Final Research Essay: Special Relativity

8/13/2019 Final Research Essay: Special Relativity

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Bryan Bailey

Mr. Kimmel

AP Composition

20 May 2013

Physics Innovations of the Past Century and Future Possibilities

E=MC2is a ubiquitously known equation, even without knowledge of its origin or

importance. The implications of the equation extend far beyond its direct connection of

universal force interactions. E=MC2, also known as the mass-energy equivalence

formula, explains forces that cannot be recreated in our day and age, and yet they are the

fabric of our universe. General relativity explains the interrelation of these forces with the

aid of the aforementioned formula. The explanation of this interrelation is known in

Theoretical Physics as the Unified Field Theory, which will coalesce all four of the

known universal forces, to be explained later, into one equation that describes their

interaction. General relativity is not only an integral hinge in the opening of that door, but

it can also explain the origin of mass itself through the detection of the Higgs Boson, an

elusive quantum particle that could clarify our universes origin. Energy-mass

equivalence and general relativity have ushered contemporary theoretical physics into a

confluence with applied physics, where past origins of the universe are merged with

future potentials of quantum mechanics.

Comment [NB1]: Page Numbers, gpage numbers on a paper this long


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Discovery and Explanation of the Formula

The discoverer of E=MC2, Albert Einstein, was one of the most renowned

physicists of his time, and his seminal work continue to inspire new avenues of discovery

in science. The energy-mass equivalence equation itself was published in 1915, and

before that time, matter and energy were believed to be two separate entities. Einsteins

publication is controversial, because an Austrian Physicist by the name of Friedrich

Hasenhrl discovered that electrical current has a momentum, and thus a mass. Hasenhrl

expounded upon the nature of the electrical currents mass, but made fundamental

mathematical errors when deriving the equation. Einstein fixed Hasenhrls arithmetical

mistakes, and his publication because the basis for his general and special theories of

relativity. It is unimportant who discovered this mass and energy relationship, however,

because its effects are momentous to everyone.

The equation itself extrapolates on the possible transformation of mass to energy.

It expresses how much energy will be created from mass, by the energy equals mass

times the speed of light, squared. To put the amount of energy in perspective, if a 3-gram

marble was completely transformed into energy, it would yield 2.7 times 1014

joules of

energy, or 64.4 kilotons of TNT (Shipway). This transformation of energy is rare,

however, because for mass to be transformed, it must come in contact with its antimatter

counterpart. Antimatter is composed of antiparticles that have opposite charge and

quantum spin of their corresponding matter counterparts (Hjdukovic). It is a very rare

substance in the universe, and thus far not enough anti-matter has been generated on earth

to transform any substantial amount of energy.


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In an article titledBeyond E=MC2, the authors state that if Einsteins view of

mass-energy equivalence is correct, There is no such thing as massonly electrical

charge and energy, which together create the illusion of mass (Haish, Rueda, &

Puthoff). This means that the mass in the universe is made up of raw energy that

combines with the omnipresent electromagnetic field to create the appearance of mass;

however, there is fundamentally only, massless electrical charges, that bond with the

electromagnetic force and strong nuclear force to generate the artifice of mass.

To illustrate this concept of mass to energy transformation, what is known as a

black box in physics must be used. A black box is one thats internal workings are

unknown, but that responds to the natural laws of physics. If a black box is motionless in

space, then Isaac Newtons second law, force equals mass times acceleration, dictates

that the boxs center of mass is invariable. If a photon of light is emitted from one side of

the box to the other, the photon will have momentum, as Hasenhrl discovered. The box

will move in the opposite direction of the photons velocity, and the box will move an

infinitesimal amount, x, when the photon hits the opposite side of the box. Newtons

first law, which states that an object at rest remains at rest unless acted upon by an

outside force, conditions that the boxs center of mass cannot have changed unless acted

upon by an outside force, or a mass. To compensate for the x, or the outside force that

caused the box to move, the light beam must have mass, and that energy must be also

mass (Lasky).

A practical example of the equation is seen in the core of the sun, where the

nuclei of hydrogen atoms collide at extremely high speed to convert helium atoms, and

the latter atoms are then burned to produce heat and light. This process is called nuclear

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1)Black box motionless in psace

2) Isaac Newtons second law


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fusion and it is a direct model where mass (atoms) are transformed into energy (heat and

light). This transformation of atoms also implies that the sun is losing mass as it is being

converted to energy. Since one helium atom has only .7% less massthan four hydrogen

atoms combined, only .7% of the suns total mass is lost during the conversion of mass to

energy. This equates to a figure of 4.2 billion kilograms per second compared with 2

times 1030

kilograms of total mass (Rothstein).

Introduction to The Unified Field Theory & General Relativity

The force in action mentioned above is what is known as the strong nuclear force,

which holds atoms together to create mass, and thus energy because of E=MC2. Strong

nuclear force is one of the four fundamental universal forces, along with the

electromagnetic force, electrically charged particles travelling through magnetic fields;

weak nuclear force, responsible for the beta decay of atoms and particles; and the

gravitational force, which injunctions the interaction of mass and movement (Ma &

Wang 2). A theory originated by the works of the late Einstein, named the Unified Field

Theory, attempts to reconcile strong and weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force

with the gravitational force to create an equation explaining the interactional dynamics of

the four forces.

In a paper published by Tilman Sauer for California Institute of Technology in

2007, Sauer saw Einsteins view of the Unified Field Theory as an understanding, to see

the whole of physics as an organic entity, where no part can be separated from any other

without severe loss of meaning.Einstein had a philosophical objective in his detection

of a Unified Field Equation, and his ambition of a holistic view of the universe was

beyond that of theoretical physics but to an understanding of our world through intrinsic


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the standard model with the Unified Field Theory, Einsteins Theory of General

Relativity must be applied to particle physics to find and explain the phenomena of the

Bosons, specifically the elusive Higgs Boson. Einstein himself compared space to a

container with,an infinite number of spaces, which are in motion with respect to each

other.The concept of space as something existing objectively and independent of things

belongs to pre-scientific thought, but not so the idea of the existence of an infinite

number of spaces in motion relatively to each other (Einstein). This quote epitomizes his

observation of the theory of relativity as a concept instead of an applicable universal

corollary. His homogenous view of the universe expands to also include the interactions

of the forces as inexorably linked, which led to the development of the standard model of

physics in the mid to late 20th

century.

The Standard Model of Physics and the Higgs Boson

This model consists of two types of particles: matter particles and force carrier

particles. Of the matter particles, there are two subgroups comprised of quarks and

leptons; quarks are composed of positively charged protons and neutrally charged

neutrons, while leptons are formed by negatively charged electrons and their neutrally

charged counterpart, electron neutrinos (Cern). There are twelve matter particles in total,

six quarks and six leptons. The force carrier particles, or bosons, on the other hand, are,

Particles of matter [that] transfer discrete amounts of energy by exchanging bosons with

each other. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding boson (Cern).Theelectromagnetic force is carried by the photon, the weak force by the W and Z bosons,

and the strong force by the gluon. As of a few months ago, however, the detection and

properties of the graviton, or Higgs Boson, have been intangible. In tThe articleIn Search


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of the Origin of Mass, the authors explain that, Particle physics explores the structure of

matter by studying the behavior of its fundamental constituents (Shears, Heinemann and

Waters 3389). The constituents are all-pervading, but contemporary physics

developments have been hampered with the inability to circumvent the necessity of the

understanding of the Higgs Boson.

The particle is named after Peter Higgs, the British theoretical physicist who

added the Higgs Boson to the Standard model of particles in 1964. Cern, Switzerland, is

the epicenter of modern physics discoveries, and the building of a massive particle-

accelerator, named the Large Hadron Collider, began in 1998. It took 10 years to

complete, and only in 2009was the Large Hadron Collider ready for use.

The collider is 17 miles in diameter and runs beneath the earth in the outskirts of

Cern. It shoots beams of particles close to the speed of light at each other, and when they

collide, they release enough energy to recreate conditions seen seconds after the big bang

(Shears, Heinemann and Waters 3389). The Hadron Collider uses data from milliseconds

after trillions of proton collisions to find idiosyncrasies in the figures that indicate the

occurrence of a particle hypothesized by Peter Higgs in the 1960s.The Higgs Boson was

unofficially stated to have found in March of 2013, after review of the trillions of

collisions by supercomputers and the worlds top scientists and engineers. The detection

of the Higgs Boson validates the accuracy and applicability of the standard model while

also furthering possibilities of the Unified String Theory.

The denizens of the realms of theoretical and particle physics are continually

contending with their applied physics associates to explain the origins, foundation, and

properties of our universe. Einstein broke through the barriers of this contention with his


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formulation of E=MC2, the energy-mass equivalence theorem that has applied to all

major physics advances of the past century. This formula became a metaphorical domino

that was an antecedent for the theorization of General Relativity, the standard model of

physics, and the discovery of the Higgs Boson. These discoveries are all interconnected,

just as the Unified FieldTheory hopes to do with the elements of the universe in the

coming century. Einstein incorporated centuries of work in Newtonian and astrophysics

to deduce his theories, which have literally distended the bounds of the universe and

humans understanding of it, providing a pathway to future comprehensionand

inconceivable possibilities.


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Works Cited

Ball, Phillip. "Did Einstein Discover E = mc2?"Physicsworld.com. Institute of Physics,23 Aug. 2011.

Bertschinger, Edmund. "Introduction to Tensor Calculus for General Relativity." Diss.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1999. 1999. Web.

.

Einstein, Albert. "Einstein: "Relativity and the Problem of Space"" Diss. 1952.Relativity

Resources. Web. May 2013.

Haisch, Bernhard, Alfonso Rueda, and H. E. Puthoff. The Sciences: Beyond E=MC2.

New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994. Print.

Lasky, Ronald C. "What Is the Significance of E = Mc 2 ? And What Does It Mean?.Scientific American, 23 Apr. 2007. Web.

.

Ma, Tina, and Shouhang Wang. "Unified Field Theory and Principle of Representaion

Invariance." Diss. Indiana University, n.d. Web.

Rothsetin, Dave. "Sun Mass Conversion." Curious About Astronomy?Cornell University,

Aug. 2003. Web. .

Sauer, Tilman.Einstein's Unified Field Theory Program. Diss. California Institute of

Technology, 2007. Pasadena: Einstein Papers Project, 2007.Philosophical

Sciences of CIT. 11 Apr. 2007. Web. .

Final Research Essay: Special Relativity

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