DRAFT: 14 July 2006

Fire Management Code

A Framework of Guiding Principles and Strategic Actions for Implementation

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

ii

Fire Management Code Table of Contents Preface A Introduction A.1 Nature and Scope A.2 Rationale A.3 Objectives A.4 Relationship with other International Instruments A.5 Implementation A.6 Diversity of Contexts and Special Requirements B Cross-sectoral Aspects B.1 Livelihoods and Poverty B.2 Fire as a Tool in Sustainable Land-use and Resource Management B.3 Impacts on Human Health and Security B.4 Safety Considerations for Firefighters and Citizens B.5 Sustainable Ecosystems and Environmental Impacts B.6 Carbon and Climate Change B.7 Knowledge Management B.8 Science and Technology B.9 Education, Training, and Public Awareness B.10 Policy, Legal, Institutional, and Financial Frameworks B.11 Cooperation and Partnerships C Principles C.1 Social and Cultural C.2 Economic C.3 Environmental C.4 Institutional C.5 Enhanced Fire Management Capacity D Strategic Actions for Implementation D.1 Fire and Resource Management Planning D.2 Fire Management in Natural or Protected Areas and Reserves D.3 Fire Awareness and Education D.4 Fire Prevention D.5 Fire Danger Rating and Early Warning Systems D.6 Fire Preparedness including Technical Training D.7 Pre-fire Season Activities D.8 Fire Detection, Communications, and Dispatching D.9 Initial Attack/Action D.10 Large Fire Suppression and Management D.11 Fuel Management D.12 Planned Fire D.13 Burned Area Restoration and Rehabilitation D.14 Monitoring and Assessment

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

iii

Annexes 1 Relevant Conventions, Agreements and Declarations 2 Incident Command System 3 Glossary 4 Bibliography

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

1

A. Introduction

The Code, which is voluntary and legally non-binding, sets out the framework of guiding principles and internationally accepted strategic actions to address the vital cultural, social, environmental and economic dimensions for all levels of fire management. This Section provides background and scope for the Code and sets forth the international context as well as potential users and implementation guidance.

A.1 Nature and Scope The Code is global in scope, and directed toward all elements of civil society and the private sector, member and non-member nations of FAO, policy level and senior managers of sub-regional, regional and global organizations, whether Government or non-governmental, owners and managers of forest, range and grassland, and all stakeholders concerned with the protection of lives, property, and resources from the effect of unwanted, damaging fires and with the use of fire to enhance ecosystems and economic benefits. Other sectors will find the Code useful in their roles in society such as insurance companies, advocacy groups, communications, and public relations specialists. The Code should be promoted for use in governance, education, guidance, benchmarking cooperation and advocacy related to all aspects of fire management. Various aspects of the Code will provide a context and benchmark for a variety of social, economic, cultural, environmental and political discussions at the sub-national, national, regional and international levels. The Code can serve as a checklist to strengthen policies, legal and regulatory frameworks, plans and procedures and where they do not exist will be a useful basis for their development and implementation. The scope of the Code is very broad as the definition of the term “fire” is very broad. A fire in this context is any fire burning living and dead vegetation outside of the urban or structural environment. The Code covers fires in natural forests, planted forests, protected natural areas, rangelands, grasslands, bush, and brush. It also includes fires in peatlands, swamps, mires, and fens. The Code also covers fires in landscaped, planted, or tended agricultural vegetation when the fire is not a controlled burn, planned and implemented as part of an accepted agricultural technique. A fire in this context is also a fire that burns from a wildland or other area into a rural or urban environment and structures become involved in the spread and intensity of the fire. The Code provides the objectives, general principles and strategic actions as a framework applicable to the planning, organizing, and management of a safe, effective and efficient fire management agency or organization. The Code covers the full range of fire management activities from the early warning, detection, mobilization and suppression of unwanted and damaging fires, appropriate use of natural or human-caused fire to maintain ecological values, use of fire to reduce the accumulation of natural fuel and residues from commercial or non-commercial activities, and the restoration and rehabilitation of fire damaged ecosystems. Within the scope of the Code, a fire can be assumed to burn across ecosystem boundaries or various types of lands. The techniques, policies, processes outlined in the Code are applicable to forest fires, grass fires, fires within settlements or with scattered homes and other structures. The term “fire management” is also very broad. Fire management is the management discipline of using fire to achieve land management and traditional use objectives and the

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

2

safeguarding of life, property, and resources by the prevention, protection, detection, control, restriction, and extinction of fire in forest and rural areas and other areas of vegetation. This includes naturally occurring fire and fires planned and ignited by humans. Fire management includes all activities required for the protection of forest and other values from fire and the use of fire to meet land management goals and objectives and includes research and technology transfer.

A.2 Rationale Over the past decade, many regions of the world have experienced a growing trend of excessive fire application in land-use systems and land-use change, and an increasing occurrence of extremely severe fires. Some of the effects of fires are trans-boundary, for example smoke and water pollution and its impacts on human health and safety, loss of biodiversity or site degradation at a landscape level leading to desertification, soil erosion or flooding. The depletion of terrestrial carbon by fires burning under extreme conditions in some vegetation types, including organic terrain in peatland biomes, is one of the driving agents of disturbance of global biogeochemical cycles, notably the global carbon cycle. This trend is revealed by a wealth of scientific knowledge on the cultural, social, economic and environmental dimensions of fire. Human population growth is associated with an increasing rate and extent of conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural and pastoral systems, development of residential areas, infrastructure and traffic. Land-use change is occurring in traditionally uninhabited or uncultivated areas such as extreme mountain slopes, some coastal areas, or floodplains. This is often a consequence of poverty, deforestation, or vegetation conversion for short-term production of cash crops for the global market. In many regions of the world this process is associated with the use of fire for land clearing and an increasing occurrence of uncontrolled wildfires. Special consideration is given to the social and community values and the value of engaging the community in fire management planning and implementation. The Code emphasizes that any effective fire management programme must be based on the ecology and fire history of the area. In many cases, the re-introduction of fire is as important as preventing unwanted, damaging fires. The Code addresses the use of planned fire and the benefit of fire, not just protection and suppression. The Code also provides implementation guidance for protection activities in the interface between communities and the forests or other wildlands and recognizes that human values and cultural norms are as important as ecological values.

A.3 Objectives The objectives of the Code are: 1 Establish principles, in accordance with the relevant rules of international law, for

responsible fire management activities, taking into account all their relevant biological, technological, economic, social, and environmental aspects;

2 Contribute to the establishment and implementation of national and sub-national policies and planning mechanisms to establish or to improve the legal, regulatory and institutional framework required for responsible fire management activities;

3 Provide guidance which may be used where appropriate in the formulation and implementation of international instruments, both binding and voluntary;

4 Facilitate and promote mutual assistance, technical, financial and other cooperation in fire management between agencies and donor organizations;

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

3

5 Promote the contribution of effective community-based fire management to provide for food security and meeting people’s livelihood needs; and

6 Promote sustainable land and resource management programmes that consider the ecologically appropriate use and management of fire where permitted, and suppression of unwanted, damaging fire.

A.4 Relationship with other International Instruments Several international instruments, conventions and agreements have relevance to fire. The guiding principles and strategic actions outlined in the Code address key subject areas included in various international instruments and provide a framework for fire management. The Code is to be interpreted and applied in compliance with the:

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC);

• United Nations Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD);

• United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD);

• Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF, 1995-97) and Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF, 1997-2000) proposals for action and the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) recommendations (2000 to present);

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1975);

• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, I. R. Iran, 1971); and

• Other applicable rules of international law, including the respective obligations of Governments pursuant to international agreements to which they are party.

In addition the Code supports the:

• The Millennium Declaration (UN General Assembly, New York, 2000) upholds human dignity, equity, poverty eradication, protection of the common environment, human rights, democracy, gender equality, good governance and the formation of a global partnership for development;

• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, New York, 2000); particularly Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability; and Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development;

• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and Agenda 21 adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Rio, 1992), in particular Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 on combating deforestation;

• The Tehran Process (Tehran, 1999) on sustainable forest management in low forest cover countries (LFCC);

• World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD, Johannesburg, 2002); Political Declaration, Commitment to Sustainable Development: Fight against natural disasters; Plan of Implementation (Chapter IV): Protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development; and

• World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction (Yokohama, Japan, 1994) and the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, 2005); Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World (1994) and Hyogo Framework for

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

4

Action 2005-2015 (2005), both providing a framework of strategic and systematic approaches to reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards.

The Code relies on many other existing mechanism and other codes and guidelines. It draws on the experience of organizations and individuals throughout the world. Several documents exist that will provide implementation guidance for various parts of the Code. Some examples are: the International Tropical Timber Organization Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests; the FAO Guidelines on Fire Management in Temperate and Boreal Forests; and the Global Fire Monitoring Centre Wildland Fire Management Handbook for Sub-Sahara Africa. This is just a partial list of existing guidelines. Many governments and other organizations have handbooks, manuals, and planning documents that will provide information and assistance in establishing a fire management programme. There are other Codes that provide the basis for laws or statutes for jurisdictions interested in establishing a legal basis for a fire programme. The International Code Council, the National Fire Protection Association (USA), and the Australasian Fire Authorities Council, among others, have developed codes that can be codified into statute and law. Nothing in the Code prejudices the rights, jurisdiction and duties of individual countries under international law as reflected in international conventions and agreements. The Code contains provisions that will support and complement existing fire management guidelines, policies, programmes, and regulations currently in effect in many organizations, agencies, and Governments.

A.5 Implementation All member and non-member countries of FAO, entities and jurisdictions with fire management responsibilities, and relevant sub-national, national, regional and global organizations, whether Government or non-governmental, and all stakeholders concerned with the management of forests, rangelands, grasslands, protected areas, and the interface between any of these areas and human development and rural areas should collaborate in translating the guiding principles and strategic actions of the Code into their policy/legal/regulatory frameworks; their fire management strategies, programmes or plans; their codes, standards or guidelines for implementation; and to establish their monitoring and reporting of compliance. Governments, international bodies, and non-governmental organizations should promote the understanding of the Code among those involved in resource protection, air and water quality, community protection, and ecological restoration and rehabilitation including, where practicable, by the introduction of schemes which would promote voluntary acceptance of the Code and effective application. Although non-binding, Governments are encouraged to adopt the Code in the policy, legal and institutional frameworks and their planning and implementation standards in fire management. FAO, through its competent bodies, may revise the Code, taking into account developments in fire ecology, fire behaviour, and social and human factors research.

A.6 Diversity of Contexts and Special Requirements The diversity of contexts within which the Code will be applied provides a wide variation in how to implement and use the Code. Organizational capabilities range from developed countries with well funded and resourced organizations to countries and regions without active fire programmes. Environmental variation and fire regimes range from areas with few fires and little damage or effect to areas where fire is a key component of ecosystem health.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

5

Rural, urban, uninhabited, and interface areas, all have for different needs and different potential uses of the Code. The context that is most relevant is the differences from a current fire management programme compared to a safe, effective, and environmentally, socially acceptable fire management programme. Even in developed countries the programme may not completely match the current situation. Some areas have people and communities moving into the wildlands causing fire protection problems with the increase in population and property to protect. In other areas, the people are abandoning the rural areas and leaving large tracts of unmanaged lands that are now becoming at risk from fires. Of particular interest are areas where fire plays an important role in the environment, either naturally playing a role in sustaining the ecosystem or where the use of fire for agricultural or other needs provide for human sustainability. As populations increase in these areas, the need to adopt an appropriate fire management programme becomes more important. The need to protect lives, resources, and property must be balanced with the need for some amount of fire in the environment. The capacity of developing countries to implement the recommendations of the Code should be duly taken into account. In order to achieve the objectives of this Code and to support effective implementation, Governments, international and non-governmental organizations, financial institutions and landowners and users should give full recognition to the special circumstances and requirements of developing countries, especially in the areas of financial and technical assistance, technology transfer, training and scientific cooperation and in enhancing their ability to strengthen and develop their fire management organizations and capabilities. Specific priority should be given in particular to the least-developed among them - small island developing states and low forest cover countries in fragile ecosystems where damaging fires occur.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

6

B. Cross-sectoral Aspects

In this Section, cross-sectoral issues fundamental to fire management are introduced. The discussion of the various cross-sectoral aspects provides an overview of the impact that fire has on other sectors as well as the impact the sectors have on the prevention, suppression, and use of fire.

B.1 Livelihoods and Poverty Within the natural environment, fire can be a normal part of the cycle of the ecosystems and assures a healthy, sustainable source of food and resources for communities. Fire is a tool and a beneficial force in improving people’s lives. Fire is a key component in the agricultural practices of people in many different ecosystems. In some areas, fire is managed by traditional rural communities to maintain healthy forests, range and grassland that provide habitat for hunting and gathering of fruits, nuts, grains, and other food sources. Fire may be the most economical method to improve forage for domestic and wild animals and increase livestock production. Fire can damage or destroy homes, food, and natural resources. At times, the use of fire to prepare fields, reduce pests and diseases, and improve forage results in disaster when the fires escape. Clean, safe water is often a scarce natural resource. Water quality and quantity may be affected by fires burning vegetation in catchments. Planned fires can be used to enhance water quantity by burning excessive vegetation to reduce transpiration. In addition, planned burning can reduce fuel loads thereby reducing the risk of severe fires burning all vegetation and damaging soils resulting in major water quality degradation. A comprehensive fire management programme can contribute positively towards achieving two specific features of human rights: poverty alleviation and the right to food and water security, and good health. All societies have the right to food security, clean water, good health, education, and participation in the economic life of their own country. Protection from unwanted, damaging fires and management of fire to benefit society can contribute towards achieving these goals.

B.2 Fire as a Tool in Sustainable Land-use and Resource Management Fires impact many sectors, values, industries, and societies. But these same groups and beliefs impact on fire. The cross-sectoral aspects need to be examined from all sides, and focus both on those sectors impacted by fire and those sectors that impact fire and sustainable ecosystems. In some cases those impacted and those impacting are the same. The dilemma faced by many is that fire can cause great damage and negative impact, and be a natural and vital force in the ecology of the area and cause both at the same time. In this section, we use the phrase impact on fire, but the underlying impacts are on people’s livelihoods and the ecosystem. If the outside force impacts on the incidence, duration, or severity of individual fires or on the fire regime for the area, then the real impact will be to the ecosystem or the resources produced by the ecosystem, not fire. An even more difficult consideration is the impact of other sectors or values that remove fire from the environment. The change may be significant but society may not fully appreciate the result. The concept that there is “good fire” should be advocated and supported. Fire can be good for the habitat, good for the resources, good for reducing threats or good for maintaining cultural values. Some sectors that use fire as a tool to enhance outputs and facilitate land use are agriculture, forest products industry, and pastoral and wildlife managers. Fire has been a part of the agricultural practices used by societies for millennia, and in many areas is used

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

7

today in a similar manner. From a fire management standpoint, there is generally no difference in this use of fire for planted crops and the same use promoting the growth of naturally occurring sources of food both for human consumption and for livestock consumption. The same is true in the use of fire to maintain traditional or cultural landscapes or vegetation patterns. Fire can also be the tool of choice for land clearing and land conversion since in many ecosystems it is relatively easy to cut or slash live vegetation and allow it to dry to the point that it will carry fire. At that point it can be burned and if the purpose of the conversion is agriculture, there is an added benefit from the fire by releasing stored nutrient into the soil and promoting the growth and vigour of crops.

B.3 Impacts on Human Health and Security Smoke pollution due to land-use fires and wildfires is an important public health issue and involves major risks for the health of the people and the environment. Smoke pollution episodes generated by vegetation fires in Asia, Latin America, Northeast Asia and other parts of the world are recurring phenomena. They often lead to health impacts such as increased mortality and increased hospital admissions due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The elements of vegetation cover that have a “protection function” include above- and below-ground parts of plants, i.e. roots, humus layer, grass layer, stems and leaves of brush and trees. Sites affected by high-severity or short-return interval fires are subjected to excessive water runoff and erosion – processes which result in mudslides, landslides and rockslides, flash floods, and flooding at the landscape level. Improving human security can be based on a concept of fire-adapted communities. The term is well established when used to describe communities of flora and fauna. It can also be applied to human communities and may prove to be very useful in describing an ideal set of conditions where people can live in complete harmony with the normal occurrence of fires and their impacts. In many parts of the world, people are living in fire-adapted communities. In human communities where there is no organization or infrastructure to provide for any level of fire protection, because that community exists implies they are fire-adapted to some degree.

B.4 Safety Considerations for Firefighters and Citizens For firefighters, safety is a core value and cannot be compromised. It is a critical part of all activities, from planning through restoration. In fact, one of the most common reasons for establishing a fire management organization is to protect firefighters and communities from fires. Even countries with well established and financed fire management organizations experience the devastating effects from massive wildfires. Public safety is closely tied with issues of security. Uncontrolled, devastating wildfires destroy homes, businesses, schools, and other structures throughout the world. Protecting communities and saving lives start with community education and preparation. Perhaps the best way to save lives is to have a fire-adapted community, one where the infrastructure and buildings facilitate protection actions and where the citizens are able to assist in their own protection and safety. Public safety is very important, but safety of the firefighter must be given the highest priority in the policies, procedures, plans, and management philosophy of any agency or organization. Firefighter safety actions begin with providing the proper safety equipment and training to each individual involved in suppression operations.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

8

Safety training also includes education and knowledge of local weather, terrain, flammability of fuel. Firefighters must be trained to recognize the characteristics of fire behaviour such as intensities and spread rates, and when a smouldering fire can reignite and begin to spread. Crews need to understand how to monitor the fire and estimate potential changes in order to prevent becoming trapped by an unanticipated change in spread and intensity.

B.5 Sustainable Ecosystems and Environmental Impacts Maintaining sustainable, properly functioning ecosystems should be a goal for all fire management programmes. In many instances attention is paid to the damage and destruction of fires and not to the underlying causes. Ecosystems have developed over time with different fire regimes. Some fire-dependent healthy, sustainable ecosystems experience fast moving, high intensity fires that can cause substantial damage to structures and resources. The same types of fires may occur in fire-sensitive ecosystems, and it is important to understand the differences and to focus restoration activities on achieving a healthy balance. This type of ecosystem management requires a landscape-scale approach to planning, managing and restoring ecosystems and not just looking at small-scale site impacts. A large scale view will balance impacts and losses, both economic and non-economic. Losses in ecosystems may be difficult to quantify but they should be recognized and considered at an appropriate scale. No single type or frequency of fire is right for all ecosystems or landscapes. A fire-sensitive, or fire-intolerant, area may need complete protection, from both natural and human caused fires. Fire-dependent ecosystems need some type and frequency of fire and that can be either through the natural fire cycle or by the use of planned fires. Even within some areas, a variety of fire occurrence, intensity, and extent will be needed to promote biodiversity and a range of habitats. With demographic changes and population migrations, the most effective and safest type of fire may be planned fires that are managed for a specific desired result. If the natural occurrence of fire can be used safely, that may be the most economic way.

B.6 Carbon and Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recently concluded that "the global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th Century by 0.6°C, lower atmosphere temperatures are rising, snow cover and sea ice extent have decreased, sea levels are rising, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations continue to increase due to human activities, and that global temperatures and sea levels will continue to rise under all modelling scenarios”. Numerous General Circulation Models (GCMs) project a global mean temperature increase of 0.8-3.5°C by 2100 – a change much more rapid than any experienced in the past 10,000 years. The frequency and severity of extreme weather and climate events are also projected to increase and will lead to an alteration of fire regimes. Most importantly more frequent droughts will result in increasing occurrence of high-severity wildfires with consequences on vegetation cover loss, desertification and reduced terrestrial carbon sequestration. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change calls for the "protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases", and will require all countries to monitor and understand the major factors influencing the exchange of carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere. Both land-use fires and wildfires in all ecosystems are affecting carbon pools and global carbon cycling. At the same time, climate change impacts the duration and severity of dry seasons, thus having impacts

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

9

upon the incidence and severity of fires. The Code aims to support national and international capacity in appropriate, proactive fire management response.

B.7 Knowledge Management Knowledge management is an important but often neglected part of fire management. Most organizations have a system for keeping information or historical documents but few have a comprehensive programme for knowledge management. A comprehensive system includes the minimum requirements for legal and financial information to gathering, understanding, and using aboriginal, traditional, and local knowledge in conjunction with science and research results in applying the latest, technological methods and advancement. In fire-dependent or adapted ecosystems, traditional knowledge may provide a wealth of information that cannot be discovered by the current generation of fire practitioners over the course of one career or lifetime. Traditional lore and knowledge are passed down over many generations and may reflect a cycle of environmental conditions that occur over hundreds of years. This type of knowledge is difficult to assemble and is equally difficult to assimilate into the high tech operations of many fire organizations today. Knowledge management also refers to the collection and use of statistics, reports, reviews, evaluations and other types of management systems that are common within business, Government, and other organizations in modern society. With the introduction of modern computing and communicating systems, the exchange of information and knowledge is becoming easier and more effective. The challenge for the modern manager is to effectively use these new systems to strengthen the organization and to blend the new knowledge and scientific discovery with the traditional lore and knowledge. When that is done, well both the ecological and social systems benefit.

B.8 Science and Technology Fundamental fire science has a multidisciplinary nature and includes a number of classical disciplines ranging from social sciences, ecology, physics and chemistry. Cultural and anthropological fire history and geography, humanities, arts, social sciences, and economic sciences are addressing the role of humans in shaping the global environment by fire. Interdisciplinary research aims at a better understanding of complex processes such as the fire-atmosphere-climate interactions. Support for continuing research is critical if the fire community is to advance with new knowledge, tools, and technologies. Much research has been done over the years and that transfer of scientific knowledge and know-how in vocational education is essential for understanding and practicing advanced fire management. Public education, notably in wildfire prevention and ecologically sound and safe burning techniques, is essential. The transfer of knowledge from the research community to the citizens can be accomplished as part of a public awareness programme. The transfer of knowledge can be aimed at teaching ecological or environmental impacts of fire, how to design and build fire-adapted communities, as well as how to respond during emergencies. If the transfer of knowledge is to be successful, information has to be available in a language generally understood in the community. Much of the literature will need to be translated into a local language and also adapted to the local social, economic, and ecological situation.

B.9 Education, Training, and Public Awareness Education and training form a bridge between research and technical knowledge and the effective application of policy, procedure and execution. Education and training are needed

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

10

within an organization and for external partners and members of the community. An effective public awareness programme can help in the prevention of unwanted fires, build trust in the community for the fire management programme, and inform citizens of their responsibility in using fire wisely and carefully. Education is many times only thought to be formal university studies. Education should also include community-based education. A community-based programme will help teach and inform citizens on the technology of fire management but can also gain from learning the traditional knowledge in the community. This two way flow of information, tradition, and knowledge will be beneficial to all. The training component of the fire management provides the information and knowledge to implement a safe and effective programme. The training developed must consider the environmental conditions, the local fire regime, and be available to all members of the fire management organization. The training programme for volunteers and members of the community that are not full time employees or only respond to an occasional incident needs to be of the same quality and clearly emphasize the need for safety and caution in the face of an uncommon event. The public will be more aware of the fire situation if they are considered as part of the total programme. A public that is knowledgeable of the role and uses of fire and the need for the community to participate in the protection of life, property, and resources will be an effective partner in the total fire management programme. Public awareness has to be followed by public involvement.

B.10 Policy, Legal, Institutional, and Financial Frameworks Government actions are based on policies, laws and jurisdictional authority. This is true for fire management programmes. The actions of the agencies’ or landowner’s officials who suppress fires, conduct fuel treatment activities, or prevent citizens from engaging in dangerous or risky actions will not be effective if they are not following a clear legal, institutional, and policy framework. The legal framework is the underlying basis for a fire management programme. Policies are needed to explain how laws will be interpreted and to what degree. Policies on the use of fire are sometimes the most difficult to set out and implement. By clearly stating and implementing the policy, the agency or landowner will be better positioned to explain the need for planned fire and maintain the support of the community. If the policy is not clear it will be difficult to implement and maintain a programme. In forest and rural areas where the use of fire is an important tool for land and resource management or where fire is a critical feature in fire-adapted ecosystems, a legislative mandate is needed to assure that fire use can continue. This legal framework will provide the accountability for fire management and assure that managers use fire in a responsible manner. Land managers, land owners, fire suppression agencies all need to work cooperatively to assure that protection and use are properly balanced. The institutional framework includes all of the processes and procedures an agency or landowner has developed and implemented for carrying out the programme. An effective and efficient programme can be said to be “institutionalized”, meaning that the framework is so ingrained into the thoughts, actions, and goals of the members of the organization that they are accepted and promoted at all levels. An adequate and continuing source of funding is needed. Much of the fire management work takes place before a fire starts. Relying on emergency funding during fire emergencies

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

11

will not provide the properly trained and equipped organization to safely and effectively respond. Funding and financial support will be determined by the fire regime, the amount of fire, and the economic values at risk from fires. In almost all situations, funding an effective fire management programme will be less expensive than the cost of reacting to emergencies and suffering the economic losses of homes, structures, resources, and livelihoods.

B.11 Cooperation and Partnerships Proposals for rules, procedures and standards on international cooperation in fire management are being developed by a range of interested partners representing the United Nations and other international organizations, Government agencies, academia and other representatives and organizations of civil society, e.g. non-governmental organizations and the private sector. They will constitute first steps towards the establishment of internationally negotiated and agreed standards. Major efforts include, among others:

• Building of Regional Wildland Fire Networks aimed at facilitation of dialogue and cooperation between countries (UNISDR Global Wildland Fire Network; since 2002); and

• Development of first Guiding Principles for Wildland Fire Management, International Agreements and Community-Based Fire Management, and international recognition of the Incident Command System (ICS) (series of International Wildland Fire Conferences 1989-2003 / International Wildland Fire Summit, 2003).

Cooperation, at all levels, is used by all types of agencies and jurisdictions to address fire management workload in a cost effective manner. While not universally true, it is certainly common that the responsibility for fire management is shared by agencies or jurisdictions within a community, state or province, and country boundaries. In some systems, a jurisdiction will have all of the responsibility for all types of ownerships and lands and the need for cooperation and coordination will occur at the boundary. This may be country wide with only one agency responsible for fire management and that boundary for cooperation will be an international boundary. In some countries, the jurisdictions will be by city, county, parish, district or other designation and there will be a need for interagency coordination at jurisdictional boundaries within the country. Another example is a comprehensive, pre-fire season cooperative agreement that provides for the full range of cooperative activities. Agencies will agree on when, where, and to what extent, resources will be exchanged and sent to assist. These agreements usually have provisions for reimbursement and may even have provisions for personnel from an assisting agency to detect, attack, and suppress a fire without any resources from the home jurisdiction involved at any point during the operation. An agreement such as this can only be effective if all parties agree on the qualifications of personnel and the methods of operation, such as the use of a common operating system like ICS. Perhaps the most critical is that the agency administrators have confidence in the ability of the assisting agency to follow procedures, conduct operations, and adequately monitor, evaluate and comply with all aspects of the agreement. If those conditions can be met, this type of agreement will prove, over time, to be an effective, cost efficient and productive operational agreement. Leaders who enter into any type of agreement should consider forming a council, oversight committee, or other formalized group to oversee the various aspects of the agreement and meet regularly to review performance, suggest and implement improvements, and assure compliance with all of the performance requirements.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

12

Cooperation and partnerships are important for all aspects of fire, not just fire suppression. Mutual assistance agreements are the most common type of agreement in local and international use, but many comprehensive arrangements provide for all types of fire management exchanges and cooperation, including joint planning and implementation of projects, training, technology exchange, and research.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

13

C. Principles

This Section describes the Principles to address the vital cultural, social, environmental and economic dimensions in the management of fires and summarizes specific aspects of each of the Principles that should be considered. Although the Principles are grouped according to Social and Cultural, Economic, Environmental, Institutional and Enhanced Fire Management Capacity, they are closely interlinked. Some aspects are listed under more than one principle to reinforce these linkages.

C.1 Social and Cultural Principle 1 Sustainable Livelihoods Appropriate use and management of fire will promote sustainable livelihoods. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Conducting well managed planned fire will allow for appropriate and sustainable silviculture, agriculture, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation;

• Actively planning and undertaking fuel reduction programmes as cost effective methods for fire prevention;

• Promoting the use of planned fire across broad landscapes to restore natural fire regimes, assist land management activities, and reduce the risk of large scale destructive wildfires; and

• Allowing natural fire to burn in fire-dependent ecosystems can provide many economic and social benefits as well as maintain habitats and reduce the cost of suppressing unwanted fires.

Principle 2 Human Health and Security Human health and security will be improved by minimizing the adverse effects of fire. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Providing for firefighter and public safety is paramount in all fire activities;

• Developing or adapting an existing fire danger rating system to provide hazard and risk assessments to agencies, landowners, and communities;

• Utilizing people-centred early warning systems by communities to reduce the health and security impacts of wildfire;

• Providing education and training to at-risk communities and to communities of interest;

• Conducting community-based fire risk reduction activities during all stages of fire management activity: pre-fire, during fire events and post- fire; and

• Preventing negative impacts from fire on other communities when utilizing fire as a land management tool.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

14

Principle 3 Traditional Uses of Fire The traditional fire uses on the lands of indigenous peoples and traditional rural communities should remain as a practice for those communities and adapted to the current environment. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Continuing the traditional use of fire providing the negative impacts on communities and resources can be excluded or mitigated;

• Gathering and maintaining the traditional lore and knowledge of the indigenous and traditional people and adapting their practices into the modern fire management programme; and

• Maintaining a diversity of landscapes and environments that provide a diversity of habitats, species, resources, and opportunities for recreation, commerce, community enjoyment, and religious practices.

C.2 Economic

Principle 4 Protecting Lives and Assets The destructive impacts of unplanned fires on livelihoods, property, and resources must be minimized. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Minimizing likelihood of unwanted, damaging fire through fire knowledge, training, participatory planning and preparation, and appropriate suppression systems;

• Responding promptly and safely to unwanted and unplanned fires;

• Actively managing fire to protect lives, property, and resources during fire suppression, including the use of fire as a suppression action;

• Operating in an environmentally sensitive manner while suppressing fires and restoring altered or damaged lands to lessen severe, long-term impacts;

• Influencing the planning and construction of new buildings and adjacent vegetation to minimize the risk of damage from encroaching fires and discouraging inappropriate development in fire-prone ecosystems; and

• Allocating resources based on the likelihood of ignition and the expected fire behaviour, balancing the costs of fire prevention, preparedness, and suppression.

Principle 5 Economic Impact An effective and efficient fire management programme requires a balance between the benefits society receives from the use of fire and the costs, damages, or undesirable impacts caused by unwanted fire. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

15

• Fully accounting for the benefits, costs, and economic outputs from the use of fire for resource management and the public good;

• Identifying the benefits of mitigation of the unwanted effects or damages to lands and resources;

• Using early warning systems to provide seasonal severity predictions and inform citizens on mitigation measures;

• Developing and implementing all fire management strategies and fire use programmes to maximize both the ecological and environmental benefits and the economic return; and

• Developing methodologies and standards for fire damage assessment including effects to non-economic or non-commodity values.

C.3 Environmental Principle 6 Fire Effects The interactions of climate change with vegetation cover and fire regimes must be understood and appropriately considered in the planning process and implementation of fire use. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Defining impacts of regional climate change on ecosystem properties and fire regimes;

• Modify fire management plans to take into account changes in fuel and vegetation type, burning conditions, and additional fire risk as a result of climate change;

• Utilizing hazardous fuels for energy production with the dual goal of reducing wildfire hazard and consumption of fossil fuels;

• Maximizing the storage of carbon in ecosystems – especially in restoration of degraded ecosystems – without increasing the likelihood of unwanted fire risk and promoting the regeneration of carbon sinks with the application of fire; and

• Minimizing the short- and long-term consequences of fire-induced vegetation depletion, such as soil erosion, landslides, floods, waterway pollution, and desertification.

Principle 7 Fire Effects on Ecosystems Fire must be managed in an environmentally responsible manner to assure properly functioning and sustainable ecosystems into the future. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Maintaining and restoring appropriate fire regimes for enhancing the vigour and diversity in populations of species and communities of indigenous flora and fauna in fire-adapted ecosystems and protecting fire-sensitive ecosystems, including preventing the spread of invasive species;

• Protecting fire-sensitive ecosystems;

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

16

• Recognizing that strategic planned burning with some short-term negative environmental impacts may be necessary for long-term landscape and community asset protection;

• Applying principles of environmental management and care to the rehabilitation of disturbance resulting from suppression work and to the prevention of environmental disturbance that result from fire management activities;

• Planning fire preparedness and suppression operations with a holistic landscape view considering archaeological, historical, cultural and traditional heritage values;

• Promoting the re-establishment of ecological processes with the recovery of natural flora and fauna following fire suppression;

• Minimizing the introduction and spread of pest plants and animals, plant diseases, insect pests and biological contaminants after fires or fire suppression activities; and

• Conducting planned burns in a manner that minimizes the spread of unwanted alien species and re-establishes natural or other preferred species.

C.4 Institutional Principle 8 Legislation and Governance All fire management activities should be based on a legal framework and supported by clear policy and procedures. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Utilizing the Principles and Strategic Actions in the Code as a basis for developing and implementing national or local legislation;

• Adopting and implementing the Code will provide a basis for legal protection for fire managers in the lawful use of fire;

• Implementing all aspects of the programme appropriate to the fire regime;

• Developing guidelines for planned burning that fit within the legal framework and policies;

• Recognizing that implementing the Code may impact on, or be impacted by, other sectors such as forestry, agriculture, conservation, environment, air quality management, climatology, hydrology, and the broader land use management;

• Minimizing the incidence of unwanted human caused fires;

• Meeting integrated land management objectives such as safety, environmental and resource management; and

• Recognizing the leadership role of land managers in fire and other land use issues.

Principle 9 Multi-stakeholder Approach Successful fire management requires participatory approaches with responsibility for reducing the likelihood and consequence of wildfire appropriately shared between public and private land holders, the fire services, and communities of interest.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

17

Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Minimizing land tenure and boundary conflicts by an integrated and coordinated approach to planning;

• Involving community members at the local, sub-national, national, regional and international level to assure that processes are open and accessible to people of different backgrounds and cultures (especially indigenous and traditional rural communities);

• Encouraging cross-sectoral participation, including community members, land managers, fire agencies, enforcement agencies, media and medical agencies in plan development and implementation;

• Acknowledging that fire management plans and fire occurrence at the local level can have an international and global impact on the environment;

• Understanding the differences between the backgrounds and roles of the urban and structural fire services and the wildland and rural fire services, and utilizing each of them to the best advantage based on the strengths of each; and

• Training and equipping volunteers as well as rural workers in order to enhance their role and effectiveness in fire management activities.

C.5 Enhanced Fire Management Capacity Principle 10 Cooperation Few nations, and no single agency or community have the ability to manage every situation, and as fires routinely affect multiple jurisdictions, agencies must develop cooperative arrangements to mitigate the multi-jurisdictional impacts. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

• Promoting the use of common terminology, systems, and standards to enhance international cooperation;

• Promoting an ongoing exchange of knowledge, technology and resources in order to facilitate rapid international response to fires;

• Participating in international organizations, networks, forums, and activities to increase the domestic agencies’ capacity to manage fire; and

• Using available guidelines and examples of successfully implemented agreements as a framework that will facilitate the development of binding and non-binding international instruments.

Principle 11 Knowledge Transfer Access to knowledge and the appropriate application is essential for firefighter and public safety in all fire management activities. Aspects of the Principle include but are not limited to:

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

18

• Engaging in high-quality scientific research for the creation of new knowledge and confirming the utility of practical knowledge to support the creation or improvement of policies, regulations, guidelines and practices;

• Using science and technology transfer in local fire activities, including community-based approaches to strengthen fire management plans and programmes in a wide range of cultural, socio-economic and ecological environments;

• Providing appropriate knowledge and the development of skills for personnel involved in fire activities so that they are competent for their roles and tasks;

• Incorporating effective communications and providing community education on fire management issues to enhance community preparedness;

• Collecting traditional and local knowledge and using that knowledge in the appropriate aspects of the fire management programme;

• Communicating to members of local communities and communities of interest that properly applied and managed fire can result in positive ecological, cultural, and economic benefits; and

• Translating scientific, research, and technical material into languages that make it accessible to local managers, firefighters, and communities.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

19

D. Strategic Actions for Implementation In this Section the strategic actions for implementation are provided to assist planners and managers, land holders, and local groups or communities of interest to manage fire in a more holistic manner. The strategic actions can be used as a checklist for assessing organizational capacity.

D.1 Fire and Resource Management Planning Fire and resource management planning must be based on a legal, institutional, and policy framework. This framework provides the basis and structure for strategic and tactical planning and implementation actions. Within the legal framework are broad-scale, multi-sectoral resource management plans. These plans set out the objectives for the use, management, protection, and restoration of the land and resources within the scope of the plans. Generally, a resource management plan does not determine the use or designation of an area, but sets out the activities and procedures that will be used to fulfil the legislative, institutional, or individual mandate. A fire management plan is one level below the resource management plan, although it is possible to develop a fire management plan without a resource management plan in place. The fire management plan should address all of the items listed within Section D of the Code. In some situations it may be best to develop individual plans for selected sections, such as fire prevention or the use of planned fire. However inclusive the fire management plan is, safety should be a principal component. In areas where the climate and weather patterns are marked by wide variations, planning for extreme events is important. Resource allocation and prioritization during periods of severe fire danger are keys to protecting citizens and assets. The strategic actions for fire and resource management planning include, but are not limited to: D.1.1 All fire management plans and activities should be based on clear and comprehensive policy, legal, and institutional frameworks;

D.1.2 Plans should be prepared at an appropriate level of detail for every aspect of fire management including prevention, fuel management, detection, initial attack, large fire suppression, and restoration;

D.1.3 A policy should be established that puts the safety of firefighters and the public as the highest priority;

D.1.4 Resource management plans should include an analysis of the actions that increase or decrease the risk and hazards affecting fire behaviour, fire damage or benefit, and impacts on the safety of firefighters and the public;

D.1.5 Plans should provide for infrequent, but potential damaging events and include analysis, planning, resources, and potential operational actions that would be required;

D.1.6 Fire plans should be based on a realistic forecast of weather and climate and their effect on fire behaviour and suppression effectiveness;

D.1.7 Organizations, agencies, Governments, and communities should develop a process for involving local communities, communities of interest, and other appropriate individuals when preparing resource and fire management plans; and

D.1.8 Plans should provide for a system of monitoring and evaluation, including a feedback process for amending or adapting the plans based on the evaluations or changing conditions.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

20

D.2 Fire Management in Natural or Protected Areas and Reserves Fire management guidelines are generally applied equally to managed natural or planted forests and woodlands and to production, conservation, cultural, or protected areas and reserves. The same general steps should be followed in all areas. Planning considerations will take into account the protection and management objectives for each environment and, as a result, many of the operational standards and actions may be different. The key consideration for the protected areas is the formulation of fire management strategic actions for the management and protection of each area. Endangered or threatened species, indigenous values and sacred sites, water reserves for communities, scenic and recreation areas all have social, economic, or other non-economic values that require special consideration in the development of fire management plans. Protected areas may also require special consideration in the planning for fire suppression actions and fire personnel may be required to utilize special tactics and suppression techniques in these areas. In many sensitive areas, utilizing heavy, mechanized equipment can be damaging to the environment and disturb the special values of the area more than the effects from a fire. In all cases, a balance of the right amount and kind of fire, the right types of preventive and response to a fire, and the impacts to the area and to adjacent areas must be reached. The strategic actions for fire management in natural or protected areas and reserves include, but are not limited to: D.2.1 The fire planner should identify the unique character and objectives for the area, considering the role that fire plays in restoring or maintaining that special character;

D.2.2 In areas that require the periodic occurrence of fire to restore or maintain the special characteristic of the area, consideration should be given to the likelihood that the fire will impact other resources, communities, and people outside of the area and develop plans, guidelines, and operational procedures that mitigate any unwanted or damaging impacts; and

D.2.3 When fires occur in areas that are intolerant of fire, or when a particular incident of fire is uncharacteristically severe or damaging, suppression tactics should be planned and implemented in such a way that will mitigate the damaging effects from crews, equipment and suppression actions on the protected area.

D.3 Fire Awareness and Education Fire awareness and education can be a very effective way to involve the community and other groups in a fire management programme. A well informed public will be more likely to use fire carefully and adhere to policy and legal boundaries. They can assist with the detection and reporting of fires, work with fire personnel to control fires, and provide a source of local and traditional knowledge. A programme of education and awareness can be provided to school children with a structured set of lessons and learning objectives. Other programmes should be developed for adults and communities to educate or inform of changes in policy or in understanding the role of fire and the impact of unplanned fires on ecosystems and resources. Successful media campaigns use print, radio, and television to spread a message on fire prevention and the proper use of fire, as well as warning of elevated fire danger during episodes of extreme fires.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

21

The strategic actions for fire awareness and education include, but are not limited to: D.3.1 Fire awareness and education programmes should be developed and targeted to specific audiences and communities;

D.3.2 Fire awareness and education programmes should be sensitive to the cultural and social norms of the community including the needs for local citizens to use fires for agricultural, forestry, traditional uses, or other basic needs;

D.3.3 Age appropriate information and educational material should be developed cooperatively by technical experts and educational specialists and provided to all levels by introducing ecological and fire management concepts into the local schools; and

D.3.4 Primary and secondary schools, universities and other institutions should be encouraged to develop community and ecologically appropriate fire management programmes for teachers and other educators that are based on local conditions and beliefs.

D.4 Fire Prevention Fire prevention may be the most cost effective and efficient mitigation programme an agency or community can implement. Preventing unwanted, damaging fires is almost always less costly than suppressing them. Prevention programmes that are accepted and promoted within the community not only reduce cost and resource damage, but also promote understanding on the role and impact of fire on the ecosystem. Fire prevention applies to human-caused ignitions and requires some combination of community education, effective prevention programmes, and enforcement of laws or regulations. In ecosystems and cultural areas that are dependent on fire, allowing some fires to burn may be beneficial. Allowing human-caused fires to burn with the objective of benefiting the ecosystem may complicate attempts to enforce fire prevention regulations. In many parts of the world, planned fire is included as a component of fire prevention. Planned fire can have a very significant and beneficial impact on reducing fire severity and damage and assists firefighters in their attempts to suppress fires. It also has many other benefits for ecosystem sustainability, maintenance, and restoration. In order to emphasize the role fire plays in sustaining and restoring ecosystems, planned fire is addressed in section D.12. The strategic actions for fire prevention include, but are not limited to: D.4.1 In areas where the objectives require minimizing numbers of fires and area burned, a comprehensive prevention plan should be developed;

D.4.2 The fire prevention plan should take into account traditional uses of fire, be based on laws or regulations restricting fires, and involve local community leaders and organizations;

D.4.3 Data should be collected on frequency, specific causes, and locations of human-caused fires, the reasons for starting the fires, and area burned on a monthly and annual basis in order to establish an effective fire prevention programme; and

D.4.4 Fire prevention programmes should include information on the need to use and manage fire under certain situations.

D.5 Fire Danger Rating and Early Warning Systems Fire danger rating systems have long been used as a tool to determine the level of fire danger and provide early warning of the potential for serious fires. Fire danger rating

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

22

systems utilize basic daily weather data to calculate wildfire potential. By using forecasted weather data as much as two weeks of early warning can be provided. Locally generated early warning information may be useful to reflect local characteristics of weather and vegetation conditions. Active involvement of local communities in collecting fire-weather information and disseminating the warnings will create ownership, increase local responsibility, and the efficiency of the early warning system. Forest and land management agencies, as well as land owners and communities, benefit from an early warning system to identify critical periods of extreme fire danger in advance of their occurrence. Early warning of these conditions with high spatial and temporal resolution incorporating measures of uncertainty and the likelihood of extreme conditions allow fire managers to implement fire prevention, detection, and preparedness plans before fire problems begin. The strategic actions for fire danger rating and early warning systems include, but are not limited to: D.5.1 Countries or organizations should establish a fire danger rating system, or adapt an existing system to the local environment, based on daily weather data; D.5.2 Countries or regions should install a national or regional fire early warning system using existing and demonstrated science and technologies and based on a local fire danger rating system; and

D.5.3 An information network should be developed to quickly provide early warning of fire danger to local authorities, land owners, and communities.

D.6 Fire Preparedness including Technical Training Fire preparedness covers activities to detect and respond to fires. Preparedness includes training, equipping, and staffing prior to the start of a fire. An effective fire preparedness programme should be based on fire and resource management planning and take into account year to year variation in funding, weather, and human activities. Properly trained and equipped personnel located at the proper locations will increase the effectiveness of any programme. Training is a key part of preparedness and readiness. The safety of the firefighter is dependent on their understanding of the fire characteristics and weather in the local area. Training is also important for the effective use of equipment and fire suppression techniques and for supervisors and managers to better understand and effectively deploy a complex range of resources. Providing proper equipment to firefighters is also important. Personal protective equipment such as helmets, gloves, fire-resistant clothing, and safety boots should all be considered an essential part of the programme. The tools used should match the financial resources available to the programme but also need to be appropriate to the customs of the firefighters and be effective in the ecosystem. The strategic actions for fire preparedness include, but are not limited to: D.6.1 Preparedness plans should be developed that include all activities undertaken prior to the start of a fire;

D.6.2 Safety considerations, both for firefighters and the public, should be a key component of any preparedness plan;

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

23

D.6.3 Preparedness plans and organizations should be based on an effective and cost efficient mix of resources and organizations;

D.6.4 Preparedness plans should take into account ecological considerations such as the natural fire regime, impacts of suppression actions on the environment, and the role of fire in the ecosystem or cultural areas;

D.6.5 Plans should include processes and procedures to assess hazard and risk and determine appropriate response and mitigation actions;

D.6.6 Preparedness plan should be based on predicted fire risk, and staffing and availability levels identifies that correspond to the level of risk;

D.6.7 Preparedness plan should take into account the risk to communities and people living in outlying areas and include an assessment of their capabilities to protect their assets and assist fire services in all phases of fire management; and

D.6.8 All training should be developed to fit local ecological, social, and political conditions and be based on the same standards of competence for full-time, paid, volunteer, or other rural workers for the expected fire characteristics.

D.7 Pre-fire Season Activities There are additional activities that need to be undertaken prior to the beginning of the fire season. These could be characterized as preparedness actions, but are differentiated from the previous section, which are generally actions to prepare resources. These pre-fire season activities are cooperation actions with collaborators, contractors, and other groups or organizations in support of the fire management programme. In many areas where there is not a clearly defined fire season, these activities will take place prior to predicted periods of elevated fire danger. In many situations, entering into a formal agreement will provide clear understanding of the roles and responsibilities of all partners. The agreement can take the form of an enforceable contract or it may be a memorandum of understanding that states the general areas where cooperation and coordination will take place. Holding annual meetings can be included in the agreement. This can be a very effective method of communication that assures that all parties receive consistent information and come to agreement. The annual meeting can be expanded to include exercises and simulations, test communications equipment, and practice fire suppression techniques. Using a planned, cooperative approach will assure that consistent and complete information is provided to all personnel. The strategic actions for pre-fire season activities include, but are not limited to: D.7.1 All parties to an agreement should hold an annual, pre-fire season meeting to review the agreement and discuss changes and improvements to the annual operating plan;

D.7.2 Citizens, collaborators, and other affected members of the public should be informed of plans and procedures that provide for, or enhance, public safety;

D.7.3 Arrangements with other landowners should be developed when access through their property may be required for fire management activities, including fire detection; and

D.7.4 Agreements should be developed with utilities, transportation agencies, and other sectors that may be damaged by fire or fire suppression actions. The agreement should include actions to be taken by the collaborators to support the fire suppression effort or to protect firefighters and the public.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

24

D.8 Fire Detection, Communications, and Dispatching Fire detection is an important part of an effective fire management programme. Detecting fires can be accomplished in a variety of ways such as satellite imagery, fire observation towers, aerial surveillance, and lightning detection systems, or relying on the local population to monitor the area and report fires. When the local population understands the risk and damage of unwanted and severe fires and participates in a community-based fire management programme, they are a very effective part of the overall system. When fires are detected, effective communications are needed to provide firefighters and managers with information on location, size, and burning conditions. Dispatch centres receive information on fire ignitions and locations and also alert fire suppression personnel and dispatch them to individual fires. The dispatchers also monitor the fire situation and receive orders from the incident controller or commander on site for additional and back up resources. Communication with the public is needed to inform them of fire status and threats to the community. Local media - radio, television, and press - as well as other traditional methods of information dissemination need to be part of the total communication plan. The strategic actions for fire detection, communications and dispatching include, but are not limited to: D.8.1 A robust fire detection system should be established using an appropriate combination of remote sensing, established terrestrial locations, aerial routes, and private citizen networks;

D.8.2 A communication system should be in place for the reporting of fires from private citizens and agency personnel, alerting managers and supervisors, and dispatching initial attack and backup fire suppression resources; and

D.8.3 A communication plan should be provided to inform the public of threats, potential severe conditions, and provide prevention messages.

D.9 Initial Attack/Action Initial attack is the first suppression phase on a fire. The success of the entire fire management programme can be reflected in the success of the initial attack phase on any fire. If initial attack is successful most of the other programme elements will also be successful. Without planning, policies, detection, prevention, community involvement, fuel management, and sustainable ecosystems, the initial attack phase will not succeed. Initial attack strategies and tactics must be designed to fit the local situation. The strategies based on the local conditions, objectives for the area, and budgets will determine the number, type, kind, and location of a mix of resources: crews, engines, aircraft, and bull dozers. The fire management plan will also provide the firefighters with instructions on how fires are to be fought, whether some are to be allowed to burn for the benefit to the environment and resources, and what tactic should not be used to protect the ecosystems. The tactics for an individual fire must follow the policies for the area, and be part of the fire management plan. Each action on a fire must be based on expected fire behaviour and difficulty in controlling a fire, as well as the availability and effectiveness of the local forces. Not only is this strategically important but it is critical for the safety of the firefighter and the general public.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

25

There are several ways to provide for an initial attack capability. Groups or agencies can be formed, funded, staffed, and equipped by a government or other organization. Members of local communities can be established as a response group, organized and trained to be the first responders to fires. This can be an effective and efficient system. The volunteers may be part of an organization with a small core of permanently employed staff that performs maintenance and readiness activities. No matter how the initial attack crews are provided, adequate training and planning must be part of a programme where safety is the first consideration in all plans and actions. The strategic actions for initial attack/action include, but are not limited to: D.9.1 The initial attack organization should be properly trained, equipped, supported, and staffed to meet local requirements;

D.9.2 The initial attack organization should utilize local resources if possible in order to build support within the community for the fire management policies and plans and to gain from local knowledge and experience;

D.9.3 Initial attack organization should have access to communications systems in order to receive timely information on fire starts, locations, and status from official sources as well as from the public;

D.9.4 Initial attack organization should be trained and prepared for the transition activities required when fires escape and become large fires requiring the large fire suppression strategies and tactics to be formulated and applied across the incident;

D.9.5 Initial attack organization should be prepared for non-fire activities that must be undertaken such as evacuating private citizens, and based on legislative framework, trained in rescue and emergency medical procedures; and

D.9.6 Initial attack organization should be trained to prepare reports, collect data, and prepare evaluations that will assist in improving the organizational effectiveness and working with the media to keep citizens informed.

D.10 Large Fire Suppression and Management Management of large fires can be very different during the transition from the initial to the extended attack phase of fire suppression. A large fire event is not defined so much by the size of the fire, but by the duration. A fire in grasses and light fuel can spread to a relatively large size very quickly but the suppression techniques may not be different on a very small fire or a large fire. A fire that burns out quickly and does not exceed the capability of the initial to an extended attack organization may not require a change in strategy or tactics. In many ecosystems, large fires tend to become large due to an increase in fire intensity and rate of spread or area involved. When initial attack resources are unable to contain the fire during the initial action, a transition from initial to extended attack occurs as the fire continues to burn. A low intensity, slow spreading fire that is easily suppressed can transform quickly when environmental or meteorological conditions change. The initial attack resources may be unable to manage the fire due to inexperience and lack of training, or simply because they are few in number and are overwhelmed by the magnitude of the fire. While the complexity of the situation will require that the fire suppression personnel transition from the initial or extended attack to a large fire event, the agency should attempt to develop a system that does not require a complete change in the management and organization. ICS was developed specifically to be used on any type of incident at any level of complexity and is an effective fire management tool.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

26

At this point in a large fire response, crews and supervisors may be challenged to implement strategies and tactics that are unfamiliar and to implement a logistics and planning organization at a new and larger scale. All of this will be further complicated if communities and resources are threatened or destroyed and people are forced to evacuate. The strategic actions for large fire suppression and management include, but are not limited to: D.10.1 Plans and procedures should be established for large fire suppression that are based on the expected size, duration, and complexity;

D.10.2 A versatile and expandable management system, such as ICS, should be used for managing fires of all sizes and complexities in order to minimize confusion and risk during transition periods;

D.10.3 Pre-fire season agreements should be prepared that provide for assistance during large fires when local resources are fully committed;

D.10.4 A process of review, evaluation, and training should be in place to personnel recognize the conditions when a large fire is likely to occur and ascertain that prompt and adequate steps are taken in anticipation of the event; and

D.10.5 Plans should contain provisions for evaluating large fires to determine if some or all of the fire can be managed in a manner that benefits the ecosystem, reduces the risk to fire suppression personnel, and minimizes cost.

D.11 Fuel Management In this section fuel management refers to all methods of fuel treatment and alteration for any purpose: fire risk reduction, community protection, ecosystem restoration, or debris removal following logging or other activity. Mechanical treatments are those methods of moving, altering the arrangement, compacting, or any other manipulation of the fuel by either mechanized equipment or using crews to accomplish the work manually. Any activity that changes the arrangement or composition of the fuel should be considered in the fuel treatment programme. The application of chemicals and resource management activities such as grazing and timber harvesting will change the fuel bed. These actions should be planned and implemented in full consideration of the potential to change fire intensity, spread, and potential damage. One other example where fuel treatment activities can be an important part of a programme is in areas where homes and other buildings are adjacent to wildlands that are prone to fire. Homeowners can use a variety of methods, including carefully planned and implemented planned fires to remove brush and debris from areas adjacent to and around homes. Removing this combustible material will increase the chances that the homes and communities will survive a fire. While fuel treatment activities may not reduce the occurrence of a fire, it will almost certainly reduce the intensity and therefore increase the effectiveness of fire suppression tactics. The strategic actions for fuel management include, but are not limited to: D.11.1 A fuel management programme should be a part of a complete fire management programme;

D.11.2 A fire management programme should include fuel treatment activities to facilitate effective fire suppression and protection to communities and resources; and

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

27

D.11.3 Plans to use mechanized equipment should assess the potential for damage from the equipment and mitigate the potential for damage or be assured that the benefits outweigh the potential risks.

D.12 Planned Fire Planned fire is the use of fire in a planned and deliberate manner to meet specific management objectives. The fuel can be either live or dead. Some places categorize planned burning that is used to protect communities as a prevention activity. While that is a valid description of that situation, for this Code all types of planned fire are covered in this section. Planned fires are a very effective way to remove unwanted vegetation for a variety of objectives. Fire as a tool for agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and land clearing is well established and commonly practiced throughout the world. Fire is also important in maintaining healthy fire-dependent or fire-adapted ecosystems. In these ecosystems, natural fire has a beneficial role and should be encouraged or managed as part of the total fire management programme. The ecosystems and cultural areas where fire is common can be very resilient to the effects of fires. The flora and fauna may be rejuvenated by fire and not displaced or destroyed. If the goal is to maintain or restore sustainable ecosystems and cultural areas, then a programme to allow burning for restoration and rehabilitation should be part of the overall fire management plan. A critical part of any planned burning programme is mitigating the effects of smoke on populations. An effective smoke management programme will be crucial in areas with legal mandates to provide for clean air and protection of citizens from respiratory threats. Partnership with the weather forecasting service may be important since the service can issue forecasts specifically designed to assist the manager conducting the burn. The strategic actions for planned fire include, but are not limited to: D.12.1 The impacts on human health and air quality should be considered when conducting planned burns;

D.12.2 Plans should include consideration of the impacts of fire exclusion on resources, vegetation, and ecosystem health;

D.12.3 Based on the complexity and potential risk, a planned burn should be undertaken only after an adequate plan is developed that includes operational procedures for safe work practices, predicted environmental effects, and the expected fire behaviour that is needed to produce the predicted effects;

D.12.4 The results of the burns should be monitored, and recorded and used to revise operating plans, procedures, environmental parameters, and contingency plans; and

D.12.5 A contingency plan should address fires that have the potential to escape and damage resources, property, habitats, and communities or threaten the safety of agency personnel or private citizens.

D.13 Burned Area Restoration and Rehabilitation There are immediate rehabilitation actions that can be undertaken in conjunction with the fire suppression actions. A fire line constructed along a steep slope may be very prone to erosion and further damage if immediate steps to interrupt the flow of water are delayed. Fire suppression actions may damage the environment and need to be avoided. Many

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

28

actions that are effective in stopping a fire can severely impact other resources, such as soils, wetlands, habitats and vegetation. Many times the impacts are long term or can promote the spread of disease, weeds, and other exotic pests. Replanting and reseeding sensitive areas can stop the invasion by exotic and invasive species that would take advantage of a large expanse of exposed soil. In this case, the presence of the exotic species in the ecosystem may require actions that are unnecessary in areas without the exotic plant. Engaging suppression crews in rehabilitation activities can have the advantage of teaching the crews what suppression techniques are most damaging to the ecosystem, and in some cases, provide for the implementation of the mitigation measures to occur in conjunction with the suppression actions. For example, a crew using hand tools to construct fire lines can construct water bars along the fire line that will reduce the potential for erosion. In planted or natural forests where commercial activities are planned, the economic considerations may dictate an aggressive salvage and removal programme for damaged timber or other products and an extensive reforestation plan. In the context of the management plan for the area, the economics may be the overriding consideration when communities are dependent on the forests that provide a source of revenues and livelihoods. The strategic actions for burned area restoration and rehabilitation include, but are not limited to: D.13.1 Every burned area rehabilitation and restoration plan should be based on the planned or natural fire regime for the area and include actions that facilitate a restored and healthy sustainable ecosystem or cultural area;

D.13.2 Every fire suppression plan should consider the need for immediate corrective actions that will mitigate further damage resulting from the suppression action such as constructing fire breaks or other disturbance activity;

D.13.3 Consideration should be given to using plants, trees, and grasses that are native to the ecosystem and will not cause unexpected damage or consequences; and

D.13.4 Care should be taken to ensure that seeds are reasonably free from contaminants such as the seeds from invasive species.

D.14 Monitoring and Assessment Monitoring and assessment are important at several levels. Monitoring the effects of both the fires and the suppression activities is needed in order to plan for a balance between stopping the fire and protecting the resource. Monitoring the effectiveness of the fire organization will assist the managers in determining that the programme is working. Cost/benefit assessments are useful in assessing the effectiveness of various types of resources. Effective monitoring and assessment of the prevention programme can reduce the occurrence of the specifically identified types of fires and result in a reduction in the cost of suppressing fires. The strategic actions for monitoring and assessment include, but are not limited to: D.14.1 A comprehensive plan for monitoring and assessing all aspects of the fire management programme should be implemented;

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

29

D.14.2 A safety programme, including analysis of accident reports and a review of lessons learned should be implemented and monitored to reduce the risk to the firefighter and the public;

D.14.3 Information and data from the fire prevention programme should be used to develop a monitoring system that measures the effectiveness of fire prevention efforts; and

D.14.4 A programme for monitoring ecological effects from fire and from the suppression methods should be implemented, that includes cooperation with universities and other research organizations.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

30

Annex 1: Relevant Conventions, Agreements and Declarations

Conventions

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC);

• United Nations Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD);

• United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD);

• Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF, 1995-97) and Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF, 1997-2000) proposals for action and the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) recommendations (2000 to present);

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1975);

• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, I. R. Iran, 1971); and

• Other applicable rules of international law, including the respective obligations of Governments pursuant to international agreements to which they are party.

UN Declarations

• Millennium Declaration (UN General Assembly, New York, 2000) upholds human dignity, equity, poverty eradication, protection of the common environment, human rights, democracy, gender equality, good governance and the formation of a global partnership for development;

• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, New York, 2000); particularly Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women; Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability; and Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development;

• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and Agenda 21 adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Rio, 1992), in particular Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 on combating deforestation;

• The Tehran Process (Tehran, 1999) on sustainable forest management in low forest cover countries (LFCC);

• World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD, Johannesburg, 2002); Political Declaration, Commitment to Sustainable Development: Fight against natural disasters; Plan of Implementation (Chapter IV): Protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development; and

• World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction (Yokohama, Japan, 1994) and the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, 2005); Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World (1994) and Hyogo Framework for Action (2005), both providing a framework of strategic and systematic approaches to reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards.

Targeted Declarations Addressing Fire Research, Management and Policies The GFMC website for the International Wildland Fire Summit “Fire Management and Sustainable Development: Strengthening international cooperation to reduce the negative impacts of wildfires on humanity and the global environment” (Sydney, Australia, 8 October 2003)

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

31

http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/summit-2003/introduction.htm includes the outputs of the Summit as well as all preceding, targeted decisions, recommendations and outputs of earlier international conferences and other background materials, notably the:

• Recommendations of the Fire Community at the UN-IDNDR World Conference for Natural Disaster Reduction (Yokohama, Japan, 23-27 May 1994)

• Declaration of the 1995 Chapman Conference "Biomass Burning and Global Change" (Williamsburg, Virginia, USA, 13-17 March 1995)

• ECE/FAO/ILO Conference on "Forest, Fire, and Global Change" (Shushenskoe, Russian Federation, 4-9 August 1996)

• Second International Wildland Fire Conference (Vancouver, Canada, 25-30 May 1997)

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

32

Annex 2: Incident Command System This annex is a condensed and modified version of Paper 3, The Incident Management System written by Murray Dudfield, National Rural Fire Authority New Zealand, and Buck Latapie, United States Forest Service and adopted during the Wildland Fire Summit in Sydney, Australia in 2003. The full text of the original paper can be viewed at: http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/iffn_29/IWFS-3-Paper-3.pdf The complexity of incident management, coupled with the growing need for multi-agency involvement at incidents has increased the need for a standard inter-agency incident management system not only within a country/state but increasing internationally. It is becoming increasingly important to base any international agreements on a common incident management system.

The Incident Command System (ICS) may need to be adapted to suit a particular country’s existing political, administrative or cultural systems, customs and values. Where the primary purpose is to enhance emergency management within a country, such adaptations are not only beneficial, but may be essential to have the ICS system adopted. Given that ICS is a proven model in many countries and given that training materials for ICS are freely available, there is considerable benefit to be gained by a country adopting this system.

The ICS framework provides an effective forum for interagency emergency management issues to be addressed. By establishing a unified command of the respective agency/jurisdictional representatives together at a single interagency incident command location, the following advantages will be achieved:

� One set of objectives is developed for the entire incident. � A collective approach is made to developing strategies to achieve incident objectives. � Information flow and co-ordination is improved between all jurisdictions and agencies

involved in the incident. � All agencies with responsibility for the incident have an understanding of each other’s

priorities and restrictions. � No agency’s authority or legal requirement will be compromised or neglected. � Each agency is fully aware of the plan, actions, and constraints of other agencies. � The combined effects of all agencies are optimised as they perform their respective

assignments under a single Incident Action Plan. � Duplication of effort is reduced or eliminated thus reducing costs and the chance of

frustration and/or conflict. The ICS structure is based on the following principles: Common terminology: ICS terminology is standard and consistent among all of the agencies involved.

Modular organization: The ICS structure can be scaled up to multiple layers that are implemented to meet the complexity and extent of the incident.

Integrated communications: Integrated communications requires a common communications plan, standard operating procedures, clear text, common frequencies, and common terminology.

Consolidated Incident Action Plans: Incident Action Plans describe response goals, operational objectives, and support activities.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

33

Manageable span of control: A manageable span of control is defined as the number of individuals or functions one person can manage effectively. In ICS, the span of control for any person falls within a range of three to seven resources, with five being the optimum.

Designated incident facilities: It is important that there are designated incident facilities with clearly defined functions to assist in the effective management of an incident.

Comprehensive resource management: Comprehensive resource management is a means of organising the total resource across all organisations deployed at an incident, including maximizing personnel safety. The ICS organisation incident structure is built around four major components:

1. CONTROL – the management of the incident

2. PLANNING – the collection and analysis of incident information and planning of response activities

3. OPERATIONS – the direction of resources in combating the incident

4. LOGISTICS – the provision of facilities, services and materials required to combat the incident.

These four major structural components are the foundation upon which the ICS organisation is built. They apply during a routine emergency, when preparing for a major event, or when managing a response to a major disaster. The ICS structure can be expanded or contracted to manage any type and size of incident. Conclusions Safety, effectiveness and efficiency are achievable where a seamless integration of agencies is possible at an emergency for a local level incident as well a international deployment to assist a country in need. A globally implemented ICS will improve firefighter safety, efficiency and effectiveness in management response. ICS provides the model for command, control and co-ordination of an emergency response. It provides a means of co-ordinating the efforts of agencies as they work towards the common goal of stabilising an incident and protecting life, property, and the environment. It will also reduce the risk of agency overlap and potential confusion at an emergency through poor understanding and inadequate co-ordination.

It is critical that a common global incident management system is adopted that will enable any assistance to quickly function in an effective manner. ICS is that tool which can enable that goal to be achieved.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

34

Annex 3: Glossary

The following terms have been selected from the updated FAO terminology 1 biomass (1) The amount of living matter in a given habitat, expressed either as the weight of organisms per unit area or as the volume of organisms per unit volume of habitat. (2) Organic matter that can be converted to fuel and is therefore regarded as a potential energy source. Note: Organisms include plant biomass (phytomass) and animal biomass (zoomass). (3) In fire science the term biomass is often used synonymously with the term "fuel" and includes both living and dead phytomass (necromass); the zoomass is usually excluded. community-based fire management (CBFiM) Fire management approach based on the strategy to include local communities in the proper application of land-use fires (managed beneficial fires for controlling weeds, reducing the impact of pests and diseases, generating income from non-timber forest products, creating forage and hunting, etc.), wildfire prevention, and in preparedness and suppression of wildfires. CBFiM approaches can play a significant role in fire management, especially in most parts of the world where human-based ignitions are the primary source of wildfires that affect livelihood, health and security of people. The activities and knowledge communities generally practice are primarily those associated with prevention. They include planning and supervision of activities, joint action for prescribed fire and fire monitoring and response, applying sanctions, and providing support to individuals to enhance their fire management tasks. Communities can be an important, perhaps pivotal, component in large-scale fire suppression, but should not be expected to shoulder the entire burden. fire danger A general term used to express an assessment of both fixed and variable factors of the fire environment that determine the ease of ignition, rate of spread, difficulty of control, and fire impact; often expressed as an index. fire danger rating A component of a fire management system that integrates the effects of selected fire danger factors into one or more qualitative or numerical indices of current protection needs. fire exclusion Planned (systematic) protection of an ecosystem from any wildfire, including any prescribed fire, by all means of fire prevention and suppression in order to obtain management objectives. fire hazard (1) A fuel complex, defined by volume, type, condition, arrangement, and location, that determines the degree both of ease of ignition and of fire suppression difficulty; (2) a measure of that part of the fire danger contributed by the fuels available for burning. Note: Is worked out from their relative amount, type, and condition, particularly their moisture contents. fire management All activities required for the protection of burnable forest and other vegetation values from fire and the use of fire to meet land management goals and objectives. It involves the strategic integration of such factors as knowledge of fire regimes, probable fire effects, values-at-risk, level of forest protection required, cost of fire-related activities, and prescribed fire technology into multiple-use planning, decision making, and day-to-day activities to accomplish stated

1 For additional fire terms please refer to the revised FAO Wildland Fire Management Terminology:

http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/literature/glossary.htm Terms marked with * have been added to this glossary from other sources.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

35

resource management objectives. Successful fire management depends on effective fire prevention, detection, and pre-suppression, having an adequate fire suppression capability, and consideration of fire ecology relationships. fire management plan (1) A statement, for a specific area, of fire policy and prescribed action; (2) The systematic, technological, and administrative management process of determining the organization, facilities, resources, and procedures required to protect people, property, and forest areas from fire and to use fire to accomplish forest management and other land use objectives (cf. fire prevention plan or fire campaign, pre-suppression planning, pre-attack plan, fire suppression plan, end-of-season appraisal). fire pre-suppression Activities undertaken in advance of fire occurrence to help ensure more effective fire suppression; includes overall planning, recruitment and training of fire personnel, procurement and maintenance of fire fighting equipment and supplies, fuel treatment, and creating, maintaining, and improving a system of fuelbreaks, roads, water sources, and control lines. fire prevention All measures in fire management, fuel management, forest management, forest utilization and concerning the land users and the general public, including law enforcement, that may result in the prevention of outbreak of fires or the reduction of fire severity and spread. fire protection All actions taken to limit the adverse environmental, social, political, cultural and economical effects of fire. fire regime The patterns of fire occurrence, size, and severity - and sometimes, vegetation and fire effects as well - in a given area or ecosystem. It integrates various fire characteristics. A natural fire regime is the total pattern of fires over time that is characteristic of a natural region or ecosystem. The classification of fire regimes includes variations in ignition, fire intensity and behaviour, typical fire size, fire return intervals, and ecological effects.

fire regime types * fire-dependent ecosystems - Fire is essential in maintaining predominant ecosystem composition, structure, function and extent. If fire is removed, or if a fire regime is altered beyond its historical range of variability, the ecosystem changes to something else; dependent species and their habitats decline or disappear. Vegetation is fire-prone and highly flammable. Ecosystem structure and plant architecture facilitate fire spread. Also known as fire-maintained ecosystems. Boundaries between fire-dependent and fire-independent ecosystems are largely determined by the relative continuity of burnable fuels or probability of fire-enabling climatic conditions. fire-sensitive ecosystems - Ecosystem structure and composition tend to inhibit ignition and fire spread. The majority of species generally lack adaptations to respond positively to fire. Fire can influence ecosystem structure, relative abundance of species, and/or limit ecosystem extent, or may occur naturally very infrequently or during extreme climatic events. Fire may create habitats for key species by creating gaps, regeneration niches, or by initiating or affecting succession. If fires are too frequent or too large, they can be damaging and cause ecosystem shifts to more fire-prone vegetation. Some fire-sensitive ecosystems are also known as fire-influenced, particularly those adjacent to fire-dependent ecosystems.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

36

fire-independent ecosystems – Fires characteristically would not occur because of a lack of fuel and/or ignition sources. Fire regimes can be altered by a change in fuels (e.g., invasive species) or ecologically- inappropriate human-caused ignitions.

fire season (1) Period(s) of the year during which fires are likely to occur and affect resources sufficiently to warrant organized fire management activities; (2) a legally enacted time during which burning activities are regulated by state or local authority. fire suppression All activities concerned with controlling and extinguishing a fire following its detection (syn. fire control, fire fighting). fire weather Weather conditions which influence fire ignition, behaviour, and suppression. Weather parameters are dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, precipitation, atmospheric stability, winds aloft. fuel All combustible organic material in forests and other vegetation types, including agricultural bio-mass such as grass, branches and wood, infrastructure in urban interface areas; which create heat during the combustion process. fuel management Act or practice of controlling flammability and reducing resistance to control of fuels through mechanical, chemical, biological, or manual means, or by fire, in support of land management objectives. fuel reduction Manipulation, including combustion, or removal of fuels to reduce the likelihood of ignition, the potential fire intensity, and/or to lessen potential damage and resistance to control. Incident Command System A standardized on-scene emergency management concept specifically designed to allow its user(s) to adopt an integrated organizational structure equal to the complexity and demands of single or multiple incidents, without being hindered by jurisdictional boundaries. prescribed burning Controlled application of fire to vegetation in either their natural or modified state, under specified environmental conditions which allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to attain planned resource management objectives (cf. prescribed fire). Note: This term has replaced the earlier term "controlled burning". prescribed fire A management-ignited fire or a wildfire that burns within prescription, i.e. the fire is confined to a predetermined area and produces the fire behaviour and fire characteristics required to attain planned fire treatment and/or resource management objectives. The act or procedure of setting a prescribed fire is called prescribed burning (cf. prescribed burning). A wildfire burning within prescription may result from a human-caused fire or a natural fire (cf. prescribed natural fire, wildfire). prescribed natural fire

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

37

Naturally ignited fires , such as those started by lightning, which are further used to burn under specific management prescriptions without initial fire suppression and which are managed to achieve resource benefits under close supervision (cf. prescribed fire, wildfire). prescription Written statement defining the objectives to be attained as well as the conditions of temperature, humidity, wind direction and speed, fuel moisture, and soil moisture, under which a fire will be allowed to burn. A prescription is generally expressed as acceptable ranges of the prescription elements, and the limit of the geographic area to be covered. rehabilitation The activities necessary to repair damage or disturbance caused by wildfire or the wildfire suppression activity (cf. restoration). residential / wildland interface The transition zone between residential areas and wildlands or vegetated fuels (cf. urban/wildland interface. restoration Restoration of biophysical capacity of ecosystems to previous (desired) conditions. Restoration includes rehabilitation measures after fire, or prescribed burning where certain fire effects are desired (cf. rehabilitation, reclamation burning). risk (1) The probability of fire initiation due to the presence and activity of a causative agent. (2) A causative agent. smoke management The application of knowledge of fire behaviour and meteorological processes to minimize air quality degradation during prescribed fires. urban / wildland interface The transition zone (1) between cities and wildland (cf. urban, wildland, wildland fire), (2) where structures and other human development meets undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels (syn. residential/wildland interface, wildland/urban interface, rural urban interface). wildfire (1) Any unplanned and uncontrolled fire which regardless of ignition source may require suppression response, or other action according to agency policy. (2) Any free burning fire unaffected by fire suppression measures which meets management objectives (cf. wildland, wildland fire, prescribed natural fire, prescribed fire).

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

38

Annex 4: Bibliography Note: The following bibliography does not intend to provide an all-embracing list of sources. It rather aims to facilitate the search for literature on wildland fire ecology, history, management and related fields such as atmospheric chemistry, climatology, and remote sensing. The list includes major monographs, sourcebooks, and several peer-reviewed journal publications with references to a broad secondary literature, and well as internet portals facilitating a literature search. Fire Ecology Bond, W.J., and B.W. van Wilgen. 1996. Fire and plants. Population and Community Biology Series 14. Chapman and Hall, London, 263 pp. Bond, W. J., F.I. Woodward, and G.F. Midgley. 2004. The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist, doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01252.x, 1-12. Brooks, M.L., C.M. D’Antonio, D.M. Richardson, J.B. Grace, J.E. Keeley, J.M. Ditomaso, R.J. Hobbs, M. Pellant, and D. Pyke. 2004. Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. BioScience 54, 677-688.

Booysen, P. de V., and N.M. Tainton (eds.) 1984. Ecological effects of fire in south African Ecosystems. Ecol. Studies 48, Springer, Berlin, 426 p. Gill, A.M., R.H. Groves and I.R. Noble (eds.) 1981. Fire and the Australian biota. Austr. Acad. Sci., Canberra,582p. Goldammer, J.G., and M.J. Jenkins (eds.) 1990. Fire and ecosystem dynamics. Mediterranean and northern perspectives. SPB Academic Publishers, The Hague. 199 p. Goldammer, J.G. (ed.) 1990. Fire in the tropical biota. Ecosystem processes and global challenges. Ecological Studies 84. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 497 p. Goldammer, J.G. (ed.) 1992a. Tropical forests in transition. Ecology of natural and anthropogenic disturbance processes. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel-Boston, 270 p. Goldammer, J.G., and V.V. Furyaev (eds.) 1996. Fire in ecosystems of boreal Eurasia. Kluwer Acad. Publ., The Hague. 528 p. Johnson, E.A., and K. Miyanishi (eds.). 2001. Forest fires. Behaviour and ecological effects. Academic Press, San Diego, 594 p. Kozlowski, T.T. and C.E. Ahlgren (eds.) 1974. Fire and ecosystems. Academic Press, New York, 542 p. Trabaud, L. (ed.) 1987. The role of fire in ecological systems. SPB Academic Publishers, The Hague, 157 p. van Wilgen, B., M.O. Andreae, J.G. Goldammer, and J. Lindesay (eds.) 1997. Fire in Southern African savannas. Ecological and atmospheric perspectives. The University of Witwatersrand Press, Johannesburg, South Africa, 256 p. Wein, R.W. and D.A. MacLean (eds.) 1983. The role of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 322 p.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

39

Whelan, R.J. 1995. The ecology of fire. Cambridge Studies in Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), 346 pp. Wright, H.A. and A.W. Bailey 1982. Fire ecology. United States and Southern Canada. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 501 p. Fire History Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America. Princeton Univ. Press. 654 p. Pyne, S.J. 1991. Burning bush. A fire history of Australia. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 520 p. Pyne, S.J. 1995. World fire. Henry Holt, New York, 379 p. Pyne, S.J. 1997. Vestal Fire. An environmental history, told through fire, of Europe and Europe's encounter with the World. University of Washington Press, 680 p. Atmospheric Chemistry, Climatology, Remote Sensing Ahern, F., J.G. Goldammer, and C. Justice (eds.). 2001. Global and regional vegetation fire monitoring from space: Planning a coordinated international effort. SPB Academic Publishing bv, The Hague, The Netherlands, 302 p. Clark, J.S., H. Cachier, J.G. Goldammer, and B.J. Stocks (eds.). 1997. Sediment records of biomass burning and global change. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 489 p. Crutzen, P.J., and J.G. Goldammer (eds.) 1993. Fire in the environment: The ecological, atmospheric, and climatic importance of vegetation fires. Dahlem Workshop Reports. Environmental Sciences Research Report 13. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 400 p. Goldammer, J.G., and V.V. Furyaev (eds.) 1996. Fire in ecosystems of boreal Eurasia. Kluwer Acad. Publ., The Hague. 528 p. Innes, J., M. Beniston and M.M. Verstraete (eds.). 2000. Biomass Burning and its Interrelationships with the Climate System. Kluwer Acad. Publ. van Wilgen, B., M.O. Andreae, J.G. Goldammer, and J. Lindesay (eds.) 1997. Fire in Southern African savannas. Ecological and atmospheric perspectives. The University of Witwatersrand Press, Johannesburg, South Africa, 256 p. Fire Management Brown, A.A., and K.P. Davis 1973. Forest fire. Control and use. McGraw Hill, New York, 686 p. Chandler, C. et al. 1983: Fire in forestry. Vol. I and II. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 450 + 298 p. Heikkilä, T.V., R. Grönqvist, and M. Jurvélius 1993. Handbook on forest fire control. A guide for trainers. Forestry Training Programme (FTP) Publication 21, Helsinki, Finland, 239 p.

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

40

Pyne, S.J., P.J. Andrews, and R.D. Laven. 1996. Introduction to wildland fire. Second edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York-Chichester, 769 pp. Teie, C.W. 1997. Fire Officer´s Handbook on wildland firefighting. Deer Valley Press, 601 p. Teie, C.W. 2003. Fire Manager´s Handbook on Veld and Forest Fires - Strategy, Tactics and Safety. South African Edition (edited by Christiaan F. Pool). Southern African Institute of Forestry, 488 p. International Fire Management Guidelines: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2002. Guidelines on Fire Management in Temperate and Boreal Forests. Forest Protection Working Papers, Working Paper FP/1/E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome Goldammer, J.G., and C.de Ronde (eds.). 2004. Wildland Fire Management Handbook for Sub-Sahara Africa. Global Fire Management Center and Oneworldbooks, Freiburg – Cape Town. International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 1997. ITTO Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests. ITTO Policy Development Series No.6. ITTO, Yokohama, 40 p. Schwela, D.H., J.G. Goldammer, L.H. Morawska, and O. Simpson. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Guideline document. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Double Six Press, Singapore, 291 p. Goh, K.T., D.H. Schwela, J.G. Goldammer, and O. Simpson. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Background Papers. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Namic Printers, Singapore, 498 p. Schwela, D.H., L.H. Morawska, and Abu Bakar bin Jafar. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Teachers' Guide. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Double Six Press, Singapore, 114 p. International Web Portals for Wildland Fire Management Literature: General

http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de Glossaries http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/literature/glossary.htm Fire Management Guidelines http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/literature/Fire-Management.htm International Association of Wildland Fire http://www.iawfonline.org/ Online Publications, Libraries and Bibliographies

DRAFT: 14 July 2006

41

http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/literature/onl_pub.htm U.S. Fire Information Systems and Software Products http://fire.org/ The Nature Conservancy Fire Initiative

http://www.tncfire.org