Health hazards of smoke. Dick Mangan.

52(2):29

Human resource specialists in action.

Melanie Goss, Gary Kellogg, andNonn Carpenter. 52(1 ):22-23

LCES-a key to safety in the wildland fire

environment. Paul Gleason. 52(4):9Meet your feet! Dick Mangan. 52( I ): 10A new way to keep track of fire

employees. Katie Mac Millen.52( I 1:34-36

The pioneers (some of them) and their

equipment (a little of it) in ForestService infrared fire mapping and

detection research and operations.52(3):32-34

Ted Putnam honored for fire safety

accomplishments. Brenden Tu andEnid Hodes. 52(4):31

A tribute to smokcjurnpcrs: Dedication ofthe National Wildland FirefightersMemorial. Tracey Nimlos and TimothyEldridge. 52(2):3S-J9

Rx for flexibility during budget unrest:Contract for an initial action engine.Mark Beighley. 52(4):32-37.

Utah firefighters combines fitness and firetraining. Glenn A. Beagle. 52( I ):32~33

Workforce diversity projects: Creativity in

recruitment. Elizabeth Kalish andBrenden Tu. 52(2): 10-12

Wyoming Smokebusters-a viablealternative. Robert W. Akers. 52(4):3-5

Planning

An analysis of a forest fire protection

survey for the Southern United States.Mark R. Dubois and Thomas J. Straka.52(4):20-25

Clark County goes face-to-face with

wildland-urban interface. Lane L. Jolly.52(3):31

Fire and archaeology. Larry Swan and

Charla Francis. 52( I ):21

Fire mapping using airborne globalpositioning. Philip L. Drake.5213):25-27

FIRE MOUSE TRAP use in the SouthernRegion. James P. Scott. 52(3):37-3X

A fire protection analysis for the Beaver

Creek Watershed: A technical firemanagement final project. Thomas A.Wordell. 52(2):22-29

The Forest Service and fire control. TerryWest. 5211):19-20

Global Positioning System: Uses in firemanagement on the ClearwaterNational Forest. Byron J. Bonney.52(3):35-36

Human resources specialists in action.

29

Melanic Goss. Gary Kellogg, andNorm Carpenter. )2( I ):22-23

Improving airtunker delivery performance.Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):3(H9

Improving a prescribed natural fireprogram: The Northern Region'sapproach. Walt Tomascak. 52(4)6-8

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

Monthly fire weather forecasts. Morris H.McCutchan. Bernard N. Meisner.Francis M. Fujioka, John W. Benoit.and Benjamin Ly. 52(3):41--47

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4): 16-19

A new way to keep track of fireemployees. Katie Mac Millen.52( 11:34-36

Rx for flexibility during budget unrest:Contract for an initial action engine.Mark Beighley. 52(4):32-37

Selecting the "right" infrared system for afirefighting job. John R. Warren.52(3): 19-20

Texas Forest Service calling Dozer-One.Bill Terry. 52(4):26-27

Using the Global Positioning System infircfighting on the Shorts Fire in theOkefenokee Swamp. Douglas Luepke.52(3):28-30

Wildland fire in the 19l}<rs: Problems.solutions. and priorities as seen by firemanagers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George. 52( I ):3-10

Wildland-urban fire-loss mitigation: Anongoing problem for insurancecompanies. Douglas J. Riley. 52( I ):27

The wildland-urban interface: Social andpolitical implications in the 1990·s.Dan W. Bailey. 52( I): 11-18

Presuppression

A fire protection analysis for the BeaverCreek Watershed: A technical firemanagement final project. Thomas A.Wordell. 52(2):22-29

30

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4):16-19

Rx for tlexibility during budget unrest:Contract for an initial action engine.Mark Beighley. 52(4):32-37

Seven sharp Sherpas-c-vnew" planessoaring in popularity. John Hecht.52(3):5-6

Wyoming Smokebusters-a viablealternative. Robert W. Akers. 52(4):3-)

Prevention

Clark County goes face-to-face withwildland-urban interface. Lane L. Jolly.52(3):3 I

For exceptional forest fire preventionefforts: The Golden. Silver, and BronzeSmokey Bear Awards. Tammy 1. West.52(4):38-39

Hallie Daggett: First woman as ForestService fire lookout. 52(3):30

Minimizing the risk of wildfire: Asymposium on wildfire problems in thewildland-urban interface. 52(3):24

A new ordering system for CooperativeForest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy J. West. 52(4):25

Summer conference: Forest Fire LookoutAssociation. 52(3): 19

The wildland-urban interface: social andpolitical implications in the 1990·s.Dan W. Bailey. 52(1):11-18

Safety

Aviation in fire management: Its beginningin 1919 and today. Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):3--4

Clark County goes face-to-face withwildland-urban interface. Lane L. Jolly.52(3):3 I

Health hazards of smoke. Dick Mangan.52(2):29

LCES-a key to safety in the wildland fireenvironment. Paul Gleason. 52(4):9

Meet your feet! Dick Mangan. 52(1): 10

Security surveys for wildland fireprotection facilities. George M. Brown.52(1 ):24-27

Ted Putnam honored for fire safetyaccomplishment. Brenden Tu and EnidHodes. 52(4):3 I

A tribute to smokcjurnpers: Dedication ofthe National Wildland FirefightersMemorial. Tracey Nimlos and TimothyEldridge. 52(2):38-39

Utah firefighter combines fitness and firetraining. Glenn A. Beagle. 52( I ):32-33

Suppression

Evaluation of the Hanovcrtv firefighter inthe swamps of southeast Georgia. AlanDozier and Bill Fyfe. 52(4):28-31

Field use of improved airtankers andretardant tanks. Dave Nelson. 52(2):37

Fire mapping using airborne globalpositioning. Philip L. Drake.52(3):25-27

FIRE MOUSE TRAP use in the SouthernRegion. James P. Scott. 52(3):37-38

The Forest Service and fire control. TerryWest. 52( I): 19-20

Global Positioning System: Uses in firemanagement on the ClearwaterNational Forest. Byron 1. Bonney.52(3):35-36

The heavy-lift helicopter and fire retardantdrops at the Stormy Fire Complex.Lynn R. Biddison. 52(2):40--43

Improving airtankcr delivery performance.Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs.52(2):3(1--39

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

New Jersey's initial attack strategy-keepthe little ones small. Joseph R. Hughes.52(4):16-19

A salute to infrared systems in firedetection and mapping. John R. Warrenand Doris N. Celarier. 52(3):3-15

Texas Forest Service calling Dozer-One.Bill Terry. 52(4):26-27

Using the Global Positioning System infirefighting on the Shorts Fire in the

Fire Management Notes

"

;.

Okefenokee Swamp. Douglas Luepke.52(3):2X-30

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,solutions. and priorities as seen by firemanagers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George, 52( I):3-1 0

The wildland-urban interface: Social andpolitical implications in the 1990's.Dan W. Bailey. 52(1):II-IX

Wyoming Smokcbustcrs-c-a viablealternative. Robert W. Akers. 52(4):3-5

Systems

An analysis or a forest fire protectionsurvey for the Southern United States.Mark R. Dubois and Thomas J. Straka.52(4):20-25

Fire mapping using airborne globalpositioning. Philip L. Drake.52(3):25-27

FIRE MOUSE TRAP use in the SouthernRegion. James P. Scott. 52(3):37-38

A fire protection analysis for the BeaverCreek watershed: A technical firemanagement final project. Thomas A.Wordell. 52(2):22-29

Forest fire detection systems. Stanley N.Hirsch. 52(3):21-24

Global Positioning System: Uses in firemanagement on the ClearwaterNational Forest. Byron J. Bonney.52(3):35-36

Mark III aerial ignition: A field perspec­tive. John Fort. 52(2):7-9

Monthly fire weather forecasts. Morris H.McCutchan. Bernard N. Meisner.Francis M. Fujioka, and John W.Benoit. 52(3):41-47

A new ordering system for CooperativeForest Fire Prevention (Smokey Bear)materials. Tammy J. West. 52(4): 25

A new way to keep track offireemployees. Katie Mac Millen.52( I):34-36

Primer on infrared. John R. Warren.52(3): 16-17

A salute 10 infrared systems in firedetection and mapping. John R. Warren

1992-93 Volumes 53-54, Number 1

and Doris N. Cclarier. 52(3):3~IX

Selecting the "right" infrared system for afircfighting job. John R. Warren.52(3):19-20

Using the Global Positioning System infirefighting on the Shorts Fire in theOkefenokee Swamp. Douglas Luepke.52(3):2X-30

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,solutions, and priorities as seen by fire

managers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George. 52( I ):3-10

Training

Federal Excess Personal Propertyinformation: Where to find it in Fir£'Management Notes. Francis R. Russ.52(3):27

Fire behavior training-a look at someupcoming changes. Donald W. Carlton.52(2):15-19

Human resource specialists in action.Melanie Goss. Gary Kellogg, andNorm Carpenter. 52( I ):22-13

LeES-a key to safety in the wildland fireenvironment. Paul Gleason. 52(4):9

Minimizing the risk of wildfire: Asymposium on wildfire problems in thewildland-urban interface. 52(3):24

Self-paced forest and wildland fircfightingcourse. 52( I ):33

Summer conference: Forest Fire LookoutAssociation. 52(2): 19

Technical fire management training. Reid

M. Kenady and Laurie Perrett.52(2):27-29

Utah firefighter combines fitness and firetraining. Glenn A. Beagle. 52( I ):32-33

Wildland fire in the 1990's: Problems,solutions, and priorities as seen by fire

managers. Clinton B. Phillips andCharles W. George. 52( I ):3-10

Wildland-urban fire-loss mitigation: Anongoing problem for insurancecompanies. Douglas J. Riley. 52( I ):27

Wyoming Smokebusters-c-a viablealternative. Robert W. Akers. 52(4):3-5

"Watch Out!" Situations

I. Fire not scouted and sized

up.

2. In country not seen in

daylight.

3. Safety zones and escape

routes not identified.

4. Unfamiliar with weather

and local factors influencing fire

behavior.

S. Uninformed on strategy,

tactics, and hazards.

6. Instructions and assign­

ments not clear.

7. No communication link

with crew members/supervisors,

8. Constructing lines without

safe anchor point.

9. Building fireline downhill

with fire below.

10. Attempting frontal assault

on fire.

II. Unburned fuel between you

and the fire.

12. Cannot see main fire-not

in contact with anyone who can.

13. On a hillside where rolling

material can ignite fuel below.

14. Weather is getting hotter

and drier.

15. Wind increases and/or

changes direction.

16. Getting frequent spot fires

across line.

17. Terrain and fuels make

escape to safety zones difficult.

18. Taking a nap near the

firclinc.

31

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