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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION  About 3000 people die from Road Traffic Injuries (RTI’s) daily in the world. Eighty five percent of the deaths and 90% of health years of life lost due to RTIs are from the low income and middle income cou nt ries (Peden et al, 2004) . Mostl y pas sen ger s and pedestrians are affected (ibid). One of the top three causes of deaths for 5-44 years age group in many countries is RTIs (World Bank, 2011). This has enormous implications for development. The Road Transport and Safety Agency was establish ed by an Act of Parliamen t in 2002 to promote road safety through education, regulation and law enforcement. The Agency has since 2006 been promoting road safety through several activities aimed at reducing inj uries and dea ths rel at ed to roa d tr aff ic cr as hes. The Age ncy fur the r has bee n implementing the road transport policy in order to provide an efficient and effective road transport system. In 2011, a total of 22, 570 road traffic crashes were report ed as compared to 15, 186 road traffic accidents reported in the year 2010 representing a 49 percent increase in absolute terms. Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces continued to record the highest number of road traffic crashes due to the continued increase in motor vehicle population. Currently, a total of over 52,000 motor vehicles were imported in 2011 bringing the cumulative total to 381,948 motor vehicles in the country (RTSA,2012 :2). During 2011, a total of 212 fatalities involving children aged 16 years and below were reported. This represented 13 per cent of the total fatalities. Road traffic crashes are the leading cause of death among people aged between 10 and 24 years old. In Zambia, road traffic injuries have become one of the significant causes of childhood morbidity and mortality. The bulk of the crashes amongst these children are predictable and preventable. Many involve children playing on the streets, young pedestrians , cyclists, novice drivers and passengers of public service vehicles. 1 | Page

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 About 3000 people die from Road Traffic Injuries (RTI’s) daily in the world. Eighty five

percent of the deaths and 90% of health years of life lost due to RTIs are from the low 

income and middle income countries (Peden et al, 2004). Mostly passengers and

pedestrians are affected (ibid). One of the top three causes of deaths for 5-44 years age

group in many countries is RTIs (World Bank, 2011). This has enormous implications

for development.

The Road Transport and Safety Agency was established by an Act of Parliament in 2002

to promote road safety through education, regulation and law enforcement. The Agency 

has since 2006 been promoting road safety through several activities aimed at reducing

injuries and deaths related to road traffic crashes. The Agency further has been

implementing the road transport policy in order to provide an efficient and effective

road transport system.

In 2011, a total of 22, 570 road traffic crashes were reported as compared to 15, 186 road

traffic accidents reported in the year 2010 representing a 49 percent increase in absolute

terms. Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces continued to record the highest number of road

traffic crashes due to the continued increase in motor vehicle population. Currently, a

total of over 52,000 motor vehicles were imported in 2011 bringing the cumulative total

to 381,948 motor vehicles in the country (RTSA,2012:2).

During 2011, a total of 212 fatalities involving children aged 16 years and below were

reported. This represented 13 per cent of the total fatalities.

Road traffic crashes are the leading cause of death among people aged between 10 and

24 years old. In Zambia, road traffic injuries have become one of the significant causes

of childhood morbidity and mortality. The bulk of the crashes amongst these children

are predictable and preventable. Many involve children playing on the streets, young

pedestrians, cyclists, novice drivers and passengers of public service vehicles.

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Due to this alarming situation where so many young lives are being lost to avoidable

road traffic crashes, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly unanimously passed a

resolution proclaiming the years 2011 to 2020 as the DECADE OF ACTION FOR ROAD

SAFETY.

In recognising the importance of this UN declaration, on behalf of the country,the

 Agency joined the rest of the world in launching the DECADE OF ACTION FOR ROAD

SAFETY in May 2011 where a government commitment to ensure the reduction of road

traffic crashes was made. This declaration is a challenge to all of us – not just as RTSA 

 but all Zambians because it implores us to reduce road traffic crashes by 50 per cent by 

2020.

RTIs strongly contribute to mortality, morbidity and increased inequality among theproductive age group and their dependants in Zambia. Fatal road traffic accidents top all

the risks and threats of life in the country (Andrews, 2011). The estimated road traffic

death rate in the country is 27.5 per 100 000 population per year and the modelled

number of road traffic deaths is 3,669 per year (WHO, 2011). However this number does

not include those that die after 24 hours which implies under estimation (ibid). An

estimation of 30% of patients at St Giles Rehabilitation Centre and 60% of people who

need artificial limbs are a result of RTIs (RTSA, undated). RTIs contribute to loss of 

productive life due to death or due to disability. In Zambia the 26-45 years age group is

the most affected (RTSA, undated). RTIs cost about 2% of gross domestic product

(GDP) in the country (ibid).

Public holidays have been heavily associated with loss of life due to road traffic accidents

in Zambia (Towindo and Bulla, 2011). Mutore and Nyambuya (2011) in their article

“Don’t be a stat this holiday’ cites Easter, heroes and festive season holidays as holidays

that RTIs are particularly encountered. This is the time when most people have ample

time to travel for social gatherings such as church gatherings and visiting friends and

relatives thereby increasing traffic volume on roads. Occurrence of accidents is also

related to time, most accidents occur from 0600-1800 hours (RTSA, undated) though

fatal accident occurs at night with greater frequency than during the day due to reduced

 visibility (Parirenyatwa, 2004).

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1.2 Statement of the problem

Having gone through these worrying problems of RTIs one can conclude that RTIs are a

huge public health and development problem in Zambia. The majority of RTIs affects

 young males who are bread winners. Reducing RTIs and fatalities will reduce sufferingand free resources for development and more productive uses. This leads me to the

research questions that I intend to answer in my study.

1.3 Research questions

1. What are the burden, contributing factors and trends of RTIs in Zambia?

2. What are the circumstances that lead to road traffic accidents?

3. What are the strategies that can be used to reduce road traffic injuries?

4. What can be done to strengthen the road transport sector legislation and policies in

Zambia?

1.4 Main Objective

To analyse the situation on road traffic injuries in Zambia in order to make

recommendations towards reduction of the burden of road traffic injuries.

1.4.1. Specific objectives

1. To describe and analyse road traffic injuries and their trends in Zambia.

2. To critically analyse causes and contributing factors related to road users, road and

road sides, vehicles factors and road safety decision making.

3. To describe and discuss consequences of road traffic accidents in Zambia.

4. To review current strategies in Zambia.

5.To identify and discuss good practices from other countries.

6. To formulate recommendations based on findings.

2.4. Methodology 

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This study is based on both peer reviewed and grey literature. An active search for

informal and formal information about RTIs in the country was done to analyse the RTI

problem. An internet search was done to search for information on RTIs through Google

scholar, Google search, Science direct, Cochrane library and Pub med. African

development Bank, World Bank, World Health Organisation and Road Traffic and

Safety Agency (RTSA) websites were also used to identify papers related to the topic as

 well as other international organisations.

 Analysis of available RTI statistics was done. Efforts to get updates of the situation in

Zambia were made by listening to news, reading online newspapers and emails from

colleagues and the Ministry of Transport.

Current strategies which are being implemented were looked into and analysis of thegap between discourse and practice as well as gap in reducing health inequities has been

made.

Below is the adopted conceptual framework from a systems approach and some

components from commission of social determinants of health framework (Australian

Transport Council, 2008) (WHO, 2007).

2.5 Conceptual framework 

To analyse contributing factors for RTI in Zambia the social political country contextual

factors has been considered as basic contributing factors to RTIs. The systems approach

model has been adopted (Australian Transport Council, 2008), to consider the system

as whole, interaction between elements (vehicles, roads, road users and their physical,

social and economic environments). Some components from the social determinants of 

health framework have been used in the block with country contextual factors and the

 block with socio economic position (WHO, 2007). The systems approach model for

prevention did not include what happens when the road traffic injury occurs so this

 block has also been added.

RTIs affect the poor more than the wealthy in developing countries especially 

pedestrians (Nantulya and Reich, 2003). This framework does not separate behaviour

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from its context for example the intermediary determinants are linked to transport

policy, land use policy and values of the society. From the left column the first box

shows contextual factors that bring influence on social stratification leading to

socioeconomic position. For example transport policy influences the transport

infrastructure, land use influence distance to be travelled.

Socioeconomic positions influences susceptibility to RTI; for instance the means of 

transport most frequently used by poor people in Zambia is walking (pedestrian), bus,

minibuses and cycling and these are more vulnerable to RTIs. Poor people can only 

afford second hand vehicles. Poor people cannot afford trauma care hence this may lead

to inequalities increasing severity of the problem.

Zambian’s cultural and social values put men at more risk of RTI; men are expected toprovide for the family hence end up working more hours causing drivers exhaustion.

 Anxiety, stress, use of sedative drugs and sleeping problems also contributes to loss of 

concentration.

Education, occupation and income are linked together. Incorporating road safety 

education at schools reduces number of RTIs and improves crossing behaviour

(Duperex et al, 2002). Awareness of risks and ability to deal with information about

risks shapes the behaviour and attitudes of an individual. Some occupations such astruck driving also place individuals at more risk. Income has been seen to influence a lot

of accidents in roads for example commercial drivers are given a target that determines

their salary, hence competing for passengers, leads to speeding. Demands for income at

home forces people to work overtime.

Socioeconomic position influences exposure to RTIs by acting through intermediary 

determinants. These include material factors such as vehicles conditions, roads

conditions and working conditions, psychological factors and behavioural factors. Thesefactors are interlinked for example lack of material affects living and working conditions

and this may lead to psychological problems resulting in bad behavioural acts such as

speeding, drinking and driving. The health system is also influenced by the country’s

economy. Road environment factors, human factors and vehicle factors are interrelated

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factors that result in road traffic injuries or safe journeys travelled. They are also

influenced by material circumstances, behavioural factors and psychological factors.

Health systems determine the trauma care of the victims of RTI.

One can conclude that the determinants of RTI are multifactorial. Structuraldeterminants of health form the basis of the RTI outcome. The framework explains how 

social inequities determine risk for RTI morbidity, mortality and differentials in

socioeconomic groups.

2.6. Limitations of the thesis

The researcher faced a lot of problems trying to get updated RTI information from

Zambia. It is very difficult. Statistics from the RTSA website were used and the World

Health Organisation (WHO) Zambia profile has 2007 statistics for injury surveillance.

Data reported and quoted by different entities were often conflicting, which may be

related to differences in reporting (quality and completeness).The researcher used

personnel experiences and newspapers articles in some situation which at times may not

 be valid.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERETURE REVIEW 

2.1. Understanding road traffic injuries in Zambia

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Severe injuries and mortality in road traffic accidents are a public health problem with

consequences such as long term disabilities which are similar to any other public health

problem such as tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and cancer, but they are not mentioned in the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Road injuries continue to increase in many countries, around 1.2 million die in road

accidents annually, 65% being pedestrians and 35% of pedestrian deaths are children

(UNECA et al, 2011). Low and middle-income nations account for 85% for all road

traffic deaths (Arumugam, 2007). The top cause of death by injury is road traffic injuries

(UNECA et al, 2011). Disability due to road traffic injuries account for about 30-

50million people (ibid). The traumas involved account for lot of costs, about 1 to 3 % of 

GDP in most countries which implies that road injuries result in a lot of expenditure

(UNECA et al, 2011).

Road Traffic Accidents in Zambia

In Zambia, Road traffic accidents and the deaths that follow have always been a major

public concern. Each year thousands of Zambians fall victim to road traffic accidents.

Each month, tens of Zambians are killed on our roads. Between April 18th and July 30th

1988, 30 road traffic accidents were reported in one of the daily newspaper.1 This was in

a midst a serious economic crisis and a time when Zambia’s motor vehicle number was

still very small. On November 25th 2009, it was reported that 44 deaths occurred in just

one month.2 

In 2002, there were 8 855 road traffic accidents and 1 000 dead. In 2003, there were 21

692 road traffic accidents through which 1 046 people were killed and 2 696 seriously 

injured.3 In 2005/2006, a total of 33 165 road traffic cases were recorded by the Zambia

Police. 14 075 of the accidents occurred in 2005 resulting in 1 075 killed and 3 397injured. In 2006, there were 19 095 recorded cases of road traffic accidents in which 1

170 people killed and 3 963 seriously injured. 12 171 individuals were slightly injured. In

1  Zambia Daily, April-July, 1988.2  Post newspapers, 12th November 2009.3 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code to lessen road traffic accidents’, Times of Zambia. 30th January 2010.

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2006/7 the Zambia Police recorded a total of 33 165 cases of road traffic accidents.4 The

number of those killed on Zambian roads increased from 892 victims in 2004 to 1 170 in

2006 to 1 266 people in 2007.5 

 According to the Road Transport Safety agency (RTSA) Annual Report for the year

2008, about 1 238 people were killed on Zambian roads from 19 727 road traffic

accidents. Passenger deaths constituted 30% of the total number of accident victims

 while pedestrian deaths accounted for 48% of the total. 75% of the accidents occurred in

urban areas, or 14 850 accidents compared to rural areas which recorded a total of 4 877

accidents.6 There were 852 deaths recorded in the year 2009 out of a total of 16 531

accidents while 2 740 people were seriously injured7.

The above accidents were attributed to an increase in second hand vehicle on the

Zambian roads and careless driving by some drivers. Even though there is a general

 belief that accidents are unavoidable, on the contrary, experts are of the view that 95%

of the accidents in Zambia are due to human error while motor vehicle malfunction

accounts for only 3% of the total. Poor transportation infrastructure accounts for

remaining 2%.8

The major causes of road traffic accidents have been linked to poor public service

driving and a dilapidated road infrastructure, most of it built in the 1970s. Most of the

roads have large potholes that are often the cause of accidents as motorists try to avoid

them. Roads do no have street lights, therefore making it difficult for motorists to see

pedestrians. Most road users, especially the young and elderly have no knowledge on proper 

road use, drivers do not go to driving schools or get their licenses before they could gain

adequate competence in driving and there are no alcohol tests.9 These factors are compounded by

corruption over licenses, road worthiness of motor vehicles, overloading, speeding and alcohol

4 Times of Zambia, Tuesday, 19th February, 2008.5 Joseph Schatz, ‘On the road in Zambia’, 2008.6 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code’. 30th January 2010.7 http://www.znbc.co.zm/media/news/cgi?8 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code’. 30th January 2010.9 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code’, 30th January 2010.

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abuse among drivers. Like elsewhere in the developing world, most of the road traffic victims

are young people. School going children are most vulnerable.10

Road traffic accidents rank as the third largest killer in the country after Malaria and

HIV/AIDS.11 Even though this appears to be the official appreciation of the gravity of 

deaths from road traffic accidents, I find it difficult to accept such a ranking. An average

death toll of about 1 200 individuals per annum, appears too low to constitute the third

highest cause of death in Zambia. There is need therefore to come up with comparative

statistics on the causes of death in the country before the above ranking could be

affirmed. However, apart from loss of human lives, the road carnage also causes

damage to property, results in serious injury and ends in temporal or permanent

disability. The cost arising from road traffic accidents in Zambia has been estimated at1.3 trillion Zambian Kwacha (about 282 million US dollars) or about 3% of the GDP,

each year.12 This is besides the grief and suffering that come with each accident.

3.1. Country contextual factors contributing to road traffic injuries

The conditions in which people live and work determine their health status (ICSU,

2011). These conditions have an influence on the severity of RTIs and cause disparities

among peoples’ chances of leading healthy lives. Cultural and social values also

influence the road users’ perception on the impact of RTIs. Gordon Chavhunduka, atraditionalist, argues that cleansing ceremonies could help in treating the black spots

through consultation with the spirit medium of the respective places where RTIs are

common (Mukarati, 2011). Some also argues that African countries have faced many 

disasters such as war, famine and fatal diseases so they perceive RTIs as killing a

relatively few people because they have witnessed many people dying in a massacre

(Assum, 1998).

Interpretations of sudden death in Zambia: A tentative discussion

10 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code’, 30th January 2010.11 Times of Zambia, 16th November 2007. http://allafrica.com/stories/200711160013.html12 Mercy Mwila, ‘New country highway code’, 30th January 2010, Radio Phoenix News, 31st March 2010.

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In his doctoral work Mwewa, a Catholic priest devoted some space to the discussion of 

 various aspects of death in Zambia. He noted that “except for sudden death, normally,

nobody dies unattended to”. He also distinguished between ‘natural’’ and ‘unnatural’

deaths. Whereas ‘natural’ death was easily accepted and often came about on account of 

old age, ‘unnatural’ or “bad” death in contrast, was invariably problematic. The latter

death was usually associated with evil men, witches, curses and aggrieved spirits. The

deaths which this paper is concerned with and highlights fall in the category of 

‘unnatural’ or ‘bad’ deaths. These are deaths that are occasioned by road traffic

accidents, are sudden and therefore difficult to deal with. As Eyetsemitan noted;

 Whereas the grieving process begins before death occurs in the case of a dying person, it

 begins after death has occurred in the case of sudden or unexpected death. In the case of 

dying there is anticipation that death will ultimately result. Therefore, the loved ones

have time to prepare both emotionally and cognitively for death when it occurs. Here,

coping after death is easier for the survivors and the dying person has time to take care

of unfinished business such as preparing a Will. However, in the case of sudden death,

 because such preparation is absent, coping by loved ones is difficult…

It is the difficulties associated with sudden death and in the case of road traffic

accidents, the gruesome nature of such deaths, which lends them open to many 

interpretations

Tradition views

Traditionally, most road traffic accidents are caused by spirits or supernatural powers.

How such an interpretation is arrived at depends on a number of factors such as; the

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nature of the accident, the purpose of the trip, the means of travel or the spot on which

the accident occurred. A few years ago, a colleague lost a brother in-law . After burial,

relatives of the deceased decided to exhume the body for reburial without informing the

husband or relatives of the deceased husband. On their way back from the village they 

 were involved in an accident in which some members of the family died while others

 were injured. How could such deaths be explained? I discuss this story more fully below.

There is also a generally held view that a road traffic accident could be caused by a

chisomo, usually sent by someone to cause death.

My account starts with the death of a Minister of Home Affairs Luckson Mapushi who

died in a road traffic accident a few months after he was appointed and was elevated to acabinet post in December 2002. On the day he died he had gone back to his Keembe

constituency. Whilst addressing a meeting a bolt of lightning struck his brother and left

him unconscious. Suspicion over the incident led to the cancellation of the meeting. Still

horning his driving skills, the Minister and his wife decided to drive back to his rural

 base in Chibombo. On the way, he lost control of his vehicle, hit into a tree and died

instantly.

The Home Affairs Minister’s sudden death, created a furole. There were bitter

recriminations among members of his family and between his family and that of a

former Minister of Finance. Among those suspected of having being behind the death

 was a close member of the deceased family and a former Minister of Finance. The late

Minister’s sister who happened to be the then president’s wife openly accused the

former government official’s family of having killed his brother and called upon them to

“eat his body”.

The Minister’s death occurred at a time when the accused government official was on

the run for alleged corrupt activities and was therefore being sought after by the police.

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The accused came from a part of Zambia that is noted for being a den of witches,

Chiengi district and was he himself considered a powerful wizard who was able to evade

capture by invoking his supernatural powers which made him invisible to his pursuers.

The accused was said to be hiding in the bush in his native Luapula Province and it was

claimed that he was able to communicate with the rest of the world using a laptop

computer even though he was in an area without electricity or internet connection.

It was reported that while driving, the Minister had seen someone in the middle of the

road and had, in the process of trying to avoid hitting into a human figure, swerved off 

the road and hit into a tree. The man in the middle of the road was not real but a

shadow sent by the wizard to provoke the accident.

It was on account of the above beliefs that when the man who was the Minister in charge

of the police died, fingers were immediately and directly pointed at the individual on the

run. Taking the lead was the deceased sister who as already noted was the then

President’s wife. A bitter exchange of words ensued between the sister to the deceased

Minister and the wife to the accused man. The matter was widely covered in the national

media.

 A sober analysis of what caused the accident revealed that the Minister in question, who

had just been elevated to cabinet level, was still learning how to drive what was a

powerful 4X4 motor vehicle which may have proved difficult to handle in a bush track.

However, given the incident that had led to the cancellation of a political meeting in

Keembe earlier, and the acrimonious relationship that had emerged betweengovernment and the family of the former Minister of Finance, Mapushi’s sudden death

 was immediately looked at with suspicion and considered unnatural.

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The above saga was not strange to most Zambians. Like everywhere else on the African

continent, there are hundreds of myths concerning death and its causes and in

particular, sudden death. It is explained in many ways. It may be caused by sorcery,

 witchcraft, magic, spirits or a curse among others. Magesa noted that “in the African

mentality, everything wrong or bad in society and in the world, and, most particularly,

 various afflictions” and I add, or sudden death, “originates in witchcraft.”

Mapushi’s death was sudden and traumatic. It was difficult to accept or deal with. It

 broke in the words of Zahan, “the natural and regular progression of things.” It was a

distressful event which was striking “because of the suddenness with which it shattered

order by brutally destroying the continuum of time”. Under such difficult circumstancesrelatives were compelled to seek answers on the cause of the accident by recourse to the

supernatural.

Traditional beliefs have remained persuasive and continue to hold sway despite

increased recourse to modern science and apparent westernization of the Zambian

society. Accidents in Zambia are a daily occurrence. However, the fact that the death of 

the Home Affairs Minister occurred at a time when the police were after an alleged

 wizard and suspect on the run, resulted in many accusations and counter accusations.

Those involved were well educated and therefore part of the modern Zambian elite.

However, faced with a sudden and accidental death, they fell back on traditional beliefs

to explain its cause.

 Witchcraft was immediately suspected because for sometime before the accident, a bitter and acrimonious exchange of words had ensued between the wife of the alleged

 wizard (the former Minister of finance) and suspect on the run and government officials

in particular, the then President, his wife and the Minister of Home Affairs. Government

 was accused of using false accusations of corruption against certain former government

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officials and in this particular case, the former Minister of finance, to wage war against

people who were deemed close to the former President, Chiluba. It appeared logical

therefore to consider the Minister’s death as having been brought about by witchcraft.

How anyone got to know about what the deceased saw in front of the bush track he was

driving along, remains within the realm of African traditional beliefs and cannot

therefore be explained through logic or modern science.

 Accident Black Spots as Haunted Places

There is a common Africans traditional belief that a spot where road Traffic accidents

occur for more than once, even if it is only twice must have a particular significance,

mostly, a supernatural one. Dixon wrote of one such a spot in Chivhu in Zimbabwe; “the

road is scarred with skid marks, others pencil straight. They shriek the fate of unlucky travelers who lost their lives; they mark near-missed”. Frequent road traffic accidents

on the spot led Zimbabweans to the conclusion that the cause of such accidents was not

natural but supernatural. Ancestral spirits were involved and performance of 

appropriate rituals to propitiate the spirits of the dead ancestors was deemed the only 

possible remedy. Why that particular part of the highway had become a black spot was

traced back to Zimbabwe’s first contact with the white men who arrived in what later

 became Southern Rhodesia as members of the pioneer column in 1890. The pioneers

established a camp at Fort Charter near the current highway. Local Africans believe that

many of their ancestors were thrown into a burning pit by the foreigners.

In the past, there were no accidents on the spot. This was because local people

remembered their ancestors through performance of religious rituals which were

characterized by the slaughter of cattle. The animal’s blood and meat would then be

shared with the ancestors. In this way, the spirits of the living dead would be appeased

and they in turn ensured the safety of their still living kinsmen and women. However,

in the last 10-15 years, such local religious practices have been neglected. Non

observance of traditional rituals can probably be partly explained by the economic crisis

the country has been passing through but is most likely also due to the influence and

impact that evangelical and fundamentalist Christianity has had on African traditional

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religious practices. In most parts of Africa it is believed that when ancestral spirits are

neglected or angered, they can cause affliction and even death.

There are indications that South Africa may have its own black spots. A newly arrived

pastor from South Africa told me of a recent spate of terrible road traffic accidents thathappened on Mabopane Highway. The first occurred on the 16th and the second on the

17th March 2010. A taxi (known as mini bus in Zambia) hit into a barrier before

plunging 8 metres down the bridge. A total of 24 people died, some on the spot, others

in hospital. Newspapers reported a total death toll of only 8. In the second taxi incident,

3 people were killed. This was within 36 hours of the first accident. My informant noted

that an accident such as the first one had never happened before and was considered

possible given the way the bridge was constructed. The cause of the accident was traced

to a rear tyre burst. However, in spite of expert views, many people believe that a snake

had crossed that stretch of the road. The snake represented a spirit and was the likely 

cause of the two accidents.

 When an accident occurred on a particular stretch of a road, relatives would ‘collect’ the

spirit of the dead as a way of cleansing the spot. It is believed that if someone dies on

the road and his spirit is not taken are, the victim would haunt that place leading to

more accidents. In Namibia, I was informed that accidents frequently occur at a place

known as Okakalala, which is near a hill where Satanists are believed to perform their

rituals.

2.4 Consequences of road traffic injuries

It is of great importance to note that road traffic accidents happen in a fraction of a

second but their consequences take a long time (ETSC, 2007). Besides loss of life or

reduced quality of life due to road traffic accident, consequences attributed to RTI

include costs such as:

  Replacement and repair of property damaged

 Medical treatment

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  Home renovations, for example, toilet or bathroom to accommodate wheelchairs as

 well as vehicle adaptation

  physical pain, grief and suffering

  Permanent disability and disfigurement as well as travel anxiety (ETSC, 2007).

  Furthermore RTIs affect household income and national economy through cost of 

prolonged medical care, together with funeral costs and loss of income due to disability.

Involvement of a breadwinner pushes the household affected into poverty (Odero et al

1997).

3.4.1 Socio-economic impact of road traffic injuries in Zambia

Globally the estimated cost of RTI is 518 billion USD in low income countries the cost of 

RTI is around 65-100 billion USD which exceeds the total amount of assistance that the

countries received for development (WHO, 2006b). Although no cost study was done in

Zambia it is estimated that around 1-2% of GDP is spent on road traffic injuries (AfDB,

undated).

RTIs affect males in their active period of life, when they are socially important

economic as heads of household. In 2006, 71% of deaths due to RTIs were males (WHO,

2012). While women are less victims of RTIs they suffer as secondary victims; loss of 

their husband exposes them to socially, financially insecurity and likewise children also

are impacted by the social and economic of the loss of their parent (Odero et al, 1997)

(WHO, 2004).

 WHO noted that the impact of RTI on poor people is greater than the rich and they 

represent the higher risk group such as pedestrians, passengers and motorcyclists.

 Although not all pedestrians are poor, it is assumed that the poor cannot afford buying a

 vehicle hence will be pedestrians or passengers. Low socio economic group of people

have less access to medical services and this results in disparities of recovery and

survival (Sharma, 2008).

3.5. Health systems response to RTIs

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The health systems response to RTIs influences the degree of recovery as well as survival

chances (Chen, 2010). Zambia’s health care system has been characterised with delays

in attending to the victims. Shortages of resources and delays in detecting the scene of 

crash have been the hiccup of the health system. Presence of fire resulting from collision

has also been a contributing factor to worsen the situation (ZBC, 2012). Hospital care

has also been affected by lack of appropriate emergency care mainly due to lack of 

necessary resources (Biti, 2009); for example, lack of suture materials. Health care

systems have also been affected with brain drain; many experienced human resources

have moved out of country for greener pastures hence the poor economy has also lead to

poor hospital care (IOM, 2012)(Zambia Health Workforce Observatory, 2009).

 Accessibility to services is also influenced by the economic status of the individuals so

that those who afford to pay for the services are better cared for.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH FINDINGS

3.0 Background Information of Zambia

Officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in southern Africa. The

neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania

to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia

to the south, and Angola to the west. The capital city is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of the country. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the

south and the Copperbelt Province to the northwest.

Location: Zambia is located in Southern Africa, east of Angola and north of Botswana

and Zimbabwe; see map below.

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CHAPTER FOUR 

DATA ANALYSIS

Figure 1: Map of Zambia

3.1 Background information about the research setting

The research was done in Lusaka, which is the capital city of Zambia.  Lusaka is the

capital and largest city of Zambia. One of the fastest-developing cities in Southern

 Africa, Lusaka is located in the southern part of the central plateau at an elevation of 

about 1,300 metres (4,265 feet). As of 2010, the city's population is about 1.7 million.

Lusaka is the centre of both commerce and government in Zambia and connects to the

country's four main highways heading north, south, east and west. English is the officiallanguage of the city, but Nyanja, and Bemba are also common.

3.2 Background information about the respondents

The researcher interviewed 50 respondents, which comprised of road users and Road

Traffic Agency Officers. The following chart shows the respondents profile.

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Profile of respondents

20%50%

30% Drivers

General publicRTSA

Figure 2: Information about the respondents

 As shown on Figure 2 above, 50 respondents representing 100% were involved in the

study in which 25 comprised of drivers (road users, that included public transport

drivers of Taxi’s and Busses).

15 respondents comprised of the general public who were sampled from Lusaka main

trading area representing 30% above.

The study was comprised of 10 Road Traffic Safety Agency (RTSA) Officers)

representing 20% in Figure 2 above.

3.3 RESEARCH FINDINGS IN RELATION TO THE RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES

3.3.1 To analyse the situation on road traffic injuries in Zambia in order to

make recommendations towards reduction of the burden of road traffic

injuries.

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From the secondary sources obtained at RTSA Headoffice . In 2011, a total of 22, 570

road traffic crashes were reported as compared to 15, 186 road traffic accidents reported

in the year 2010 representing a 49 percent increase in absolute terms.

Figure 3: Road traffic accidents fatality and injuries between 2010 and 2011

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Lusaka Cen tral C/belt Sout hern East ern W est ern N/W est ern Nort hen Luapula

RTI between 2010 and 2011

2010 2011

 As shown above, Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces continued to record the highest

number of road traffic crashes due to the continued increase in motor vehicle population between 2010 and 2011.Lusaka provinces alone in 2010 had 8217 and in 2011 it had

recorded 11,498.In the copper belt in 2010, accidents were at 3116 and in 2011 they were

11, 498. It was followed by Central province and the lowest province for accidents was

Luapula province. Currently, a total of over 52,000 motor vehicles were imported in

2011 bringing the cumulative total to 381,948 motor vehicles in the country.

3.3 To describe and analyse road traffic injuries and their trends in Zambia.

The researcher interviewed 50 (100%) on the trends of traffic accidents and injuries in

Zambia.23 respondents representing 46 % indicated that road traffic injuries is human

error i.e. dangerous driving, over speeding and failure to follow traffic rules.

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Human error 

46%

Economical

24%

Spiritual30%

Human error

Spiritual

Economical

 

Figure 4: causes of road traffic injuries

12 respondents representing 24 % attributed road traffic injuries to economical

challenges.

15 respondents’s representing 30 % said that, accidents in Zambia most of them are as a

result of spiritual explanation, in which it was attributed that Satanists are causing

major accidents in Zambia in their plea to getting rich.

3.4 To critically analyse causes and contributing factors related to road

users, road and road sides, vehicles factors and road safety decision

making.

 A survey on the causes of sudden accidents in Zambia revealed that, human error is the

major contributing factor followed by spiritual practices such as Satanism practices.(See

 Appendix 2).

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17 die in Kabwe – Lusaka Road when the bus collided with a Track, on 1st May 2013

The wreckage of the bus that collided with a Kabwe-bound Sabot Zambia truck in Liteta

area on 31st May 2013.

3. 5 Strategies to prevent Road Traffic Injuries

The research findings showed five good practices to be developed so as to prevent road

traffic injuries in Zambia as shown on the table below 

Strategies Frequency  

50

Percentage

100%Road safety management

Prayerful lifestyle amongst

road users

Restriction of 

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Safety education for

pedestrians

Enforcement to reducealcohol impaired driving

Total 50 100%

Table 1: strategies to prevent road traffic injuries

CHAPTER FOUR 

DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 To analyse the situation on road traffic injuries in Zambia in order to

make recommendations towards reduction of the burden of road traffic

injuries.

 What the paper does therefore is to take a look at the occurrence of sudden death, in

particular sudden death through road traffic accidents that are more numerous and

more frequent. What meanings do Zambians attach to such deaths and how have these

meanings changed over time? Consideration of the nature and causes of road traffic

accidents in Zambia and their explanations will cover a twenty- year period; 1980-2010.

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This period has been chosen in that it covers two specific eras in Zambia’s history. The

period 1980-1991 was characterized by a serious economic decline and a critical

shortage of almost everything. During this period the existing basic transportation

infrastructure deteriorated significantly and motor vehicle owners could not get spare

parts for their vehicles. After 1991, the economy was liberalized. Purchase of motor

 vehicles became easier and spare parts became more readily available. It would be

important to see what impact these developments had on the nature, causes and rate of 

road traffic accidents in Zambia and the meanings Zambians attached to them.

Even though road traffic accidents have been a major source of concern and a subject of 

a Commission of enquiry at one time, no historical study has ever been carried out to try 

and better appreciate the nature of the problem, its causes and how those affected by 

consequent deaths dealt with sudden tragedy. Each year, thousands of Zambians are

killed or maimed through road traffic accidents at great material, financial and

emotional cost to the nation. What has been the Zambians attitude and reaction towards

such loss of life?

 Apart from seeking to better appreciate the nature, causes and reactions to sudden

death, the paper will also examine how Zambians have tended to explain deathsoccurring through road traffic accidents and how this has evolved over time. Deaths

from road traffic accidents are often explained on the basis of traditional systems of 

 beliefs and practices. This usually depends on how the accident occurred, the reason for

travel, mode of transportation and in more recent times, whether or not a public service

 vehicle was involved. For example, currently, most deaths from road traffic accidents

involving public service vehicles are increasingly attributed to the practices of Satanism.

The first part of the paper presents a general overview of the subject of research. This will be followed by a discussion of occurrence and nature of road traffic accidents in

Zambia and the last part will focus on the various interpretations that have been

proffered to explain sudden death through road traffic accidents.

Road Traffic Accidents an Overview 

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Road traffic accidents and road traffic injuries are a major and growing public health

problem that impacts on all sectors of society. They remain are major cause of death and

disability in developing countries. According to the World Health Organization

estimates, worldwide deaths from road traffic accidents increased from about 999 000

in 1990 to about 1.2 in 2002 . The number is projected to rise to 2 million deaths per

 year by 2020. The number of such deaths is expected to continue to rise as societies

 become more motorised.

 Although developing countries have fewer vehicles, accounting for only about 40% of 

the world’s total, they bear the heaviest burden. 85% of the total road traffic fatalities

Like in Zimbabwe and elsewhere, Zambia has its own black spots scattered across the

country. The history of these spots varies from place to place. Mostly they are linked tosome unappeased spirit. The deaths are usually of a criminal natural in which an

innocent life is brutally lost or a person is killed in a hit and run accident. These are also

cases in which those involved are never known or brought to justice. The spirits of the

dead are therefore said to haunt these places and the road traffic accidents and the

deaths that occur are invariably linked to the spirits of those who were killed on that

spot.

 Among a large number of places that are considered as black spots, is a spot in MunaliHills on the road to Mazabuka. I was informed that each time there was an accident in

those hills it occurred on one particular spot and vehicles fell on the same side of the

road and in the same ravine. The other was a spot on the Great North Road when

crossing it from the Railway club to the town centre. I was told that many people have

died on the spot and that last year alone, three people died while trying to cross the

road. Other areas indicated as black spots were; Kapiri Ngozi along the Lusaka

Chirundu road, the area around Shimabala on the Lusaka Kafue road, Landless corner

on the Lusaka Kabwe road, a stretch on the same road near Zambia National Service, a

corner near Mulungushi Textiles in Kabwe, the area between Chainama and Mumana

Pleasure resort in Lusaka and Mubanga-Chipoya Basic School in Kasama. Each district

and province has its own black spots.

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 Accident black spots have been central in the interpretations of sudden deaths on our

roads. They are generally considered as haunted places or an abode of malevolent

spirits. The black spot at Mubanga-Chipoya Basic School in Kasama was haunted by the

first person to die on spot. Five accidents have been recorded on the spot since 1998. At

the black spot near Chainama, drivers have reported sudden appearances of human

figures in the middle of the road at night. In other instances, drivers are said to have

seen a hump, an animal or some obstacle ahead of them or found themselves caught in

the glare of headlamps of a vehicle that was not there. An attempt to avoid such a figure

 would result in an accident and certain death of the driver.

 All deaths that occur on black spots are as a consequence, invariably deemed unnatural

and therefore as caused by a malevolent spirit, a curse, black magic or more increasingly 

 by satanic practices. Up to sometime in the early 1990s, accidental deaths through road

traffic accidents were attributed to witchcraft, curses or black magic. They were

associated with ghosts, a woman who was not properly cleansed or simply jealousy.

Today, most of these deaths are increasingly explained by satanic ritual practices.

The need for blood is said to be behind the spate of accidents occurring on Zambian

roads. Blood is considered to be a source of strength and it is used in sacrificial rituals. I

 was informed that initiates into Satanism are made to drink blood in order to enter into

a covenant with Satan. However, spilling of blood, especially through road traffic

accidents ensures continued success and growth of a business. Accidents bring wealth, a

new fleet of buses or taxis. The issue of blood is central to many belief systems. In

Christianity, we learn from the bible that blood cleanses, heals and is life itself.

Even though in most cases accidents on particular black spots can be explained by 

technical means, once a spot has earned the tag of a haunted place, the tag remains and

is generally believed to be so by both Christians and non Christians alike.

Satanism or satanic practices are increasingly brought in to explain what is happening

on Zambian roads. Unlike conventional explanations that tend to link recourse to the

supernatural in times of increasing distress, in Zambia, it would appear that it is the

apparent affluence of a few in societies and the dramatic increase in the number of 

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evangelical churches that has fuelled current theories on the nature and causes of deaths

on our roads.

 Apparent affluence is mostly picked on to explain road traffic accidents and ensuing

deaths. This has been the case in the rural towns and urban areas of Zambian. Thegeneral account is that young men “sell their years” in order to acquire material wealth.

This is usually in form of a well stocked grocery shop, or means of transportation such

as trucks, buses, mini-buses or taxis for ferrying goods or passengers. How one could

“sell years” to live a shorter but prosperous life before dying has never been explained. It

therefore follows that for the apparent level of wealth to be maintained and built upon,

 blood has to spill and some rituals performed at regular intervals. This occurs through

road traffic accidents.

Zambia like elsewhere in the world has been marked by a sharp rise Christian

fundamentalism. Since the mid 1990s the country has seen a dramatic multiplication of 

 born again churches which like in the case of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of 

Congo as de Boeck noted, “…have become the norm rather the exception.” Thousands of 

Zambians have been drawn to these new churches. The quick development and spread

of these evangelical or pentecostal churches can be largely attributed to a mix of factors

such as; political change in 1991, the declaration of Zambia as a Christian Nation by the

Chiluba regime, liberalization of the economy and the resultant increased social and

economic indigence, HIV/AIDS, a general increase in the country’s disease burden and a

quest for quick riches among ‘men of God’. The teachings of these relatively new 

churches have had a deep and at times an unsettling influence on their members. One of 

the areas in which these churches have had the greatest influence is over the

interpretation of causes of death, including road traffic accidents

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

The objective of this thesis was to analyse the situation on road traffic injuries in Zambia

in order to make recommendations towards reduction of the burden. A conclusion was

drawn based on a review of the RTI information in Zambia and on experiences from

other countries. The analysis shows that the country has basic legislation in place for

road safety, but the laws are not comprehensive in their relevance.

Speed limits are above the global recommendation, seat belt laws do not apply to all

 vehicle occupants, and the BAC limits level is higher than the WHO recommendation. Above all the country does not have a well-publicised road safety strategic plan or

national road safety policy which is a huge gap in all road safety activities. Absence of 

the policy documents compromise coordination of activities. Road safety activities are

said to be implemented but with no target and funding to support the activities are

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limited. RTIs data lack accuracy. There is negligence of road safety regulations by road

users, poor law enforcement, and corruption.

RTIs are a safety problem as well as an equity public health issue in Zambia. Fatal road

traffic accidents are the greatest existing threat among all risks in the country. Thecountry has a road traffic deaths rate of 27.5 deaths per 100,000 populations per year.

The most affected age group is 26-42 year and majority of the affected are passengers

and pedestrians. Males have more risk than females.

Reckless driving and violation of traffic laws are the human behaviours that influence

RTIs occurrence. However alcohol impaired and over speeding have been identified as

the worst human behaviour resulting in accidents in Zambia. Road users include

motorists, passengers, pedestrians and cyclists.

Inadequate and corrupted law enforcement coupled with public acceptance has resulted

in the increase of unworthy overloaded damaged vehicles and unregistered vehicles on

the road. Vehicle fleets have increased considerably in the country. However the

majority of these vehicles are not roadworthy.

Zambian roads have been found lacking in terms of safety measures, which are

associated with a lot of road traffic injury risks such as poor technical design of the

highway construction, narrow roads that cannot accommodate high traffic volumes,

potholes, poor signage, bushes surrounding the roads and stray animals found in the

road environment. There is no traffic separation such as cyclist lanes, pedestrian lanes

and all these factors contribute significantly to risk of road traffic injury occurrence in

the country.

Those injured face challenges in order to access health care, due to lack of adequate post

trauma care. RTIs cause suffering within families such as school drop outs and poverty 

due to involvement of the breadwinner. Universal national health insurance is needed to

improve accessibility to health care services. Majority of the RTI victims are passengers

and pedestrians. This implies public transport system needs improvement, proper

pedestrian paths needs to be established and improvement in road traffic law 

enforcement. A sense of responsibility is required to share the road with others

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 A main challenge to road safety in Zambia is the lack of accurate data. Comprehensive

data is essential for drawing attention from law makers, setting targets, designing and

evaluating strategies and prioritizing activities.

In order to improve understanding and awareness of road traffic injuries determinantsand consequences among decision makers, researchers, practitioners and people, I will

give the following recommendations based on analysis of the study and proven good

practices from other countries as well as feasibility.

6.2. Recommendations

Government’s capacity, commitment and support to the established lead agency (RTSA)

are needed in order to reduce RTI in Zambia. A number of interventions were analyzed

as to their applicability for Zambia.

Road safety management

  The Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure Development should finalize the

national road transport safety policy in order to have an authenticated guiding

document in all road safety activities.

  Public transport should be improved to address the road transport safety needs of 

 vulnerable population (passengers), e.g., setting standards on minibuses and to enforce

their compliance.

  RTIs data collection and recording by Zambia Republic Police, RTSA and MOH&CW 

should be done accurately. RTIs data is essential for explaining the burden, prioritizing

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Safer road users

  Drinking and driving law, speed limit law should be reviewed and changed to meet

the WHO recommendation.

  Seat belt use should be mandatory to all vehicle occupants. This can be done

gradually to allow those cars with no seat belts to be fitted.

  Improve on regular, consistent and comprehensive enforcement of road rules to

improve road user behaviours especially on drinking and driving, speeding, use of seat

 belts and helmet use.

  Place speed cameras on busy intersections and black spots to enforce speed limit.

  Defensive driving should be incorporated in driver licensing training. This involves

training on knowing how to avoid traffic crashes and recognize potential hazards before

it’s too late.

  Establish graduated drivers licensing system for novice drivers. This gives novice

drivers time to gain experience, with some restrictions, e.g., on night driving or carrying

passengers.

 

Education and encouragement to improve alertness and obedience to road rules as well as regular and consistent anti-corruption campaigns.

  NGOs and RTSA should advocate for policies such as public transport policy, policy 

to promote walking and cycling this helps in drawing policy makers’ attention to road

safety.

Safer vehicles

 

 All new cars should have seat belts. A period of time can be given for the old cars tohave seat belts fitted.

  Enforcement of regular vehicle services and proper inspection periodically.

  Collaborate with Environmental Management Agency in tracking unworthy vehicles

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 Mandatory daytime running lights usage and headlight usage for motorcyclists.

Safer roads and road sides

  Establish policy on routine road maintenance

  Involve engineers in road accident investigation to detect road engineering problems

  Instant remedial action on black spots with traffic calming measures such as

roundabout, speed humps with good signaling. This may help to reduce traffic accidents

especially at intersections and at areas with repeated accidents.

REFERENCES

 AfDB (2011). Infrastructure and growth in Zambia. An action plan for sustained strongeconomic growth.

IRIN Africa, Southern Africa. Special Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. Friday 

12th March, 2010: htpp://irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportd=50251

Joseph Schatz, ‘On the road in Zambia’. The Lancet, Vol. 372, issue 1637, 9th August

2008. http://www.the lancet.com/journals/lancet/article/p1150140-6736(08)61179-

4/fulltext

Mercy Mwila, ‘New country’s highway code to lessen road traffic accidents’, Times of 

Zambia. 30th January 2010.

 World Bank. (2006). Zambia Infrastructure Assessment Note for Roads, Railways, and

 Water Sectors: Africa Transport Sector (AFTTR) Report No. 36978-ZW.

 World Bank. (2008). Zambia infrastructure dialogue in roads, railways, water, energy 

and telecommunication sub-sectors. Report no. 43855-zw. Lusaka.

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 APPENDIX A 

INTERVIEW GUIDE TO ROAD USERS

1. For how long have you stayed in this area?

2. How do you define, road traffic injuries?

3. What do you think are the causes of road traffic injuries in Zambia

4. What do you think should be done to prevent road traffic injuries in Zambia?

5. In your own opinion, what strategies can be put in place in road safety 

management?

6. What is role of road transport safety Agency (RTSA) and the Zambian police in

accident prevention?

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 APPENDIX B

CAUSES OF SUDDEN ROAD ACCIDENTS DEATHS IN ZAMBIA