Final Research Project Paper on Snacking and Gender

Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 1

Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Healthy and Unhealthy Snacking

Mackenzie Kibbe and Stephanie Romig

Grand Valley State University


Abstract

Past research has shown the presence of gender differences in attitudes toward healthy and

unhealthy snacking. Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting that snacking attitudes are

influenced by exposure to food in picture form. We sought to test whether gender and pictures on

a survey would influence attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. We hypothesized that

females would express more ambivalence toward unhealthy snacking than males and that

attitudes toward snacking would be more positive when subjects took a survey with pictures of

unhealthy snacks than when they took a survey with pictures of healthy snacks. We also

predicted an interaction effect, hypothesizing that females that took a survey with pictures of

unhealthy snacks would have significantly more positive attitudes toward eating unhealthy

snacks than would males taking the same survey and males and females taking a survey with

pictures of healthy snacks. College students at Grand Valley State University were asked to fill

out a survey with pictures of either healthy or unhealthy snacks that assessed their attitudes

toward snacking. The results indicated six gender effects, four survey effects, and five interaction

effects. Given the prevalence of snacking in the United States, the topic of attitudes toward

healthy and unhealthy snacking is relevant, and thus warrants future research to see if the effects

found in the present study replicate.

Keywords: attitudes toward snacking, snacking, gender, pictures on a survey,


Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Healthy and Unhealthy Snacking

Introduction

In the United States, there has been a shift away from the traditional consumption of three

large meals a day toward snacking, or “eating smaller amounts of food more frequently”

(Chaplin & Smith, 2011). While snacking has been defined in a variety of ways, “the majority of

papers define a snack relative to a meal as ‘food or drink consumed other than during main meal

times’” (Chaplin & Smith, 2011). Snacking intake has increased considerably for adults, from

71% in 1977 to 97% in the period of 2003-2006 (Piernas & Popkin, 2010a). A similar trend is

present in children: in the period of 1977-1978, 74% of children snacked, while this number

increased to 98% in the period of 2003-2006 (Piernas & Popkin, 2010b). These findings suggest

that snacking represents an important piece of American eating habits.

Attitudes toward snacking are significantly impacted by gender. Studies illustrate that

women are more ambivalent toward unhealthy snacking, perceiving it as less healthy, but more

pleasant, than men (Charles and Kerr, 1986; Pliner & Chaiken, 1990; Rolls et al., 1991; Grogan

et al., 1997). Women also express more concern than men do about gaining weight from eating

unhealthy snacks (Grogan et al., 1997). Based on research by Charles and Kerr (1986), Fursland

(1987), Bovey (1989), and Orbach (1993), women’s ambivalence toward unhealthy snacking

may be due to “conflicting cultural messages aimed at women…suggesting that sweet snacks are

‘naughty’… ‘but nice’” (Grogan et al., 1997). The intentions behind these ‘naughty but nice’

snacks negatively impact women by making them feel limited to healthy snack options, even

when they prefer unhealthy snacks (Weijzen et al., 2009).

Women themselves attribute social pressure as the source of conflict in their mindsets

about eating unhealthily (Charles & Kerr, 1986). Indeed, it appears that American society places


pressure on women when it comes to their eating habits, as women are perceived as more

feminine (Chaiken & Pliner, 1987; Fursland, 1987; Mori, Chaiken, & Pliner, 1987; Pliner &

Chaiken, 1990; Bock & Kanarek, 1995) and more attractive (Stewart et al., 1973; Polivy et al.,

1986; Silverstein, et al., 1986) when they eat less. As a result, women feel much more social

pressure than do men to not eat unhealthy snacks (Charles & Kerr, 1986; Chaiken & Pliner,

1987; Pliner & Chaiken, 1990).

Individuals express different attitudes toward images based on the content of these

images (Fichter & Jonas, 2008). Similarly, attitudes toward snacking are impacted by exposure

to food in picture form, such as through television advertisements. Children express more

positive attitudes toward unhealthy foods after watching television (Dixon et al., 2007).

Additionally, children’s food choices are strongly linked to the foods they see advertised on

television (Borzekowski & Robinson, 2001; Coon et al., 2001). There is a correlation between

hours children spend watching television and the number of requests they make to their parents

for advertised foods (Taras et al., 1989). Thus, for children, simply seeing a food product

advertised on television increases their desire to eat that food. Given that in a study of 80 food

commercials aimed at children, 49% advertised energy-dense foods high in fat, while a mere

1.3% (one commercial) endorsed vegetables, it seems likely that the foods children request are

unhealthy (Maher et al., 2006).

In light of previous research, we wished to assess gender differences in attitudes toward

healthy and unhealthy snacking, and were interested to see whether or not social pressures play a

role in shaping these attitudes. Furthermore, we planned to study the influence pictures of

healthy and unhealthy snacks have on snacking attitudes. We also sought to test if there was an


interaction effect between subject gender and pictures of snacks on a survey on attitudes toward

snacking.

Methods

Participants

100 participants were recruited from Grand Valley State University’s Allendale campus.

50 students, 25 male and 25 female, completed Version A of the survey, which included pictures

of recognizably healthy foods, including an apple, cucumber slices, pretzels, strawberries, and

carrot sticks (see Appendix). Similarly, 50 students, 25 male and 25 female, were given Version

B of the survey, which included pictures of recognizably unhealthy foods, including a chocolate

chip muffin, chips, a lollipop, a snack cake, and popcorn (see Appendix). All pictures of food

items on each of the surveys were on a white background and were free of labels and brand

names. Participants were randomly selected from the Kirkhof Center. This location should have

produced a random selection of students, which could be generalized to the student population at

Grand Valley State University.

Materials

All participants completed a paper survey. There were two versions of the survey.

Version A featured pictures of recognizably healthy foods: an apple, cucumber slices, pretzels,

strawberries, and carrot sticks, while Version B had pictures of recognizably unhealthy foods: a

chocolate chip muffin, chips, a lollipop, a snack cake, and popcorn (see Appendix). Both

versions of the survey included the same 10 statements that assessed participants’ attitudes

toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. Participants were asked to rate the statements on a Likert

scale from 1 to 7, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree.


Participants were also asked to circle their gender. In order to accommodate for the

gender diversity of students at Grand Valley State University, participants had the option to mark

“Female,” “Male,” or “Gender Non-Conforming” for their gender. None of the participants

recruited for the present study selected “Gender Non-Conforming” for their gender.

Procedure

Participants – fifty female and fifty male – were approached in the Kirkhof Center and

asked to complete a survey assessing attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. They

were informed that the research was being conducted for an Advanced Research in Psychology

class at Grand Valley State University. Participants were assured that their information would be

kept confidential. Students who consented to participating in the study were asked to complete

the survey. Twenty-five females and 25 males completed Version A of the survey and 25

females and 25 males completed Version B of the survey. Once the participants finished the

survey, their surveys were collected and they were thanked for their time.

Hypotheses

Previous research has shown gender differences in attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy

snacking. Moreover, there is evidence that exposure to pictures of healthy and unhealthy foods

influences individuals’ attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. Thus, in the present

study, we developed three hypotheses.

According to our first hypothesis, female subjects will express more ambivalent attitudes

toward eating unhealthy snacks than males, perceiving them to be less healthy but more pleasant,

and will feel more societal pressure discouraging them from eating unhealthy snacks than will

males.


Our second hypothesis is that subjects taking a survey with pictures of unhealthy snacks

will have more positive attitudes toward unhealthy snacking than will subjects taking a survey

with pictures of healthy snacks.

Lastly, our third hypothesis predicts an interaction effect between subject gender and

pictures of snacks on a survey on attitudes toward snacking. Females taking a survey with

pictures of unhealthy snacks will have significantly more positive attitudes toward eating

unhealthy snacks than will males taking the same survey and males and females taking a survey

with pictures of healthy snacks.

Results

The data were compiled and analyzed through SAS, a computer program. The analyses

found six main effects of subject gender on attitudes toward snacking, four main effects of

pictures on a survey on attitudes toward snacking, and five interaction effects between subject

gender and pictures on a survey on attitudes toward snacking.

A main effect of subject gender was found for statements 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, with

females showing more agreement with these statements than males. A main effect of subject

gender was found for Statement 4 (S4), which stated “I feel guilty when eating unhealthy

snacks.” For S4, F(1,96) = 6.70, p<.05. Females expressed more guilt when eating unhealthy

snacks (M=4.32, SD=2.09; Table 1) than did males (M=3.36, SD=1.97; Table 1).

Statement 6 (S6), which stated “I am more concerned about my weight when eating

unhealthy snacks,” also showed a main effect of subject gender. For S6, F(1,96) = 5.26, p<.05.

Females indicated more concern about their weight when eating unhealthy snacks (M=4.62,

SD=2.07; Table 1) than did males (M=3.70, SD=2.13; Table 1).


A main effect of subject gender was found for Statement 7 (S7), which stated “I feel

uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.” For S7, F(1,96) =

10.43, p<.05. Females revealed more discomfort about eating unhealthy snacks when others are

eating healthy snacks (M=4.34, SD=1.89; Table 1) than did males (M=3.18, SD=2.09; Table 1).

Statement 8 (S8), which stated “I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks,” showed a main

effect of subject gender as well. For S8, F(1,96) = 4.69, p<.05. Females indicated feeling more

pressure to eat healthy snacks (M=4.32; SD=1.99; Table 1) than did males (M=3.50, SD=2.11;

Table 1).

Statement 9 (S9) also showed a main effect of subject gender. S9 stated “I will not eat

unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 4.10, p<.05.

Females expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks unless their friends were (M=3.92,

SD=1.84; Table 1) than did males (M=3.20, SD=2.19; Table 1).

A main effect of subject gender was found with Statement 10 (S10), which stated “Others

judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.” For S10, F(1,96) = 9.15, p<.05. Females said that

they felt judged more when eating unhealthy snacks (M=4.04, SD=2.01; Table 1) than did males

(M=2.90, SD=1.79; Table 1).

A main effect of survey type was found for statements 2, 3, 7, and 9. Subjects taking the

healthy survey rated statements 2 and 3 more highly than did subjects taking the unhealthy

survey. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey, on the other hand, rated statements 7 and 9 more

highly than did subjects taking the healthy survey.

Statement 2 (S2), which stated “Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems,”

indicated a main effect of survey type. For S2, F(1,96) = 20.19, p<.05. Subjects taking the


healthy survey expressed that eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems more (M=5.34,

SD=1.56; Table 2) than did subjects taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.66, SD=2.11; Table 2).

A main effect of survey type was also found for Statement 3 (S3), which stated

“Unhealthy snacks taste better than healthy snacks.” For S3, F(1,96) = 12.07, p<.05. Subjects

taking the healthy survey indicated that unhealthy snacks were more pleasant than healthy snacks

(M=5.34, SD=1.70; Table 2) more than subjects taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.04, SD=2.05;

Table 2).

For Statement 7 (S7), which stated “I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when

others are eating healthy snacks,” there was a main effect of survey type. For S7, F(1,96) = 6.56,

p<.05. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey revealed more discomfort about eating unhealthy

snacks when others are eating healthy snacks (M=4.22, SD=1.84; Table 2) than did subjects

taking the healthy survey (M=3.30, SD=2.19; Table 2).

A main effect of survey type was also found for Statement 9 (S9), which stated “I will not

eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 13.78,

p<.05. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks

unless their friends were (M=4.22, SD=1.88; Table 2) than did subjects taking the healthy survey

(M=2.90, SD=2.01; Table 2).

We found interaction effects between subject gender and pictures on a survey on attitudes

toward snacking for statements 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. Female subjects taking the healthy survey rated

statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 more highly than did subjects in the other conditions (female-unhealthy,

male-healthy, and male-unhealthy). Male subjects taking the unhealthy survey, on the other

hand, rated statement 9 more highly than subjects in the other conditions (female-healthy,

female-unhealthy, and male-healthy).


An interaction effect was found for Statement 4 (S4), which stated “I feel guilty when

eating unhealthy snacks.” For S4, F(1,96) = 21.51, p<.05. Females felt more guilty about eating

unhealthy snacks when taking the healthy survey (M=5.12, SD=1.79; Table 3) than did males

taking the healthy survey (M=2.44, SD=1.71; Table 3), males taking the unhealthy survey

(M=4.28, SD=1.79; Table 3), and females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.52, SD=2.10; Table

3).

There was also an interaction effect for Statement 5 (S5), which stated “I avoid unhealthy

snacks.” For S5, F(1,96) = 5.59, p<.05. Females taking the healthy survey avoided unhealthy

snacks more (M=4.32, SD=2.10; Table 4) than did males taking the healthy survey (M=2.76,

SD=2.01; Table 4), males taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.00, SD=2.06; Table 4), and females

taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.64, SD=1.96; Table 4).

An interaction effect was found for Statement 6 (S6), which stated “I am concerned about

my weight when eating unhealthy snacks.” For S6, F(1,96) = 9.56, p<.05. Females expressed

more concern about their weight when taking the healthy survey (M=4.96, SD=2.15; Table 5)

than did males taking the healthy survey (M=2.80, SD=2.00; Table 5), males taking the

unhealthy survey (M=4.60, SD=1.89; Table 5), and females taking the unhealthy survey

(M=4.28, SD=1.97; Table 5).

Statement 8 (S8), which stated “I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks,” also had an

interaction effect. For S8, F(1,96) = 19.23, p<.05. Females felt more pressure to eat healthy

snacks when taking the healthy survey (M=5.08, SD=1.63; Table 6) than did males taking the

healthy survey (M=2.60, SD=1.78; Table 6), males taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.40,

SD=2.06; Table 6), and females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.56, SD=2.06; Table 6).


An interaction effect was found for Statement 9 (S9), which stated “I will not eat

unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 17.33, p<.05.

Males taking the unhealthy survey expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks unless their

friends were (M=4.60, SD=1.85; Table 7) than did females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.84,

SD=1.86; Table 7), females taking the healthy survey (M=4.00, SD=1.85; Table 7), and males

taking the healthy survey (M=1.80, SD=1.53; Table 7).

Discussion

Overall, females agreed more with statements 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 than did males.

Females were guiltier, more self-conscious, and felt greater pressure from society and their peers.

Our findings support part of our first hypothesis, as females felt more societal pressure

discouraging them from eating unhealthy snacks than males. These results, however, did not

support the other part of our first hypothesis, as females did not express more ambivalent

attitudes toward eating unhealthy snacks than males. One possible reason for this could be that

the statements to support this part of the hypothesis were not significant enough to yield the

predicted result. Another potential cause could be that both males and females find unhealthy

snacks pleasant.

Subjects taking the healthy survey rated statements 2 and 3 more highly than did subjects

taking the unhealthy survey, whereas subjects taking the unhealthy survey rated statements 7 and

9 more highly than did subjects taking the healthy survey. Thus, the healthy survey caused

participants to have more worries about their health, while it also made them crave unhealthy

snacks more. The unhealthy survey, on the other hand, caused participants to feel more

uncomfortable about eating unhealthy snacks when others were eating healthy snacks or no

snacks at all. For the most part, our findings do not support our second hypothesis; subjects


taking a survey with pictures of unhealthy snacks did not have more positive attitudes toward

unhealthy snacking, except for in the case of statement 2. This lack of effect is likely due to the

guilt that the unhealthy images create in the participants. It could also be the result of the pictures

being printed in black and white; perhaps this made the snacks less appealing overall. Another

possibility is that subjects may not have paid attention to the pictures when taking the survey.

Lastly, it could be that the effects of the pictures were not strong enough.

An interaction effect between subject gender and survey type on attitudes toward

snacking was found with statements 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. Females taking the healthy survey agreed

more with statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 than did participants in the other conditions (female-

unhealthy, male-healthy, and male-unhealthy). Surprisingly, males taking the unhealthy survey

agreed more with statement 9 than did participants in the other conditions (female-healthy,

female-unhealthy, and male-healthy). This indicates that males taking the unhealthy survey are

less willing than participants in the other conditions to eat unhealthy snacks unless their friends

are.

Our findings do not support our third hypothesis, as females taking a survey with pictures

of unhealthy snacks did not have significantly more positive attitudes toward unhealthy snacking

than did males taking the same survey. The interaction effects of statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 show

that females taking a survey with pictures of healthy snacks had significantly more negative

attitudes toward unhealthy snacking. Thus, it seems that seeing pictures of healthy snacks elicits

guilt in females. Perhaps females perceive pictures of healthy snacks as a form of societal

pressure encouraging them to eat healthy snacks. The interaction effect of statement 9 is

interesting because it goes in the opposite direction of what we predicted. Males taking the

unhealthy survey felt more pressure from their peers to eat healthy snacks. Perhaps the wording


of the statement was confusing, thus resulting in this effect. We are not entirely sure what is

causing this effect, given that it is inconsistent with our other interaction effects.

Our sample selection may have influenced our results, which generalized only to the

student population at Grand Valley State University, a small, mostly white liberal arts college.

We may find different effects in a random sample of the entire population, as such a sample

would be more diverse, with individuals of different ages, races, ethnicities, and so forth. The

research that we referenced when creating this study used such a sample, and they found the

predicted effects. Perhaps we would find these effects, too, with a larger, more diverse sample.

Overall, the present study found effects of gender and effects of survey type on attitudes

toward snacking. Furthermore, the results also indicated interaction effects between gender and

survey type on attitudes toward snacking. Given the results of the present study, as well as the

fact that snacking seems to represent an important piece of Americans’ eating habits, the topic of

attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking warrants future research (Piernas & Popkin

2010a; Piernas & Popkin, 2010b). Perhaps further research would find evidence for the

hypotheses that were not supported by our study and stronger evidence for those hypotheses that

were. It is important, too, to see if the results found in this study replicate. Furthermore, we

would be interested in looking into the interaction effect on statement 9 that did not make sense,

where males taking the unhealthy survey indicated that they felt more pressure from their friends

to eat healthy snacks. This effect may be due to the wording of the question, and future research

could indicate whether or not this is the case. Ultimately, given the apparent transition toward

snacking in the United States, it is important that Americans’ attitudes toward healthy and

unhealthy snacking be researched.


References

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Table 1

Main Effects of Subject Gender

Males M(SD) Females M(SD)

S4 3.36(1.97) 4.32(2.09)

S6 3.70(2.13) 4.62(2.07)

S7 3.18(2.09) 4.34(1.89)

S8 3.50(2.11) 4.32(1.99)

S9 3.20(2.19) 3.92(1.84)

S10 2.90(1.79) 4.04(2.01)


Table 2

Main Effects of Survey Type

Healthy M(SD) Unhealthy M(SD)

S2 5.34(1.56) 3.66(2.11)

S3 5.34(1.70) 4.04(2.05)

S7 3.30(2.19) 4.22(1.84)

S9 2.90(2.01) 4.22(1.88)


Table 3

Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 4


Healthy 2.44(1.71) 5.12(1.79)

Unhealthy 4.28(1.79) 3.52(2.10)


Table 4



Healthy 2.76(2.01) 4.32(2.10)

Unhealthy 4.00(2.06) 3.64(1.96)


Table 5



Healthy 2.80(2.00) 4.96(2.15)

Unhealthy 4.60(1.89) 4.28(1.97)


Table 6



Healthy 2.60(1.78) 5.08(1.63)

Unhealthy 4.40(2.06) 3.56(2.06)


Table 7



Healthy 1.80(1.53) 4.00(1.85)

Unhealthy 4.60(1.85) 3.84(1.86)


Appendix

Version A

Please rate the statements below to the best of your ability using the following scale: 1-strongly

disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4- neither agree nor disagree, 5-somewhat agree, 6-

agree, & 7-strongly agree. Please circle only one answer.

Gender (circle one): Male Female Gender Non-Conforming

1. I prefer unhealthy snacks over other snack options.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Unhealthy snacks taste better than other snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. I feel guilty when eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. I avoid unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I am concerned about my weight when eating unhealthy

snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Questions continued on back

7. I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9. I will not eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating

unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10. Others judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Version B

Please rate the statements below to the best of your ability using the following scale: 1-strongly

disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4- neither agree nor disagree, 5-somewhat agree, 6-

agree, & 7-strongly agree. Please circle only one answer.

Gender (circle one): Male Female Gender Non-Conforming

1. I prefer unhealthy snacks over other snack options.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Unhealthy snacks taste better than other snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. I feel guilty when eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. I avoid unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I am concerned about my weight when eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Questions continued on back

7. I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9. I will not eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10. Others judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Final Research Project Paper on Snacking and Gender

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