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ROLE OF THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD IN DESTABILISING THE MIDDLE EAST

INTRODUCTION

The Muslim Brotherhood is a controversial organisation both in the Muslim world and in the West. Although the Brotherhood enjoys widespread popular support in parts of the Muslim world because of its many social outreach programs, it is nonetheless controversial in large parts of the Muslim world because of its goal to re-establish a global Islamic caliphate governed by Sharia (i.e., Islamic law) in opposition to the current system of individual Muslim nation-states, many of which have included distinctly western (i.e., non-Islamic) precepts in their governing documents, such as democratic elections and individual rights.

The Brotherhood is controversial in the West because it denies basic democratic

principles, such as, separation of church (mosque) and state, the legal equality of men and women, tolerance of other religions, tolerance of speech with which one disagrees, etc. In the recent Arab Spring, the Brotherhood took advantage of the popular desire for change aimed at authoritarian rulers in the Middle East by capitalising on the public unrest to expand its own influence.

A case in point is the rise to power of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. The Muslim

Brotherhood succeeded in Egypt, not because the majority of Egyptians wanted to revert to a stricter Islamic form of government, but because the Brotherhood was the organisation best situated to attain power. Non-Brotherhood opponents of the Mubarak regime responded spontaneously against the regime, but did not have the organisational structure to compete with the Brotherhood. Accordingly, the already well-organised Brotherhood dominated the post-Mubarak elections. Once in power, the Brotherhood, true to its Islamist beliefs in Islamic supremacy, began to impose its views of what an Islamic government and society should be. Imposing its view of government and society on a country which had not sought such a result, in turn, alienated large parts of the Egyptian population, creating chaos and instability in the country, which led ultimately to a military coup d’état by the Egyptian armed forces to remove the Brotherhood from power.

I. Founding Principles of the Muslim Brotherhood.

The Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin) was founded in 1928 by Hassan

al-Banna as a religious and socio-political movement to fight against the decline of the Muslim ummah (global community of Muslims); to resist the “Western cultural invasion” in the Muslim world, especially the work of Christian missionaries; and to revive the caliphate

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(global Islamic state) as a means to return to the true teachings of Islam1. “[D]eeply disturbed by effects of Westernization”2, in that they had “penetrated the very fabric of [Muslim] society”3, al-Banna “believed that this trend could be reversed only by returning to an unadulterated form of Islam”4. As such, he “advocated a return to Islam as a solution to the ills that had befallen Muslim societies”5. According to al-Banna,

Islam does not recognize geographical boundaries, no[r] does i[t] acknowledge racial and blood differences, considering all Muslims as one Umma. The Muslim Brethren consider this unity as holy and believe in this union, striving for the joint action of all Muslims and the strengthening of the brotherhood of Islam, declaring that every inch of land inhabited by Muslims is their fatherland…. The Muslim Brethren do not oppose every one’s [sic] working for one’s own fatherland. They believe that the caliphate is a symbol of Islamic Union and an indication of the bonds between the nations of Islam. They see the caliphate and its re-establishment as a top priority6.

Although this caliphate would begin in nations that traditionally identify with Islam,

al-Banna’s statement that “[i]t is in the nature of Islam to dominate, not to be dominated, to impose its law on all nations and to extend its power to the entire planet”7 informs one that the Muslim Brotherhood’s goal is to expand the caliphate into a global government.

The Brotherhood’s initial approach was to peacefully reform society through

“propagating the Islamic message” and “sponsoring social welfare projects”8. Later, it adopted a more militant stance9, reflected in statements by al-Banna which “clearly asserted that he would not hesitate to use violence if he were forced to do so, or when the [Brotherhood was] ready to seize power”10. As such, the Brotherhood’s goal is to establish the Islamic caliphate that will enforce Sharia law on the entire earth by any means possible11.

Another influential leader of the Muslim Brotherhood was Sayyid Qutb, whose

writings not only helped to further the ideologies of the Brotherhood, but were also adopted as the foundation of al-Qaeda’s ideology12. Qutb’s concept of jahiliyya (the idea that the entire world, including some who call themselves Muslims, is living in ignorance13) excludes many self-professing Muslims. He distinguished those who lived under “God’s Sharia” from

1Zhyntativ, Hasan Al-Banna and His Political Thought of Islamic Brotherhood, IKHWANWEB (13 May 2008, 5:17 PM), http://www.ikhwanweb.com/article .php?id=17065. 2Id. 3Id. 4Id. 5Id. 6Id. 7HOVEYDA, FEREYDOUN, THE BROKEN CRESCENT: THE ‘THREAT’ OF MILITANT ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM 56 (1998). 8Zhyntativ, supra note 1. 9Id. 10Id. 11Id.; see infra text accompanying notes 16–29. 12Steven G. Zenishek, Sayyid Qutb’s “Milestones” and Its Impact on the Arab Spring, SMALL WARS JOURNAL (9 May 2013), http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/sayyid-qutb%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cmilestones %E2% 80%9D-and-its-impact-on-the-arab-spring. 13William E. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Jahiliyya, 35 INT. J. OF MIDDLE E. STUDIES 521, 521 (2003).

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those who lived under a Sharia “invented by humans”14. Consequently, Qutb’s ideas divided Muslims, and he was eventually executed by the Egyptian government in 196615.

II. Establishment of the Global Caliphate is the Top Priority.

Consistent with al-Banna’s and Qutb’s teachings, the Brotherhood’s goal of

establishing the global Islamic caliphate is reflected in its bylaws16. In the Chapter titled “Objectives and Means,” the Brotherhood states that “the Muslim Brotherhood is an international Muslim Body, which seeks to establish Allah’s law in the land by achieving the spiritual goals of Islam and the true religion”17. Among the “spiritual goals of Islam” listed in the bylaws are: 1) “to inform the masses, Muslim and non-Muslims of Islamic teachings”18; 2) “to [establish] the universality of Islam”19; 3) “to present the true teachings of Islam and communicate its ideas to the world”20; 4) to “unify humankind into the fundamental principles of Islam”21; and 5) “build a new basis of human civilization [according to the] teachings of Islam”22. These goals and aspirations, if only limited to spiritual jihad (struggle), would not be as problematic. Yet, the bylaws go on to state that “[t]he Islamic nation [ummah] must be fully prepared to fight the tyrants and the enemies of Allah as a prelude to establishing an Islamic state [caliphate]”23.

To accomplish its goal of establishing the caliphate, the Brotherhood seeks “to

liberate the Islamic nation [ummah] from the yoke of foreign rule . . . and unite Muslims around the world”24. The concept of “liberating the Islamic nation from the yoke of foreign rule,” when analysed in light of al-Banna’s principles and the Islamic teachings, seems to be twofold. First, it means cleansing the Muslim ummah from Western influence and going back to the true teachings of Islam within Muslim countries. Second, it means recapturing the lands that were once under Muslim control in order to achieve the ultimate goal of enforcing Allah’s law on the entire earth.

Islam divides the world into two competing camps, dar-al-Islam (house of Islam) and

dar-al-harb (house of war)25. Dar-al-Islam includes nations and territories that are under the control of Muslims and where the highest authority is Sharia law26. Dar-al-harb includes countries or territories that are under the control of non-Muslims and where Allah’s law is not

14Id. at 524. 15John Calvert, The Afterlife of Sayyid Qutb, FOREIGN POLICY (14 Dec. 2010), http://mideastafrica.foreignpolicy .com/posts/2010/12/14/the_afterlife_of_sayyid_qutb. 16The International Muslim Brotherhood’s bylaws were at one time posted on the Muslim Brotherhood’s English website, Ikhwanweb: The Muslim Brotherhood’s Official English Website, but have been removed since February 2011. Fortunately, The Investigative Project on Terrorism captured a screenshot of the Brotherhood’s bylaws before they were removed. The Investigative Project on Terrorism makes the bylaws available in PDF format at this web address: http://www.investigativeproject.org/documents/misc/673.pdf. 17Bylaws of the International Muslim Brotherhood (art. 2) (emphasis added), available at http://www. investigative project.org/documents/misc/673.pdf. 18Id. at art. 2(A). 19Id. 20Id. at art. 2(E). 21Id. at art. 2(B). 22Id. at art. 2(G). 23Id. at art. 3(E). 24Id. at art. 2(E). 25MAJID KHADDURI, WAR AND PEACE IN THE LAW OF ISLAM 156 (1955). 26Id. at 155.

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the highest authority27. As such, dar-al-Islam is in a constant state of conflict with the dar-al-harb until the dar-al-harb is transformed into dar-al-Islam (i.e., until all land is conquered for Allah and Allah’s law becomes the highest authority over all the Earth)28. Thus, consistent with al-Banna’s principles, the Brotherhood’s bylaws indicate that non-Muslim influence over or control of prior Muslim lands (such as the State of Israel) that were once part of the dar-al-Islam is unacceptable and “[t]he Islamic nation [the Muslim ummah] must be fully prepared to fight tyrants and the enemies of Allah as a prelude to establishing an Islamic state”29. In addition, the dar-al-Islam must be purified from Western influence. Accordingly, the Muslim Brotherhood is active in the Middle East and elsewhere either directly or through affiliate organisations. Although it publically renounced violence in 1970, the Muslim Brotherhood has, nonetheless, employed means across the entire spectrum of jihad, from personal spiritual struggle, to employing political means, to overt violence. As a result, the Muslim Brotherhood has played a major role in destabilizing the Middle East as it opposes even Muslim states and governments that it does not consider to be pure in following Islam.

III. The Brotherhood’s Goal to Establish the Caliphate Displayed in the Arab Spring.

As public protests spread across the Arab world in 2011 in a popular struggle for democratic rights, the Brotherhood saw an opportunity to attain power. Yet, as the events unfolded and the Brotherhood did gain power, it became readily apparent that the Muslim Brotherhood and its principles could not co-exist with democratic values that many Arab Spring protesters sought. In fact, the Brotherhood simply utilized the democratic election process to gain power, in order to purify society and impose Sharia, something the more moderate Muslim protesters did not anticipate or desire.

A. Egypt. In February 2011, Hosni Mubarak was pressured to resign from the Egyptian

presidency due to widespread, daily protests calling for his resignation. These protesters cited corruption, economic hardship, an emergency law that allowed arrests to be made without charge, and a general plea for freedom as the source of their frustration with the Mubarak regime30. In response to these protests, Mubarak handed over power to the Egyptian military31. Egyptians then called for a democratic election to elect the next president32.

Initially, the Brotherhood announced that it would not field a candidate for president

to allay fears that the Brotherhood might seize political power33. After Mubarak’s resignation, however, the Brotherhood organised the Freedom and Justice Party, which fielded candidates for parliament and won nearly half of the lower house of Egypt’s parliament in February

27Id. at 170. 28Id. at 53. 29Bylaws of the International Muslim Brotherhood, at 3(E) (emphasis added). 30Kareem Fahim, Violent Clashes Mark Protests Against Mubarak’s Rule, N.Y. TIMES (25 Jan. 2011), http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/world/middleeast/26egypt.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 31Hosni Mubarak Resigns as President, AL JAZEERA, (11 Feb. 2011), http://www.aljazeera.com/news/ middleeast/2011/02/201121125158705862.html. 32Ian Johnston, ‘We Want to live ... like human beings’: Egyptians Vote in First Democratic Presidential Election, NBC WORLD NEWS (23 May 2012), http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/05/23/11823826-we-want-to-live-like-human-beings-egyptians-vote-in-first-democratic-presidential-election?lite. 33Mohamed Fadel Fahmy, Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood to Run Candidates for Half of Parliament, CNN (30 Apr. 2011), http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/04/30/egypt.muslim.brotherhood.candidates/.

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201234. Emboldened by its parliamentary victory, the Brotherhood changed its position and decided to field a candidate—ultimately Mohammed Morsi—for president35. Morsi won the presidency in June 201236. Although Morsi resigned from the Muslim Brotherhood upon his election, he retained close ties to the Brotherhood37.

In June 2012, the Egyptian Parliament, dominated by the Muslim Brotherhood,

appointed members to the Constituent Assembly which was tasked with rewriting the Egyptian constitution38. Many questioned the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly because of its predominately Islamist makeup39. In protest, minority representatives within the Constituent Assembly boycotted many of the sessions—allowing the Islamic majority even more leeway in drafting an Islamic constitution40. As a result, forty-three separate lawsuits were brought before the Supreme Constitutional Court, challenging the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly41.

Many expected the court to dissolve the Constituent Assembly. In November 2012,

however, before the Supreme Constitutional Court could issue a ruling, Morsi published a declaration that the Constituent Assembly could not be dissolved.42 Furthermore, Morsi declared that, while the constitution was being written, he had “‘power to take all necessary measures and procedures’ against any potential threat to the revolution”43 and that his laws and decrees would be “final and binding and [could] not be appealed by any way or to any entity”44. Immediately following Morsi’s declaration, violence broke out between Morsi supporters and opponents that resulted in three dead and over five-hundred injured45.

In December 2012, Morsi called for a referendum on the draft Constitution “despite

persistent street clashes, a boycott by judges who normally oversee polling stations, and stinging criticisms of the draft by, among others, prominent Islamist-leaning lawyers”46. The constitution passed in December 2012, declaring that Islamic Sharia would be the main 34Mathew Disler, The Muslim Brotherhood and Political Power, THE HARVARD INSTITUTE OF POLITICS, http:// www.iop.harvard.edu/muslim-brotherhood-and-political-power, (last visited 23 June 2014). 35Fahmy, supra note 33. 36Egypt Election Results: Mohammed Morsi, Muslim Brotherhood Candidate, Announced President, THE WORLD POST (25 June 2012), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/24/egypt-election-results-morsi-president_n_1622133.html. 37David D. Kirkpatrick, Named Egypt’s Winner, Islamist Makes History, N.Y. TIMES (24 June 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/25/world/middleeast/mohamed-morsi-of-muslim-brotherhood-declared-as-egypts-president.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 38Ayman Mohyeldin, Analysis: Who’s Afraid of the Egyptian Constitution?, TIME (05 Dec. 2012), http://ideas. time.com/2012/12/05/viewpoint-whos-afraid-of-the-egyptian-constitution/. 39Marina Ottaway, Egypt: Death of the Constituent Assembly?, CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE (13 June 2012), http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/06/13/egypt-death-of-constituent-assembly/brzn. 40Egypt power struggle: Assembly Backs Draft Constitution, BBC NEWS (30 Nov. 2012), http://www.bbc.com/news/ world-middle-east-20551575. 41Id. 42Q&A: Egypt Constitutional Crisis, BBC NEWS (24 Dec. 2012), http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-20554079.43David D. Kirkpatrick, Citing Deadlock, Egypt’s Leader Seizes New Power and Plans Mubarak Retrial, N.Y. TIMES (22 Nov. 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/23/world/middleeast/egypts-president-morsi-gives-him self-new-powers.html?_r=0. 44Alexander Marquardt, Egyptians Protest President Morsi’s Power Grab, ABC NEWS (27 Nov. 2012). http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/11/egyptians-protest-presidents-power-grab/. 45Id. 46A Flawed Constitution Will be Endorsed, But the Argument is Far From Over, THE ECONOMIST (22 Dec. 2012), http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21568756-flawed-constitution-will-be-endorsed-argument-far-over.

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source of legislation and Sharia would be interpreted under established Sunni scholarship47. Many saw the constitution as an attempt by the Brotherhood to pave the way for a strict adherence to traditional Salafi Islamic interpretation48.

Unrest continued until June 2013, as protesters called to overthrow Morsi because

they saw that the Brotherhood had “hijack[ed] Egypt’s revolution and us[ed] electoral victories to monopolize power and impose Islamic law”49. In June, clashes between opposition groups and Muslim Brotherhood supporters of Morsi became more violent50. As protests grew, the army issued a forty-eight hour ultimatum to Morsi to comply with the popular demand or the army would assume power51.

Morsi did not respond so the military intervened, arresting Morsi and many

Brotherhood leaders52. Since Morsi was ousted by the military, the Muslim Brotherhood has been designated a terrorist organisation by the Egyptian government, and 683 Brotherhood members have been sentenced to death for inciting riots and violence53. In response to Morsi’s ouster, Brotherhood leaders have advocated and engaged in violent protests54, including violence against Coptic Christians whom the Brotherhood accused of supporting Morsi’s ouster55. Reports indicate that Brotherhood supporters “burned at least 44 churches and ransacked more than 20 other Christian institutions throughout Egypt” in response to the military takeover56.

Although Egypt recently elected General Abdel el-Sisi as president, there is continued

unrest within Egypt57. The Brotherhood has declared the election of el-Sisi to be wholly null

47David D. Kirkpatrick, Eqypt Opposition Gears Up After Constitution Passes, N.Y. TIMES (23 Dec. 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/24/world/middleeast/as-egypt-constitution-passes-new-fights-lie-ahead.html?_ r=0. 48Clark Lombardi & Nathan J. Brown, Islam in Egypt’s New Constitution, FOREIGN POLICY (13 Dec. 2012), http:// mideastafrica.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/12/13/islam_in_egypts_new_constitution. 49Sgaimaa Fayed & Yasmine Saleh, Millions Flood Egypt’s Streets to Demand Mursi Quit, REUTERS (30 Jun. 2013), http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/30/us-egypt-protests-idUSBRE95Q0NO20130630. 50Egypt Protests Turn Violent, AL JAZEERA (8 Feb. 2013), http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/02/ 201328173524471174.html. 51Richard Falk, The Armed Forces Ultimatum and the Future of Egypt, AL JAZEERA (2 July 2013), http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/07/201372143550404912.html. 52Patrick Kingsley & Martin Chulov, Mohamed Morsi Ousted in Egypt’s Second Revolution in Two Years, THE GUARDIAN (3 July 2013), http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/mohamed-morsi-egypt-second-revolution. 53Egyptian Court Confirms Death Penalty for Muslim Brotherhood Defendants, N.Y. TIMES (21 June 2014), http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/world/middleeast/egyptian-court-confirms-death-penalty-for-muslim-brotherhood-defendants.html. 54Karl Vick, The Muslim Brotherhood’s Outrage: Protest and Gunfire Follow Morsi’s Ousting, TIME (5 July 2013), http://world.time.com/2013/07/05/the-muslim-brotherhoods-outrage-protests-and-gunfire-follow-morsis-ousting/. 55Raymond Ibrahim, In Egypt, Media Sympathizes with Muslim Brotherhood, Persecution of Christians Ignored, NATIONAL REVIEW ONLINE (14 Aug. 2013), http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/355821/egypt-media-sympathizes-muslim-brotherhood-persecution-christians-ignored-raymond. 56Daria Solovieva, Egypt’s Coptic Christians Face Unprecedented Reprisals from the Muslim Brotherhood, THE WASHINGTON TIMES (20 Aug. 2013), http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/aug/20/egypts-coptic-christians-face-unprecedented-repris/?page=all. 57Egypt’s New Government Sworn in by Sisi, AL JAZEERA (17 June 2014), http://www.aljazeera. com/news/middleeast/2014/06/egypt-new-government-sworn-sisi-20146175152575861.html.

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and void and still supports the presidency of Morsi58. One Brotherhood member stated of el-Sisi’s election:

With the inauguration of the traitor today, the countdown has begun for Sisi’s downfall and ouster. Now, Sisi is officially the top coup commander. He must bear the consequences of crimes committed in order for him to reach this moment which he admittedly had coveted for so long – to be president, even if it is at the expense of thousands of families who lost their loved ones, either by death, injury or absence in prison unjustly59.

B. Saudi Arabia.

Even the well-established Islamic Saudi Kingdom distrusts the Muslim Brotherhood. This distrust of the Brotherhood by governments that do not conform to Brotherhood ideology is displayed by Saudi Arabia’s recent condemnation of the Muslim Brotherhood60. Although the Saudis have supported the Brotherhood in the past—even in times when the Brotherhood was banned in Egypt—recent activity by the Brotherhood has given the Saudi kingdom reason to fear the organisation61. The Saudis fear the Brotherhood’s goal of ushering in a global Islamic caliphate: “Riyadh feared that the group, now empowered, would try to export the Egyptian revolution regionwide, calling for action against the House of Saud and displacing Saudi’s friends and allies such as the UAE”62. The Saudis have labeled the Brotherhood a terrorist organisation and have even stated that the Brotherhood is the “source of all evils in the [Saudi] Kingdom”63.

CONCLUSION

The persistent Muslim Brotherhood ideology of establishing a global caliphate governed by a strict interpretation of Sharia, as displayed in the Brotherhood’s founding, its bylaws, and its actions, contributes to overall instability in the Middle East. Although democratic values contradict the Brotherhood’s principles, the Brotherhood used the democratic process to attain power and enforce its radical ideology.

Islam is not a monolith, especially not in the Middle East. The Sunni-Shia divide

within the Muslim world is just one facet of the range of competing ideologies within Islam. As seen during the Arab Spring, there are many Muslims who do not share the views and goals of the Brotherhood and who want to live in a peaceful, democratic society. Not every Muslim (especially younger, more moderate Muslims) subscribes to the idea of establishing the Islamic caliphate under which Sharia is the law of the land. Therefore, it is not surprising that other Muslims in Egypt and elsewhere reject the Brotherhood’s power advances.

58Muslim Brotherhood to Al-Sisi: Election Wholly Null and Void, IKHWANWEB (5 June 2014), http://www. ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=31667. 59Muslim Brotherhood Leader Heshmat: Revolution Continues Until Coup Defeat, IKHWANWEB (9 June 2014), http://www.ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=31670. 60Stéphane Lacroix, Saudi Arabia’s Muslim Brotherhood Predicament, WASHINGTON POST (20 Mar. 2014), http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/20/saudi-arabias-muslim-brotherhood-predicament/. 61Id. 62William McCants, Islamist Outlaws, FOREIGN AFFAIRS (17 Mar. 2014), http://www.foreignaffairs. com/articles/141038/william-mccants/islamist-outlaws. 63Id.

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Even if the Brotherhood were to continue claiming to be a moderate force for democracy, as it claimed during its rise to power in Egypt,64 the Brotherhood’s founding principles and history betray its claimed commitment to governing moderately. As seen by the Brotherhood’s grab for political power under Morsi’s short-lived presidency, the Brotherhood’s claims of democratic ideals and moderation cannot be trusted.

64Fahmy, supra note 33.